Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains

A project of the National Center for Appropriate Technology 1-800-346-9140 • www.attra.ncat.org Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains

Susan Tallman, CCA NCAT Agronomist Introduction Published April 2011 Managing the complex bio- © NCAT logical system of an organic IP388 small grain farm can be a challenge, particularly in terms of disease and insect Contents management. Introduction ...... 1 Because synthetic fungi- Disease Management ....1 cides and insecticides are Specifc Grain generally not allowed in Diseases ...... 3 an organic system, preven- In-crop Insects ...... 9 tion is the main strategy Stored-grain Insects .....11 for avoiding pest problems. Conclusion ...... 14 Organic winter wheat at the Quinn Farm, Big Sandy, MT. Photo: Susan Tallman, Successful prevention usu- NCAT ally involves many diferent Te third tier of the hierarchy is the use of bio- strategies in combination, rather than relying on logical or allowed synthetic substances for the a single one. control of pests. Tese methods are allowed only Te purpose of this publication is to outline var- (and are most efective) when the foundational ious strategies that make up a good organic dis- practices in the first and second tiers are in ease and insect management plan, as well as to place. Tese third-tier measures are for use once describe some specifc diseases and insects that a disease or pest is present, after the frst levels afect small grain crops. Although this publica- of prevention strategies have failed. Understand- tion pertains to various regions of the country, ing foundational biological principles, rather than the main focus is on the Plains states—where simply substituting organic inputs for conven- most organic small grains are grown. tional ones, is a key to good organic management.

The National Organic Disease Management Program Standards Climate and Location Te National Organic Program Regulations sec- Two important determining factors for disease tion § 205.206 specifes the crop pest, weed, and development are climate and location. Areas disease management practice standard as a hier- with low humidity generally have much less dis- The National Sustainable archy of practices (NOP, 2010). Te foundation Agriculture Information Service, ease pressure than areas with high humidity, ATTRA (www.attra.ncat.org), of any organic pest-management strategy is crop was developed and is managed since it usually takes six to 12 hours of continual by the National Center for rotation, sanitation, and cultural practices such leaf wetness for a fungal leaf disease to develop Appropriate Technology (NCAT). as variety selection. The project is funded through (Burrows, 2009). Tis probably explains why a cooperative agreement with the United States Department Te second tier in the hierarchy is mechanical the Great Plains states are the top organic-grain- of Agriculture’s Rural Business- producing states in the nation. If you live in a Cooperative Service. Visit the and physical methods that may include intro- NCAT website (www.ncat.org/ duction of natural predators, natural traps, and region of the United States with high humidity sarc_current.php) for more information on repellents, and development of habitat for natu- and heavy disease pressure, you need to consider our other sustainable ral enemies. carefully whether organic small-grain produc- agriculture and energy projects. tion is right for you. Figure 1. Organic Crop year. Regular use of Certifed seed will help man- Disease Management age seed-borne diseases such as smut and bunt. Practice Standard.

Level 3 § 205.206 (e) Certifed Seed Biological substance, or synthetic The term “Certifed seed” does not refer to certi- included on the National List; must be documented fed organic. Rather, it denotes seed that is pro- on Organic System Plan. duced under conditions that assure its purity and vigor. “Certifed seed is produced from foundation, registered, certifed, or other approved seed § 205.206 (d) stocks. This seed is two generations from founda- Management practices which suppress Level 2 the spread of disease organisms; or tion seed. Certifed seed cannot be used to pro- application of nonsynthetic biological, duce Certifed seed again without the approval botanical, or mineral inputs. of the state certifcation agency, which can approve production only under extreme conditions” (Ulmer and Stuber, 1997). Double-certifed seed is seed that is considered § 205.206 (a) Level 1 Crop Rotation both Certifed (from Foundation seed) and cer- Sanitation tifed organic. Currently, the chance of locat- Cultural Practices ing double-certifed seed is very slim (Zwinger, 2009). However, the Organic Seed Alliance con- tinues to work toward increasing the quality and amount of organic seed used in feld crop pro- Cultural Practices duction. Their website is www.seedalliance.org. There are several cultural practices to help prevent diseases, including variety selection, Further Resources delayed planting, and irrigation timing. Selecting Quality Seed of Cereal Grains. 1990. NDSU Extension circular, A-500. J.L. Helm and L.A. Resistant Varieties Spilde. Te frst step in disease management is selecting www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/smgrains/a500w. a variety with disease resistance. Choose variet- htm ies that are specifc to your area and that have been bred with resistance to local diseases. For example, stem rust is a common grain disease Rotation that can be managed by good variety selection. Rotation is another tool for disease management. State Extension stations conduct annual variety Fungal diseases such as tan spot and Septoria trials that list the resistance levels of diferent survive on stalk residue. Fusarium head blight is varieties. Check their annual reports for recom- also carried in the residue of wheat, barley, and mendations. corn. Moving to a legume or oilseed in rotation will help break this disease cycle. (For more While resistant varieties provide the frst line of information on designing an organic small grains defense, there is no one variety of grain that is crop rotation, consult the ATTRA publication resistant to every disease. Prioritize your selec- Organic Small Grain Production Overview.) tion of resistant varieties by the diseases most common in your area. Delayed Planting Planting when soil temperatures are warmer can Seed Quality help manage soil-borne fungi such as Pythium Find the plumpest, highest-germinating seed and Rhizoctonia. Typically, these fungi are more possible, and plant in high density to account of a problem in larger-seeded crops such as gar- for any loss of stand due to damping of. When banzo beans and corn. However, if you have had possible, select Certifed seed from a reputable problems with these diseases in the past, try delay- dealer. Make sure the seed is a pure variety, and ing your spring planting until soil temperatures that you know what you are buying. In general, are warm enough to allow optimal seed germi- Certifed seed should be purchased every third nation and plant establishment (Burrows, 2009).

Page 2 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains Irrigation Timing content exceeds 12%. If there is concern about the grain’s moisture content, use aeration in the If you are growing grains using irrigation, do bin to dry the grain. High moisture levels and not irrigate during the fowering stage. Flower- elevated bin temperatures lead to mold, grain ing is the susceptible period for Fusarium head deterioration, and insect infestation. blight and ergot. If you are able to control timing of water application, do not water during Further Resources this period. Grain Moisture Content Efects and Man- agement. NDSU Extension publication AE-905 Crop Scouting (Revised). 1995. Dr. Kenneth J. Hellevang, PE, Crop scouting is an essential part of disease Extension Agricultural Engineer. www.ag.ndsu. management. Te earlier you can detect dis- edu/pubs/plantsci/crops/ae905w.htm eases in the feld, the more time you have to Energy-Efcient Grain Drying Resources. respond. Hone your skills in disease diagnosis. ATTRA. www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/graindrying. Local Extension agents often have identifcation html guides available in print and online versions. Buckwheat Harvesting, Drying, and Storage. Likewise, most land-grant universities have Dr. Bill Wilcke. www.nysaes.cornell.edu/hort/ Extension pathologists on staf and diagnostic faculty/bjorkman/buck/guide/dry.html labs where growers can send any questionable plants for diagnosis. Using Farm Moisture Testers. Iowa State Exten- sion, PM-1633. 1995. Charles Hurburgh. www. If you discover a disease in your felds, there are extension.iastate.edu/Publications/PM1633.pdf several options. If the disease is not a serious problem for further infestation, or harmful for Specifc Grain Diseases human or animal consumption, you may choose simply to live with the reduced yield. Another Special thanks to Dr. Mary Burrows and Dr. Bill alternative is application of biological or allowed Grey of Montana State University for providing synthetic substances. Check the ATTRA Biora- information on specifc grain diseases and their tionals: Ecological Pest Management Database management. (www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals/) for In addition to general cultural practices, there allowed organic substances for specifc diseases. are some specifc diseases of which organic small Extreme cases may require terminating the grain growers should be aware. Some are rela- afected portion of the crop before the disease tively harmless and will only slightly decrease gets out of hand. yields. Others are more serious and can lead to crop failure or be detrimental to livestock and Further Resources human health. Contact your local Natural Resource Conser- Proper identifcation of these serious diseases is vation Service (NRCS) ofce for conservation planning and programs that ofer assistance important in order to decide the best manage- in implementing conservation practices. Assis- ment strategy. What to do with the crop will tance is available through the Environmental depend on weather conditions, the pathogen Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) for planning level, and the amount of susceptible host mate- and implementing a wide range of conserva- rial. In most cases, the presence of disease will tion practices such as an Integrated Pest Man- simply reduce the crop yield. In extreme cases, agement plan for organic production. Contact the diseased portion of the crop should be termi- your local NRCS feld ofce for information. nated to reduce potential infection of other areas. It is difcult to make specifc threshold and Storage Environment management recommendations for each disease Finally, manage for storage diseases in addi- within the scope of this publication. Land-grant tion to in-crop diseases. Storage mold can be universities often have plant pathology labs managed by constantly checking grain mois- that will diagnose a disease and provide specifc ture during harvest. Hand-held grain moisture management recommendations. Contact your meters are available to purchase (Grey, 2009). local Extension agent for more information. Discontinue harvest when the grain moisture www.attra.ncat.org Page 3 Spores are spread by wind and rain, with barley Further Resources residue serving as the main source of infection Several websites ofer forecasts for small grain for subsequent crops. disease incidence: Organic control practices to prevent Net Blotch: MoreCrop is a website that predicts incidence of small grain diseases in the Pacifc Northwest. • Use resistant cultivars. http://pnw-ag.wsu.edu/MoreCrop • Bury crop residue and destroy volun- North Dakota State University Small Grain teers. Disease Forecasting Model www.ag.ndsu. • Use balanced applications of nitrogen nodak.edu/cropdisease and phosphorus. Heavy nitrogen applications create conditions favorable to Tan Spot and Septoria outbreaks of this disease. Tan spot and septoria are fungal leaf diseases • Follow a crop rotation that includes at that are widespread in wheat, but are not as seri- least two years of non-susceptible hosts. ous as other diseases. Tese fungal pathogens Barley should not follow barley, partic- survive on the infected residue of a previous ularly if disease levels were high the pre- wheat crop. In the spring, the fungal fruiting vious year. bodies will produce spores that infect the newly • If barley must be grown in two succes- planted seedlings, thus perpetuating the disease sive years, use a susceptible cultivar the cycle. Incorporating infected plant residue will frst year and a resistant type the second. reduce the spread of these diseases. • Use pathogen-free seed if possible Fungal leafspots affect grain (Skoglund, 2010). yield by reducing the photosyn- thetic area of the plant, and are Scald considered the “common cold” of small grains. In arid regions Like the blotch diseases, scald is a fungal leaf these diseases do not signifi- disease that mainly afects barley. Some resis- cantly decrease yield. And while tant barley cultivars are available. Crop rotation they can decrease test weight, and plowing under diseased barley residue seem which may lower the price to to be the best methods of control for situations the producer, they do not reduce with high infestation (Maloy and Inglis, 1993). Tan spot on wheat. end-use baking quality. Organic farmers may Photo: Dr. Mary Burrows, choose simply to live with these diseases and the Rust Montana State Univer- sity, www.bugwood.org accompanying yield loss, a decision that does Tere are three rust diseases of wheat in the not require further management (Grey, 2009). United States: leaf (or brown) rust, stem (or Further Resources black) rust, and stripe (or yellow) rust. Tese rusts have a long history in the cultivation of Fungal Leaf Spot Diseases of Wheat: Tan spot, wheat and have been managed with the develop- Stagonospora nodorum blotch and Septoria ment of resistant varieties. However, according tritici blotch. NDSU Extension circular PP-1249. to North Dakota State University researchers, 2009. M. McMullen and T. Adhikari. www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/pests/pp1249w. “Te leaf rust pathogen is dynamic, and races are htm constantly changing. Varieties formerly considered resistant can become susceptible if new rust races develop. Resistance levels are updated each Blotch year for varieties” (McMullen et al., 2008a). For Te blotch diseases are fungal leaf diseases sim- this reason, it’s best to check variety resistance ilar to Tan Spot and Septoria, but they afect ratings each year before planting. only barley. Tere are three blotch diseases to Rust spore infection is promoted by long periods be aware of: Net Blotch, Spot Blotch, and the of dew on the foliage. Terefore, high-humid- Spot Form of Net Blotch. Temperatures of 68° ity environments are more often affected by to 77°F and 100% relative humidity are ideal these diseases. Elemental sulfur or copper can for spore production (Schwartz et al., 2009a). be used to protect the fag leaf prior to infection

Page 4 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains or an anticipated rain, and as a last-ditch efort Organic management practices for prevention of to reduce the impact of rust. However, surface these diseases: protectants require multiple applications to be • Plant varieties adapted to your geo- efective. Use of elemental sulfur in a wettable graphic area. powder form is recommended. Elemental sulfur can also reduce powdery mildew (Grey, 2009). • Use crop rotation. • Plant into a firm, mellow seedbed. Damping Of (Loose seedbeds promote disease.) Damping of can be caused by many diferent • Control weeds in summer-fallow land. fungal pathogens that live in the soil. Tese (Weeds deplete soil moisture, and that include Pythium, Fusarium, and Rhizoctonia. predisposes plant roots to infection in Damping of causes seedling death and results the fall.) in bare patches in the feld. Wet, cool soil often • Always plant good-quality seed. (Bin- provides ideal conditions for the development run seed is higher risk.) of damping-of pathogens. Delayed planting can help to avoid this situation (Schwartz et • Plant at the recommended date for your al., 2009b). Cultural controls for damping of: geographic area. (Early planting or “Plant high quality seed in a frm, well-prepared extended, warm fall weather promotes seedbed at optimum pH, soil temperature, and disease.)(Watkins and Burrows, 2009) fertility level for rapid germination and growth. Avoid compaction, poorly drained felds, and Fusarium Head Blight excess irrigation that can favor damping-off Fusarium head blight (FHB), also known as scab, pathogens” (Schwartz et al., 2009b). is a fungal disease that survives on the residue of wheat, barley, and corn. For this reason, rotation Rhizoctonia is often associated with continuous to a broadleaf crop can reduce the fungal inocu- cereal production in no-till systems. Because till- lum and help to ensure it does not afect a sub- age breaks up the underground fungal growth, sequent crop. If FHB is a problem in your area, this pathogen is not expected to be a problem avoid planting adjacent to a feld with wheat, bar- in an organic system if crop rotation and later ley, or corn residue (McMullen et al., 2008b). planting dates are used to allow the soil to warm before planting (Burrows, 2010). A key diagnostic symptom of FHB is partial bleaching of the head, producing small, pow- Te benefcial bacteria Bacillus subtilis is a bio- dery white kernels called tombstones. If you fnd logical agent registered for control of Fusarium, these kernels in harvested grain, or suspect you Pythium, and Rhizoctonia. Bacillus subtilis is have FHB, make sure you have the grain tested sold under the trade name of Kodiak® and is for deoxynivalenol (DON). If the test result approved for organic crop production (Schwartz is above the threshold of 1 ppm, do not sell et al., 2009b). Kodiak is applied as a seed treat- the grain for human consumption. Grain that ment prior to planting. As with any input, tests above 5 ppm is not recommended as feed always check with your organic certifer prior for non-ruminants or pregnant cows. FHB pro- to application to ensure approval. For Kodiak duces the DON vomitoxin, and it can cause ill- label information, see the ATTRA Ecological ness if consumed. Pest Management Database at www.attra.ncat. org/attra-pub/biorationals. Recent eforts by public and private breeding programs in variety development have proven Fungal Root Diseases efective in management of FHB in wheat (Bur- rows and Grey, 2008). Varieties with moderate Common fungal root diseases of small grains resistance can limit crop failure. However, no include Fusarium crown rot, common root rot, resistance is available in barley varieties. and take-all. While resistant varieties are available for Fusarium and common root rot, no wheat Further Resources or barley varieties are resistant to take-all. Oats, The Wheat Fusarium Head Blight Prediction Center is a joint efort of corn, and broadleaf plants are resistant to take- several universities to predict the incidence of Fusarium head blight. all, however (Van Voast, 2009). www.wheatscab.psu.edu/index.html www.attra.ncat.org Page 5 Ergot • Deep-plow fields that have a severe ergot infestation to bury the sclerotia. With the revival of cereal rye in organic systems Te ergot sclerotia are less likely to sur- as both a cash grain and a cover crop, ergot may vive if buried more than 1 inch deep. become a greater problem. Ergot is a fungal disease that infects the fowers of cereal crops and • Plant only ergot-free seed or Certifed produces ergot sclerotia in the heads. Te ergot seed to avoid introducing or re-intro- body becomes a contaminant of the harvested ducing the fungus into the crop. grain and spreads to new felds in seed. While • Eradicate or prevent wild grasses from the crop yield reduction can be from 5 to 10%, setting seed in felds, rocklands, head- the main concern with ergot is the danger it lands, ditches, and fence rows. Mow poses to human and livestock health. Te ergot wild and escaped grasses and pastures, fungus produces mycotoxins that cause miscar- or graze pastures before they fower, to riage, convulsions, and in extreme cases, death. prevent ergot infections. Note: If you are growing cereal rye anywhere • Resistant commercial varieties of wheat, in your rotation, it is important that you have barley, rye, and cultivated grasses are a clear, written contract with your buyer that not available. However, some resistance documents their standards for ergot. If ergot is diferences among varieties may occur, detected, some buyers may refuse to take the and those with long flowering peri- grain or severely dock the price. Make sure you ods may be more frequently infected. understand your buyer’s standards before plant- Generally, grain crops that experience ing this crop. a long, cool period during fowering Because rye is an open-pollinated crop, it is are highly susceptible. Avoid irriga- more susceptible to ergot infection. However, tion prior to and during the fowering “triticale, wheat, durum, barley, oat, quack period of grasses (McMullen and Stol- grass, crested wheat grass, brome grass, foxtail, tenow, 2002; Burrows, 2010). rye grass, orchard grass, timothy, wild rye, and Steve Zwinger at the North Dakota State Uni- other grasses serve as ergot hosts” (McMullen versity Experiment Station in Carrington and Stoltenow, 2002). reports they do have some minimal ergot in their organic grains. However, it has not been a Dr. Mary Burrows of Montana State University problem for them and has always been under the notes that ergot can also be a problem in grassy allowed tolerances. hay crops. One Montana farmer had a feld in alfalfa for seven years, and then planted a crop Further Resources of hay barley that experienced a signifcant ergot For more information on ergot, including its role infestation. in history, see The American Phytopathological Grain crops are susceptible to ergot infection Society website. at the fowering stage. Cool, wet weather that www.apsnet.org/education/lessonsPlantPath/ ergot/default.htm lengthens fowering will increase the possibility of an infection. Te “honeydew” that forms on the heads contains spores of the fungus. Tis Smut and Bunt attracts insects that further spread the spores Special thanks to Dr. Blair Goates, a smut and among the grain fowers. bunt expert at the USDA-ARS facility in Aberdeen, To minimize ergot infestations, there are several Idaho, for sharing information for this section. techniques organic farmers can use. Smuts and bunts are both soil-borne and seed- • Rotate cereals and grasses with non- borne fungi that can severely damage yields. susceptible crops for one year or longer. These diseases are of particular concern for Te ergot sclerotia, or dark bodies, can organic grain farmers in the United States, since survive in the soil for more than three very few varieties have been bred with resistance. years. Thereafter, summer fallow or However, there are excellent dwarf bunt-resistant crop rotation to a non-cereal crop for at varieties available that are adapted to the winter least one year will help reduce ergot. wheat dryland farming areas of southern Idaho

Page 6 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains and northern Utah, and also a few soft white and then dry before planting. Or, wash with a wheat varieties adapted to the Palouse region. dilute solution of bleach in hot water for even Te introduction of conventional seed-treat- greater efcacy. Take care with any heat treatment fungicides has made the development of ment of seed because excessive temperatures can resistant varieties a low priority in breeding pro- kill the seed and decrease the germination rate. grams in the United States. In contrast, Canada In 1888, the Danish seedsman J.L Jensen pro- and Europe both still breed some grain varieties posed the following standards for hot water with tolerance to these diseases. treatment of seeds. “Basically, this process involved soaking the seed for 110 minutes in External Spores water held at 118.4°F (48°C), or 95 minutes at Te smut and bunt diseases can basically be bro- 120.2°F (49°C)” (Mathre et al., 2006). ken into two groups. In the frst group, fungal Trial and error may be needed if using the hot- spores occur on the exterior of the seed coat. water-wash method, as no recent standards are Tis group includes common bunt of wheat, available for grains. Run a test batch of 100 ker- covered smut in barley, and loose smut in oats. nels in various treatments and then test the ger- Tese spores on the coating of the grain infect mination of the seeds after the treatment. the plant after seeding but before emergence. Tese diseases can be quite serious: common While not specifc to grain seeds, guidelines for bunt can wipe out 60% to 70% of a crop. using hot water wash for vegetable seeds are available from Ohio State University Extension, However, because these spores are on the exte- Hot Water and Chlorine Treatment of Vegeta- rior of the seed, some organic treatments show ble Seeds to Eradicate Bacterial Plant Patho- promise. Organic producers in Europe have had gens, Miller and Ivey, HYG-3085-05, http://ohio success with a product called “Tillecur.” Tis is line.osu.edu/hyg-fact/3000/3085.html a commercially available treatment based on a formulation of mustard powder. Likewise, large- scale equipment used to treat seed with steam Internal Spores jets is also used in Europe. As of this writing In the second group of smut and bunt dis- (2010), no such treatment is available in the eases, the fungi are carried within the seed as United States. dormant hyphae and not as spores on the seed surface. Te most common disease in this cat- A benefcial fungus, Muscodor albus, has shown egory is loose smut of wheat and barley. Spores some promise in research trials. M. albus is an of these fungi infect the grain kernel at fower- “endophytic fungus frst isolated and described ing. Te fungus then moves into the embryo of from the non-native cinnamon tree (Cinnamo- the seed, and the infected seed cannot be distin- mum zeylanicum) in Honduras by Gary Stro- guished from a healthy seed prior to planting. bel” at Montana State University (Biocontrol After planting, the fungus resumes its life cycle News and Information, 2008). When used as a and maintains itself in the growing point of the fumigant, this fungus kills common bunt spores plant, eventually infecting the developing grain (Goates and Mercier, 2009). As of this writing, head and converting it to a mass of spores (Cook Loose Smut on wheat. however, there is no commercial source of this Photo: Donald Groth, and Veseth, 1991). For this type of disease, there product for seed treatments. Louisiana State Univer- are few organic options. Since the disease is sity AgCenter, www.bug- Te benefcial bacteria Bacillus subtilis is a pos- inside the seed coat, an external treatment such wood.org sible organic seed treatment for these diseases. as washing is inefective. Bacillus subtilis can be used to control storage Te consolation is that this dis- fungi such as Penicillium and Aspergillus (Grey, ease will not destroy an entire 2009). Bacillus subtilis is sold under the trade crop. A 15% yield loss would name Kodiak and is approved for organic crop be considered unusually high production. For Kodiak label information, see for this disease, with 1% to the ATTRA Biorationals database at www.attra. 2% yield loss more common. ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals. Likewise, loose smut has little For producers with small amounts of seed, wash- impact on end-use quality. If ing may be an option. Wash seed in hot water this disease appears, however, www.attra.ncat.org Page 7 it is important that an organic farmer not save BYDV is not a major concern in winter wheat seed, but purchase seed from disease-free felds since that crop is planted after a frost, which for the following crop year. Because loose smut signifcantly reduces aphid populations. If try- is carried within the seed, identifcation of infec- ing to manage for BYDV in winter wheat, make tion can be determined only by laboratory analy- sure to delay planting until cool fall nights sis. Even “[c]ertifed seed is not guaranteed to be arrive, generally after Labor Day, since aphids free of loose smut or other seed borne diseases” have little cold tolerance (Grey, 2009). Likewise, (Lipps, no date). the northern states have a lesser problem with BYDV in spring-seeded wheat and barley since Smuts and bunts can cause severe crop loss. both crops are advanced in their growth stages While some grain varieties in the United States before aphids migrate north. have limited resistance to these diseases, this is due mainly to their fowering habit and less Further Resources to breeding eforts. Organic seed treatments options are few, with feld sanitation and crop For more information on management of Barley rotation being the best practices to prevent yellow dwarf virus, see: infection. More research is needed in the area Washington State University Bulletin of successful organic small grain seed treatments http://pnw-ag.wsu.edu/smallgrains/barley%20 for prevention of these diseases. yellow%20dwarf.html PennState Field Crop Disease Facts Further Resources http://extension.psu.edu/small-grains/documents/ barley-yellow-dwarf.pdf Organic Seed Treatments and Coatings. 2010. E. Gatch. www.extension.org/article/18952 American Phytopathological Society www.apsnet.org/edcenter/intropp/lessons/viruses/ Organic Seed-treatment as a Substitute for Pages/BarleyYelDwarf.aspx Chemical Seed-treatment to Control Com- mon Bunt of Wheat. 2000. M. El-Naimi, H. Tou- bia-Rahme, and O. F. Mamluk. European Journal Wheat Streak Mosaic Virus of Plant Pathology. 106:433-437. Another serious viral disease is wheat streak mosaic, which is transmitted by the wheat curl Viral Diseases mite, a tiny insect that is barely visible with the use of a hand lens. Tis disease is a bigger prob- Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus lem for the northern states than Barley yellow dwarf (McMullen, 2002). While wheat is the Several grain diseases are viral and are carried by insects such as aphids and mites. One primary target of the mite, it will also feed on of these viral diseases is barley yellow dwarf corn, barley, oats, and various native and weedy (BYD), caused by Barley yellow dwarf virus grasses. To date, there is no evidence that the Barley Yellow Dwarf (BYDV). Barley yellow dwarf is a misleading mite transmits the virus to rye. Virus. Photo: Keith name, because it also can infect wheat, oats, Weller, USDA-ARS, www. A main organic management strategy to break bugwood.org rye, corn, sorghum, and more than 100 species the life cycle of the wheat curl mite is to elimi- of grasses (Montana State University Extension, nate any “green bridges” near your grain felds. 1998). BYDV is spread by more than 20 spe- Green plant material serves as a host for the mite cies of aphids. Te aphids ingest the virus when and the virus. While grassy weeds can serve this feeding on infected plants and transmit the dis- function, the real reservoir comes from in-feld ease to subsequent plants while feeding on them volunteer grains. Tillage will eliminate this threat. (Wegulo, 2008). A long period of “brown out” in August, with no Varieties resistant to BYDV are available. BYDV volunteer grain or early-seeded wheat, will reduce is most active in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. mite populations. For this reason, make sure that In this region, it is crucial that organic growers winter wheat seeding is late enough to discourage plant barley varieties with resistance to BYDV. hosting the mite (McMullen, 2002). Some Great Plains breeding programs have Providing habitat for mite predators such as spi- developed plant resistance in certain variet- ders and carabid beetles can also help prevent ies. However, in Montana and North Dakota, spread of the disease. Create a mulch of plant

Page 8 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains residue, such as a strip of mowed grass around the Figure 2. Organic Insect grain feld, to create a habitat for these benefcials. Control Hierarchy.

Further Resources on Spider Predation Level 3 Spider predation in agroecosystems: Can § 205.206 (e) Biological substance, spiders efectively control pest populations? or synthetic included on 2003. D. Maloney, F.A. Drummond, and R. Alford. the National List University of Maine. Technical Bulletin 190. www.umaine.edu/mafes/elec_pubs/techbulletins/ tb190.pdf § 205.206 (d) Management practices which suppress Level 2 the spread of disease organisms; or application of nonsynthetic biological, Further Resources botanical, or mineral inputs High Plains IPM website http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Main_Page American Phytopathological Society www.apsnet.org § 205.206 (a) Level 1 Crop Rotation Compendium of Wheat Diseases and Pests, Sanitation Cultural Practices Third Edition. 2010. APS Press. Wheat Health Management. R.J. Cook and R.J. Veseth. 1991. APS Press. North Carolina Organic Grain Project, Wheat varieties. Solid-stem varieties work the best, and and Small Grain Disease Management local experiment stations should have records of www.organicgrains.ncsu.edu/pestmanagement/ varieties with the greatest resistance. However, wheatdiseases.htm these solid-stem varieties are primarily semi- Resource Guide for Organic Insect and Dis- dwarf, and semi-dwarf varieties may not be as ease Management, Cornell University. competitive with weeds in an organic system. A http://web.pppmb.cals.cornell.edu/resourceguide/ farmer will need to select a variety based on his index.php or her primary pest problem. If a diverse rotation is in place and wheat stem sawfy pressure is minimal, it may be more important to select In-crop Insects a variety with quick, early growth to suppress Management of insects within a growing crop weeds, rather than selecting a semi-dwarf variety can be a challenge since bugs can move from with wheat stem sawfy resistance. one spot to the next. However, there are some Diverse crop rotation can also help to break the strategies to minimize in-crop insect damage. insect cycle. Organic farmers tend to have fewer Similar to organic weed and disease manage- sawfy problems in general because of their crop ment, organic insect management is based on rotation practices and the biodiversity inherent the National Organic Program guidelines for in organic production systems. Rotation to a pest management, section § 205.206. Te foun- less-preferred crop may also help to break the dational principles of cultural practices, rota- life cycle of cutworms and wireworms. Organic tion, and sanitation come frst. Next are the sec- farmers also can benefit from surrounding ond-tier strategies of predators, traps, and lures. monocultures that lure the key pests away. On And fnally, biological and allowed synthetic the other hand, a neighboring monoculture may substances can be used, provided the frst two also be the source for recurrence of an insect steps in the hierarchy are in place. pest problem. Cultural Practices To use trap crops, plant something on the border of your grain feld that bugs like to eat and As with other organic pest-control strategies, that stays green longer than the crop for harvest. prevention is more efective than cure. Resistant After attracting the bugs into the trap crop, till varieties can often help manage problem insects. it into the ground. Most bugs will not survive For example, farmers are now able to reduce tillage. Tis practice can work well to manage wheat stem sawfy damage by selecting resistant edge-efect pests like the wheat stem sawfy that www.attra.ncat.org Page 9 clearly prefer certain cultivars over others. Local protection and shelter, and also allow for easy experiment stations will be able to provide infor- movement to diferent parts of a feld. mation on varieties and preferences of this pest (Morrill et al., 2002). Russian Wheat Aphid Another major in-crop insect pest for small Specifc In-crop Insect Pests grains is the Russian wheat aphid (RWA). Te Russian wheat aphid afects grain by injecting a Grasshoppers toxin that damages the plant, typically resulting One of the oldest insect pests of grain crops is in a white stripe running down the leaf blade. the grasshopper. Tis insect can be difcult to Several resistant varieties have been developed control with organic methods, because it can and are used extensively in Colorado, Kansas, move from a control area to a non-control area and Texas, where warm temperatures allow for and vice-versa. Tere has been some limited suc- greater RWA survival. Most grain in Montana cess with the use of Nosema locustae, a parasitic and North Dakota does not have this resis- fungus that is combined with wheat bran bait for tance. Tese states escape serious aphid infesta- feld use. Often, the results of Nosema are seen tion because their cold northern climates delay over several years of use, with mixed results when aphid migration, although climate change may used on large areas (Cunningham and Sampson, afect this. University of California IPM Pest 1996). Several brand names of Nosema are avail- Management Guidelines point out, “Wheat and able and information about them can be found barley are the most susceptible; rye and triticale, in the ATTRA Biorationals database (www. while susceptible, are usually less damaged; and attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals). oats appear to sustain little or no injury. Rus- sian wheat aphid does not attack corn, sorghum, Pest scouting is an essential part of using or rice” (Summers et al., 2009). A diverse crop Nosema successfully. Te most efective time to rotation can help minimize Russian wheat aphid use it is when the grasshoppers are young (third damage across an entire farm. instar stage). Usually, when you notice a large infestation, it is too late to use biological controls. Make sure you are watching for grasshoppers before they become a problem. Mowing around grain felds may also help control grasshoppers. Te shorter plants limit their food supply and make them more vulnerable to predators. Te larger the feld, the wider the mowed strip will need to be (Planet Natural, 2009).

Chickens are voracious grasshopper eaters, and Russian Wheat Aphid. Photo: Frank Peairs, Colorado on smaller acreages chickens may be an efective State University, www.bugwood.org means of grasshopper control. However, chickens do require adequate water, housing, and pro- Another management strategy for this pest is tection from predators. Mobile chicken coops, to control volunteer wheat and barley. Accord- sometimes called “chicken tractors,” provide ing to the HighPlains IPM website, “Volunteers are the most important source of infestation for the new crop in the fall. Try to have a three- Further Resources week volunteer-free period prior to emergence of fall seedlings.” Winter grains should be planted CARMA stands for Case-based Range Management Advisor. It is a com- as late as possible in Colorado, Nebraska, and puter-based tool to help assess the economics of managing grasshopper Wyoming. Spring grains should be planted as infestations in rangeland. www.sidney.ars.usda.gov/grasshopper/Support/ Carma.htm early as possible (Peairs et al., 2010). USDA-APHIS Plant Protection and Quarantine ofers several resources In addition, a healthy, stress-free crop is more for grasshopper management, including an IPM handbook and an annual likely to survive an aphid infestation. Make sure grasshopper hazard map for the western United States. www.aphis.usda. the feld’s nutrient levels are sufcient to produce gov/plant_health/plant_pest_info/grasshopper/index.shtml a healthy stand (Peairs et al., 2010).

Page 10 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains Wheat Stem Sawfy et al., 2005). Sheep and goats were turned into summer fallow felds and consumed the saw- Te wheat stem sawfy has been a major in-crop fy larvae that live in the grain stubble. Consult pest in the Northern Great Plains since the early with a livestock specialist for stocking rates and 1900s. Since then, various species of this insect dates if considering this technique. have become a worldwide problem. Te female sawfy lays one to two eggs per plant stem and can lay as many as 30 to 50 eggs in a season. Stored-grain Insects After the eggs hatch, the larvae live inside the Insects are not only a problem while the crop is plant, causing damage by trapping nutrients and growing; they are also a concern during grain preventing grain heads from gaining weight. storage. Te most common grain-storage insects are secondary insects that attack cracked and Plant breeders have introduced solid-stemmed broken kernels in the grain bin, or kernels that wheat varieties. While this has reduced the saw- are in poor condition or otherwise damaged fy problem, it hasn’t solved it completely. Even (Canadian Grain Commission, 2009). Tese the most solid varieties can still experience some secondary pests include the rusty grain beetle, sawfy damage. the hairy fungus beetle, the red four beetle, and Dr. David Weaver, professor of entomology the foreign grain beetle. at Montana State University, gives the follow- Te most damaging storage pests are insects that ing principles for non-chemical management of can chew directly into the grain. In the North- wheat stem sawfy (2011): ern Great Plains, these include the lesser grain • Leave the grain stalks as high as pos- borer and the rice and maize weevils. Of all of sible during harvest. Ideally, leave 1/3 these pests, the only one that regularly overwin- of the stem height. Tis will conserve ters in the North is the rusty grain beetle. the naturally occurring Braconid parasitoid wasps that provide a control for Further Resources the sawfy. Stored Grain Pest Management. 2002. P. Sul- • Grow trap crops to protect hollow-stem livan. ATTRA. spring wheat varieties. Winter wheat www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/storedgrain.html or a solid-stem spring wheat will work. Plant the trap crop between last year’s wheat crop, which will be the source of Storage Temperature new insects, and this year’s wheat crop. Special thanks to Dr. Paul Flinn, USDA-ARS Center for Grain and Animal Health Research, • Use a forage winter wheat variety as a Manhattan, Kansas, for providing much of the trap crop. Hay the crop at the end of information on storage temperature, sanitation, the sawfy fight period. and benefcial insects. • Plant the most-solid-stem varieties. Check with a local Extension agent for Te best technique for controlling insect pests is this information. to control the storage temperature of the grain. Te cooler the temperature, the less active the • Include spring wheat crops in the rota- insects and the less likely they are to reproduce. tion to increase parasitoid numbers. Insect activity as it relates to temperature is • Grow non-host cereals or other alter- given in the following table. nate crops. Oats and smooth brome are examples of alternate non-host crops for Table 1. Insect Activity at Various Temperature Ranges. sawfy. Sawfy cannot survive in oats, making it an excellent choice for crop Temperature Insect Activity rotation. 86°F (30°C) Optimal temperature for insect activity Integrating livestock into the system could pro- 77°F (25°C) Reproductive rate is cut in half vide an acceptable level of sawfy control. Dr. Pat 68°F (20°C) Insects stop developing Hatfeld, livestock specialist at Montana State University, has achieved good sawfy control 50 – 59°F ( 10 – 15°C) Activity stops by using sheep to graze wheat stubble (Goosey (Flinn, 2009) www.attra.ncat.org Page 11 if the grain is carefully monitored for changes in temperature and insect numbers. Farmers in warmer states such as Kansas and Oklahoma usually store grain over only one winter to avoid insect and mold problems. Tis issue of storage time afects a farmer’s marketing plan, since some specialty organic grains can take more than a year after harvest to sell.

Further Resources Questions and Answers about Aeration Con- trollers. Kansas State University Extension bulletin. www.ksre.ksu.edu/library/grsci2/mf2090.pdf

Grain bins. Photo: Susan Cooling grain to below 68°F (20°C) minimizes Sanitation Tallman, NCAT insect activity. Te usual way to do this is to run fans at night when the outside air is cool- When placing organic grain in bins, make sure est. Install a thermostat on the fan, so that it they have been thoroughly cleaned and that all does not operate in the daytime and circulate cracks have been sealed. Also, never put new hotter air into the bin. Set the fan thermostat grain on top of old grain. Use smaller bins to to 77°F (25°C). When the outdoor temperature reduce the risk of spreading insect or mold prob- drops to this level at night, the fan will start and lems. Te standard 3,000- to 5,000-bushel bins the grain will begin to cool. It may take several should be small enough, but avoid using the weeks to cool the grain to 77°F. Ten in Sep- large 50,000-bushel bins. Air does not circulate tember, cool the grain down to 68°F (20°C) well in these bins, and small infestations soon as the nights cool of even more. Finally, cool become very large problems. One infestation the grain down to 59°F (15°C) and let it stay can ruin an entire crop if it’s all in the same bin. there the rest of the time it’s in storage. It is very important to cool grain down as soon as pos- Benefcial Insects sible so that the insects have less time to develop In one research study, Hymenoptera wasps under warm, favorable conditions. Tese specifc proved successful predators of the lesser grain temperature points can vary in a colder environ- borer and functioned well at the cooler temper- ment that has later harvests, but the concept atures so important to slow the activity of the remains the same. pest insects (Flinn, 1998). In fact, these bene- Some farmers do not use fans during a rain, fear- fcial wasps provided a very high level of borer ing that this would increase humidity in the suppression (99%) at 25°C. bins. However, as cool outside air is warmed Bear in mind that some of these parasitic wasps by the grain, the relative humidity of the air occur naturally in stored grain. Any organic decreases. Running the cooling fans during a insecticide meant to control pests, such as dia- rain event will not increase humidity in the bin if tomaceous earth, will also kill the benefcial the outside temperature is less than 77°F (25°C). A parasitoid wasp for storage insects (Anisopteroma- Likewise, some farmers worry that running fans lus Calandre). Photo: Dr. Paul Flinn, USDA-ARS will dry out the grain and thus decrease its test weight. Tis is only a concern if the fans run both day and night and pull in high-temperature daytime air. If the fans run only when the air temperature is less than 77°F, loss of test weight (grain moisture) should not be a problem. How long grain can be stored will depend on the location. In colder states such as Montana and North Dakota, grain can be stored for two to three years with no insect or mold problems

Page 12 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains wasps. However, aeration to cool the grain will DE may afect grain quality by decreasing the not kill the parasitic wasps but will help them to test weight. Also, it slows down the fow of grain control the pests more efectively. A farmer must in handling systems. It is easily digestible by weigh the pros and cons of using controls, and humans and will not afect the end-use quality establish a threshold tolerance for pests. of the grain for baking purposes. In a lab analy- sis of four, DE would show up as ash content. Further Resources Te particle size of DE is similar to talcum pow- As of this writing, very few companies in the der. Take care when using it, and wear a respira- United States produce benefcial insects for stored tor to limit inhalation. DE does disperse in han- grain insect control. One is Biofac Crop Care in dling and can be blown out of the grain when it Mathis, Texas. Contact them at their website www. biofac.com, or toll-free at 1-800-233-4914. is loaded from the bin, if desired. Tere are two recommended ways to use DE in Diatomaceous Earth storage: the incorporation method and the sandwich method. Special thanks to Dr. David Weaver, Montana State University, for providing information on Diatomaceous earth. Incorporation Method Of the two methods, incorporation is most Diatomaceous earth (DE) can be used to control efective. To use this method, mix DE into the storage insects. DE works by clinging to insects entire bulk of the grain stored. Tis may not be and adsorbing their protective surface-wax, necessary, or desirable, if the expected insect allowing moisture to escape, and drying them pressure does not warrant such heavy use. to death. It works better at higher temperatures because then insects are more active. DE may be Te best way to mix in the DE is to apply a layer a good option in warmer regions, where cooler on top of the grain in the truck, prior to load- nights do not arrive until several weeks after ing in the bin. Cut it in with a shovel before harvest. DE also works better in dry conditions, unloading, then auger the grain into the bin. since it loses activity when it contacts water. A Mix in the exact recommended amount of DE state with a hot, dry climate, such as Arizona, for the number of bushels in the truck. To deter- might be an ideal place to use DE. mine the rate of application, check the listing on the packaging. DE is made of fossilized marine diatoms and is composed primarily of silicon dioxide with some Another alternative is to stand at the auger and calcium. Tere are diferent kinds of DE—fresh- throw in a bit of DE every so often. Tis is less water and saltwater—with diferent characteris- accurate and can lead to patchy application, tics. For a complete listing of various trade names especially if the person doing the job becomes of DE, check the ATTRA Biorationals database distracted. at www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals/. Sandwich Method Use Certifed Organic DE Te sandwich method can cut costs and will When using DE, be aware that not all products afect the test weight less than the incorporation are certifed for organic use. Some DE prod- method. In this method, add DE to the frst ucts may contain fllers or additives that are not allowed under organic standards. Make sure you load of grain into the bin at the recommended document which DE product you use, and verify rate. For the middle loads, do not add any DE. that it is allowed in organic production. Contact For the last two loads, add DE again at the rec- your certifer if you have any questions. ommended rate. Ten add 6 inches of DE at the top of the bin. Te activity of DE varies with insect species. DE can also be used in an empty bin to get rid It doesn’t work very well on the red four bee- of residual bugs. Use the bin dryer to blow it tle, but other insects are quite vulnerable to it. around. Or use a special applicator to apply DE Experts are not sure why the efectiveness difers directly to the bin surface. by insect species.

www.attra.ncat.org Page 13 Spinosad References A fnal product that has gained some interest for Bhadriraju, Dr. Subramanyam. Kansas State grain storage is spinosad. One formulation of University. 2009. Personal conversation. spinosad is the by-product of bacterial fermen- tation and is allowed for use in organic systems. Biocontrol News and Information. 2008. It has proven efective in managing insects in Endophyte Spices up Biofumigation. Vol. 28. stored grain (Bhadriraju, 2009). As of this writ- No. 4. p. 69N – 74N. ing, however, Spinosad is not labeled in the Burrows, Dr. Mary. Montana State University. United States to control stored grain pests, as 2009. Personal communication. some countries will not accept spinosad-treated grain under international Codex tolerances. Te Burrows, M. and R. Grey. 2008. Fusar- manufacturer is waiting for trade negotiations ium Head Blight (scab) of Wheat and Bar- to be completed before labeling the product as ley. Montana State University. MontGuide acceptable for use on stored grain. MT200806AG. http://msuextension.org/ publications/AgandNaturalResources/ Te 2010 Organic Materials Review Institute MT200806AG.pdf (OMRI) Generic Materials List shows spinosad is an allowed nonsynthetic with restrictions. It Canadian Grain Commission. 2009. Second- can be used as a pest lure, repellent, or trap, and ary Insect Pests. www.grainscanada.gc.ca/ as an insecticide if the criteria of the pest man- storage-entrepose/sip-irs/sip-irs-eng.htm agement rule are met. Since there is some gray Cook, R.J. and R.J. Veseth. 1991. Wheat area on the of use of spinosad in stored grain, Health Management. Te American Phyto- it is best to check with your organic certifer pathological Society. p. 57. before using. Cunningham, G. and M. Sampson. 1996. However, spinosad is accepted to treat in-crop Grasshopper Integrated Pest Management User insect pests. To date, most use of spinosad is Handbook. USDA-APHIS Technical Bulle- in vegetable systems. An Ohio State University tin 1809. www.sidney.ars.usda.gov/grasshopper/ Extension publication gives information on rec- Handbook/index.htm ommended application of spinosad for control of armyworm and cereal leaf beetle at www. Flinn, Dr. Paul. USDA-ARS. 2009. Personal entomology.osu.edu/ag/images/Small_Grains.pdf. conversation. Tere are several formulations of spinosad on Flinn, P.W. 1998. Temperature Efects on the market; some are organic and some are not. Efcacy of Choetospila elegans (Hymenop- Make sure you choose the correct one for appli- tera: Pteromalidae) to Suppress Rhyzopertha cation in an organic system. For more informa- dominica(Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) in Stored tion, see the ATTRA Biorationals database at Wheat. Journal of Economic Entomology. Vol. www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/biorationals/. 91, No. 1. p. 320-323. Goates, B. and J. Mercier. 2009. Efect of bio- Conclusion fumigation with volatiles from Muscador albus When managing diseases and insects in an on the viability of Tilettia spp. teliospores. organic system, prevention is truly the best Canadian Journal of Microbiology. Vol. 55. p. strategy. Many of the foundational practices 203-206. of organic production, especially crop rotation, Goosey, H.B., P.G. Hatfeld, A.W. Lenssen, S. help to minimize pest pressure and promote bio- L. Blodgett, and R.W. Kott. 2005. Te Poten- logical diversity that suppresses pests. A farmer tial Role of Sheep in Dryland Grain Production must stay ahead of outbreaks by implementing a Systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environ- long, diverse rotation, practicing vigilant moni- ment 111 (2005) 349–353. http://ddr.nal.usda. toring, selecting resistant varieties, and being gov/bitstream/10113/35682/1/IND43759248.pdf attentive to management strategies. Grey, Dr. Bill. Montana State University. 2009. Personal communication.

Page 14 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains Lipps, P. E. No date. Loose Smut of Wheat, Spelt, and Bar- Organic Materials Review Institute. 2010. Generic Materi- ley. Ohio State University Extension. FactSheet AC-12-96. als List. Database search. http://ohioline.osu.edu/ac-fact/0012.html www.omri.org/simple-gml-search/results/spinosad Maloy, O.C. and D.A. Inglis. 1993. Barley Scald. Washing- Peairs, F.B., G. Hein, and M. Brewer. 2010. Russian Wheat ton State University Bulletin. SP0004. Aphid. High Plains Integrated Pest Management website. http://pnw-ag.wsu.edu/smallgrains/Barleyscald.html http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Russian_Wheat_Aphid Mathre, D. E., R. H. Johnston, and W. E. Grey. 2006. Planet Natural. 2009. Grasshopper Control. Small Grain Cereal Seed Treatment. Te Plant Health www.planetnatural.com/site/xdpy/kb/grasshopper-control.html Instructor. DOI: 10.1094/PHI-I-2001-1008-01. Schwartz, H.F., D. H. Gent, and W. M. Brown, Jr. 2009a. www.apsnet.org/edcenter/advanced/topics/Pages/Cereal Spot Blotch. High Plains IPM website. SeedTreatment.aspx http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Spot_Blotch McMullen, M. 2002. Wheat Streak Mosaic. North Dakota Schwartz, H.F., D. H. Gent, and W. M. Brown, Jr. State University Extension circular PP-646. 2009b. Damping Of and Seedling Blight in Small www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/smgrains/pp646w.htm Grains. High Plains IPM website. http://wiki.bugwood.org/ McMullen, M. and C. Stoltenow. 2002. Ergot. North HPIPM:Damping_Of%2C_Seedling_Blight_SG Dakota State University Extension circular PP-551. Skoglund, L.G. 2010. Net Blotch. High Plains IPM website. www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/crops/pp551w.htm http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Net_blotch_%28barley%29 McMullen, M., S. Markell, and J. Rasmussen. 2008a. Rust Summers, C.G., L. D. Godfrey, and D. Gonzalez. 2009. Diseases of North Dakota. North Dakota State University University of California IPM Pest Management Guidelines: Extension circular PP-1361. Small Grains – Insects and Mites. UC ANR Publication www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/smgrains/pp1361.pdf 3466. www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/r730300211.html McMullen, M., S. Zhong, and S. Neate. 2008b. Fusarium Ulmer, A., and L. Stuber. 1997. Producing Certifed Seed. Head Blight (Scab) of Small Grains. North Dakota State North Dakota State University. Extension circular A-1125. University Extension circular PP-804. www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/crops/a1125w.htm www.ag.ndsu.edu/pubs/plantsci/smgrains/pp804w.htm Van Voast, J. 2009. Take All. High Plains IPM website. Montana State University Extension. 1998. Montana Wheat http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Take_All Diseases. http://scarab.msu.montana.edu/Disease/Disease Guidehtml/webViral.htm Weaver, Dr. David. 2011. Taken from lecture at the 2011Crop and Pest Management School, Montana State Morrill, W. L., D. K. Weaver, and G. D. Johnson. 2001. University. Trap strip and feld border modifcation for management of the wheat stem sawfy Cephus cinctus Norton (Hymenop- Watkins, J.E. and M.E. Burrows. 2009. Common Root tera: Cephidae). Journal of Entomological Science. Vol. 36 Rot. High Plains IPM website. p. 34–35. http://wiki.bugwood.org/HPIPM:Common_Root_Rot National Organic Program. 2010. Code of Federal Regula- Wegulo, S., G. Hein, and R. French. 2008. Barley Yellow tions, Section 7, Part 205, Subpart C, § 205.206 Crop pest, Dwarf of Wheat, Barley, and Oats. Extension NebGuide weed, and disease management practice standard. G1823. www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/NOP Zwinger, Steve. North Dakota State University. 2009. Per- sonal communication.

www.attra.ncat.org Page 15 Disease and Insect Management in Organic Small Grains By Susan Tallman, CCA NCAT Agronomist Published April 2011 © NCAT Tracy Mumma, Editor Robyn Metzger, Production This publication is available on the Web at: www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/smallgraindisease.html or www.attra.ncat.org/attra-pub/PDF/smallgraindisease.pdf IP388 Slot 385 Version 041211

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