Pollution in the Ocean Everything Flows Downhill

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This Report Is Part Of The Ocean On The Edge Series Produced By The Aquarium Of The Pacific As Products Of Its National Conference—Ocean On The Edge: Top Ocean Issues, May 2009 2 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Ocean on the Edge: Top Ocean Issues Making Ocean Issues Come Alive for the Public

The conference brought together leading marine scientists and engineers, policy-makers, film-makers, exhibit designers, informal science educators, journalists and communicators to develop a portfolio of models for communicating major ocean issues to the public. This report is one of a series of reports from that conference. The reports include: Coastal Hazards, Marine Ecosystems and Fisheries, Pollution in the Ocean, and Critical Condition: Ocean Health and Human Health. There is also a series of briefer reports on film-making, kiosk messaging design, and communicating science to the public. All reports are available at www.aquariumofpacific.org

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 3 4 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Acknowledgements

Support for the “Ocean on the Edge Confer- Pacific’s Conference, “Ocean on the Edge: ence: Top Ocean Issues” was provided by Top Ocean Issues” held in May 2009, at Long NOAA, the National Science Foundation, Beach Convention Center. Participants in the Southern California Edison, SAVOR, the Long pollution workshop session included: Steve Beach Convention Center, and the Aquarium Weisberg, Larry Swanson, Jenny Jay, Mike of the Pacific. We are grateful to the Confer- Connor, Dallas Weaver, Karen Setty, James ence’s National Advisory Panel that provided Wood, Elizabeth Keenan, and Dave Bader. valuable guidance in selecting participants The session was facilitated by Steve Weisberg and in reviewing sections of this report. and Larry Swanson. James Wood, Dave Bader and Elizabeth Keenan served as rapporteurs. This report is based very loosely on the The document was edited by Karen Setty and report, “Pollution in the Ocean” published Jerry Schubel. by the National Academies in their Ocean Science Series which formed the starting point of discussion at the Aquarium of the

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 5 National Advisory Panel

D. James Baker

Tom Bowman

John Byrne

Michael Connor

James Cortina

Joseph Cortina

Robert Dalrymple

Lynn Dierking

William Eichbaum

John Falk

Alan Friedman

Martha Grabowski

Mary Nichol

William Patzert

Shirley Pomponi

William Reeburgh

Jonathan Sharp

6 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Table of Contents

Introduction ...... 9 Universal Dumping Ground ...... 9 Consequences of Pollution ...... 9 What can we do? ...... 9 Know your Pollutant ...... 9 Marine Debris ...... 11 Consequences ...... 11 Sources ...... 11 Solutions ...... 12 Nutrients ...... 14 Consequences ...... 14 Sources and Mechanisms ...... 15 Solutions ...... 16 CO2 ...... 19 Consequences ...... 19 Sources and Mechanisms ...... 20 Solutions ...... 20 Toxicants ...... 22 Consequences ...... 22 Sources and Mechanisms ...... 23 Solutions ...... 24 Fecal Wastes ...... 25 Consequences ...... 25 Sources and Mechanisms ...... 26 Solutions ...... 27 Oil ...... 28 Consequences ...... 28 Sources and Mechanisms ...... 29 Solutions ...... 29 Noise ...... 31 Consequences ...... 31 Sources and Mechanisms ...... 31 Solutions ...... 32 Conclusions ...... 33 Appendix A ...... 34 Suggested Readings ...... 34 Appendix B ...... 35 Conference Participants ...... 35

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 7 8 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Introduction

Pollution is the release of undesirable substances into the environment. A pollutant can be any substance whose nature, location, or quantity produces undesired change in the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of air, water, or land.

Universal Dumping organisms and humans. On a larger scale, Ground it threatens biodiversity, climate, and the preservation of some of the most treasured What if your neighbors dumped their trash locations on the planet. Notwithstanding, into your backyard every day, and no one pollution costs us billions in terms of tourism ever came to pick it up? It would probably revenue, coastal economic activities, and lost get pretty smelly and you might not want resources. to live there anymore. Our global backyard, the ocean serves as a place for all of us to work and play and harvest food. As in this What can we do? The good news is that, because much pollu- scenario, though, it has been treated for tion is caused by humans, we also have the many years as a waste receptacle. As human ability to reduce or eliminate it. Through population has increased, so has our resource regular monitoring, established treatment consumption and creation of waste products. methods, innovative science and technol- Since everything flows downhill, much of ogy, and environmentally aware policies, our waste ends up in the ocean, the ultimate some pollution effects can be contained and catchment. reduced. Many important action steps have At one time, people thought the ocean’s already been taken: “scrubbers” have been vastness could dilute waste well enough installed on coal power plants to reduce air to eliminate its impacts. However, we now pollutant emissions, advanced wastewater known that some pollutants remain in the treatment plants have been built along the environment for years, decades, or even coasts to break down pollutants in sewage, centuries, and can significantly alter marine use of some dangerous pollutants have been ecosystems. The ocean is not able to convert, banned or restricted, and technologies to assimilate, or otherwise rid itself of all the help prevent and treat oil spills are improv- waste we produce. Instead, it may be altered ing. Despite some successes in reversing the in ways that people never expected, limit- hazardous effects of pollution, much work ing our ability to enjoy and reap the ocean’s remains to be done to protect the ocean’s benefits. health for future generations.

Consequences of Pollution Know your Pollutants? Ocean pollution was ignored for years, but What do you think of when you hear the in recent decades the consequences have word pollution? Many people envision a become more visible. On an individual level, shorebird covered in black oil, or toxic green pollutants can cause detrimental effects to ooze being poured into a river. The real- the activities, health, and survival of marine ity is that many of the pollutants we think

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 9 about have a smaller impact on ocean health areas uninhabited by humans. than others, some of which we cannot even see. Even too much of a seemingly harmless In addition to the major pollutant types substance can have deleterious effects on the described here, scientists are just beginning environment. For instance, small quanti- to study a new class of pollutants (called con- ties of elemental phosphorus and nitrogen taminants of emerging concern) that have are vital to life for people, animals, aquatic unknown fates and effects in the environ- plants, and food crops. When these nutrients ment. For example, pharmaceuticals con- are released into aquatic ecosystems in high taining hormones may be excreted in urine, concentrations, though, they can drastically bypass wastewater treatment systems, and over-fertilize algae. Because high nutrient lev- end up the ocean, with the potential to affect els are linked to algal overgrowth, dissolved fish reproduction and population dynamics. oxygen reduction, dead zones, and fish kills, More research is needed to understand the they are now recognized as leading pollut- risks posed by emerging contaminants, and ants in the world’s coastal zones. CO2 is an- therefore be able to manage their effects. other example of an invisible substance that may have quite harmful systemic impacts on The sections that follow highlight some of the ocean when present in excess. the major known types of pollution, de- scribing their consequences, sources, and Ocean pollutants vary widely, ranging from some potential solutions. These have been toxic chemicals to discarded toys to sound addressed to varying degrees by manage- waves. They are grouped into different classes ment measures from region to region and based on similar characteristics, sources, and country to country. Across all pollutant effects. Different pollutant classes can also classes, though, research and management have different degrees or spatial scales of are ongoing, and awareness and vigilance impact. For example, oil slicks are dangerous remain a high priority. In addition, because to local marine organisms, but usually don’t it is a global problem, much work remains affect life outside the spill area. Greenhouse to bring together all of the neighbors who gases, though, can result in widespread eco- have a hand in creating or preventing ocean system changes that cover the globe, even in pollution.

10 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Marine Debris

Marine debris provides a stark visual remind- er of people’s impact on the ocean. While some marine debris comes from ocean-based sources such as cargo or fishing boats, a stag- gering 80% is estimated to come from land- based sources. Much of this trash is plastic and other man-made substances that people have left behind as litter. When it rains, lit- Storm drains in coastal regions usually funnel untreated water directly ter is washed into storm drains, and funneled into the ocean. Karen Setty, Southern California Coastal Water Research Project. directly into rivers and coastal waters. Water going into storm drains is very rarely directed of coastal communities may be significantly to a treatment plant or otherwise filtered to affected by a loss in tourism revenue. People get out the trash and pollutants. Thus, much do not want to visit trash-covered beaches; of the litter intentionally or unintentionally therefore, coastal municipalities often have to spend extra money and resources on beach clean-ups. Debris with sharp edges also poses a hazard to beachgoers, swimmers, divers, and boaters.

In addition to aesthetic problems, ingestion of marine debris and entanglement in debris can harm sea birds, marine mammals, and other sea life. Entrapment and ingestion may lead to death if the animal is not able to move, consume food, and avoid predators. Many marine species are already threatened Marine debris can entrap and kill wildlife. NOAA or endangered, and the effects of debris only make matters worse. discarded into watershed drainage areas trav- els out to sea or ends up on beaches. Sources As the title “everything flows downhill” Consequences suggests, large amounts of trash can reach Marine debris is both an aesthetic issue and the ocean via drainage from an upland area, a direct hazard to marine life. With undesir- whether it was deposited near or miles away able changes in beach areas, the economies from the coast. As an interface between land

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 11 common debris item found on land, in oceans, and on beaches.

Solutions Marine debris is one form of ocean pollution that can be directly reduced by individual actions. To limit your personal production of trash, you can follow the three Rs: reduce, reuse, and recycle. Easy ways to reduce waste include purchasing products with less packaging, using a refillable water Household items and food and beverage containers are common types of marine debris. Shelley Moore, bottle, or bringing cloth Southern California Coastal Water Research Project grocery bags along when you shop. When you do and sea, beaches become a source of marine create trash, be sure to put it in its place (a debris when discarded items are transported trash or recycling container) instead of litter- into the ocean via runoff and wind; however, ing. You can also help prevent marine debris beaches also become a receptor when debris by making certain that outdoor waste con- released into ocean waters washes ashore. tainers are closed securely, to keep trash from

In 1975, the National Acad- emy of Sciences estimated that 6.4 million tons of debris were Extended Producer Responsibility discarded into the ocean annu- In 1991, Germany was experiencing a severe landfill ally, a figure believed to have shortage. Because packaging was responsible for 30% of increased in subsequent years. the waste by weight and 50% by volume, the govern- The Ocean Conservancy’s Na- ment passed the Ordinance on Avoidance of Packaging tional Marine Debris Monitoring Waste. This law made industry responsible for handling Project (NMDMP) conducted a packaging waste, in order to help reduce per capita 5-year study from 2001-2006 to consumption of packaging. This extended producer identify the type and quantity of responsibility (EPR) approach, later coined the “Polluter marine debris on beaches. This Pays Principle” (Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration) at study, funded by the US Environ- the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment mental Protection Agency (EPA), and Development, is gaining popularity in the US and monitored debris in 21 coastal other nations as well. In EPR programs, producers take states, islands, and territories, and responsibility for their products from creation through found that 48.8% of the debris to disposal. This can include policies to reuse, buy-back, found on coastlines came from recycle, or produce energy from waste materials. land-based sources, followed by 33.4% general source debris, and 17.7% ocean-based debris. Nota- inadvertently blowing away or being targeted bly, the top three items found overall were by scavenging animals. Another way to plastic straws, plastic beverage bottles, and reduce ocean debris is to pick up litter when plastic bags, much of which could have been you see it around your home or in public recycled. Cigarette butts are another very places, and participate in community clean-

12 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN ups. If you see a friend litter, let them know local to international scale. Despite research, what you have learned about how trash ends monitoring, and removal programs, though, up in the ocean. marine debris persists. Better solutions are needed to prevent the release of debris in the At a national and international level, there first place. are many laws and programs in place to manage marine debris. In 1987, the US ratified Alternative practices to reduce waste could Annex V of the International Convention come in the form of bans or fees for pur- for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships chase of objects that are commonly thrown (MARPOL). This law prohibits at-sea disposal away, or provision of reusable alternatives to of plastic waste and mandates that ships be disposable items. Giving monetary value to a certain distance from shore when dump- items previously seen as waste can motivate ing solid wastes. In 1998 Congress extended litter-reducing behavior. The best example of dumping regulations to all navigable water- this in the US is addition of a retail value to ways in the nation with the Marine Plastic recyclable bottles and cans, paid out at the Pollution Research and Control Act (MP- time of purchase and returned when the item PRCA). is recycled. In many other countries, consum- ers must either use reusable shopping bags The US EPA is in charge of monitoring and or pay for each plastic bag they take to carry managing land-based pollution found on their items. For example, stores in Ireland beaches and in waterways. In 1990, Con- are required to charge for plastic bags while gress authorized the EPA to assess the ef- China has banned them altogether. The fectiveness of marine debris legislation and Swedish furniture company IKEA voluntarily other methods to control debris. This led to began a plastic bag reduction program, which development of the National Marine Debris reduced plastic bag use at their stores by 95%. Monitoring Program (NMDMP), intended to The international chain Costco does not is- provide a better understanding of the status sue bags, but instead provides customers with and trends in marine debris nationwide. Citi- recycled boxes to transport their purchases. zens and community groups in the US also take part in ocean cleanups ranging from a

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 13 Nutrients

Owing to nutrients released on land, for instance from livestock waste, household detergents, lawn care products, and crop fertilizers, oceans are over-fertilized in many coastal regions around the globe. Nutrients from these and other sources tend to get concentrated in storm runoff, rivers, and water treatment plant effluent. Much of this water flows downhill and eventually releases into lakes or An algal bloom along Florida’s Gulf coastline. Jacques Descloitres, NOAA. oceans, leading to a localized area at the discharge point where nutrient shellfish cannot survive, creating what is concentrations are elevated. This imbalance known as a “dead zone.” Fish, shrimp, and may then instigate a string of negative effects crabs flee the area while less mobile bottom- in a process called “eutrophication”. dwellers such as snails, clams, and starfish may die. This phenomenon occurs yearly Consequences and is attributed to excess nutrients, mostly Eutrophication is an increase in the produc- from fertilizer-rich runoff flowing through tion of organic matter through algal blooms the Mississippi River basin and emptying into or aquatic plants. If too much nitrogen and the Gulf. phosphorus find their way into the ocean, these nutrients fertilize an explosive growth Other negative effects of algal blooms and of algae. When the masses of algae die and eutrophication can include poor aesthetics, sink to the bottom, their decomposition con- odor, toxin-forming harmful algal blooms, sumes most of the oxygen in the water. The fish kills, critical habitat destruction, altered resulting lack of oxygen can wipe out marine food webs, and a decline in fisheries. Physi- life across the entire affected area. cally, masses of algae can clog water intake pipes and boat motors, resulting in higher In the United States, over 80% of coastal bays maintenance costs. Blooms of algae and and estuaries show signs of excess nutri- odors from decaying plants and animals simi- ent enrichment. A prime example is a large larly lessen the appeal of using a water body area off the coast of Louisiana in the Gulf of for recreation, such as swimming, wading, Mexico, where oxygen levels drop so low in fishing, or kayaking. This may cause losses the spring and summer that most fish and in tourism revenue and land values, and also

14 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN create a new cost to clean up or maintain the system. Thus, nutrient inputs from an area area. far away from the coast can still contribute to nutrient loading in the ocean, as is the case Algal blooms contribute to loss of endan- for the Mississippi River basin, which drains gered seagrass beds and coral reefs by cloud- about 40% of the contiguous US. During the ing water, cutting off sunlight, and essen- last half of the 20th century, the amount of tially smothering coral. Some algae blooms nitrogen collected and discharged by the Mis- produce neurotoxins that can sicken and kill sissippi River has tripled. marine animals and humans. Researchers are still working to understand precisely how ex- Fertilizers applied to land can also soak into cess nutrient loading may be related to toxin the ground when it rains or they are ir- production. Just one outbreak of harmful rigated, infiltrating groundwater aquifers. algae can cost millions of dollars in healthcare needs and lost seafood revenues.

Sources and Mechanisms The National Research Council report Clean Coastal Waters: Understanding and Reducing the Effects of Nutrient Pollution (2000) concluded that the key to addressing coastal nutrient problems is understanding where nutrients come from in our local watersheds. The primary culprit affecting nutrient pollution is runoff of dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilizers applied to agricultural fields, golf courses, and lawns. Most of the remaining nutrient inputs come from sewage treatment plant discharges, septic system leaks, industrial discharges, and atmospheric deposition. The tributaries of the Mississippi River carry nutrients from far inland to a concentrated area at the river’s Airborne nutrients come from mouth in the Gulf of Mexico. US Commission on Ocean Policy. An Ocean Blueprint for the 21st Century. Final Report. Washington, DC, nitrogen released by the com- 2004. bustion of fossil fuels or from fertilizers or manure vapors. Other sources include animal waste, pet Depending on the position of the aquifer, waste, and household wastewater. groundwater may then flow into to the coastal ocean. In several regions of the world Nutrient-rich waters can reach the coastal (California and Oregon for example), natu- ocean through several mechanisms. Nutri- ral ocean currents drive upwelling of dense, ents washed into small streams and then into cool, and nutrient-rich water towards the larger rivers are not easily dissipated from the ocean surface, replacing the warm, nutrient- depleted surface water. Nutrients can also be

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 15 deposited from the air, either into waterways seep into the ground, filtering out con- that flow to the ocean or the ocean surface taminants and replenishing local water itself. supplies.

Solutions • Re-direct stormwater to irrigate your Nutrient inputs can be drastically reduced plants - Ironically, naturally-purified by improvements in agricultural practices, rain water remains largely unused; it is reductions in atmospheric sources of nitro- collected by a system of storm drains gen, and improved treatment of municipal and sent offsite. Instead of letting this wastewater. A measure as simple as leaving water run into the ocean, it could be a grass buffer strip around agricultural fields used to irrigate gardens and planters can cut nutrient discharge by a large degree. onsite. Many other best management practices (BMPs) have been documented that reduce pollution in runoff from agricultural operations, residential and business complexes, and roads and parking lots. Source reductions at a local level are generally less costly than end-of-pipe treatment mechanisms.

There are many ways that you can help to address nutrient pollution, for example:

• Keep pollutants out of storm drains - You can prevent pollutants commonly found in and around your home from reaching a storm drain and entering the ocean. Always pick up pet waste and wash your car either on your lawn, so that runoff is soaked up by the grass, or at a car wash. Car washes either recycle their water on-site or funnel it to a treatment plant instead of storm drains. Household products should never be disposed of by dumping them in a storm drain. Permeable pavement allows water to soak onto the • Use permeable surfaces rather than ground onsite, rather than running off into storm drains pavement - The impermeable surfaces in that go to the ocean. Karen Setty urban environments block water from naturally seeping into the ground where it would be slowly released to streams or • Capture gray water to irrigate plants - seep into groundwater aquifers. Instead, Gray water (wastewater that does not rainwater picks up pollutants in urban contain sewage) from sinks and showers environments and moves very quickly is rich in nutrients due to the presence through man-made storm drains flow- of detergents and food waste. Some ing directly into the ocean. Permeable homes and businesses capture and reuse surfaces like grass, gravel, or certain gray water onsite, rather than letting it types of pavement allow rain water to escape down the drain.

16 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN • Plant native vegetation - Plants that are adapted to the soil and climate of your area will require very little, if any, fertilizer or watering. This minimizes fertilizer runoff and reduces water runoff.

• Buy low-phosphate detergents - House- hold laundry and dishwashing detergents are historically a large source of nutrient pollution in the US. Many states have implemented laws to reduce the amount of phosphates used in these products, leading to the availability of more environmentally-friendly alternatives.

According to Clean Coastal Waters, a national strategy with involvement from federal, state, and local agencies, plus academic and research institutions is necessary to effec- tively combat nutrient pollution. Central to this strategy is creation of long-term monitoring and assessment programs. These would help managers to (1) establish what the “baseline” nutrient levels should be; (2) determine where nutrient over-enrichment is most acute; and (3) measure whether or not actions to reduce nutrient levels have been effective. The report recommends that a national assessment survey be conducted every 10 years to determine the extent of nutrient problems and the effectiveness of efforts to combat them.

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 17 18 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN CO2

As with nutrients, greenhouse gases such This phenomenon is called coral bleaching, as carbon dioxide (CO2) are being released and threatens many reefs around the world. into the environment at an undesirable rate. Though CO2 is not what we would think of Sea level rise can be attributed to melting as a traditional pollutant, being necessary glaciers, mostly from Greenland and the to plant life, when present in excess it can Antarctic, and from the thermal expansion of disrupt the natural carbon cycle and cre- seawater as its temperature increases. Rising ate large-scale systemic changes that impact waters threaten to erode low lying coastal many forms of life on earth. Because it affects marine habitats such as salt marshes and the entire planet (even untouched wilder- mangrove swamps. These unique marine ness areas), CO2 is a pollutant of increasing habitats are home to many endangered spe- global concern. With rising awareness of this cies, and are already under pressure from issue in recent years, many have learned the human encroachment and other types of story about how greenhouse gases can induce pollution. large-scale climate change effects; however, a lesser-known story is playing out in the Changing weather patterns may also impact world’s oceans. In a process called “ocean the migration cycles and breeding success of acidification”, increased levels of dissolved some marine fish and seabirds, while melting CO2 in the atmosphere can change the pH of sea ice fragments critical habitat. The extent ocean water, disrupting the natural ecosys- and continuity of sea ice is declining at a fast tem balance that sustains marine life. rate at both poles as a result of global warm- ing, causing distress to populations of wild- Consequences life like polar bears, walruses, and narwhals. As a result of the increase in greenhouse gas Polar bears depend on thick, extensive ice emissions, sea ice is melting more rapidly, sea sheets to hunt, raise their young, and protect levels are rising, and sea surface temperatures themselves from predators. are going up in certain parts of the world. All living organisms require a specific range Every year the ocean absorbs a good deal of of environmental conditions to survive, and the excess CO2 in the atmosphere, which some delicate species, such as coral, may not helps to mitigate climate impacts. While this be able to adapt to even minute changes in process is helpful in some ways, it is danger- ocean temperature and depth. An increase in ous in others. As CO2 dissolves in ocean sea surface temperatures of just 1-3 degrees water, it forms carbonic acid, which increases Celsius is enough to cause coral to expel the the concentration of free hydrogen ions and symbiotic algae that allow them to survive. thus lowers ocean pH. Acidic sea water is

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 19 Human activities during the twentieth century drastically influenced the amount of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.Contri - bution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

known to impair the ability of many marine problem by reducing the ability of land- organisms to build their shells and skeletal scapes to sequester greenhouse gases. structure. Though well understood in a labo- ratory setting, the systemic effects of ocean Solutions acidification are still largely unknown. They Individual actions to reduce your CO2 pose a threat not only to marine life, but also footprint include using public transporta- to the fish and shellfish industries, a major tion, carpooling, walking, or riding your bike source of human nutrition. instead of taking the car. Another way to reduce your personal contribution to CO2 Sources and Mechanisms production is by utilizing alternative energy Human reliance on fossil fuels is largely to sources that do not require fossil fuels, such blame for the unnatural increase in green- as solar panels. Installing better insulation, house gases. When we burn oil, gas, and coal programmable thermostats, energy-efficient to produce electricity and run machinery, we appliances, and compact fluorescent light add massive amounts of CO2 to the envi- bulbs in your home can also cut down on ronment. Some other sources of greenhouse your energy consumption. If many people gases include methane release from livestock in your community choose to take these and and rice paddy farming, landfill emissions, other small steps, the savings in CO2 emis- and the use of certain chemicals for refrigera- sions will quickly add up. tion. Deforestation further exacerbates the

20 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN While individual lifestyle changes help to of participation until 2004, and was not put reduce the problem, change at a larger scale into effect until 2005. With the implementa- requires the cooperation of businesses and tion of the Protocol, 166 countries have now multiple levels of government. The 1992 agreed to take steps to lower their nationwide United Nations Framework Convention on greenhouse gas emissions. In addition to the Climate Change kicked off international Kyoto targets, many countries, regions, and government efforts to address climate change. even large corporations are implementing The Berlin Mandate in 1995 recognized that programs like emissions trading, tax incen- emission targets needed to be stricter and tives, and automobile efficiency standards for called for further negotiations. This led to reducing their contribution to CO2 emissions. the 1997 Kyoto Protocol. Unfortunately, the Kyoto Protocol did not gain the required level

Bleached Coral Reefs Closed to Tourists In 2010, the Country of Malaysia officially closed some of its world-famous coral reefs. Twelve sites that annually attract half a million tourists from around the world were announced off-limits to divers and snorkelers from July to October. The decision was made after almost 90% of the coral started turning white as a result of water temperature increases. From March to July, about 50 different organizations and individuals reported signs of coral bleaching in the Coral Triangle region, the tropical marine waters of Indo- nesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Solomon Islands and Timor-Leste, home to at least 500 species of reef- building corals. The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Coral Reef Watch described this incident as the worst of its kind since 1997-1998, when 16% of the world’s coral reefs were decimated. Officials hope that this closure will give the bleached coral time to regenerate.

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 21 Toxicants

The Clean Water Act, passed in 1972, was tions due to release of DDT in the environ- extremely successful at reducing toxic pol- ment, its bioaccumulation, and the resultant lutant discharges from point sources into US eggshell thinning is a good example of the waterways. Prior to the implementation of harmful potential of toxic pollutants. these regulations, many coastal areas were polluted by toxic chemicals that caused Toxic substances that are regulated in aquatic (among other issues) ulcers, fin erosion, environments have generally been well- tumors and diseases in fish. These prob- described by scientists; however, they are lems have widely improved in areas where only part of the pollution picture. Thousands wastewater treatment has been implemented, of other chemicals have been developed for but regulation of toxic chemicals still varies use in industry, agriculture, and household among different regions of the world. In ad- products, some of which are transformed or dition, other diffuse sources are not as well broken down into other chemical forms in controlled. Residual toxicants may remain the environment. In general, newly discov- in the environment even after their use and ered substances lack information about their discharge is curtailed. The dangers posed by toxicity in aquatic ecosystems; depending on these “legacy” pollutants can take decades their intended use, toxicity testing is usually or centuries to truly resolve. Finally, new limited to relevant applications like skin or chemicals and chemical constituents are food crops. In addition, the range of their continuously being developed and put on uses, transport pathways, and eventual fates the market, which may pose a risk to marine is not usually well-documented. Advanced life and humans. technology and more sensitive sampling techniques developed during recent years Consequences have led scientists to discover the presence of many compounds in the marine waters, like Toxic chemicals can have either acute or prescription drugs, ingredients from personal sublethal effects in exposed organisms. care products, and flame retardant chemi- Sublethal effects include a range of impair- cals used to coat furniture. The presence, ments to growth, development, or reproduc- extent, and effects of these “contaminants of tion, whereas acute toxicity simply results in emerging concern” are only beginning to be death. Certain toxic contaminants will bioac- investigated. cumulate, posing a different type of health threat. These substances build up in fatty One type of emerging contaminant is tissue rather than being excreted from the endocrine disruptors. Endocrine disruptors body, and can even be passed to offspring. are substances that act like hormones in the The decimation of brown pelican popula-

22 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN bodies of human and animals, thus interfer- regularly end up in coastal waters. ing with normal activity in the endocrine system. Many detergents, pesticides, plastics, Contaminants can also reach the ocean and varnishes, for example, are derived from through atmospheric deposition. For ex- or contain endocrine disrupting chemicals. ample, mercury is released into the air when Exposure to sufficient quantities of these large quantities of coal and other fuels chemicals could theoretically cause unnatural containing trace amounts of the element developmental and reproductive changes. are burned, as well as from the incineration In some controlled experiments, they were of mercury-containing medical wastes. It is shown to alter sex determination and then washed out of the atmosphere and rains

Concentrations of bioaccumulative contaminants are generally highest in large predatory fish, and can be over a million-fold hither than levels in the surrounding water. US Environmental Protection Agency. dynamics of fish populations. It is unclear, down onto lakes, rivers, and the ocean. Once though, whether commonly found environ- deposited in ocean sediments, mercury enters mental levels of endocrine disruptors are a complex cycling pathway. Of greatest con- high enough to induce such effects. cern, inorganic mercury may be converted into methylmercury, the most biologically Sources and Mechanisms available and toxic form of the element. Ul- Many toxic chemicals are already well-con- timately, mercury ends up in sediments, fish, trolled by legislation and industry practices. and other animals, or volatilizes back into Those who discharge chemicals into water- the atmosphere. ways must adhere to monitoring and quality standards set forth in their National Pollution Toxic contaminants like methylmercury that Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) per- are more soluble in oils and fatty tissue than mits. As pollution from point sources (e.g., in water will tend to build up (bioaccumu- discharge pipes) becomes better controlled, late) in the tissues of fish and shellfish and though, the impact of other nonpoint or become more concentrated up through the diffuse sources (e.g., stormwater, atmospheric food chain. Predators such as tuna, sword- deposition) becomes relatively greater by fish, osprey, and pelicans usually contain a comparison. For example, rain water often higher amount of these chemicals in their picks up small amounts of toxic chemicals bodies than animals lower on the food chain from agricultural fields, lawns, roads, and such as zooplankton, mullet, and carp. parking lots and carries them directly to Whenever humans eat seafood, they may the ocean through storm drains. They may also be consuming bioaccumulated contami- become concentrated at the river mouth or nants. Through this pathway, toxic pollution point of stormwater discharge as contami- in the ocean can affect even people living far nants are collected from around the water- away from the coast. Seafood consumption shed. Pharmaceutical, industrial, agricultural, advisories exist to spread awareness of this personal care, household cleaning, garden- problem and limit exposure to contaminants ing, and automotive products and wastes still in seafood, especially in sensitive populations like unborn babies and breastfeeding infants.

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 23 Depending on a chemical’s properties, it always effective at decreasing environmental may be reduced or transformed naturally and health risks. over time by physical, chemical, or biological processes such as bacterial metabolism. Other Technical difficulties with dredging are contaminants can remain in the oceans for a numerous. Underwater obstacles can prevent very long time. Among the most troubling of dredging equipment from accessing sedi- these are heavy metals, such as mercury and ments, while dredging can also uncover and cadmium, and “persistent organic pollut- re-suspend buried contaminants, adding to ants,” such as PCBs, dioxin, and DDT, which the amount of pollution people and animals linger in marine sediments for decades. Once are exposed to, at least in the short term. the environmental concerns associated with Additionally, suspended sediment in the these chemicals were recognized, many of water can block sunlight, and impair filter- them were banned or their usage restricted. feeding organisms. Dredging operations can Unfortunately, many times management also be expensive, and brings up the issue of actions are not taken until the chemical is how to safely dispose of the contaminated already widespread in the environment and sediments. Site-specific conditions are usually effects are already being seen. considered when determining whether to go forward with a dredging project, and moni- Solutions toring conditions before, during, and after Source reduction, or preventing toxic chemi- cleanups is recommended to determine their cals from being released into the environ- effectiveness. Better pollution control can ment, is by far the best way to control them. sometimes be achieved by leaving the system Once contaminants are released into the undisturbed and tracking natural attenua- environment, it becomes much more dif- tion. ficult to contain or remove them. Dredging up contaminated sediments in areas where they settle out and concentrate in bays and estuaries and around historic outfalls is one of the few options available. However, the National Research Council report Sediment Dredging at Superfund Megasites: Assess- ing the Effectiveness (2007) concludes that, based on available evidence, dredging is not

24 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Fecal Waste

It is estimated that America’s coastal waters receive nearly 8,000 gallons of treated municipal sewage each day. This wastewater is first treated to remove solid waste and organic material, at a minimum, and outfalls are well-monitored to detect any adverse impacts. In some locations, wastewater discharge is treated to an even higher degree so that it can be reused for groundwater recharge or irrigation. These steps largely address the issue of fecal waste in US marine waters. Still, many communities in both rural areas and large cities have a combined sewer overflow (CSO) system in place to keep the treatment plant from backing up when it rains heavily. This system allows untreated sewage to spill over into storm drains, which discharge water without the benefit of treatment. Accidental sewage spills and leaking pipes or household septic tanks are also fairly A warning sign posted at Avalon Beach in southern common near coastlines. Internationally, California. John Griffith, Southern California Coastal Research Project. disposal of raw sewage into the ocean is common in developing nations, and remains a major pollution issue for both environmental and public health reasons. stomachaches, pink eye, diarrhea, vomiting, respiratory infections, hepatitis, encephalitis, Consequences and typhoid. In the US alone, approximately 1.8-3.5 million illnesses are caused each year Raw sewage collected from toilets and other by swimming in sewage-contaminated water; household wastewater contains everything an estimated additional 500,000 illnesses from infectious bacteria and viruses to toxic result from drinking contaminated water. chemicals and nutrients. Because some of Waterborne diseases are a leading cause of these pollutant types are described elsewhere, death in developing countries, often owing this discussion will focus on the fecal pollu- to inadequate sanitation and water treatment tion impacts related to pathogens. Direct ex- infrastructure. posure to sewage can cause rashes, earaches,

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 25 Floating Cities Holding 3,000 to 7,000 passengers on average, cruise ships are akin to floating cities. Though they advertise fun in the sun and clear waters, there is a darker side to the ships: production of waste, often in sensitive marine habitats. The US Environmental Protection Agency estimated that in one week a 3000-passenger cruise ship generates about 210,000 gallons of sewage, 1,000,000 gallons of gray water (shower, sink, and dishwashing water), 37,000 gallons of oily bilge water, more than 8 tons of solid waste, millions of gallons of ballast water containing potential invasive species, and toxic wastes from dry cleaning and photo-pro- cessing laboratories. While cities on land are held to strict standards in terms of wastewater discharge and solid waste management, cruise ships vary widely in their adoption of technology to process wastewater before it is discharged to the ocean. Many discharge raw sewage, containing human pathogens, directly into the marine environment.

Fecal pollution has heavy economic impli- use alternatives like septic tanks or septic cations as well. The presence of pathogens mounds. If improperly maintained, these affects the beneficial uses of a water body, smaller systems can contaminant groundwa- such as its ability to be used for water contact ter, which may flow downhill into surface or recreation like boating and swimming. High coastal waters. Several small- to large-scale bacteria levels in coastal waters necessitate sewage spills and leaks also occur each year beach and shellfish bed closures, which in at the larger facilities due to aging infrastruc- turn harm the local economy. Beaches that ture or accidents. While fecal contamination are notorious for poor water quality may in marine waters often dissipates within a lose their appeal over time, such that fewer few days, spill sites on beach sand or soil tourist dollars are brought into those com- can harbor and sustain bacteria and other munities. Illnesses caused by swimming also pathogens for longer periods of time, provid- result in higher health care costs and lost ing a more continuous source. Fecal waste work days. For example, it is estimated that left on land by livestock, pets, and wildlife over 100 million people visit southern Cali- can also contaminate groundwater, streams, fornia beaches annually, contributing about lakes, beaches, and the ocean, when they are $9 billion to the local economy. The cost of washed into waterways by rain. Confined healthcare for gastrointestinal illness caused animal feeding operations that concentrate by swimming at contaminated beaches is animal waste onsite and allow it to spill into around $20-50 million. Contamination of local waterways are another large source of fish and shellfish is another economic down- fecal waste to US waterways. fall. US medical costs associated with eating sewage-contaminated shellfish range from Combined sewer systems, which collect mu- $2.5-22 million each year. nicipal sewage and stormwater runoff in the same piping network, serve approximately Sources and Mechanisms 40 million people in the US. Overflows built Most raw sewage in the US is sent to be pro- into these systems prevent sewage backup cessed in a wastewater treatment plant prior into homes and streets by releasing excessive to being discharged into waterways. Areas flows into nearby water bodies. Though no without centralized treatment services must longer used in new construction, many combined sewers were built before end-of-pipe

26 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN wastewater treatment plants were conceptu- nents like genetic material from microorgan- alized. They are still operated by older cities, isms. Faster and more accurate monitoring especially in the northeast and Great Lakes methods will help to ensure that beaches are region, and are a major cause of fecal waste closed during the times of greatest risk. They release. With growing urban populations and will also allow environmental managers to the high expense of infrastructure renova- track, identify, and address sources of fecal tions, this problem does not have an easy contamination. answer. Individuals can also take action to prevent Solutions fecal pollution. Importantly, pet owners Addressing fecal contamination is of utmost should always take responsibility for pick- importance to preserving environmental and ing up pet waste, and properly disposing of public health. In some cases, upgrades to it in a toilet or trash receptacle according to old treatment systems can radically reduce the laws in your local community. Poorly overflows and spills. Funding is needed to maintained trash, household waste, or unat- update and improve infrastructure in many tended pet food can also attract concentrated places around the country. Although costly, areas of fecal waste from wildlife. Maintain- many cities are working on separating sewers ing household septic systems and reporting for wastewater and storm runoff. Some cities any suspected spills or leaks in sewage lines have created storage facilities for the over- are other ways to help control fecal pollution flow and then return the overflow water to sources. the system after the excess runoff water has decreased. More frequent monitoring and In developing countries, much work remains system maintenance, for example removing to be done to install improved sanitation and blockages and replacing broken pipes, can wastewater treatment infrastructure. In the help as well by preventing accidental releases. meantime, a number of international volunteer organizations are working to educate One problem with current beach monitor- individuals about how to avoid exposure to ing programs is the length of time it takes to disease-causing fecal contamination, and test water samples, which typically involves how to treat potentially fatal waterborne culturing bacteria overnight. Faster diagnos- diseases using the available local resources. tic tools for rapidly measuring indicators of Anyone can get involved in supporting these fecal pollution, and tracking the sources of organizations locally through fundraising sewage contamination, are currently being and advocacy. developed by scientists. These take advantage of faster technology to detect cellular compo-

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 27 Oil

Oil is one of the most visible and commonly discussed types of ocean pollution. Because the effects of oil spills are visually dramatic, they are often widely publicized. This can lead to a distorted public perception of the issue. In Chronic exposure to small amounts of crude reality, oil spills are relatively infrequent, oil or other petroleum products can produce given the extent of control measures put into toxic effects in many marine organisms, place over the last few decades. In addition, depending on the persistence and biological an even greater amount of oil in the ocean availability of specific compounds in the oil. comes from nonpoint land-based runoff and Examples include impairment of feeding, natural seeps. growth, development, and reproduction, as well as increased susceptibility to disease. Consequences Oil pollution affects ocean ecosystems most In addition, oil floating on top of seawater significantly by endangering wildlife. Float- reduces light penetration, limiting the pho- ing on top of the water’s surface, oil coats tosynthetic activities of the marine plants the fur and feathers of marine animals. and phytoplankton that form the base of Oil-soaked plumage makes birds less buoy- the ecosystem. This in turn affects sources of ant, reduces their insulation, and increases nutrition for other organisms higher on the their vulnerability to temperature fluctua- food chain. Depending on the location and tions. It also impairs flight ability such that extent of the oil pollution, these acute effects they cannot forage for food or escape from might be resolved quickly with minimal predators. When birds attempt to clean off losses, or have longer-term population and their feathers, they often ingest the oil, caus- community level impacts. Spilled oil also ing kidney damage, altered liver function, spreads onto beaches, marring the landscape and digestive tract irritation. This may lead and inhibiting recreational uses like bathing to death through organ failure, impaired and kayaking. Substances evaporating from digestion, or dehydration. In a similar way, oil can irritate the skin, eyes, and respiratory marine mammals like otters and seals are left systems of humans. unable to regulate body temperature when their insulating fur is coated in oil, leading to Sources and Mechanisms hypothermia. Most animals covered in oil do Oil in the ocean includes crude oil, refined not survive without human intervention. petroleum products (such as gasoline or

28 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN diesel fuel), and oily refuse. The National oil per day into the Gulf of Mexico off Research Council report Oil in the Sea III: the coast of Louisiana for just over 100 Inputs, Fates, and Effects (2003) developed a days, covering an area of at least 2,500 new methodology for estimating oil inputs square miles. It is now considered to be to the sea from both natural and human the largest marine oil spill in history, sources. They found that the main natural though the entire extent of impacts source of oil in the ocean is seepage, where remains to be seen. crude oil oozes into the water from geologic formations beneath the sea floor. These seeps Solutions account for about 60% of the total oil in The best way to reduce the effects of oil in North American waters and 45% worldwide. the ocean is to control and reduce the sourc- The remaining oil found in the ocean is at- es. This means addressing the three main tributed to human input. types of oil inputs from human activities.

Oil inputs from human activities primarily • Petroleum Use - Limiting use of originate from: (1) petroleum use, including petroleum products can also reduce the tanker spills including runoff from highways amount of oil pollution that ends up in and discharges from recreational vehicles; the ocean. The rising prices of petro- (2) petroleum transportation; and (3) petroleum products have led many to begin leum extraction, exploration, and production conserving and seeking alternative fuel activities. These sources are further described sources like solar, electric, wind, hydro- below: gen, or biofuels. Conserving energy and using alternative forms of transportation • Petroleum Use - Surprisingly, oil from individual cars, boats, lawn mowers, jet skis, marine vessels, and airplanes contributes the most oil pollution to the ocean. This category includes oil slicks transported from roadways and parking lots through runoff, oil dumped into storm drains, and jettisoned aircraft fuel.

• Petroleum Transport - Although the amount of oil transported by sea contin- ues to rise, transportation-related spills are becoming rarer. Most recently in 1989, the Exxon Valdez, a single hulled oil tanker, spilled some 34,000 tons of crude oil owing to a navigational error. The event harmed massive numbers of marine animals and birds, and cost over $2.5 billion to clean up.

• Petroleum Extraction, Exploration, and Production - Historically, oil and gas exploration and petroleum production spills have been significant sources of oil

in the ocean. Most recently, the Deep- A female King Eider covered in oil. Paul Flint, US Fish & Wildlife Service. water Horizon oil spill, caused by a drill- ing rig explosion in April 2010, released tens of thousands of barrels of crude

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 29 and are other ways to minimize society’s dramatically reduced both blowouts and need for petroleum products and reduce daily operational spills. Today, acciden- the associated risk of spills and acci- tal spills from oil platforms represent dents. only about 1% of petroleum discharged in North American waters and about 3% When you must use petroleum products, worldwide. there are steps you can take to control their release to the environment. Oil and other Once released, there are no easy ways to ad- household products should never be dumped dress an oil spill. They can take months or in storm drains. When you have the oil even years to clean up. Booms can be used to changed on your car, it is important to go to contain oil spills, and available methods for a facility that can safely dispose of the oil, or removing oil from the water include the use use a drip pan to catch oil if you change it of biological agents that help break it down, yourself. Stormwater management measures absorbent materials, and gelling agents that like rain gardens and pervious pavement can make oil easier to skim from the surface. help reduce the runoff of oil and other pol- High-pressure water hoses are used to wash lutants from your property. oil-covered beaches. Animals covered in oil must be cleaned off manually. Advances in technology are also helping to reduce release of oil from motor vehicles. The National Research Council report Un- For example, some recreational vehicles derstanding Oil Spill Dispersants: Efficacy such as outboard motorboats previously and Effects (2005) assesses the use of disper- used inefficient “two-stroke engines” that sants, a group of chemicals that act like dish discharged significant amounts of oil into detergent to help disperse and dilute large oil coastal environments. While still being used spills by mixing with the surrounding waters. in many parts of the world today, they have In semi-enclosed coastal areas, the oil may begun to be replaced with more efficient en- not be diluted sufficiently by dispersants to gines in the US since 1990 when the United reduce its toxicity to marine life. In addi- States Environmental Protection Agency (US tion, dispersants themselves may have toxic EPA) regulated “non-road engines” under the effects. The decision about which oil spill Clean Air Act. cleanup methods to use is usually very site- specific. In biologically sensitive areas, some- • Transport Accidents - The US Oil Pollu- times observing the situation and waiting for tion Act was passed in response to the natural attenuation is the best approach. Exxon Valdez disaster, and required new oil tankers to be fitted with a double hull. Most modern tankers have double hull or segregated tank arrangements that dramatically reduce spillage in case of a shipwreck. Transportation spills now account for less than 4% of the total petroleum released in North American waters and less than 13% worldwide.

• Oil Production Accidents - During the past decade improved production technology, more effective regulations, and safety training of personnel have

30 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Noise

For the 119 species of marine mammals, as well as some other aquatic species, sound is a primary sensory means of communicating, navigating, and foraging. The ocean environment has always included A 2005 mass stranding event in North Carolina may have been linked to sonar use. National Marine Fisheries Service Southeast an abundance of natural noises, Fisheries Science Center. such as the sounds generated by beaked whales died. Autopsies revealed bleed- rain, waves, earthquakes, and other animals. ing in the inner ears of three of the beached However, a growing number of ships, oil whales and around the brain of a fourth. The exploration activities, and military and civil- US Navy and the National Marine Fisheries ian sonar use add to the ambient noise in the Service (NMFS) reported that the extended oceanic environment. use of their mid-range sonar had likely set off a series of events that culminated in internal Consequences bleeding. The exact mechanism as to how The large scale consequences of noise pollu- this happened remains unclear. tion are not well-understood, but evidence points to adverse effects on some marine Sources and Mechanisms mammals. Noise can have a detrimental Human-generated sound in the ocean comes effect on animals by causing stress, interfer- from a variety of sources, including commer- ing with the ability to detect prey and avoid cial ship traffic, oil exploration and produc- predators, and impairing communication tion, construction, acoustic research, and needed for reproduction and navigation. sonar use. Two specific examples where noise Noise may also force animals into smaller is intentionally produced are sound wave use areas of habitat. Exposure to high levels of by marine researchers to investigate the prop- noise could even lead to permanent hearing erties of seawater, and air gun use to charac- loss. terize rock underlying the sea floor in search of new hydrocarbon reserves. Noise is also In one well-documented incident in March an unintentional by-product of coastal and 2000, fourteen beaked whales and two marine construction, ship propellers, mineral minke whales suffered traumatic injuries extraction, and aircraft flights. Mine-hunting and stranded themselves in the Bahamas sonars, fish finders, some oceanographic sys- after naval sonar was used nearby. Six of the tems (such as acoustic Doppler current profil-

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 31 ers), and high-resolution seafloor mapping The need to establish baseline knowledge devices can create noise at a higher frequen- and conduct research to improve scientific cy. Researchers estimate that noise pollution understanding of noise pollution effects on is on the rise, though data quantifying noise marine life is emphasized in the National sources is limited and establishment of large- Research Council report Marine Mammal scale trends is not yet possible. Populations and Ocean Noise: Determining When Noise Causes Biologically Significant Although the most recent attention regard- Effects (2005). The extent, trends, and po- ing noise pollution focused on the use of tential solutions to noise pollution problems naval sonar, the effect of shipping lanes on would be clarified by continuous long-term marine animals poses a greater concern. monitoring of changes in both ocean noise Low frequency noise emitted from ships can and marine mammal behavior. Monitoring disrupt communication between animals in over a broad range of frequencies should be the ocean. Unfortunately the mechanisms initiated in coastal areas, specifically marine of these effects are not well studied. Limited mammal migration paths, foraging areas, and research suggests that as background noise breeding grounds. increases, North American right whales increase the amplitude of their calls in order to On an individual level, citizens can advocate be heard, using more energy and potentially for marine mammal protection laws that alerting predators in the process. Background address the issue of noise. Marine sanctuar- noise may also limit their communication ies, for example, can be protected from the range, which normally covers thousands of impacts of noise by limiting exploration in miles, and garble the messages. biologically important zones, implementing noise mitigation efforts, and re-routing Solutions major shipping channels away from sensitive marine habitat. Keeping boat motors well- The National Research Council report Ocean tuned and performing regular maintenance Noise and Marine Mammals (2003) con- like clearing debris from the propeller and cludes that the impact of human noise on repairing bearings and loose plates can also marine mammals is significant enough to help reduce noise output. warrant concern, yet many fundamental questions remain unanswered. While the whale stranding event presents a tangible and alarming picture of the potential effects of high-energy mid-frequency sonar, observations of the effects of most types of ocean noise on marine mammals and other aquatic organisms are quite limited. Most existing data consist of short-term observations of marine mammal responses to human activity.

32 POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN Conclusions

Discussing ocean pollution brings up a diffuse, complex series of issues. Nevertheless, some pollution problems can and have been successfully addressed. Since the network of oceans on this planet is interconnected, the pollution issue will only truly be solved by consistent improvement in areas across the globe. Knowing that the growing human population has intensified the problem of ocean pollution, it is clear that we each need to get involved in contributing to the solu- tion. It will require a high degree of participation and collaboration at the individual, family, community, industry, and government levels.

Efforts at all of these levels become more effective with elevated public awareness about pollution sources and impacts. Just by read- ing about ocean pollution, you become better equipped to prevent it. Once you are aware of the problem, participation in local volunteer organization is a great way to start taking action. You can help communicate ocean pollution issues to your friends and family, and also encourage legislators to enact regulations that address ocean pollution. Continued public support is vital for research, monitoring, and further development of pollution reduction strategies and technologies.

POLLUTION IN THE OCEAN 33 Appendix A