SUSTAINABLE COASTAL TOURISM: CHALLENGES FOR MANAGEMENT, PLANNING, AND EDUCATION
Marc L. Miller School of Marine Affairs University of Washington (U.S.A.)
Jan Auyong Oregon Sea Grant College Program Oregon State University (U.S.A.)
Nina P. Hadley Tidal Delta Consulting (U.S.A.)
Abstract: Coastal tourism development is an eller returneth home, let him not leave inherently controversial and increasingly com- the countries where he hath travelled al- plex phenomenon that forces deliberation over together behind him, but maintain a marine life and habitat conservation, economic correspondence by letters with those of improvement, and quality of life objectives. With his acquaintance which are of most this situation, the ideal of sustainable coastal worth.” tourism has found much support by brokers who --- Francis Bacon, The Essays control tourism, locals who witness tourism, and (1985 [1625]: 114) varieties of (eco)tourists. Mechanisms that have shown potential for shaping coastal tourism sys- In the seventeenth century at the time the tems in positive ways include tourism manage- Grand Tour was just taking shape as a tour- ment, tourism planning, and tourism education. istic institution and rite of passage in However, the attainment of sustainable coastal Europe, Francis Bacon recommended in his tourism goals will also depend on multidiscipli- essay “Of Travel” that tourists who gain an nary tourism research, enhanced broker-broker education in foreign lands not only prepare communication and cooperation, and the com- for their trips but also maintain “a corre- mitment of tourists to be alert to ecological and spondence” with people encountered. To- cultural consequences of their travel. day, the obligations of tourists (and those in government and commerce who promote Keywords: sustainable development, coastal tourism) have expanded. Sustainable tour- tourism systems, tourism brokers, tourism lo- ism requires understanding of the cultural cals, tourists, tourism ethics and sociological, the economic and political, and the ecological and biological conse- quences of travel. Introduction Coastal tourism is a process involving tour- “A [young man traveling] must have ists and the people and places they visit, some entrance into the language before particularly the coastal environment and its he goeth. … Let him carry with him natural and cultural resources. Most coastal also some card [map] or book describing tourism takes place along the shore and in the country where he travelleth, which the water immediately adjacent to the shore- will be a good key to his inquiry. Let line. Today, tourists travel to the coastal him keep also a diary. … When a trav- zone for parts of a day, for weekends, for 4 Miller, Auyong and Hadley short vacations, and for prolonged stays. modations and attractions, and by provid- Depending on the circumstances, they may ing touristic and recreational products and travel alone, with family, or in groups. They services. Competing marketing programs of may stay in coastal tourism accommoda- a multifaceted industry alert tourists and tions ranging from small residences and would-be travelers to coastal tourism prop- camping sites rented out as opportunities erties, amenities and activities. In fact, arise, to single bed-and-breakfast and hotel many coastal tourism activities count as a rooms, to luxury suites in resort enclaves. business for those in the tourism industry Some coastal tourism is organized for a spe- and as an experience for tourists. Scuba div- cial purpose such as ecotourism, adventure ing, for example, provides an excellent ex- tourism, scientific tourism, and dive tour- ample of how advances in technology have ism. As with other human endeavors in the provided foundations for business and have coastal zone associated with development, facilitated touristic access to the marine en- tourism is viewed positively by some for the vironment. Other coastal activities that have opportunities it creates, while others con- a business aspect (involving, for example, demn coastal tourism for its unacceptable guides and instructors, or special equip- consequences. ment) include recreational and sportfishing, boating, sailing and parasailing, and whale Coastal tourism destinations fall along an and bird watching. Then too, there are many urban-rural continuum. At one end of the forms of coastal tourism—swimming and scale are major cities and ports (Hong Kong, body surfing, snorkeling, beachcombing, Venice, New York, Rio de Janeiro, and Syd- hiking and rock climbing, sketching and ney come to mind) known for their cultural, painting, photographing, sightseeing—that historical, and economic significance. At the are “free,” but for which costs to providers other end of the continuum are the rela- are recovered indirectly through taxes, or tively isolated and pristine coastlines found are incorporated in standard hotel or ac- around the world that are valued for their commodation billing practices. natural beauty, flora and fauna. Of course, many coastal tourism destinations offer rich Coastal tourism is inherently controversial. mixtures of cultural, historical, social, envi- At the same time that coastal tourism fosters ronmental, and other values to visitors. economic relationships between industry producers and tourist consumers, the proc- Coastal tourism technologies of travel in- ess has shown itself to be an enormously clude both those which carry tourists from potent force in transforming the natural en- their homeland (e.g., airplanes, ships, cars, vironment and the lives of people who are buses, and trains) and which are regarded neither part of the business of tourism nor a by travelers as mere means to the end of member of the community of tourists. The arriving at destinations, and those which coastal zone is a scarce resource prized not transport tourists at coastal destinations but only by those who engage in and profit by which become part of the touristic experi- tourism, but also by those with personal ence (e.g., cruise ships, high-speed catama- residences near the sea, and those who find rans, personal watercraft, sailboats, dive employment in fishing, aquaculture, mari- boats, motorcycles, and bicycles). Transpor- time shipping, nuclear energy, and national tation technologies can, depending on the defense, among other industries. Congestion circumstance, be important for being both and competition in the coastal zone frames convenient and for being interesting or the characterization and the resolution of pleasing. tourism issues. Coastal tourism problems and opportunities are therefore properly In a manner of speaking, tourism is a matter debated as “multiple-use” or “multiple- of supply and demand. With this perspec- value” conflicts. tive, coastal tourism is a business for those who make a living by developing accom-
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 5
Magnitude of Coastal Tourism • According to Cruise Lines Interna- tional Association figures, the num- Although there are no standardized prac- ber of North American cruise vaca- tices for reporting tourism statistics within tioners in 2000 was nearly 6.9 mil- the coastal zone, it is not difficult to see how lion, an increase of nearly 17% over tourism has a major coastal aspect. Only the previous year (Bridges, 2002: several dozen out of well over 200 nations in 192). the world lack coastlines (Miller and • The Pacific Asia Travel Associa- Auyong, 1991b: 80-89). Of the world’s top tion’s (PATA) Pacific statistical re- 15 tourism destination countries in 2000, 12 gion (composed of Australia, New were countries having coastlines (WTO, Zealand, American Samoa, the Cook 2001: 2). Islands, Fiji, Guam, Hawaii, New Caledonia, the Northern Mariana Is- International Trends lands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, World Tourism Organization (WTO) statis- Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tahiti, tics confirm that tourism is the world’s larg- Tonga, and Vanuatu) has benefited est industry as measured by the number of from an annual (visitor) arrival people involved and by economic impacts. growth rate of 3.6% since the mid International tourism arrivals totaled 693 1990s (Bridges, 2002: 148). million in 2001 (WTO, 2002: 1). By the year • Sun, beautiful beaches, and warm 2020, it is estimated that international tourist ocean waters have become standard arrivals will reach over 1.56 billion. Statisti- vacation requirements for many cal estimations for total tourist arrivals by tourists. Forty-nine percent of those region show that in 2020 the top three re- visiting the Caribbean do so for the ceiving regions will be Europe (717 million beaches, while 28 percent are pri- tourists), East Asia and the Pacific (397 mil- marily interested in sightseeing, and lion tourists), and the Americas (282 million 17 percent in water sports. More- tourists), followed by Africa, the Middle over, roughly 25% of the jobs in the East, and South Asia (WTO, 2001: 6). Caribbean are directly or indirectly tourism related (Bridges, 2002: 93- In 1995, travel and tourism generated an 94). estimated USD$3.4 trillion in gross output creating employment for 212 million people US Trends and producing nearly 11% of the world In 2000, the number of international visitors gross domestic product (WTO, 2001: 2). In- to the US totaled 50.9 million persons, a ternational tourism receipts for 2001 value second only to that of France (75 mil- amounted to USD$463 billion (WTO, 2002: lion) The US ranked first in the world in 1). 2000 in generating USD$85.2 billion in tour- ism receipts (excluding international trans- A selection of international trends and sta- port) (WTO figures reported in Bridges, tistics illustrates the significance of tourism 2002: 6). to coastal economies: • According to the International Fund The Office of Travel and Tourism Industries for Animal Welfare (IFAW), whale- (Department of Commerce) anticipates that watching is a billion-dollar world- the number of international visitor arrivals wide industry (Bridges, 2001: 5). to the US in 2002 will reach 46.7 million, a • Gamefish tournaments and derbies 2.2% increase over the figure for the previ- which attract international anglers ous year (Travel Industry Association of are proliferating throughout the Pa- America, 2002a: 3). cific (Miller, et al., 2001).
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Foreign tourists are especially attracted to costs (National Marine Manufacturers As- US coastal states (Houston, 1996: 4). In 1995, sociation, 2000b: 1). overseas visitors to the US increased by 12% to 20.6 million; three coastal states (Florida, A recent report of outdoor recreation in the California, and New York) hosted 74% of US revealed that for a 1994 -95 study period these visitors (Bridges, 1997: 63). More than 9.5 million people engaged in saltwater fish- 50 million people visit US beaches each ing, 1.1 million people participated in sail- summer; this activity accounts for 85% of all boarding and windsurfing, and that 7.2 mil- tourist revenue and generates USD$640 bil- lion people participated in snorkeling and lion a year for the US economy (Bridges, scuba activities (Cordell et al., 1997: 9-10). 2002: 8). US coastlines are popular sites for tourism and recreational activities, but coastal tourism and recreation activities of- Tourism Development ten overlap and are not always confined to the marine and coastal environment. For As described above, coastal tourism has be- example, diving, fishing and whale watch- come a major facet of modern life. Further, ing are often done while boating; surfing, tourism development in the coastal zone has swimming and bird watching are usually become a constant since the end of World done while visiting beaches and shorelines; War II. Well-known examples are found on and not all recreational boats are used ex- the coastlines and islands of Europe, North clusively in marine and coastal waters. and South America, Africa, and Asia (Miller Beach travelers take longer and more expen- and Auyong, 1991a and 1998a; Conlin and sive vacations, and are more likely to rent a Baum, 1995; Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith, timeshare or condominium than average 1997). Tourism development often leads to tourists (Travel Industry Association of changes in the environment and society of America, 2002b: 1). some kind. While conclusions about the “appropriateness,” “success,” “inappropri- As in many locales around the world, com- ateness,” or “failure” of coastal tourism de- prehensive and time-series statistics measur- velopment projects vary to a degree with the ing employment, and the economic and so- political and economic orientations, aes- cial value of coastal tourism and recreation thetic standards, and environmental phi- in the US are not available. Quantitative and losophies of analysts and observers, there is reliable data measuring involvement in spe- no question about the power of tourism de- cific coastal recreation and tourism activities velopment to quickly effect dramatic in the US are limited (and often proprie- change. tary). Nonetheless, many small and uncon- nected studies have been conducted on spe- From an environmental perspective, tourism cific tourism topics and destinations in the development can lead to degradation of eco- coastal zone. systems. This, of course, is unavoidable with the building of airports, ports, road systems, Several boating and fishing statistics pro- hotels, resorts and other facilities. This said, vide some idea of the economic and social tourism development can also provide fi- importance of coastal tourism. In 2000, reg- nancial support for the protection of the ma- istered boats in the 50 states and US territo- rine environment and endangered species, ries numbered nearly 12.8 million (National as for example, in the creation of underwa- Marine Manufacturers Association, 2000a: ter and marine parks and protected areas. 2). In 2001, 69.5 million people participated in recreational boating and recreational From a societal point of view, tourism de- boaters spent nearly USD$225.6 million on velopment promises better quality of life. In new and used boats, motors and engines, theory, poverty is alleviated through the trailers, accessories, and other associated creation of new jobs. Personal income and
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 7 taxes derived from tourism then fosters bet- sustainable development will neces- ter health, education, and other social ser- sarily work to assure that growing vices. In practice, these goals are only some- economies remain firmly attached to times met. In many cases, failures of politi- their ecological roots and that these cal institutions have led to unfair distribu- roots are protected and nurtured so tions of tourism-generated revenues and to that they may support growth over problems of environmental justice. the long term.” (World Commission on Environment and Development, In some instances, changes in the commu- 1987: 40) nity that are derivative of tourism are unde- “(Sustainable development means) niably positive. In other cases, the effects are improving the capacity to convert a negative. In a study of tourism in a Mexican constant level of physical resource coastal community, McGoodwin (1986) has use to the increased satisfaction of identified a tourist impact syndrome which human needs.” (World Conserva- identifies the possible cultural costs to tour- tion Union, the United Nations En- ism system locals as including: 1) loss of vironment Programme, and the political and economic autonomy (including World Wide Fund for Nature, 1990: loss of real property), 2) loss of folklore and 10) related cultural institutions, 3) social disor- ganization (including radical changes in In working toward more sustainable coastal value orientations and in norms regarding tourism, an understanding about people- social relations; heightened desire for mate- place and people-people interactions would rial objects; changes in norms regarding be beneficial. work, sexual behavior, and drug use; pro- motion of illusory life aspirations; and loss of parental control and of respect for elders), Coastal Tourism Systems and 4) hostility towards tourists (e.g., thiev- ery, hustling, verbal aggression). Coastal tourism systems involve interactions
between people and place in destinations Over the last decades, there has been grow- that include small communities and villages, ing recognition of the social and environ- self-contained resorts, and cosmopolitan mental trade-offs of tourism and also of the cities. From a sociological perspective, unintended consequences and economic coastal tourism systems have three kinds of externalities of tourism development (see, actors --1) tourism brokers, 2) tourism locals, for example, Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Ed- and 3) tourists (Miller and Auyong, 1998b). wards, 1988; Pearce, 1989; Clark, 1996; Interactions within and between these actors Orams, 1999). With this, coastal tourism de- can affect the speed and character of devel- velopment is increasingly designed, de- opment. bated, and evaluated against the ideal of sustainable development. Two prominent A “broker-local-tourist” (BLT) model of a statements on this important concept follow coastal tourism system is displayed in Fig- (emphases added): ure 1 (see, Miller and Auyong, 1991b; “Economic growth always brings 1998b). Tourism brokers consist of persons risk of environmental damage, as it who in one way or another pay professional puts increased pressure on envi- attention to tourism. Main subcategories ronmental resources. But policy include 1) private sector brokers who are makers guided by the concept of
8 Miller, Auyong and Hadley
Human Setting Natural Setting Constraints
Brokers • Public Sector • Private Sector Locals • Social Movement • Traditional Tourists • New Residents Impacts • Domestic • International
Social Environment Natural Environment
Figure 1. Broker-Local-Tourist (BLT) Model of Coastal Tourism (adapted from Miller and Auyong, 1991b: 75)
part of the tourism industry, 2) public sector System Dynamics brokers at various levels of government who Coastal tourism systems change in size and study, regulate, and plan tourism, and 3) character over time. To understand and ul- social movement brokers in non- timately predict these changes, and also to governmental, non-profit, and environ- plan for desired societal and environmental mental organizations who address tourism outcomes, analysis must focus on the behav- issues. Tourism brokers of these and other ior of components of the system. In this re- types do not necessarily agree on the kind of gard, two processes merit attention. tourism that is “best” for coastal tourism systems. Indeed, broker-broker conflict is as First, population dynamics of the BLT common as cooperation. Tourism locals model should be monitored. It is not un- consist of persons who reside in the general usual for individuals in the system to region a coastal tourism destination, but do change statuses. This can occur as, for ex- not derive an income from tourism or en- ample, tourists who visit a coastal destina- gage in its management and regulation. Fi- tion decide to stay and take on a residence, nally, tourists consist of persons of domestic either as a broker of some kind (for example, and international origin who travel for rela- as a scuba dive shop entrepreneur or restau- tively short periods of time for business, rant owner), or as a local (for example, as a recreation, and educational purposes before lawyer or teacher). Other transformations in returning home. The tourism process pro- status take place as locals change occupa- vides incentives for locals to become tour- tions and become private sector brokers by ism brokers. The lives, then, of both locals engaging in a tourism business, or become and new brokers are changed by coastal de- public sector brokers by finding government velopment. employment that concerns tourism. Of
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 9 course, locals and brokers take on the role of side, coastal tourism can lead to problems of a tourist when they vacation on travel of overcrowding, social displacement, and their own. crime. Impacts on the natural environment are often biological, physical, and ecological Second, power dynamics of the BLT model in nature. Increased protection and conser- should be taken into account. Tourism is vation of many areas and species has been a often examined as a product of the aggre- positive result of coastal tourism; neverthe- gate decisions of individual tourists. The less problems of erosion, pollution, and loss relationship forged between the tourist and of species diversity occur far too frequently. the local is accordingly depicted as socio- It should not surprise that many coastal economic in nature; tourists and locals in- tourism issues simultaneously affect the so- teract as “guests” and “hosts” or as consum- cial and natural environment. ers and producers. Where power relation- ships are perceived to exist (as, for example, The viability of coastal tourism systems and between First World tourists and Third and the natural environment in which they occur Fourth World locals), it is argued that these is very much dependent on human behav- reveal the colonial and imperialistic leverage ior. The resolution of coastal tourism issues tourists have over those whom they visit. can arise from the work of tourism system From this perspective, tourism systems are brokers and also from the individual deci- controlled and determined - often in unfor- sions of locals and tourists. tunate ways - by the behavior of tourists. Of the multiple ways available to society to While there certainly are many instances in control human conduct, three mechanisms which tourists have exercised their influence are prominent in the coastal tourism context. to selfish and inappropriate advantage in These mechanisms are tourism management, coastal tourism settings, a narrow concentra- tourism planning, and tourism education. tion on the power of tourists can result in analysts missing the power of tourism bro- Tourism management, planning, and educa- kers. As Cheong and Miller (2000) have tion are crucial to the sustainable evolution pointed out, tourists are frequently vulner- of a touristic destination. It is therefore im- able to the power and control of brokers and perative that each are administered in such a locals. This is the case when, for example, way as to provide for the social and eco- tourists abide by laws and regulations of nomic needs of the community, while at the public sector brokers, and when they follow same time ensuring that environmentally the advice and instructions of private sector sensitive areas and ecologically important brokers such as tour guides and travel habitats are identified and excluded from agents. tourism pressure. It is also recognized that tourism management, planning, and educa- tion are necessary not only for scientific Toward the Resolution of Coastal purposes and to conserve the environment Tourism Issues for the benefit of residents, but also for the protection of long-term investments in tour- Coastal tourism has been seen to be respon- ism infrastructure, attractions, facilities, ser- sible for both positive and negative impacts vices, and marketing programs. It deserves to the natural and social environment (see to be noted that coastal tourism manage- Figure 1). The impacts of coastal tourism on ment, planning, and education programs are the social environment involve social, cul- often designed and implemented by the tural, political and economic issues. On the same agencies and organizations. This over- positive side, coastal tourism can foster lap is often desirable and is found in some community pride, improved quality of life instances of larger efforts of government to and new job opportunities; on the negative promote integrated coastal zone manage-
10 Miller, Auyong and Hadley ment (see Clark, 1996; Cicin-Sain and lar applicability to the management of tour- Knecht, 1998). ism in coastal areas.
The manner in which a country, region, or Two very significant parks utilize zoning as community chooses to conduct touristic a means of tourism management. The Great management, planning, and education ac- Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia is a tivities is framed by societal (political, eco- multiple-use protected area. With zoning, nomic, etc.) and environmental (geography, conflicting uses are physically separated. natural resource, etc.) constraints. In the The range of protection in the park varies long run, the wisest course of action is to from virtually no protection to zones where balance environmental, business, manage- human activity is conditionally permitted. ment, and social concerns so that tourism The adoption of this zoning scheme allows development is recognized as a potentially the park authority, in association with inter- dangerous, but also potentially valuable and ested members of the public and with other responsible course of action. agencies, to develop and apply a tourism strategy for the entire Great Barrier Reef Coastal Tourism Management Marine Park. Zoning ensures that the Reef Very generally, management concerns the will not become overpopulated with tourist actions of an executive decision-making en- and other structures, but also allows for tity in accordance with overarching goals of careful development in areas which are the larger enterprise in which it is housed. suitable for that purpose. The Galapagos Although resorts, hotels, restaurants, trans- Islands National Park in Ecuador also em- portation businesses, and many other firms ploys zoning strategies. The park is effec- in the coastal tourism sector do make deci- tively managed with intensive use, exten- sions in strategic and professional ways, sive use, and scientific use (off limits to all management, as the term is employed here, but a few visitors) zones. points to work engaged in or sponsored by public sector brokers to address problems Carrying capacity regulations illustrate the and opportunities of coastal tourism. “precautionary principal” method of natural resource management and are highly re- Throughout the world, coastal tourism is garded by practitioners of tourism man- managed by regulatory entities in accor- agement. Coastal tourism managers who dance with the structure and procedures of seek to determine the appropriate level of the prevailing political system. In practice, use that can be sustained by the natural re- coastal tourism management is conducted sources of an area are well aware that carry- by public sector brokers at all levels of gov- ing capacities and use-intensity limits of ernment, by private sector brokers in busi- tourism destinations are dynamic, and de- nesses, and by some NGOs and environ- pend greatly on the biological and ecological mental and social movement brokers. An processes of natural resources. array of tourism management tools (e.g., licensing regulations, zoning rules, tourist Coastal area carrying capacity can be evalu- quotas, time and areas restrictions, and car- ated in four ways (Sowman, 1987). Physical rying capacity and limits of acceptable carrying capacity is concerned with the change regulations) have been used success- maximum number of “use units” (e.g., peo- fully throughout the Pacific, in the Carib- ple, vehicles, boats) which can be physically bean, in the Atlantic and elsewhere (see, accommodated in an area. Economic carry- Pearce, 1989; Miller and Auyong, 1991a and ing capacity relates to situations where a 1998; Conlin and Baum, 1995; Lockhart and resource is simultaneously utilized for out- Drakakis-Smith, 1997; Orams, 1999). The door recreation and economic activity. Eco- concepts of zoning and carrying capacity de- logical carrying capacity (sometimes re- serve further attention due to their particu- ferred to also as physical, bio-physical, or environmental carrying capacity) is con-
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 11 cerned with the maximum level of recrea- Coastal Tourism Planning tional use that can be accommodated by an Planning, broadly conceived, entails the area or an ecosystem before an unacceptable consideration of a range of actions likely to or irreversible decline in ecological values contribute to the attainment of organiza- occur. Social carrying capacity (also referred tional goals. In some instances, overarching to as perceptual, psychological or behavioral goals are well known in advance and plan- capacity) is concerned with the visitor’s per- ning professionals concentrate on the means ception of the presence (or absence) of oth- that will ensure these ends. In other situa- ers simultaneously utilizing the resource of tions, the determination of goals requires an area. This concept is concerned with the prolonged deliberation. effect of crowding on the enjoyment and appreciation of the recreation site or experi- Coastal tourism planning is often integrated ence. with other resource analyses in the devel- opment of coastal area or region. Planners The limits of acceptable change (LAC) frame- take into account not only visitation rates work developed by Stankey et al. (1985) en- and statistics, but also the fact that tourists ables managers to move beyond calculation increasingly insist that destinations be high- of carrying capacity figures to address ac- quality and pollution-free, as well as inher- tions needed for management goals. This ently interesting. Therefore, it is in both the approach concentrates on establishing public and private sector brokers’ interest to measurable limits to human-induced implement a tourism planning strategy. The changes in the natural and social setting of goals and policies of government agencies parks and protected areas, and on identify- and businesses are, however, frequently dif- ing appropriate management strategies to ferent from one other and may even be in maintain and/or restore desired conditions direct conflict. To minimize and even pre- (Stankey et al., 1985). Knowledge of the vent disruptions and loss of time, communi- natural (physical, biological) setting is com- cation between tourism brokers is crucial. bined with knowledge of the human (social, political) setting in order to define appropri- The success or failure of a tourism project ate future conditions. frequently hinges on the conditions of natu- ral amenities in the surrounding environ- The LAC method employs nine steps as fol- ment. This is especially true for tropical en- lows: 1) identification of area concerns and vironments found, for example, on Pacific issues, 2) definition and description of op- and Caribbean islands. Parks and natural portunity classes, 3) selection of indicators resource areas, scenic vistas, archaeological of resource and social conditions, 4) inven- and historic sites, and coral reefs are all tory of resource and social conditions, 5) touted tourism attractions. Marketing specification of standards for resource and strategies for coastal, marine, and island social indicators, 6) identification of alterna- tourism especially promote destinations for tive opportunity class allocations, 7) identi- being close to white sand beaches. However, fication of management actions for each al- development of permanent structures for ternative, 8) evaluation and selection of an tourism near beaches often exacerbates alternative, and 9) implementation of ac- beach erosion, property damage, and re- tions and monitoring of conditions. To date, quires construction of shore protection the LAC system has proved to be a valuable structures. If touristic facilities are to be tourism management tool in several wilder- sited near beaches, proper planning is essen- ness areas in the US and has direct applica- tial for the protection of the coastal zone and tions to coastal areas as well. private property.
In many numerous coastal and island states located in the Mediterranean, Caribbean and
12 Miller, Auyong and Hadley the Pacific where tourism is a major eco- Because coastal tourism planning efforts are nomic force, major national-level depart- attuned to local conditions, constituencies, ments of government shape coastal tourism and financial constraints, there is no single through the design of investment incentives planning process for guaranteeing success. and international joint venture opportuni- This said, most professional planning en- ties. In nations such as Mexico and Costa deavors share a general structure. Grenier et Rica, these activities are linked to the prepa- al. (1993) suggest a three-phase tourism ration of strategic tourism plans. planning process. With this, a first “Front- end Planning” phase encompasses scoping In the US - and with notable exceptions such (entailing a statement of project philosophy, as those provided by the National Park Ser- pre-assessments of key issues and themes, vice - very little coastal tourism planning and formulation of objectives) and research takes place in the federal government. At (involving data collection and analyses sup- the state level, it is commonplace for de- porting cultural, institutional, and environ- partments of tourism to promote tourism. mental profiles; site reconnaissance; eco- While many states have experienced great determinant mapping; and analyses of con- success in attracting tourists with advertis- straints and opportunities). A second “Pro- ing strategies, most state departments of ject Planning” phase is focused on refine- tourism have yet to augment the marketing ment of project objectives, design and of tourism with the monitoring and assess- evaluation of alternative development plan ment of coastal tourism’s effects on the envi- concepts, and selection and approval of the ronment and quality of life. At the local preferred development plan concept. A level, many city governments have utilized third and final “Project Management” phase their planning departments to recommend concerns activities of implementation, moni- approaches to issues having to do with pub- toring and evaluation, and refinement. lic use of the shoreline and natural re- sources, the revitalization of waterfronts, Within the private sector, coastal tourism and zoning appropriate to resort and marina planning is an established professional spe- development. cialty. Firms of all sizes develop coastal tourism plans tailored by expert consultants Coastal tourism planning generally falls into to the needs of developer clients. Increas- two main categories, depending on whether ingly, social movement brokers are being the project in question is driven by a preser- seen to engage in professional coastal tour- vation or a development ethic. Preservation ism planning. Such planning efforts incor- goals predominate in the planning of recrea- porate motivational or satisfaction theories tional areas, in national park and marine to attract tourists or manage tourist systems protected area planning, and in planning and attractions. While there are many psy- that is part of natural resource management. chological, social psychological, and social The development framework has found ap- concepts and frameworks for accounting for plication in seaside resort and theme park tourism, only a few are mentioned here. planning, in condominium time-share plan- ning, and in varieties of coastal city plan- First and looking to the motives of tourists, ning. There are many examples worldwide Miller and Ditton (1986: 11) suggest that the of coastal tourism zones, replete with both fundamental promise of travel “lies in its preservation and development projects, promise of contrast.” In elaboration, these that extend from major cities. The Costa authors show that individual trips and vaca- Brava in Spain, the French Riviera, the Yuca- tions allow opportunities for contrast or per- tan Peninsula, the East Coast of Australia, sonal change along three dimensions. Rec- and the coastlines of the US and many Poly- reational tourism as engaged in by the athlete nesian islands illustrate mixed planning. or escapist has a restorative purpose, and provides for change in the physiological or emotional state of the tourist. Educational
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 13 tourism as pursued by the student has a phi- gether through the small and multiple secu- losophical purpose and provides a basis for lar rituals of travel. change in the intellectual and artistic under- standing of the tourist. Instrumental tourism In acknowledging this ritual potential, a as involving entrepreneurs, reformers, and third perspective on touristic motivation pilgrims exhibits an economic, political, or stresses the passionate commitment that religious purpose and leads to change in some tourists exude in performing their fa- business, network, or moral opportunities vorite coastal activity. In studies of ama- available to the tourist. With this frame- teurs, volunteers, and hobbyist in sports, work, a trip by one tourist to, say, a South science, and the arts, Stebbins (1992: 3) Pacific island might be experienced as noted intense levels of personal involvement highly recreational, mildly educational, and and high levels of technical competence, and not at all instrumental. Those accompanying coined the term serious leisure to describe such a tourist could, of course, experience commitment that was tantamount to profes- the trip with different weightings along the sionalism: three dimensions of touristic contrast. “[S]erious leisure can be defined as the systematic pursuit of an ama- A second way of considering the motivation teur, hobbyist, or volunteer activity of tourists emphasizes their intention to ex- that is sufficiently substantial and perience a psychological state of challenge interesting for the participant to find that Csikszentmihalyi (1975, 1990) terms a career there in the acquisition and flow or optimal experience. When in a state of expression of its special skills and flow--as one might be when surfing, sailing, knowledge.” scuba diving, or even engaging in stimulat- ing conversation--the tourist has found a fine match between his or her abilities and In the realm of coastal tourism, tourists who the physical, intellectual, or social challenge pursue serious leisure are omnipresent as at hand. According to Csikszentmihalyi evidenced by scuba divers, sailors, whale (1975: 38-48) the flow experience is engaged watchers, amateur naturalists and marine in for its own sake and is marked by 1) a conservationists, and the like. merging of action and awareness, 2) a cen- tering of attention on a limited stimulus In summary, coastal tourism planning has field, 3) a feeling variously described as been fostered by public sector brokers at all “loss of ego,” “self-forgetfulness,” “loss of governmental levels, by consultants among self-consciousness,” and even “transcen- other private sector brokers, and by an im- dence of individuality,” and “fusion with pressive range of non-governmental and the world,” 4) a feeling of control over one’s environmental organizations in roles they actions and the environment, 5) coherent, have taken on as social movement tourism noncontradictory demands for action, and brokers. Coastal tourism planning practitio- clear unambiguous feedback, and 6) its ners have developed an array of planning autotelic [from Greek auto = self and telos = methodologies (e.g., comprehensive land- goal, purpose] nature. use planning, integrated coastal zone plan- ning, and strategic and special use planning) It is often remarked that people who travel and have utilized these throughout the together gradually develop a kind of touris- world, in many instances by cooperating tic solidarity. By seeing and doing the same with tourism brokers with management ex- things, by sharing emotions and reactions, pertise (see, Gunn, 1988; Pearce, 1989; Miller by facing a common set of logistic obstacles, and Auyong, 1991a and 1998a; Conlin and and even by jointly creating a set of “story Baum, 1995; Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith, lines” with which they might talk about a 1997; Orams, 1999; Hadley, 2001). trip with others, tourists are brought to-
14 Miller, Auyong and Hadley
Coastal Tourism Education strategies to educate people and through The two mechanisms for the control of hu- this to change human behavior in coastal man behavior in coastal tourism systems tourism systems. While educator brokers discussed above - management and plan- seek to impart their message to tourists and ning - are similar to one another in that the to locals, they also educate one another as, tourism experts who analyze coastal tour- for example, when a non-governmental or- ism situations channel their recommenda- ganization (NGO) educates public sector tions upward to regulatory and planning and private sector brokers. authorities. These tourism brokers then im- plement policies and plans downward, in- Efforts to resolve problems and opportuni- fluencing tourism businesses, tourists, and ties of coastal tourism through education are locals. steadily growing throughout the world. Tourism brokers who are advancing this A third mechanism concerns coastal tourism promising agenda are benefiting from the education and communication. Although work of educators who have focused on en- education about coastal science and envi- vironmental and sustainability issues. Mon- ronmental issues is effectively transmitted in roe (1999) has characterized successful envi- classrooms, discussion here focuses on edu- ronmental education and communication cation and outreach in non-traditional set- projects as having features that allow for: 1) tings and how people learn through the ex- empowerment of local communities and use perience of being tourists or learn in the of their expertise, 2) attention to scientific, course of daily life. Guided tours, museums, social, economic, political, and cultural top- brochures, public lectures, newspapers, and ics, 3) identification of a variety of stake- signage are but a few of the devices that fig- holders and integration of them into the ure importantly in the educational processes process, 4) advancement of an environ- linked to coastal tourism. mental ethic as well as assistance to resi- dents in developing decision-making skills, In a manner of speaking, tourism education 5) development of a gender component, 6) contrasts with management and planning in flexibility in project design (including realis- that the first clients of analysts are not man- tic timetables), and 7) project evaluation. agers and planners in positions of authority, but tourists and locals. Whereas managers Coastal tourism brokers (for example, those achieve goals through policies and regula- in government or in NGOs) that provide tions and planners depend on plans, coastal international aid in developing and poverty- tourism educators succeed when people plagued states have also benefited from the take personal initiative to change their own cross-cultural advice of Brazilian educator behavior because they have been taught and philosopher, Paulo Freire. Feire has con- something. Tourism education, then, is a tended that the education process has for process in which analyst brokers direct their too long been regarded as a “delivery ser- ideas outward to people involved in tour- vice” from the scientific and technological ism. Tourism educators and communicators elite of the Western World to those suffering do not evaluate success or failure at attain- in the Third World. Freire’s (1999: 61, em- ing their goals with studies of “enforce- phasis added) solution lies in education pro- ment” or “compliance.” This is so because jects that emphasize collaborations between successful education motivates individuals experts and clients at all stages of the proc- by persuasion, not coercion. ess: “Through dialogue, the teacher-of- By definition and referring to Figure 1, the-students and students-of-the- coastal tourism educators are public sector, teacher cease to exist and a new private sector, and social movement bro- term emerges: teacher-student with kers. These brokers design products and student-teachers. The teacher is no
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 15
longer merely the-one-who-teaches, tal resolution of pressing tourism and but one who is himself taught in coastal development issues requires imagi- dialogue with the students, who in nation as well as sustained scientific and turn while being taught also teach. policy attention. Work to be done falls in the They become jointly responsible for areas of research, and tourism broker and a process in which all learn.” individual responsibility.
Tourism Research Few would disagree with the proposition that coastal tourism education has great po- Researchers in government, academe, and in tential to enhance the quality of tourism for the private and social movement sectors tourists and locals, and to also protect the constitute a first group of practitioners environment through responsible human whose work induces positive change in conduct. The importance of education (and coastal tourism systems. Fundamental ques- of overlapping fields such as communica- tions about physical, biological, ecological, tion, journalism, and environmental and social, cultural, economic, demographic, and science reporting by the media) is recog- political processes of coastal tourism are nized by virtually all marine scientists and posed and answered in assessments, impact researchers (see, Pearce, 1989; Miller and statements, profiles, and other products of Auyong, 1991a and 1998a; Conlin and natural, biological, and social scientists. Baum, 1995; Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith, With reference to the condition of the envi- 1997; Orams, 1999). Still, many opportuni- ronment and society, the possibilities of ties to integrate coastal tourism education coastal tourism development raise not only with the mechanisms of management and the question “What is?” but also questions planning have been missed. about “What is ethical?,” “What is fair?,” and “What is beautiful?” As a result, analy- ses by professionals with backgrounds in Challenges Ahead the humanities and arts have proven to be useful in complementing those of scientists.
Over the last several centuries, the world’s The need to formally study tourism is rec- coastlines have been substantially trans- ognized more than ever in academe. Tour- formed to support recreational and touristic ism research methods are under continual pursuits. In some cases, coastal tourism development in such fields as public affairs, dominates the shoreline. In others, tourism business and marketing, architecture, urban is one of many industries. As coastlines be- planning and design, political science, soci- come more populated and sometime inac- ology, geography, cultural anthropology, cessible, it is ever more clear that however marine affairs, and environmental studies beneficial coastal tourism is to the tourist, it (see for example Gunn, 1979; Murphy, 1985; is neither a panacea that will invigorate any Ritchie and Goeldner, 1987; McIntosh and local economy, nor a pollution that will nec- Goeldner, 1990, France, 1997). Additionally, essarily ruin environments and corrupt cul- we are seeing growth in new tourism asso- tural traditions and values. Coastal tourism ciations and journals focusing on managing is a process amenable to management, plan- tourism development and more sustainable ning, and education. Sustainable coastal growth. tourism obliges humanity to have respect for other life forms and the environment, Tourism Broker Responsibilities while it affords opportunities for people to learn, recreate, and reach their potential as A second professional group made up of the individuals through travel. different types of coastal tourism brokers will be counted upon heavily in the future to Because the stakes are high and because cooperate with one another. This can occur, mistakes can be virtually irreversible, socie- for example, when investors and developers
16 Miller, Auyong and Hadley in the private sector coordinate goals and Papua New Guinea; Peru; Republic of the activities with those of government agencies Philippines; Russia; Singapore; Chinese and NGOs to make sustainable tourism a Taipei; Thailand; USA; and Vietnam. reality. Another kind of cooperation calls for tourism brokers to work effectively with In one of sixteen elements of the Seoul ac- government, business, and non- tion plan, the APEC Ocean-related Ministers governmental organizations in other eco- resolved to “increase efforts to sustainably nomic sectors. Better understandings of manage tourism activities that affect or po- tourism-fishery interactions, tourism- tentially affect marine and coastal environ- aquaculture interactions, and tourism-ocean ments” (Kim, 2002: 10). In the Seoul Ocean shipping interactions can lead to an im- Seminar held in conjunction with the meet- provement on single-sector governance with ing, participants identified a range of coastal partially (or, under ideal conditions, fully) tourism topics of concern and recommended integrated coastal management. integrated coastal zone management, re- sponsible ecotourism, and the adoption of In the aftermath of the terrorism attack on best tourism practices among other meas- the World Trade Center in 2001, the respon- ures to the APEC ministers. sibilities of tourism brokers have been en- larged. Brokers now must function not only Individual Responsibilities as stewards of the coastal environment, The discussion above has concerned the businessmen, and representatives of con- proactive roles researchers and brokers can stituencies, but also as protectors of residen- play in promoting sustainable tourism and tial and traveling publics. coastal development. To this must be added a comment about the personal responsibili- Uncertainties generated by the terrorism of ties of tourists and locals to contribute to- 2001 will change the ways in which coastal ward sustainability in the coastal tourism tourism is conducted in the US and else- systems which they visit or in which they where. It has long been known that too live. much tourism can be bad by when it leads to degraded ecosystems and undesirable To a certain extent, the social role of the changes in quality of life. Now it is apparent ethical tourist can be formulated to resemble that too little tourism can put entire coastal that of the good citizen. Good citizens learn economies at risk. Declines in coastal tour- from their families and schools to reach their ism can create serious social problems in the potential in society while knowing how to same way declines in fishery resources can behave in socially appropriate ways. Using threaten livelihoods. Ultimately, coastal this template, tourists would be expected to tourism and recreation destinations nega- behave in ecologically and culturally appro- tively affected by security-related changes in priate ways in the course of their domestic itineraries will become sustainable only to and international travel. Ecotourism the extent brokers make tourism safe. (Grenier et al., 1993; Miller, 1993a and 1993b; Miller and Kaae, 1993; Honey, 1999) and An excellent example of broker-broker co- ethnic tourism are two forms of tourism that operation is to be found in the 2002 Seoul have emerged to stress this self-conscious Oceans Declaration adopted by 21 represen- orientation. Many tourism brokers in busi- tatives from member economies of the Asia- ness, in government, and in non- Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) at the governmental organizations are now pro- First APEC Oceans-related Ministerial Meet- moting the development of “best practices” ing in South Korea. APEC members include and “tourism guidelines” to this end. Australia; Brunei Darussalam; Canada; Chile; People’s Republic of China; Hong It is obvious that there are many benefits of Kong, China; Indonesia; Japan; Republic of coastal travel that accrue to the tourist. Korea; Malaysia; Mexico; New Zealand;
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 17
These are found in recreational, aesthetic, to implement sustainable tourism. Partici- and educational activities. In exchange, the pants indicated that we still had a long way ethical tourist will strive to behave in a cul- to go in achieving sustainability in coastal turally and environmentally responsible tourism and that there was a need for direct, manner. As this occurs, locals are given an application-oriented information and proc- added incentive to orient their conduct to esses. It was also clear that the need to ad- the same ends. Improvements in the behav- dress coastal and marine tourism growth ior of tourists and locals toward one another issues was widely accepted by governments, and toward the coastal environment will industries, and others. Coastal tourism assist tourism providers and managers as needed to be understood and better man- they do their part to monitor and control aged rather than ignored. tourism, and improve the tourism experi- ence for all involved. With this evolution of analytical attention, the 1999 International Symposium on Coastal and Marine Tourism was organized 1999 International Symposium on to emphasize the means of achieving more Coastal and Marine Tourism sustainable development rather than the ends. Participants were asked to focus on Coastal tourism has demonstrated its con- analytical tools and concepts, evaluation siderable power to influence the fundamen- tools and methods, planning procedures, tal configurations of coastlines and the social etc. The theme of “Choices, Responsibilities, structures these support. Coastal tourism is and Practices” was selected to recognize that sometimes found to be unfortunate in every our decisions play an immense role in out- respect. Coastal tourism can, however, be comes. Further, the location of the 1999 designed to improve the lives of tourists and Congress in Vancouver, British Columbia, those who are part of the tourism industry, Canada, showed that environmentally sensi- conserve natural resources and protect the tive, nature-based tourism can be responsi- environment, and not offend locals. Cer- bly implemented in urban as well as rural tainly it is also important to share and pub- settings. lish lessons learned about how best to ad- dress the problems and opportunities of Based on the comments of participants and coastal tourism. the quality of the papers which follow in these Proceedings, it may be concluded that The first Congress on Coastal and Marine the 1999 International Symposium on Tourism in 1990 (Miller and Auyong, 1991a) Coastal and Marine Tourism was successful was proposed in response to the growing in sustaining attention to the challenges of need to bridge economic development and balancing tourism development and marine conservation of our coastal zone resources. conservation. One would hope that the in- The Congress participants shared experi- sights gained by tourism experts at the ences and results, as well as techniques and Symposium will contribute to more respon- tools by which to create and implement sible coastal tourism policies and to more coastal and marine tourism. Participants harmonious relationships linking human- concluded that the mixed record of tourism kind and the coastal environment. required immediate and sustained study by a wide range of disciplines. Authors’ Note The subsequent World Congress on Coastal Portions of this paper appear in 1) M. L. and Marine Tourism (Miller and Auyong, Miller (2002), “Coastal Tourism and Devel- 1998a) examined the status of activities since opment,” In: Proceedings of the International the initial Congress and asked whether there Marine Forum, (April 25, 2002; Inha Univer- was growth in our knowledge and abilities sity, Incheon City), Inha University: Incheon
18 Miller, Auyong and Hadley
City, Korea, pp. 81-97; and also published in Service and the Department of Agricul- the Proceedings of the Seoul Oceans Seminar ture and Applied Economics, University [Panel 5: Coastal Tourism], (22-25 April, of Georgia, Athens, GA. URL: 2002; Seoul held as part of the First APEC
Miller, Auyong and Hadley 19
McIntosh, R.W., and Goeldner, C.R., 1990. ings of the 1998 Pacific Island Gamefish Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies. Symposium: Facing the Challenges of Re- (Sixth Edition). John Wiley & Sons, New source Conservation, Sustainable Develop- York. ment, and the Sportfishing Ethic. Western Miller, M. L. (1993a). The rise of coastal and Pacific Regional Fishery Management marine tourism. Ocean and Coastal Man- Council, Honolulu. agement, 20: 181-199. Monroe, M.C. (ed.). (1999). What Works: A Miller, M. L. (ed.) (1993b). Ecotourism in Guide to Environment Education and Marine and Coastal Areas. Special Issue Communication Projects for Practitioners of Ocean and Coastal Management. 20: 3. and Donors. New Society Publishers, Miller, M.L., and Auyong, J. (eds.). 1991a. Gabriola Island, British Columbia. Proceedings of the 1990 Congress on Murphy, P.E. (1985). Tourism: A Community Coastal and Marine Tourism: A Symposium Approach. Methuen, New York. and Workshop on Balancing Conservation National Marine Manufacturers Association. and Economic Development (Volumes I and (2002a). 2001 population estimates. URL: II). National Coastal Resources Research
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