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Wild Animals in Roman Epic

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Wild Animals in Roman Epic Wild Animals in Roman Epic Submitted by Laura Joy Hawtree to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Classics in September 2011. This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no material from this thesis may be published or used in any way without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature:................................................ 1 Abstract Roman epic authors extended, reinvented and created new wild animal representations that stood apart from traditional Greek epic renderings. The treatment of wild animals in seven Roman epics (Virgil’s Aeneid, Lucan’s Civil War, Ovid’s Metamorphoses, Statius’ Thebaid and Achilleid, Valerius’ Argonautica and Silius’ Punica) forms the basis of this thesis, but the extensive study of other relevant works such as Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and Apollonius’ Argonautica allows greater insight into traditional Greek renderings and throws Roman developments into starker contrast. Initial stages of research involved collection and detailed examination of almost 900 epic references to wild animals. The findings from this preliminary research were analysed in the context of Pliny’s Natural History, Aristotle’s Historia Animalium, and other ancient works that reveal the Greeks’ and Romans’ views of wild animals. The accumulation of such a range of evidence made it possible for patterns of development to become evident. This thesis focuses on the epic representation of animals and considers a number of questions: 1) How Roman epic authors represented animals’ emotions and employed creatures’ thought processes. 2) How Roman epic authors examined the difference between wild and tame animals and manipulated the differences and similarities between humans and animals and culture and nature. 3) How wild animals were aligned with scientific and cultural beliefs that were particular to Roman society. 4) How animals were employed to signify foreign countries and how some epic animals came to be symbolic of nations. 5) How Roman epic authors represented particular aspects of animal behaviours with fresh insight, sometimes ignoring traditional representations and historiographic sources. 2 Contents Abstract 1 Contents Page 2 Acknowledgements 4 Abbreviations of Ancient Authors and Works 5 1. Introduction 1.1 The Argument and its Implications 6 1.2 Wild Animals outside Epic 7 1.3 Wild Animals in Roman Epic 10 1.4 Animal Selection 12 1.5 What is a Wild Animal? 13 1.6 Ancient Animals in Modern Scholarship 16 1.7 Roman Epic Authors 19 1.8 Methodology 24 2. The Lion 2.1 Greek Understanding 26 2.2 The Romans and the Lion 27 2.3 Homer and the Angry Lion 32 2.4 Redefining the Heroic Lion 40 2.5 The Expressive Lion and Gender Innovation 44 2.6 Questioning Anger 52 2.7 Realism 54 2.8 Conclusion 58 3. The Deer 3.1 Romanised Deer 59 3.2 The Deer: Wild or Tame? 70 3.3 The Conscious Deer 85 3.4 Conclusion 98 4. The Tigress 4.1 Imagining the Tiger 100 4.2 The Prominence of the Female 102 4.3 The Maternal Tigress 106 4.4 The Representative of the Exotic East 115 4.5 Conclusion 121 5. The Owl 5.1 The Greeks and the Fortunate Owl 122 5.2 The Roman Omen-Owl 124 5.3 The Romans and the Epic Owl 127 5.4 Conclusion 137 3 6. The Wolf 6.1 Greek and Roman Understanding 139 6.2 Homer’s Savage Wolf 141 6.3 Innovations in Multiple Epics 145 6.4 Innovations by Author 153 6.4.1. The Wolf and the Shepherd in Virgil 153 6.4.2. Wolf Cowardice in Statius 161 6.5 Conclusion 164 7. The Snake 7.1 Contact with the Snake 166 7.2 Epic Snakes as Benevolent Messengers 168 7.3 The Snake as a Pet 175 7.4 Epic Renderings of the Snake as a Pet 178 7.5 Snakes as Creatures with Thoughts and Feelings 191 7.6 Conclusion 196 8. The Eagle 8.1 The Greek Eagle 198 8.2 The Roman Superior Eagle 200 8.3 Military and Political Symbolism 201 8.4 Turning the Eagle to the Sun 204 8.5 The Eagle and Epic Identity 211 8.6 The Eagle Omen and the False Omen 218 8.7 Conclusion 222 9. The Elephant 9.1 The Lack of Homeric Elephants 223 9.2 The Carthaginian Experience 224 9.3 Roman Understanding 225 9.4 The Elephant as a Symbol 230 9.5 Undermining the Carthaginian Elephant 233 9.6 Conclusion 256 10. Conclusion 10.1 Emotional Development 258 10.2 Wildness as a Topos 259 10.3 Scientific and Cultural Alignment 260 10.4 Perceptions of Self and Otherness 261 10.5 Hindsight and Literary Response as Innovation 261 Bibliography 263 4 Acknowledgements I would like to thank my PhD Supervisor, Professor Eleanor Dickey, whose assistance throughout the writing of this thesis has been extremely beneficial to me. I am very grateful to her for her time, as well as her many interesting and useful insights. I would also like to thank Professor Daniel Ogden and Dr Rebecca Langlands, who read chapters of this thesis when it was submitted for upgrade. My thanks goes to the University of Exeter for funding me through my PhD and making this work possible and to the University of St Andrews, for developing my first interest in Classics. 5 Abbreviations of Ancient Authors and Works In the great majority of cases abbreviations of ancient texts in Latin follow the conventions found in the OLD: Glare, P.G.W. (1984) Oxford Latin Dictionary, Oxford: Clarendon Press. In the great majority of cases abbreviations of ancient texts in Greek follow the conventions found in Liddell and Scott: Jones, H.S. and Mckenzie, R. (1940) A Greek-English Lexicon, 9th Edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Exceptions are to be found in the following list: Athen. Athenaeus Deip. Deipnosophists Aug. Augustus R.G. Res Gestae Hist. Aug. Historia Augusta Isoc. Isocrates Ant. Antidosis 6 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 The Argument and its Implications The study of wild animals in Roman epic enhances our understanding of those epics and allows us to appreciate innovative literary developments. For example, when Ovid describes how Procne killed her son, he compares her to a tigress dragging off a fawn: nec mora, traxit Ityn, veluti Gangetica cervae lactentem fetum per silvas tigris opacas, utque domus altae partem tenuere remotam, tendentemque manus et iam sua fata videntem et 'mater, mater' clamantem et colla petentem ense ferit Procne, lateri qua pectus adhaeret, nec vultum vertit; satis illi ad fata vel unum vulnus erat, iugulum ferro Philomela resolvit; vivaque adhuc animaeque aliquid retinentia membra dilaniant... Ov. Met. 6.636-645.1 “She hauled Itys off without delay; just as a tigress by the Ganges drags the unweaned young of a deer through shady woods. Procne reached an isolated part of the high palace while Itys, stretching out his hands now saw his fate. “Mother, mother” he shouted; while he was seeking to reach her neck Procne struck him with a dagger. She cleaved him at the place between the rib and the breast bone but did not turn her face away. One 1 For more extensive discussion of this passage see section 4.3. 7 wound sealed his fate well enough: Philomela slit his throat with the dagger, and they tore his limbs apart even while they were still retaining some breath...”.2 Neither Homer nor Apollonius Rhodius mention tigresses in their epics: tigresses are a Roman epic phenomenon and have their own unique characterisation. The Roman epic tigress is a savage and cruel creature but also displays strong maternal instincts. Thus, Ovid’s comparison of Procne with a tigress cleverly highlights her predatory nature while also emphasising the unnatural direction of her predation. Procne kills her own child in the manner that a tigress would kill another’s child: in effect Procne is more inhuman than a tigress. Of course, most animals that appear in Roman epics are also found in Greek epics, but in those cases the Roman conception of the animal often differed from previous representations of the creature. If we do not take Roman views of animals into account, our insight into the epic representations of these creatures and the developments of those representations are sure to be limited. It is clear that Roman readers were aware of the traditional roles various species played in Greek literature, but they also had other, more direct ways of forming their opinions of wild animals: Romans enjoyed access to the arena and could view animals in the Colosseum, they may have seen animals paraded in public during triumphs, and a few even kept wild animals as pets. Some began to see wild animals as creatures with thoughts and feelings and portrayed wild animals smpathetically. 1.2 Wild Animals outside Epic 2 All translations are my own unless otherwise noted. 8 Epic material offers some insight into the perception and treatment of wild animals in the Roman world, but we can gain a more thorough understanding of the epic manipulation of the wild animal by considering it in the context of other sources. Didactic and scientific works root epic wild animals in contemporary beliefs of the day and so help us to understand why epic writers treated wild animals in the way they did. Whereas the epic manipulation of the wild animal is often restricted to similes or appearences that motivate the plot, the depictions of wild animals in less restrictive literary genres offer us more comprehensive overviews and thus allow us to spot innovations and deviations from common beliefs.
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