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An Investigation Into Factors Increasing Contamination Risk Posed by Fuel Storage Facilities and Concomitant Methods to Mitigate These Risks

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An Investigation Into Factors Increasing Contamination Risk Posed by Fuel Storage Facilities and Concomitant Methods to Mitigate These Risks AN INVESTIGATION INTO FACTORS INCREASING CONTAMINATION RISK POSED BY FUEL STORAGE FACILITIES AND CONCOMITANT METHODS TO MITIGATE THESE RISKS by Torin Pfotenhauer BSc(Hons) University of Natal Submitted in fulfilment of the academic requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ENGINEERING in the School of Chemical Engineering University of KwaZulu-Natal Howard College DURBAN June 2011 - ii - As the candidates Supervisor, I agree / do not agree to the submission of this dissertation. Name______________________ Signature____________________ Date__________ - iii - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author acknowledges the following people for their invaluable contribution: Professor Chris Buckley for his extraordinary talent, open mind, insight and care. Dr Jennifer Pretorius who conceived the project. Kantey & Templer for unequivocal support. The Institute of Groundwater Studies from the University of the Free State who funded the project. The South African Petroleum Industry Association who supported the project. Chris Brouckaert who assisted with the data and statistics. Natalie Way-Jones who supported my endeavours. Dr Robert Palmer who sent the laughter down the passage during those late nights. Professor Glenda Matthews who unselfishly submerged herself in my project, understood my data nuances and led me through the data analysis and modelling. - iv - ABSTRACT Light Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (LNAPLs) are used throughout the world for numerous applications, the most well-known being automotive fuels, such as petrol and diesel. The widespread production, distribution, storage and use of LNAPLs results in the ubiquitous occurrence of spillage to ground (Geller et al, 2000). Considering the hazardous nature of most LNAPLs due to their explosive and toxic characteristics, releases of LNAPLs to ground have well documented human health and ecological consequences. The occurrence of leaking underground and above-ground storage tanks at service stations and consumer installations is a common cause of contamination; and is described in literature for various countries of the world (Dietz et. al., 1986; Moschini et al, 2005; Mulroy and Ou, 1997; Harris, 1989; The Institute of Petroleum, 2002). Little failure data are however available for the South African context. In addition to this, data concerning the location and characteristics of sites storing LNAPLs in South Africa is similarly scarce. The study analysed data from three sources, namely the eThekwini Fire and Emergency Services data, GIS data and data from a local consultancy, in order to determine whether certain factors increased contamination risk posed by these facilities. The results indicated that contamination may be a result of numerous factors, but primarily line and tank failure. The type of installation was also found to have a significant influence on whether a site would be contaminated or not. In addition to the above, the results indicated that certain circumstances increase the severity of loss. The results indicated the need for more investigation to be performed into contamination as a result of LNAPL loss to ground, and the need for protective measures to be implemented for high risk sites where the likelihood and severity of a potential loss is high. Focus should then be centred on the probability of failure of non-ferrous pipework and GRP tanks to ensure adequate protective mechanisms are in place in the event of a failure of this newer infrastructure. In addition, a review of regulatory control of LNAPL storage in South Africa and the eThekwini Municipality, with reference to the international context, indicated the need for a specific department within the local government structure that manages LNAPLs with the objective of reducing contamination incidents. The continued use of underground storage of LNAPLs will always present a risk of failure/contamination due to the unseen nature of the installations and related infrastructure. It is this risk that requires regulatory management. Details of contaminated sites in South Africa should be within the public domain. - v - Every day is a holiday. Rodney Harbour - vi - DECLARATION I ................................................................................ declare that: (i) The research reported in this dissertation/thesis, except where otherwise indicated, is my original work. (ii) This dissertation/thesis has not been submitted for any degree or examination at any other university. (iii) This dissertation/thesis does not contain other persons’ data, pictures, graphs or other information, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other persons. (iv) This dissertation/thesis does not contain other persons’ writing, unless specifically acknowledged as being sourced from other researchers. Where other written sources have been quoted, then: a) their words have been re-written but the general information attributed to them has been referenced; b) where their exact words have been used, their writing has been placed inside quotation marks, and referenced. (v) Where I have reproduced a publication of which I am an author, co-author or editor, I have indicated in detail which part of the publication was actually written by myself alone and have fully referenced such publications. (vi) This dissertation/thesis does not contain text, graphics or tables copied and pasted from the Internet, unless specifically acknowledged, and the source being detailed in the dissertation/thesis and in the References sections. Signed: Torin Pfotenhauer - vii - CONTENTS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 2. AIM AND STRUCTURE OF THE STUDY ................................................................ 2 CHAPTER 3. LIGHT NON-AQUEOUS PHASE LIQUIDS .............................................................. 3 3.1 LNAPLs defined ........................................................................................................................ 3 3.2 Importance of LNAPL solubility ................................................................................................ 4 CHAPTER 4. LNAPL PRODUCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS................................................. 6 4.1 Petrol .......................................................................................................................................... 6 4.2 Diesel .......................................................................................................................................... 8 4.3 Product Classes .......................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER 5. RISKS ASSOCIATED WITH LNAPLs ..................................................................... 10 5.1 Increasing oil production .......................................................................................................... 10 5.2 Widespread LNAPL distribution and transportation ................................................................ 10 5.3 LNAPL toxicity and flammability ............................................................................................ 11 5.4 Groundwater vulnerability ....................................................................................................... 12 5.5 Costs of cleanup ....................................................................................................................... 13 5.6 Limits to absolute remediation ................................................................................................. 14 5.7 Ecological impacts ................................................................................................................... 15 5.8 Inadvertent spreading of contamination ................................................................................... 15 5.9 Human error and the inability to prevent all contamination ..................................................... 16 5.10 Absence of legislation for dated equipment ............................................................................. 16 5.11 Absence of definitive clean-up guideline values ...................................................................... 16 5.12 Absence of motivation for preventative measures .................................................................... 17 - viii - 5.13 Availability of data ................................................................................................................... 17 5.14 Identifying a source .................................................................................................................. 17 CHAPTER 6. REGULATORY REVIEW ......................................................................................... 19 6.1 United Kingdom ....................................................................................................................... 19 6.1.1 Tanks .................................................................................................................................... 19 6.1.2 Lines .................................................................................................................................... 19 6.2 United States of America ......................................................................................................... 19 6.2.1 Installation ........................................................................................................................... 20 6.2.2 Leak Detection ....................................................................................................................
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