CPCCSF2002A Use steelfixing tools and equipment

Student Learning Resource

Student Name ______

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Student Information Purpose: The purpose of this learning package is to help you understand the technical and theoretical knowledge and associated skills of your selected trade area. This package contains a number of learning and associated documents for this unit of competency. Please read all parts of this package to ensure that you complete and manage the process correctly. This assessment tools address the mandatory requirements of the unit of competency including, evidence requirements, range statements and the required skills and knowledge to achieve the learning outcomes indicated in the document. Performance criteria are described below. The contents of this unit will contain some or all of the following as required:

ELEMENT PERFORMANCE CRITERIA

1.Plan and 1.1. Work instructions, including plans, specifications, quality requirements and prepare. operational details are obtained from relevant information, confirmed and applied to the scope of work performed. 1.2. Safety (OHS) requirements are followed in accordance with safety plans and policies. 1.3. Signage and barricade requirements are identified and implemented. 1.4. Materials quantity requirements are calculated in accordance with plans, specifications. 1.5. Materials appropriate to the work application are identified, obtained, prepared, safely handled and located ready for use. 1.6. Environmental requirements are identified for the project in accordance with environmental plans and statutory and legislative authority obligations and applied.

2. Identify hand 2.1. Hand and power tools and their functions, operations and limitations are identified. and power tools. 2.2. OHS requirements for using hand tools are recognised and adhered to. 2.3. OHS requirements for using power tools are recognised and adhered to.

3.Select tools for 3.1. Tools and equipment are selected consistent with job requirements. project. 3.2. Tools, including leads and hoses, are checked for tags, serviceability and safety, and any faults are rectified or reported. 3.3. Power tools guards, retaining bolts, couplings, gauges and controls are checked and maintained in accordance with manufacturer recommendations. 3.4. Equipment to hold or support material during operation is selected. 3.5. Pre-operational checks, including lubricants, hydraulic fluid and water, are completed according to manufacturer recommendations.

4.Use tools. 4.1. Power and compressed air supply are connected to work area. 4.2. Start-up and shut-down procedures are followed. 4.3. Tools are safely and effectively used according to manufacturer recommendations and OHS requirements. 4.4. Tools are safely located when not in immediate use.

5.Select plant and 5.1. Function and limitations of plant and equipment used in steelfixing are identified. equipment. 5.2. Plant and equipment are selected consistent with hazard minimisation and needs of job. 5.3. Method of operation of plant and equipment is identified. 5.4. OHS requirements for operating and using plant and equipment are recognised and adhered to. 5.5. Plant and equipment are checked for safety and faults are rectified or reported.

6.Use plant and 6.1. Plant and equipment are safely and effectively used. equipment. 6.2. Plant and equipment are safely located when not in immediate use. 6.3. Plant and equipment are cleaned, maintained and stored after use.

7.Clean up. 7.1. Work area is cleared and materials disposed of, reused or recycled in accordance with legislation, regulations, codes of practice and job specification. 7.2. Machinery, tools and equipment are cleaned, checked, maintained and stored in accordance with manufacturer recommendations and standard work practices.

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UNIT DESCRIPTOR CPCCSF2002A Use steelfixing tools and equipment This unit of competency specifies the outcomes required to use steelfixing tools, plant and equipment. It includes identification, selection and safe use of a range of commonly used steelfixing tools, plant and equipment; and storage and user maintenance of these. ASSESSMENT Overall Assessment Requirements The instructional outcomes required at the completion of this training are satisfactory for each form of evidence resulting in competent. If you do not achieve the required outcomes of competent, for this assessment you will be required to re sit a supplementary examination within a reasonable time of the original examination date. To achieve successful completion of this unit you should achieve a minimum of 3 forms of assessment. Below are some of the forms of evidence that can be used. 1. Written Assessment 2. Third party reports (usually by your employer or supervisor) 3. Workshop/ On Site Activity (generally referred to as “Practical Assessment”) 4. Logbook Evidence (a record of the tasks you carry out for each unit) Theory Examination During the period of this learning you will be required to complete a written theory examination to establish the level of understanding of technical content. Self Checks Self-checks are to be completed on pages provided when requested by your trainer. These exercises are used mainly as a learning tool; they may form part of your overall assessment if deemed necessary by your Trainer. Verbal Questions Verbal questions may be used and recorded to establish your level of knowledge of the competencies of this learning package. Practical Observation / Assessment Practical may be assessed in either of the following formats: - 1. Practical observations will be undertaken in the workplace. Where the assessor observes the student completing a task in the workplace the observation will be recorded in the observation checklist. 2. Where a student is not able to undertake an activity in the workplace a simulated practical activity will be setup by the assessor. (Refer to the practical exercises outlined in this Student Learning Resource.) The observation checklist will be used to record the student’s performances. Where a student undertakes an activity in the workplace and the trainer is not able to be present the employer / supervisor will confirm the activity on the Third Party Report. The student and employer / supervisor will provide photographic evidence of the activity with an explanation of the task undertaken.

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The assessor will contact the student by phone or face to face to question the student about the activity to confirm the students understanding and skills. The outcome of this contact will be recorded in the Practical Assessment.

Log Book or Training Record Book It is the responsibility and requirement for the learner to complete the training record based on the on-the-job and structured training tasks received by the employer or Supervising Registered Training Organisation (SRTO) or as indicated in the training plan, which may be produced to the employer and SRTO at reasonable intervals of not more than 3 months. Log Book evidence from your employer and other forms of evidence relating to this unit of competency will contribute to the outcome of this learning package. If the required activity is not part of your employer’s scope of activity you will be required to complete the skill learning process within a simulated environment. Logbook evidence must reflect the “Elements” shown for this unit. Results A statement of Attainment may be printed for this unit if required, but in general your achievement of this unit will be recorded and presented to you on completion of the entire qualification. Your certificate will record all the units you have completed. RPL and Acceleration Recognition of prior learning is available to all students. This provides an opportunity for being credited for previous learning. Acceleration provides an opportunity to reduce the allocated learning hours for this unit of competency. There is a separate RPL kit for this process. Methodology This unit may be provided as a separate learning instruction or provided with other units of competency in a practical or theoretical learning experience. Due care Every care has been taken to ensure that the information in this learning guide is correct, but trainers are advised to check the currency and the relevance of the content to their own training package. Copyright protects this publication. Except for purpose permitted by the Copyright Act 1968, reproduction, adaptation, electronic storage and communication to the public is prohibited without prior written permission. Pre-requisites Pre-requisite units: CPCCOHS2001A Apply OHS requirements, policies and procedures in the construction industry Feedback to the learner The trainer will provide feedback to the learner on the progress of assessment This learning package is intended for use by those completing the Competency Unit - CPCCSF2002A Use steelfixing tools and equipment as part of Basic Stream Skills within the Building Construction Skills Stream of the National Competency Framework.

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SAFETY EQUIPMENT Safety Equipment needed when tiling floors includes, but limited to: Steel capped boots or steel capped rubber boots - Shoes should be quality shoes that have steel caps in the toe. There are types for most occasions including working on the ground, below ground in trenches or on the roof. Safety shoes protect you from objects falling onto the front of your feet. Shoes need to be a quality product that can flex sufficiently when you are required to climb ladders or similar. Do not wear thongs or open foot-ware as you can easily receive serious damage to your feet. Most building sites will ban such practices

Safety glasses - for cutting tiles - Eye protection is a must where there is a chance of getting something caught in your eyes. Far worse than this is the chance that something may pierce your eye. It is recommended that people wear quality protective safety glasses all of the time. They may also be lightly tinted for sun protection. These are not expensive and can look quite fashionable. Once again, many people take this advice far too lightly and only wish they had listened when told of the dangers. Other forms of eye protection are available including full face shields.

Ear protection - Hearing protection is essential where ever excessive noise is being created i.e. more than 70 decibels. Circular saws that cut brick, timber, tiles and other materials create a noise level that can permanently damage your hearing. This is a long term process and after many years working in the industry, permanent damage occurs. Many people take this far too lightly and after years in the industry you may have wished that you listened to early warnings. By then it is too late. The ear plugs shown above offer excellent protection and these reduce the noise down to an acceptable level. Ear plugs can reduce the noise level 20 to 35 decibels. It is best to have suitable protection that offers safe reduction. It is not wise to make it impossible to hear any noise as this can become dangerous. Your trainer will demonstrate their correct use.

PPE is one of those items that someone is going to keep reminding you that you must use. Eventually it will be left to you to automatically fit your PPE when it is appropriate to do so. When

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considering buying PPE, select items that are quality products that fit comfortably and are convenient to use. Protection location Description Body clothing Suitable clothing Feet protection Safety shoes Hearing protection Ear muffs or ear plugs Eye protection Full face shields or safety eye Head protection Comfortableglasses or goggles Safety helmets Lung or breathing protection Dust masks, chemical, gas and fine Hand Gloves Wear,particle heatfiltering and respirators. chemical resistant types Clothing Sensible clothing that protects from the sun and is tough enough to resist annoying scratches. It should not be very loose or baggy as loose clothing can get caught on obstacles or in machinery. It should not be skin tight as some circulation of air is recommended. Sun-safe, breathable heavy duty cotton materials are recommended for general purpose clothes in the construction industry.

Hand Protection Gloves are available for many duties that are hard on the hands. The range includes general purpose gloves, gloves for heat protection, gloves for chemical protection, and many others. You should not be afraid to wear gloves simply because you may be considered soft. Ignore such remarks and protect yourself from bad cuts and chemicals attack etc.

Mouth or Breathing Protection Breathing dust, fumes and chemical vapours are all possible while working in the construction industry. From simple dust masks to more complex breathing masks are available. What is needed for the job may depend on the type of job being performed. If in doubt it may be necessary to consult your employer or read the material safety data sheet that is available. More information is provided on this topic later. Above are masks for dust, mist and fume protection

Skin Protection Other types of PPE are available and should be seriously considered as part of the tool kit. Sun creams min factor 30+ and Extended brims for hard hats or Protective creams etc.

Each of the PPE displayed above are only a sample and a very wide range of each of the PPE items is possible. It is important to make your selection carefully because if you are not protected properly, you may suffer lifelong consequences.

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TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT Steel tapes Steel tapes vary in length from 3 to 30 metres long. You can use them to measure distances, such as when you are setting out and checking wall and building sizes.

Spirit Level Spirit levels vary in length and quality. Purchase a reputable brand that guarantees a long life and remains accurate. Cheap levels will rarely provide a long accurate life.

Straight Edges Straight edges are used to align materials, mark pencil lines on walls or floors, to extend the length of a spirit level and many other uses. They need to be handled carefully so as not to cause damage to the edges or face of the straight edge. Straight edges are very useful to check the alignment of wall framing members. It is recommended to have at least two straight edges so that it is possible to use the tool in restricted work areas.

Trowel - Gauging A tool used to apply cement in awkward areas where a floating or setting trowel cannot be used. Often used when doing corners or strip work. Gauging trowels are like a smaller version of the trowel used in bricklaying but with a rounded end. They come in sizes from 100 to 225 mm.

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Steelfixing Nips Nips are a preferred tool for steelfixers for cutting wire and aids in the steelfixing of bar and mesh for concrete and construction applications.

Steelfixing Ratchet & Double loop ties

Steel Fixing Ratchets assist steelfixers and concreters with tying, twisting and cutting of tie wire to bar and mesh in concreting applications. OneSteel Always check with the supervisor if these can be used on site as sometimes the wire loops are too thin and break easily, and are thus banned by some project managers.

Steelfixers tie wire reel The Ideal Reel has been proven to be the fastest and most economical way to apply and tie wire. The smooth flow of wire from a compact, light-weight Ideal Reel, worn conveniently from our Steelfixers belt, protects eyes from dangerous flying-wire ends. With the Ideal Reel, there are no more loose coils of wire underfoot to trip over

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Wire tying Gun Reduces rebar-fixing time, up to 5 times faster than manual fixing. Makes a rebar tie in approximately one second with consistent strength. Easy to operate - Learn to use Rebar Tier in minutes. Reduce risk of health problems, Ergonomics and reduction in the probability of an injury such as carpal tunnel injuries. Extension arm Reduces constant bending. One hand operation allows worker to hold rebar while fixing it. Battery operated, no electrical cords to trip over or to get tangled. Battery charges within 25 to 30 minutes

Steelfixers belt The leather frog is made out of 3.8mm plus thickness & belt is made out of 5mm thickness, natural colour Italian leather, which is one of the best leathers available. All frogs & belt are handmade & made to suit the tool that, they carry & made to be durable. The frogs & belt are available in black Italian leather also.

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Another type of belt and wire container spool and tool selection

Steel shears & benders & bolt cutters This cutting shear is an invaluable asset for cutting rebar on site especially if the rebar needs bending to any degree. The bold cutters can be used insituation more easilyy if reo needs shortening.

Steel benders for bar and mesh usually found on bigger sites

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Steel mesh cutters These mesh cutters unlike the bolt cutters allow you to slipm the cutting edge under the mesh and cut easier that the bolt cutters would do especially in limited space.

Electronic shear

Hydraulic steel cutting shears are a newly developed high accuracy hydraulic cutting tools, easy to carry, beautiful appearance, high shearing efficiency, mechanical characteristics of the area is small, be it buildings, factories, mines and other units ideal tool, use by many thousands around the world.

Concreting Floats Wood & Steel floats are used to spread concrete materials. A wooden float is best to move the concrete to shape and rough finish the concrete material and then the steel float is useful for finishing to a smooth finish.

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Concrete rakes and shovel Concrete rakes and shovels are essential tools for moving concrete as it is being poured. Often you will not be quick enough as the concrete comes down the shute or out of the pump line and too much will be deposited. This must be quickly pushed or pulled into position with a shovel being used when it needs to be thrown a little distance.

ELD You must have an earth leakage device or ensure that the power supply is protected by earth leakage. Construction sites that use temporary power supplies are required to have these built into the power supply. If using a private household power supply, it is essential to connect an Earth Leakage Device (ELD) to the power point first. Connect extension leads to the ELD or protected power supply. Do not use double adaptors at any time. These are illegal. Use only heavy duty extension leads. It is unwise to connect several leads to create a very long power source. This causes significant power loss and can damage the tools being used.

Bending. Bent bar reinforcement should be cold bent to the shapes shown on the plans, and unless otherwise provided on the plans or by authorization, bends should be made in accordance with the following requirements.

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Screeds This is an essential tool to help level the concrete surface. Most concreters will use the hand held screed, as it is cheaper and simple to use. Mechanised screeds are becoming more popular as the prices come down and they give an excellent finish if the initial raking and shoveling has been up to scratch.

Bullfloats and finishing floats These are tools used to finish a concrete surface by making it smooth. A float is used after the surface has been made level using a screed. In addition to removing surface imperfections floating will compact the concrete as preparation for further steps.

Magnesium trowel and pointed finishing trowels These trowels are specially designed to use and achieve a very smooth concrete finish. The rounded or pointed edge helps get into corners. The stainless steel pointed trowel compliments the above finishing trowel whilst the “mag” trowel compliments the bullfloat.

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Edging tools These are needed to round of an edge so that it will not chip or break away and also to give an expansion joint as required. You must wait until the concrete has almost set before using them.

Concreters power float or “helicopters” When you have the concrete in flat and level, resist the temptation to play about with it. You won't improve it any by working over it with a steel float if it is not ready. When the shine has gone off the surface that is the bleed water has dried up, and it is firming up enough that it will support the pressure of a steel float without it digging in, this is the time to start the final finish. The time gap between the finishing the bullfloat work and starting the final steel float varies from job to job of course.

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Extension Leads Protect the extension leads so that they do not get damaged by other working in the vicinity. If wheel barrows or vehicles are required to run over the leads, protect them with two boards spaced apart to protect the lead. Better still keep them up off the road or walk ways out of danger.

Brooms A broom is an essential piece of equipment. A tidy worksite involves keeping areas swept clean of mud, dirt and rubble after the job or by brooming the concrete to achieve a non-slip surface.

Wheel Barrow Wheel barrows come in various size and quality. They are ideal for moving materials such as sand and cement or concrete on a building site.

NOTE: All tools and equipment should be cleaned and stored in the appropriate place after use each day.

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PLANS AND SPECIFICATIONS Plans are drawn to accurately describe a particular object or building to all interested parties before it is constructed. If accurate plans are prepared then the proposed building will be fully understood by the builder and trades persons who will build it. Everyone has to work to some sort of plan, in order to meet the customer’s requirements. On large construction jobs, very detailed plans are needed. On smaller jobs the plans are not as detailed. They still give information such as: • What you are making, including sizes and design • The materials to use • Where to install the product, if required • How to install the product. Information Found on Plans Plans will show: • The location and size of the spaces in the building • The materials that are to be used • The location of the building on the site • Special fittings and finishes • In some cases the layout of services e.g. power and gas. Who Draws Plans? Trained drafters prepare the detailed plans that builders use. Drafters are trained to draw the plans following a set of standard guidelines used by everybody in the drafting profession.

SPECIFICATION The specification forms part of the Tender Documents and ultimately part of the Contract Documents. The Australian National Building Specifications Systems (NATSPEC) is designed as a guide specification for building works. Most house building is performed using a standard Home Building Specification prepared by the Housing Industry Association or the Master Builders Association of the respective State. These specification documents contain a general building specification, along with an accompanying Schedule or Supplement compiled to cater for the needs and requirements of the individual proprietors for their specific house. You should always check plans and specifications prior to work commencing to determine:

Concreters will find information relating to their trade such as: • Concrete thickness • Type of concrete to be used • Patterns or designs • Type of finish • Surface preparations and finishes; • Any other information that may be relevant; and • Extent of work

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History François Coignet was a French industrialist of the nineteenth century, a pioneer in the development of structural, prefabricated and reinforced concrete. Coignet was the first to use iron-reinforced concrete as a technique for constructing building structures. In 1853 Coignet built the first iron reinforced concrete structure, a four-story house at 72 rue Charles Michels in the suburbs of Paris. Coignet's descriptions of reinforcing concrete suggests that he did not do it for means of adding strength to the concrete but for keeping walls in monolithic construction from overturning. In 1854, English builder William B. Wilkinson reinforced the concrete roof and floors in the two-storey house he was constructing. His positioning of the reinforcement demonstrated that, unlike his predecessors, he had knowledge of tensile stresses.[4][5][6] Joseph Monier, a French gardener and known to be one of the principal inventors of reinforced concrete, was granted a patent for reinforced flowerpots by means of mixing a wire mesh to a mortar shell. In 1877, Monier was granted another patent for a more advanced technique of reinforcing concrete columns and girders with iron rods placed in a grid pattern. Though Monier undoubtedly knew reinforcing concrete would improve its inner cohesion, it is less known if he even knew how much reinforcing actually improved concrete's tensile strength.

Coignet’s early steel reinforcement schedules and plan for a job & next page those of Hennebique

Before 1877 the use of concrete construction, though dating back to the Roman Empire and reintroduced in the mid to late 1800s, was not yet a proven scientific technology. American New Yorker Thaddeus Hyatt published a report titled An Account of Some Experiments with Portland- Cement-Concrete Combined with Iron as a Building Material, with Reference to Economy of Metal in Construction and for Security against Fire in the Making of Roofs, Floors, and Walking Surfaces where he stated his experiments on the behavior of reinforced concrete. His work played a major role in the evolution of concrete construction as a proven and studied science. Without Hyatt's work, more dangerous trial and error methods would have largely been depended on for the advancement in the technology.

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The above structures - only possible with reinforced concrete, on the right reo before and after concreting

G. A. Wayss was a German civil engineer and a pioneer of the iron and steel concrete construction. In 1879 Wayss bought the German rights to Monier's patents and in 1884 started the first commercial use for reinforced concrete in his firm Wayss & Freytag. Up until the 1890s Wayss and his firm greatly contributed to the advancement of Monier's system of reinforcing and established it as a well-developed scientific technology.

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Ernest L. Ransome was an English-born engineer and early innovator of the reinforced concrete techniques in the end of the 19th century. With the knowledge of reinforced concrete developed during the previous 50 years, Ransome innovated nearly all styles and techniques of the previous known inventors of reinforced concrete. Ransome's key innovation was to twist the reinforcing steel bar improving bonding with the concrete. Gaining increasing fame from his concrete constructed buildings Ransome was able to build two of the first reinforced concrete bridges in North America. One of the first concrete buildings constructed in the United States, was a private home, designed by William Ward in 1871. The home was designed to be fireproof for his wife. One of the first skyscrapers made with reinforced concrete was the 16-storey, Ingalls Building in Cincinnati, constructed in 1904.

Above mechanical steel wire tying device and right in harder to get at places Use in Construction Many different types of structures and components of structures can be built using reinforced concrete including slabs, walls, beams, columns, foundations, frames and more. Reinforced concrete can be classified as precast or cast-in-place concrete. Designing and implementing the most efficient floor system is key to creating optimal building structures. Small changes in the design of a floor system can have significant impact on material costs, construction schedule, ultimate strength, operating costs, occupancy levels and end use of a building. Without reinforcement, constructing modern structures with concrete material would not be possible. Behaviour of reinforced concrete Materials Concrete is a mixture of coarse (stone or brick chips) and fine (generally sand or crushed stone) aggregates with a paste of binder material (usually Portland cement) and water. When cement is mixed with a small amount of water, it hydrates to form microscopic opaque crystal lattices encapsulating and locking the aggregate into a rigid structure. The aggregates used for making concrete should be free from harmful substances like organic impurities, silt, clay, lignite etc. Typical concrete mixes have high resistance to compressive stresses (about 4,000 psi (28 MPa)); however, any appreciable tension (e.g., due to bending) will break the microscopic rigid lattice, resulting in cracking and separation of the concrete. For this reason, typical non-reinforced concrete must be well supported to prevent the development of tension. If a material with high strength in tension, such as steel, is placed in concrete, then the composite material, reinforced concrete, resists not only compression but also bending and other direct tensile actions. A reinforced concrete section where the concrete resists the compression and steel resists the tension can be made into almost any shape and size for the construction industry.

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Key characteristics Three physical characteristics give reinforced concrete its special properties: The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is similar to that of steel, eliminating large internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction. When the cement paste within the concrete hardens, this conforms to the surface details of the steel, permitting any stress to be transmitted efficiently between the different materials. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to further improve the bond or cohesion between the concrete and steel. The alkaline chemical environment provided by the alkali reserve (KOH, NaOH) and the portlandite (calcium hydroxide) contained in the hardened cement paste causes a passivating film to form on the surface of the steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions. When the cement paste is exposed to the air and meteoric water reacts with the atmospheric CO2, portlandite and the Calcium Silicate Hydrate (CSH) of the hardened cement paste become progressively carbonated and the high pH gradually decreases from 13.5 – 12.5 to 8.5, the pH of water in equilibrium with calcite (calcium carbonate) and the steel is no longer passivated. As a rule of thumb, only to give an idea on orders of magnitude, steel is protected at pH above ~11 but starts to corrode below ~10 depending on steel characteristics and local physico- chemical conditions when concrete becomes carbonated. Carbonatation of concrete along with chloride ingress are amongst the chief reasons for the failure of reinforcement bars in concrete. The relative cross-sectional area of steel required for typical reinforced concrete is usually quite small and varies from 1% for most beams and slabs to 6% for some columns. Reinforcing bars are normally round in cross-section and vary in diameter. Reinforced concrete structures sometimes have provisions such as ventilated hollow cores to control their moisture & humidity. Distribution of concrete (in spite of reinforcement) strength characteristics along the cross-section of vertical reinforced concrete elements is inhomogeneous. Mechanism of composite action of reinforcement and concrete A heavy reinforced concrete column, seen before and after the concrete has been cast in place around the rebar cage. The reinforcement in a RC structure, such as a steel bar, has to undergo the same strain or deformation as the surrounding concrete in order to prevent discontinuity, slip or separation of the two materials under load. Maintaining composite action requires transfer of load between the concrete and steel. The direct stress is transferred from the concrete to the bar interface so as to

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change the tensile stress in the reinforcing bar along its length, this load transfer is achieved by means of bond (anchorage) and is idealized as a continuous stress field that develops in the vicinity of the steel-concrete interface. Anchorage (bond) in concrete: Codes of specifications Because the actual bond stress varies along the length of a bar anchored in a zone of tension, current international codes of specifications use the concept of development length rather than bond stress. The main requirement for safety against bond failure is to provide a sufficient extension of the length of the bar beyond the point where the steel is required to develop its yield stress and this length must be at least equal to its development length. However, if the actual available length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages must be provided, such as cogs or hooks or mechanical end plates. The same concept applies to lap splice length mentioned in the codes where splices (overlapping) provided between two adjacent bars in order to maintain the required continuity of stress in the splice zone.

Anti-corrosion measures In wet and cold climates, reinforced concrete for roads, bridges, parking structures and other structures that may be exposed to deicing salt may benefit from use of corrosion-resistant reinforcement such as uncoated, low carbon/chromium (micro composite), epoxy-coated, hot dip galvanised or stainless steel rebar. Good design and a well-chosen concrete mix will provide additional protection for many applications. Uncoated, low carbon/chromium rebar looks similar to standard carbon steel rebar due to its lack of a coating; its highly corrosion-resistant features are inherent in the steel microstructure. It can be identified by the unique specified mill marking on its smooth, dark charcoal finish. Epoxy coated rebar can easily be identified by the light green colour of its epoxy coating. Hot dip galvanized rebar may be bright or dull grey depending on length of exposure, and stainless rebar exhibits a typical white metallic sheen that is readily distinguishable from carbon steel reinforcing bar.

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Reinforcement. Another, cheaper way of protecting rebars is coating them with zinc phosphate. Zinc phosphate slowly reacts with calcium cations and the hydroxyl anions present in the cement pore water and forms a stable hydroxyapatite layer. Penetrating sealants typically must be applied some time after curing. Sealants include paint, plastic foams, films and aluminum foil, felts or fabric mats sealed with tar, and layers of bentonite clay, sometimes used to seal roadbeds. Corrosion inhibitors, such as calcium nitrite [Ca(NO2)2], can also be added to the water mix before pouring concrete. Generally, 1–2 wt. % of [Ca(NO2)2] with respect to cement weight is needed to prevent corrosion of the rebars. The nitrite anion is a mild oxidizer that oxidizes the soluble and mobile ferrous ions (Fe2+) present at the surface of the corroding steel and causes them to precipitate as an insoluble ferric hydroxide (Fe(OH)3). This causes the passivation of steel at the anodic oxidation sites. Nitrite is a much more active corrosion inhibitor than nitrate, which is a less powerful oxidizer of the divalent iron.

Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars is used instead of conventional reinforcing bars to strengthen the concrete and protect against corrosion. The epoxy coating is applied in a factory to the steel prior to shipping. Epoxy-Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars may be used in any concrete subjected to corrosive conditions. These may include exposure to deicing salts or marine waters, Epoxy coated rebar is utilized in the following structures: Pavement Marine structures Repair work Parking Structures Bridges

Reinforcement and terminology of beams A beam bends under bending moment, resulting in a small curvature. At the outer face (tensile face) of the curvature the concrete experiences tensile stress, while at the inner face (compressive face) it experiences compressive stress. A singly reinforced beam is one in which the concrete element is only reinforced near the tensile face and the reinforcement, called tension steel, is designed to resist the tension. A doubly reinforced beam is one in which besides the tensile reinforcement the concrete element is also reinforced near the compressive face to help the concrete resist compression. The latter reinforcement is called compression steel. When the compression zone of a concrete is inadequate to resist the compressive moment (positive moment), extra reinforcement has to be provided if the architect limits the dimensions of the section. An under-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tensile reinforcement is smaller than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (under-reinforced at tensile face). When the reinforced concrete element is subject to increasing bending moment, the tension steel yields while the concrete does not reach its ultimate failure condition. As the tension steel yields and stretches, an "under-reinforced" concrete also yields in a ductile manner, exhibiting a large deformation and warning before its ultimate failure. In this case the yield stress of the steel governs the design. An over-reinforced beam is one in which the tension capacity of the tension steel is greater than the combined compression capacity of the concrete and the compression steel (over-reinforced at tensile face). So the "over-reinforced concrete" beam fails by crushing of the compressive-

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zone concrete and before the tension zone steel yields, which does not provide any warning before failure as the failure is instantaneous. A balanced-reinforced beam is one in which both the compressive and tensile zones reach yielding at the same imposed load on the beam, and the concrete will crush and the tensile steel will yield at the same time. This design criterion is however as risky as over-reinforced concrete, because failure is sudden as the concrete crushes at the same time of the tensile steel yields, which gives a very little warning of distress in tension failure. Steel-reinforced concrete moment-carrying elements should normally be designed to be under- reinforced so that users of the structure will receive warning of impending collapse. The characteristic strength is the strength of a material where less than 5% of the specimen shows lower strength. The design strength or nominal strength is the strength of a material, including a material- safety factor. The value of the safety factor generally ranges from 0.75 to 0.85 in Permissible stress design. The ultimate limit state is the theoretical failure point with a certain probability. It is stated under factored loads and factored resistances.

Collapse due to corrosion Common failure modes of steel reinforced concrete Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete. When rebar corrodes, the oxidation products (rust) expand and tends to flake, cracking the concrete and unbonding the rebar from the concrete. Typical mechanisms leading to durability problems are discussed below. Mechanical failure Cracking of the concrete section is nearly impossible to prevent; however, the size and location of cracks can be limited and controlled by appropriate reinforcement, control joints, curing methodology and concrete mix design. Cracking can allow moisture to penetrate and corrode the reinforcement. This is a serviceability failure in limit state design. Cracking is normally the result of an inadequate quantity of rebar, or rebar spaced at too great a distance. The concrete then cracks either under excess loading, or due to internal effects such as early thermal shrinkage while it cures. Ultimate failure leading to collapse can be caused by crushing the concrete, which occurs when compressive stresses exceed its strength, by yielding or failure of the rebar when bending or shear stresses exceed the strength of the reinforcement, or by bond failure between the concrete and the rebar.

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Fiber-reinforced concrete Fiber reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber- reinforced normal concrete is mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can be considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pillars, foundations, etc.), either alone or with hand-tied rebars. Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass, or plastic fibers) is less expensive than hand-tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times. The shape, dimension, and length of the fiber are important. A thin and short fiber, for example short, hair- shaped glass fiber, is only effective during the first hours after pouring the concrete (its function is to reduce cracking while the concrete is stiffening), but it will not increase the concrete tensile strength. A normal-size fiber for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45 mm length—steel or plastic) will increase the concrete's tensile strength. Steel is the strongest commonly available fiber, and comes in different lengths (30 to 80 mm in Europe) and shapes (end-hooks). Steel fibers can only be used on surfaces that can tolerate or avoid corrosion and rust stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced with other materials. Glass fiber is inexpensive and corrosion-proof, but not as ductile as steel. Recently, spun basalt fiber, long available in Eastern Europe, has become available in the U.S. and Western Europe. Basalt fibre is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically has not resisted the alkaline environment of Portland cement well enough to be used as direct reinforcement. New materials use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the cement. The premium fibers are graphite-reinforced plastic fibers, which are nearly as strong as steel, lighter in weight, and corrosion-proof. Some experiments have had promising early results with carbon nanotubes, but the material is still far too expensive for any building.

Checking the reinforcement schedule before sign off

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SPECIFICATION AND INSTALLATION OF GALVANIZED REINFORCEMENT Reinforcing bar such as that manufactured under the ACRS certification scheme meets the requirements of Australian Standard AS/NZS4671, Grade 500N. These properties are retained after galvanizing and are altered only marginally on bars bent prior to galvanizing. Properties of galvanized Grade 500N bar Tensile properties: No change from ungalvanized condition Bending properties: No change from ungalvanized condition Toughness: Similar to ungalvanized GALVANIZING PRE-BENT GRADE 500N BAR Grade 500N reinforcing bar bent prior to galvanizing remains ductile, allowing straightening and re-bending. The following minimum diameters (for 90° bends) are recommended in AS3600 if subsequent straightening* of the bar is required. Up to 16 mm dia: 5d Greater than 20 mm dia: 8d *Re-bending from these bend diameters may cause cracking of the galvanized coating. Grade 500N bar that has been bent, galvanized and straightened in accordance with the above practices retains the full yield and tensile strength of the original bar. Tensile elongation may be slightly reduced, but still easily meets the requirements of AS/NZS 4671 Do not use heat for bending or re-bending The use of heat for bending or re-bending galvanized Grade 500N or any other reinforcing bar should be avoided due to the possibility of the zinc coating causing liquid metal embrittlement. Similarly, should welding of galvanized bar be required, the galvanized coating should first be removed by pickling, grinding or grit blasting. Where possible, bend after galvanizing The galvanizing of straight bars is easier and more economical. Transport costs are lower, and special bend configurations cannot be lost or misplaced during handling and storage. BENDING, RE-BENDING AFTER GALVANIZING Although the bendability of galvanized Grade 500N bar is only marginally altered from that of uncoated bar, to minimize cracking of the galvanized coating the following minimum bend diameters (for 90° bends) are recommended in AS 3600. Up to 16 mm dia: 5d Greater than 16 mm dia: 8d EFFECT OF BENDING ON THE COATING Some cracking or flaking of the galvanized coating may occur at bends using smaller diameters than those recommended above. Any damage to the galvanized coating should be repaired using a suitable zinc-rich paint in accordance with AS/NZS 4680. Cut ends of galvanized bars should also be repaired. SPECIFYING GALVANIZED REINFORCEMENT Reinforcing steel should be specified to comply with Australian Standard AS/NZS 4671 “Steel Reinforcing Materials” and galvanized in accordance with AS/NZS 4680 ‘Hot-dip galvanized (zinc) coatings on fabricated ferrous articles’, and GAA’s standard specification for hot-dip galvanized steel. GALVANIZED STEEL REINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE Hot dip galvanizing is a viable means of protecting reinforcement, particularly where the durability of concrete cannot be guaranteed. Its use should be considered for harsh exposure conditions, precast construction and prestige facades where long life, freedom from rust staining and low maintenance are important criteria. Rust-stained surfaces and cracking and spalling of concrete in recently completed structures demonstrate the wide need to protect steel reinforcement. Current Practice Note 17 published by and available from the Concrete Institute of Australia concludes that “Wherever there are serious doubts that (impermeable concrete) will be achieved

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and maintained for the design life of the structure, then galvanizing should be given serious consideration”. Galvanized coatings provide important advantages for the protection of reinforcement. Research and practical experience since the 1950s have shown the corrosion resistance of galvanized steel reinforcement to be greatly superior to uncoated steel, while the bond strengths of galvanized and black steel bars to concrete are not significantly different. The corrosion protection of the galvanized coating ensures that the design strength of concrete is maintained and the possibility of surface rust staining and eventual corrosion of reinforcement and spalling of concrete is removed. Steel accessories for use in reinforced concrete structures, particularly fittings and inserts which may be partially exposed, are susceptible to the effects of corrosion and should be galvanized. Where only parts of a reinforced concrete element require the reinforcement to be galvanized, such as the external mesh of a precast panel or the top mat of a slab, and black steel is to be used elsewhere in the element, it is vital that the steel be placed in strict compliance with the design requirements. If galvanized bars are placed in contact with black bars in areas prone to corrosion, there is a likelihood that the galvanizing will attempt to sacrificially protect the uncoated bars, resulting in a reduction in the life of the galvanized coating. However, this effect is likely to be observed only in situations where the galvanic couple – the connection between the galvanized and the black steel – is prone to corrosion such as in areas of reduced cover to the reinforcement or poor compaction or cracking (i.e. overall poor quality) of the concrete. To ensure that this is not a durability concern, it is recommended that where particular parts of RC elements are to utilize galvanizing, all steel in that area should be galvanized including tie wire, inserts and bar chairs. Alternatively, plastic coated ties should be used. Further, any point of connection to uncoated steel should be deeply embedded in the concrete to ensure that both the steel and the galvanized coating are maintained in their respective passive state. Under these conditions, neither the steel nor the galvanizing will be prone to corrosion. CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT Corrosion of steel reinforcing bars inevitably weakens concrete members, reducing load bearing capacity and safety factors. In extreme cases, failure of reinforced concrete members can occur, partly because of loss of strength due to corrosion of the reinforcement itself, and partly because of the breaking up of the concrete surrounding the reinforcement. When steel reinforcement corrodes, the corrosion product occupies more than three times the volume of the original steel, exerting great disruptive tensile stress on the surrounding concrete, leading to further cracking, more weather access and further corrosion. In mild cases rust staining occurs. In more serious cases, severe spalling of concrete may occur and ultimately concrete members may fail completely.

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Steps in the corrosion of uncoated steel reinforcing bars. Galvanized rebar is not subject to this effect and retains full bond strength to concrete. In normal circumstances uncoated steel reinforcing bars give satisfactory service provided the following requirements are maintained: 1. The design provides for adequate concrete cover over the steel reinforcement. 2. Precise placement of reinforcement is maintained. 3. Uniformly high quality concrete is used. 4. Complete compaction of concrete is attained with no voids or pockets. It is sometimes impractical or impossible to achieve all these requirements and depending on exposure conditions, corrosion of uncoated reinforcement may begin. The benefits of galvanizing reinforcement include: • Protection to the steel during storage and construction prior to placing the concrete. • Diminished effect of variations in concrete quality. • Safeguards against poor workmanship, especially misplacement of reinforcement, poor compaction, and inadequate curing. • Delayed initiation of corrosion and the onset of cracking. • Reduced likelihood of surface staining. • Increased structural life of concrete, particularly where chloride contamination is likely. FACTORS DETERMINING THE DURABILITY OF REINFORCEMENT ENVIRONMENT The external environment of the concrete provides the agents which commonly cause corrosion in reinforcement: oxygen, water, carbon dioxide and chloride ions. Marine structures and structures close to coastal waters are particularly at risk from corrosion of reinforcement due to the ingress of chloride ions from sea spray and salt-laden air. Away from the sea coast most corrosion of reinforcement in concrete is due to the process of carbonation, which reduces the alkalinity of the surrounding concrete. This process can occur at any geographic location. The rate of carbonation is at a maximum when the relative humidity is about 50 per cent, and increases with increasing temperature. Surveys have shown that the corrosion problem in relatively new buildings is worst in coastal areas.

Chloride tolerance. Though zinc can be depassivated and attacked in the presence of chloride ions, the tolerance of galvanized reinforcement to chloride depassivation is substantially higher than that of black steel. In a survey of a number of long-serving marine structures* galvanized bars were shown to have been exposed to chloride contents as high as 2.2% (by approximate weight of cement) over periods of 10-20 years, with less than 10% loss of original coating thickness and no record of failure. This should be compared to chloride levels in the range of 0.2-0.3% by weight of cement leading to severe corrosion of black steel in similar circumstances. *Tonini, DE and Cook, AR (1978) ‘The performance of galvanised reinforcement in high chloride environments – field study reports.’ International Corrosion Forum, NACE, Houston.

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QUALITY OF CONCRETE In preventing corrosion of reinforcement, the most critical property of concrete is permeability. The degree of permeability determines the extent and rate of the diffusion of chloride ions and carbon dioxide through the concrete. Permeability is a function of mix design, compaction and curing.

DEPTH OF COVER Lack of concrete cover for reinforcement has been identified as a major problem associated with ‘failures’ in high rise buildings.* In a survey of 95 Sydney buildings ranging in height from 5 to 36 storeys and aged between 2 and 17 years, the average depth of concrete cover at sites where spalling occurred was 5.45mm. The maximum depth of cover at any failure point was 18 mm compared with recommended covers to AS 3600 ‘Concrete structures’ in the range 25 – 30 mm, depending on the type of member. * Marosszeky, M and Sade, D (1986). “Concrete durability – the problem of reinforcement corrosion and improving workmanship”. Building Research Centre, University of NSW. CRACKS IN CONCRETE The type and size of cracks have an important influence on durability of concrete. Cracks caused by shrinkage or thermal stresses may contribute significantly to reinforcement corrosion, particularly when they run parallel to reinforcing bars and are close to the concrete surface. Crack widths of less than 0.1 mm are generally regarded as not causing significant corrosion risk, provided cover is adequate and the structure is not exposed to highly corrosive environments. Flexural cracks are not generally a problem as they decrease in width from a maximum at the surface and become narrower at the level of the reinforcing steel. SURFACE TREATMENT OF CONCRETE In the production of architectural finishes the concrete surface is sometimes washed or treated to expose the aggregate. These practices are not recommended if there is any possibility of aggressive chemicals such as acids or salts being left behind to permeate the concrete. Etching, washing and mechanical concrete surface finishing may also result in loss of the valuable cement-rich paste which forms the surface layer of the concrete, reducing carbonation resistance and depth of cover. REACTION BETWEEN GALVANIZED COATINGS AND CONCRETE During initial contact of galvanized reinforcement with wet concrete, the outer zinc layers of the galvanized coating react to form stable insoluble zinc salts. Attack ceases as the concrete hardens and the galvanized coating remains intact.

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CORROSION PROTECTION PROVIDED BY GALVANIZING In areas where the reinforcement may be exposed accidentally due to thin or porous concrete, cracking, or damage to the concrete, the galvanized coating provides extended protection. Since the corrosion product of zinc occupies a smaller volume than the corrosion products of iron, any small degree of corrosion which may occur to the galvanized coating causes little or no disruption to the surrounding concrete mass. Studies were made at the Structural Engineering Materials Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley California, of the effects of corrosion on reinforced concrete test prisms. Minimum concrete cover For concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth (such as footings): 80mm For concrete exposed to weather or earth (such as basement walls) 6 bars and larger: 50mm It is essential that the steel reinforcement bars are surrounded sufficient impermeable concrete to protect them from corrosion, and to allow the combined strength of the reinforcement and concrete to be effective.

From the diagram above, we can see how the process unfolds. When the binding has set, the steel bars are placed into position. The bars are kept the correct distance from the surface by spacers. When the formwork is erected and steel fixed the concrete can be poured. When the concrete has reached the required strength the formwork can be removed. The cover blocks have ensured that the steel has sufficient protection from the elements.

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If the steel had been placed too close to the surface and the concrete had been poured then over time the steel may become exposed to moisture and corrosion will commence. Spacers can be made from plastic, mortar or steel. Plastic spacers are made to fit particular bar size and give specified depths of cover. Small mortar blocks are also commonly used which are tied to the reinforcement bars using soft iron binding wire. The ends of these ties should be bent away from the surface of the concrete, otherwise the wire may facilitate the corrosion of the reinforcement. Steel spacers can be used, but only when the structure is not in a corrosive atmosphere or be exposed to water. The required amount of cover will always be specified on the design drawings, but no time should the cover be less than the maximum size of aggregate plus 5mm. PRE-CONCRETE CHECKS FOR FORMWORK: Before the concrete is poured into the formwork, it must be checked by someone who has been trained to inspect formwork. Depending on how big or complicated the pour is, the inspection may just take few minutes or it could take hours. Only when the formwork has been approved, may the pour take place. Formwork pressures are function of height (including the height from which concrete is dropped into the forms) and are affected by concrete workability, rate of stiffening and rate of placing. One task of the temporary works coordinator is to consider such factors as ambient temperatures and concrete composition, when calculating maximum permissible rate of concrete placing. Exceeding this limit may lead to unacceptable formwork deflections, loss of grout / concrete at joints, or even collapse. The cost of remedial work due to formwork deflection will usually exceed the original cost of doing the job properly.

Below are the checks that should be verified before pouring begins: Is the formwork erected in accordance with the approved drawings? Is the formwork restrained against movement in all directions? Is it correctly aligned and leveled? Are all the props plum, and at the right spacing? Are bolts and wedges secure against any possible loosening? Has the correct number of ties been used? Are they in the right places and properly tightened? Are all inserts and cast-in fixings in the right position and secure? Have all stop ends been properly secured? Have all the joints been sealed to stop grout loss (especially where the formwork is against the kicker)? Can the formwork be struck without damaging the concrete? Are the forms clean and free from rubbish such as tie wire cuttings, and odd bits of timber or metal? Has the release agents been applied, and is it the correct one? Are all projecting bars straight and correctly positioned? Is there proper access for placing the concrete and compacting? Have all the toe-boards and guard rails been provided?

RELEASE AGENTS FOR FORMWORK: Formwork needs to be treated with a release agent so that it can be removed easily after the concrete has set. Failure to use a release agent can result in the formwork sticking to the concrete, which may lead to damage of the concrete surface when it is prised off. A single application of release agent is all that is required when forms are then used. Care must be taken to cover all the surface that will come in contact with the surface of concrete. However, if there is an excess of release agent, it may cause staining or retardation of the concrete. There are different release agents depending on what material is used for the formwork. The three most common release agents for formwork are:

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Neat oils with surfactants: used mainly on steel surfaces, but also suitable for timber and plywood. Mould cream emulsions: good general purpose release agents for use on timber and plywood. Chemical release agents: recommended for high quality work, applied by spray to all types of form face.

Pre-Concrete Checks for Reinforcement: The pre-concrete check for reinforcement essentially comes in two parts. The first part is a visual inspection by the clerk of works or equivalent.

Using a steel tape, cover thickness will be checked and any spacers that have fallen off or been broken will need to be replaced. The clerk or equivalent will be looking to see that the reinforcement bars are free of excessive rust and not covered in mud from foot traffic. Similarly, the bottom of the concrete pour must be free of debris including the cutoffs from the steel tying bars. The clerk will also check for under-bent bars that may mail to allow the correct cover and that the bars are at the correct spacing.

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In the above fig, left side images shows reinforcement have not been placed correctly. Right side images shows correct way of placing of reinforcement. The second part is carried out by a surveyor, who will check the steel levels against the required levels from the design drawings. If these levels are satisfactory and the clerk has completed the visual checks then the pour will proceed.

Lapping reinforcement All forms of steel reinforcement must be lapped in accordance with AS 2870 requirements. The overlaps should be held together with tie wire.

Trench mesh laps Where trench maps are joined end to end, they need to be overlapped by at least 500 mm. Where they overlap at T or L intersections the overlap should be the width of the trench mesh.

Square mesh lap Square mesh lap has to be overlapped by at least 225 mm.

Reinforcing bar lap Reinforcing bar laps need to be overlapped by at least 500 mm.

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Positioning What's important to remember is that the design of the structure is based on having the steel in the right place. Incorrect reinforcing steel placement can and has led to serious concrete structural failures. For example, lowering the top bars or raising the bottom bars by 15mm more than that specified in a 150mm deep slab could reduce its load-carrying capacity by 20%. Placing reinforcement atop a layer of fresh concrete and then pouring more on top is not an acceptable method for positioning. You must use reinforcing bar supports, which are made of steel wire, precast concrete, or plastic. Chairs and supports are available in various heights to support specific reinforcing bar sizes and positions. In general, plastic accessories are less expensive than metal supports. The Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute's Ready Reference Reinforcing Steel Resource Guide or the classic Placing Reinforcing Bars has three tables that show most of the currently available supports in the various materials and describing the situation where each is most effectively used. Simply placing the bars on supports is not enough. Reinforcing steel must be secured to prevent displacement during construction activities and concrete placement. This is usually accomplished with tie wire. Tie wire comes in 2-3kg coils. Wires are placed in a wire holder or a reel is suspended from the worker's belt for accessibility. The wire is typically 16½- or 16-gauge black, soft, annealed wire, although heavier reinforcement may require 15- or 14-gauge wire to hold the proper position of the rebar. A variety of tie types (ties are basically wire twists for connecting intersecting bars), from snap ties to saddle ties, are used in the concrete reinforcing industry. CRSI's Placing Reinforcing Bars illustrates the types of ties and describes the situation where each is most effectively used. For tying epoxy-coated bars, use PVC ties only. Proprietary snap-on ties are also available, such as the Speed-Clip Rebar Tie from Con-Tie Inc. This is a simple device that attaches rebar in parallel or at any angle by hand. No tools are required. When tying bars, there is no need to tie every intersection—every fourth or fifth is normally sufficient. Remember that the tie contributes no strength to the structure, so more are necessary only when the steel might become displaced during concrete placement. Be sure to keep the ends of the tie wires away from the surface of the concrete where they could rust. For preassembled mats or reinforcing steel, tie enough intersections to make the assembly rigid enough for placing—typically every intersection around the outside and every other in the middle of the mat. Tack welding the intersections is typically not permitted, because it reduces the cross section of the bars. Tips Here are some things to remember about placing rebar: Bar supports are not intended as support for construction equipment such as concrete pumps, buggies, or laser screeds. Spacing of bar supports depends upon the size of the reinforcing bar being supported. For example, for a one-way solid slab with 8mm bars, high chairs are used at 1m centers. Placing reinforcement onto layers of fresh concrete or adjusting the position of bars or welded wire reinforcement during concrete placement should not be permitted. The ill-advised practice in slab construction of placing reinforcement on the subgrade and pulling it up during concrete placement is called “hooking.” Spacers for vertical concrete (wall construction) have traditionally been optional. Side form spacers include double-headed nails, precast concrete blocks (dobies), and proprietary all-plastic shapes. The steelfixer, steelfixer foreman, contractor, and inspector all have the responsibility to see that the reinforcing bars in concrete construction are properly placed. Deviation from specified location: In slabs and walls, other than stirrups and ties ±100mm.

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Australian Codes, Standards and References Standards Australia is responsible for preparing and publishing those standards that relate to building materials and design. It is assumed that the user will have access to a copy of the relevant standards. All building construction within each state and territory is controlled by their own building regulations. Cross-references to other Australian Standards incorporates them into their regulations. The Building Code of Australia, first published in 1988, was originally intended to provide uniformity of design and construction throughout Australia. Because each state and territory can incorporate its own special rules, designs prepared outside your state may require checking because of differing interpretations. Other national bodies such as the Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia (SRIA), the Concrete Institute of Australia (CIA) and Austroads prepare information helpful to the design of reinforced and pre-stressed concrete. Further information may be obtained from the appropriate organisation in each state. Australian Standards relevant to steel reinforcement (as at November 2008) AS3600 Concrete Structures (2009) AS/NZS 4671 Steel Reinforcing for Concrete (2001) AS3679.1 Hot-Rolled Structural Steel Bars and Sections (1996) AS1391 Methods for Tensile Testing of Metals (2007) AS1554.3 Structural Steel Welding Code - Welding of Reinforcing (2008) AS4680 Hot-Dipped Galvanised (Zinc) Coatings on Fabricated Ferrious Articles (2006) AS/NZS 4534 Zinc and Zinc/Aluminium-Alloy Coatings on Steel Wire (2006) ASTM A775M Epoxy Coated Steel Reinforcing Bars, ASTM, Philadelphia, USA (2001) ASTM A934M Epoxy Coated Steel Prefabricated Reinforcing Bars, ASTM, Philadelphia, USA (2001) AS2783 Concrete Swimming Pools Code (1992) AS2870 Residential Slabs and Footings - Construction (2003) AS3850 Tilt-Up Concrete Construction (2003) AS/NZS 1100.501 Technical Drawing - Structural Engineering Drawing (2002) AS3610 Formwork for Concrete (1995) AS/NZS ISO 9001 Quality Management Systems (2008) AS5100 Bridge Design Specification (2004)

Definitions Reinforcement Reinforcement is a general term used in AS3600-2009 Concrete Structures and by designers, reinforcement processors and building contractors. Reinforcement includes deformed bars, plain bars, wire, fabric and steel products, all of which increase the tensile and compressive stress carrying properties of concrete. Steel reinforcement is also the essential contributor towards crack control of concrete structures. Reinforcing Bar A bar is a finished product rolled to close tolerances. Generally regarded as being supplied in straight lengths, it is also manufactured in coiled form. Australian Standard AS/NZS 4671 is a performance standard for reinforcing bars. There is no distinction between: • Methods of manufacture such as coiled-bar or straight-rolled bar • Methods of production such as quench and self temper steels and micro-alloy steels • Hot rolled and cold worked reinforcement Mill-produced lengths of straight bars range from 6 to 18 metres. Availability of lengths varies across Australia.

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Coiled and straight reo bar ready for use

Reinforcing Mesh Mesh is manufactured in flat sheets with bars up to 12 mm diameter, or rolls for fabric with bars up to 5 mm diameter. The sheets are typically 6 metres by 2.4 metres. The fabric consists of reinforcing bar welded in either as square or rectangular grid. Automatic welding machines ensure that the grid of bars has consistent spacing to provide a defined cross-sectional area for designers. The bars are welded electronically using fusion combined with pressure. This fuses the intersecting bars into a homogeneous section without loss of strength or cross sectional area. Most reinforcing fabrics available in Australia are produced from deformed cold rolled bar of grade D500L reinforcement. One of the advantages of cold rolling is that the applied force required to drag the bar through the rolling cassettes provides an automatic check of the bar tensile strength in addition to the quality testing required by AS/NZS 4671.

Above different mesh welding machinery used in its production

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HOT ROLLED, COLD ROLLED AND COLD DRAWN STEEL - A QUICK GUIDE In the production of steel products, steel is molded and reshaped with different machinery at different temperatures. One process is steel rolling, which involves metal stock passing through a pair of rolls. Rolling produces flat steel sheets of a specific thickness, and the process is classified according to the temperature at which the metal is rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, or the temperature at which the grain structure of the metal can be altered, then the process is termed as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. Hot Rolled Steel A product rolled to final shape and tolerances at a temperature of about 1150ºC. The strength properties at room temperatures are obtained by chemistry or by rolling techniques. The finished surface may be plain or deformed. Quite often prior to being rolled, the metal is already hot and above the recrystallization temperature from previous operations. The process removes any induced stresses and grain deformation due to the elevated working temperature. During the cooling process, non-uniformed cooling may occur, which results in residual stress of the product. Hot rolling is used mainly to produce products like sheet metal or simple cross sections, such as rail tracks and I-beams.

Hot rolled bar and coil in production Micro-Alloyed Deformed Bar and Coil This is a low carbon, micro–alloyed high strength hot rolled reinforcing bar. Its strength comes from a small controlled addition of Vanadium, or similar alloying element, to the steel composition during smelting. Available are N12 and N16 coils and N40 and D450N50 mill bars as micro- alloyed bars. Micro-alloyed bars have constant metallurgical properties across their section which gives superior welding characteristics to quench and self tempered bars. The N12 and N16 coils are a continuous length of finished low carbon steel, coiled hot as the final part of the rolling process from a billet. The current maximum size of deformed bar available in Australia in coil form is 16 mm, although 20 mm is available overseas. Coiled bar may be straightened and then cut to length, or straightened and bent to shape in one operation. The surface finish and physical properties allow it to be used in its ‘as rolled’ condition. The coil mass is typically two tonnes. Coils of up to five tonnes are produced. Contistretch Coil Contistretch is a low carbon steel produced from 400MPa feed. Final yield strength is achieved by cold working (stretching). Contistretch is available in N12 and N16 coils and is processed in production facilities to customer requirements. Typical coil weight is three tonnes. Quench and Self Tempered Deformed Bar (QST) This is a low carbon, hot rolled steel which obtains its high strength from a mill heat treatment and tempering process. After the bar is rolled to size and shape, it passes through a water cooling line where the surface layers are quenched to form martensite while the core remains

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austenitic. The bar leaves the cooling line with a temperature gradient through its cross-section. The natural heat within the core flows from the centre to the surface resulting in self tempering of the martensite. The core is still austenitic. Finally, the austenitic core transforms to ferrite and pearlite during the slow cooling of the bar on the cooling bed. The product therefore exhibits a variation in mircostructure in its cross-section with a tough tempered martensite as the surface layer, and a ductile ferrite-pearlite core. Cold Rolling Cold rolling, done often at room temperature, has the added effect of work hardening and strengthening the material thus further improving the material’s mechanical properties. It also improves the surface finish and holds tighter tolerances. However, room temperature steel is less malleable than hot steel, so cold rolling cannot reduce the thickness of a work piece as much as hot rolling in a single pass. Commonly cold-rolled products often include similar hot rolled products like sheets and bars, but are usually smaller. Hard Drawn and Cold Rolled Bar A continuous length of finished material produced from coiled rod having a very low carbon content and a yield stress of approximately 300MPa. The hot rolled rod is subjected to two or more cold rolling operations which produces a circular or triangular cross-section. An additional pass through a set of deforming rollers produces the required surface pattern.

Bar, whether hard drawn or cold rolled, is covered by AS/NZS 4671. Previous codes referred to hard drawn and cold rolled products as wire. Production can be by rolling under intense pressure, or by drawing the rod through a ‘die’ having a diameter smaller than the rod, or both. Rolling followed by drawing provides a smooth surface. During rolling or drawing, the diameter of the rod is reduced to approximately 88% of its original value. This gives a reduction in area of approximately 20-25% with a consequent increase in length. The mass of the original rod and the final wire coil is not changed. The cold work process raises the yield stress of the finished bar to above 500MPa. As a generalisation, cold working rod by drawing or rolling has the following effects on steel: • The yield stress is increased: e.g., from 300 MPa to 500 MPa. • The tensile strength is increased above the original hot rolled value: eg, from 500 MPa to 600 MPa. • The Agt is reduced: e.g., from 20% to 1.5%. • The strain ageing properties become worse. • The effect of rebending may be severe. • Galvanising bent material can increase brittleness.

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Bar produced by cold rolling has the following characteristics: • Close control of quality since the operation is largely automatic. • Deformations can be added during the rolling process. • The cross-section is almost circular allowing good control and thus improved bending accuracy. • The surface appearance is rougher than hard drawn material, but this is of little consequence for reinforcement after it is encased in concrete. Surface roughness improves anchorage in the concrete. • Alternately rolling followed by drawing can provide a smooth surface finish. • Cold rolled wire does not require a lubricant during manufacture, as does drawn wire. Although this lubricant may postpone for a few days the advent of rusting, the fine film of rust which appears on rolled wire soon after exposure to weather is more likely to improve the bond than to reduce it. Indented Wire Here the outer shape is formed firstly by drawing hot rolled rod through a die of circular cross- section, and then a pattern is indented into the surface. This product is common in Europe, but not in Australia or USA. Cold Worked Bars (1957-1983) Cold working is a process by which the final properties of a steel are provided by rolling, twisting, drawing or tensioning a hot rolled steel, or by a combination of two or more of these processes. Between 1957 and 1983, the only high strength steels in common use were cold worked. Before twisting, the Grade 230 bars were either of square section (1957 to1963) or deformed (1963 to 1983). After twisting, the yield stress (at 0.2% proof stress) was 410MPa for design calculations and they were designated as Grade 410C bars. Cold worked bars are no longer produced in Australia and are not included in AS/NZS 4671

Deformations Deformations appear as a raised pattern on the surface of the bar. The overall cross-section should be as circular as possible to facilitate uniform straightening and bending. Deforming the surface is the final rolling operation. The surface pattern consists of transverse deformations and longitudinal ribs. Only the deformation contributes to the anchorage of a bar. The deformation pattern allows considerable scope for steel makers to use additional ribs for product and mill identification. When considering the cross-sectional area or the mass per metre of a bar or wire, the deformation is regarded as a redistribution of the material and not as picture below. A vertical rib used as a mill mark an appendage.

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Grade R250N Plain Rod in Coils This is a continuous length of semi-finished, low carbon steel, coiled hot as the final part of the rolling process. Rod provides feed for material with finer tolerances (e.g., mesh bars), or is manufactured directly into fitments. Rod diameters are not the same as bar sizes: rod is available in 0.5 mm increments in the range 4 mm to 14 mm. Only selected sizes are used for reinforcement as fitments. Grade D500L Deformed Bar and Coil This is a low carbon, deformed 500 MPa steel. The steel is produced in coils by cold rolling, which is straightened to produce bars. D500L bar and coil are available in sizes from 4 mm to 11.9 mm.

D500L deformations and D250N deformations Grade D500L Mesh Most automatically welded reinforcing fabrics in Australia are made of deformed grade D500L bars. The bar diameters for the fabrics typically range from 4 mm to 11.9 mm. D500L fabric is produced in standard 2.4 by 6.0 metre sheets, however purpose built sheets are available. Grade R500N Mesh This is a low carbon, round 500 MPa steel of Ductility Class N. The bar diameter for the mesh is 10mm in both directions. R500N mesh is produced as purpose built sheets to suit project requirements. Grade R250N Plain and D250N Deformed Bars Plain round bars and deformed bars, both of Grade 250, are also manufactured as low carbon, hot rolled steels in straight lengths. D250N bar is available ex-stock in 12 mm only, being primarily supplied for construction of swimming pools. The D250N12 bar is designated as S12 reinforcement. Grade D500N Deformed Bar Grade D500N bar is produced as low carbon, hot rolled deformed bar in straight lengths and in coils. Straight lengths are available from 12 mm to 40 mm diameter. 12 mm and 16 mm diameter D500N bar typically are supplied from coils. Grade D450N Deformed Bar 50 mm straight bar is manufactured as low carbon, hot rolled micro-alloyed steel with a 450 MPa characteristic yield stress. Grade R500N. Grade R500N Plain Rod in Coils Available only in 10 mm.

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Reinforcing Bar Processing The Australian reinforcement industry involves a very short supply chain from steel maker to consumer. There is one producer of reinforcing steel in Australia. Next in the chain are the reinforcement processors/suppliers. Steel outlets sell to the public as well as to building contractors. There is also a well established reseller network which maintain stocks of fabric and other materials. Reinforcement Processing The term “processing”, as used in the reinforcement industry, includes the complete range of operations that translate information on an engineering drawing into usable pieces of steel delivered to the building site. The summary that follows applies to the processing of reinforcing bar: The bar and mesh schedule A document giving details for manufacture, delivery and fixing prepared by a “Scheduler”. The Scheduler reads the engineering and architectural drawings to determine the number, size, length and shape of reinforcement required. The schedule contains most of the instructions that enable the following processes to be carried out. Cutting to length Bar reinforcement is manufactured in stock lengths as straight bars, or in coils for sizes 16 mm and below. One or two stock lengths are held for each bar size. As the dimensions of concrete members rarely match these lengths, the bars must be cut to the required length. Bending to shape After cutting, reinforcement may need to be bent to shape. The required shape is determined by the shape of the concrete outline. The shape is defined by a dimensioned sketch on the schedule and tag.

Reinforcement cut, bent, bundled and tagged and Trailer loaded with reinforcement ready to be delivered to site Bundling and tagging Following bending and/or cutting, bars of similar size and shape are grouped and tied together. A tag identifying the location of the steel in the structure is tied to each bundle. This location, or label, corresponds with the member numbering system shown on the structural drawings. If the structural drawings show insufficient detail to identify the reinforcement location, a marking drawing may be required. Delivery instructions Transport from the factory to the job may be by truck or rail, and in each case requires an identifying tag and associated delivery instructions such as address and customer. Cutting bars to length For bars, the following cutting methods are available:

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Guillotine shear This is a large machine suitable only for factory cutting. Up to 20 smaller diameter bars can be cut at once. Although rough, the ends are suitable for welding, where specified, but not for end- bearing splices.

Guillotine cutting 12mm rebar Diamond-tipped or similar saw Factory mounted, this can produce an accurate neat end for an end-bearing splice. Friction saw A portable saw of this type can be used on site.

Large friction saw cutting a bundle of 16mm rebar

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Oxy-acetylene torch For trimming or removing steel. The heat generated during cutting extends only a short way along the bar and, as such, does not affect either the strength or anchorage of a bar end. Take care to avoid spatter on to adjacent steel during cutting. Bars cut using heat are not suitable for end-butt welding. Manufacturing Tolerances To enable building materials to fit together, an allowance is required to permit minor variations from the exact value specified. This allowance is called a tolerance. Tolerances on reinforcement are given in AS/NZS 4671, Section 7, and AS3600-2009, Section 17.

Economics of Cutting Steel to Length The need to cut scheduled lengths of steel from stock lengths has already been mentioned. Where possible, an order for one scheduled length will be cut from one particular stock length. However, the economics of steel cutting require that minimum scrap is generated. For maximum steel utilisation then, different scheduled lengths are grouped together to be cut from the most economic stock length. Bending Reinforcement to Shape Bar Shapes There are several reasons for bending bars: • Where anchorage cannot be provided to a straight length within the available concrete shape or size, it may be necessary to bend a 180° hook or 90° cog on the end. Hooks and cogs are never scheduled unless they are shown on the engineer’s drawings. • Where continuity of strength is required between two intersecting concrete members, the bar will be bent to allow this stress transfer. Such bends are never scheduled unless they are shown on the engineer’s drawings. • Where ties, stirrups, ligatures or spirals (called ‘fitments’ by the industry) enclose longitudinal bars in a beam or a column, the fitment will be scheduled to match the shape of the surrounding concrete. Mostly the shape is defined by the concrete surface and the specified cover. The actual shape is defined by the scheduler, provided the designer’s intentions are given in the drawings. The designer must indicate if cogged or hooked ends are required. • Where intersecting reinforcement is likely to clash, or where parallel bars require lapping, the scheduler will decide whether or not to provide small offsets. Standardised Bar-Bending Shapes The standard shapes used in Australia are based on a combination of Australian and American standards to utilise the best features of each system. Shapes are not subject to copyright.

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Some typical bent shapes

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AS3600-2009 Addresses Bending of Reinforcement The pin diameters given in Clause 17.2.3 of AS3600-2009 have been selected for very good reasons. Steel is an elastic material, which means that when it is stretched it will return to its original length after the load is released. This is true up to the ‘yield point’. When stretched in tension beyond the yield point, the increase in length of the bar becomes permanent. The bar’s tensile strength has not been reduced however. If this ‘stretched’ bar is stretched again it may, under some circumstances, recover its elastic properties and possibly also have a new yield point. When straight steel is bent a very limited amount, it will spring back to straight. This is because it is still in the elastic range. When a bar is bent to shape during processing, the steel again has been strained beyond its yield point; if it had not, it would have straightened out! Thus all steel bending changes the material from its original state and any investigation of its properties must allow for this. A similar situation exists with bars straightened from a coil. In this case the final properties may differ from those it would have had if it had been supplied straight, but they are the properties of the steel when used in concrete and they must comply with the relevant standards. Excessive bending can be classified as having a pin diameter at or below the bend-test diameter. This can change the metallurgical structure of the steel and can also crush the deformations thus initiating a zone of weakness. The diameter of a bend should not be so large that the hook cannot fit inside the concrete or that it will pull out rather than act as a hook. Nor should it be so small that the pressure between the bend and the concrete will crush the concrete. A compromise value of 5db for general bending has worldwide acceptance. One of the quality control requirements for a reinforcing steel is that it will pass a bend test. For bars, this test is described in AS/NZS 4671. Despite claims made about the degree of bending which can be sustained by some steels in a laboratory, treatment on a building site can be much more severe. For this reason AS3600 prohibits the use of small diameter pins at or below the bend test sizes. Cold weather bending and the occasional on-site ‘adjustment’ also require larger pin sizes. Coated bars are bent about larger pins than uncoated bars. The minimum pin diameters specified for galvanised or epoxy-coated bars are based on three requirements: (i) Firstly, particularly with epoxy-coated bars, damage to the coating is more likely with small pins because of the greater pressure between bar and pin. (ii) Secondly, with galvanised bars, a small bending diameter is more likely to break the zinc surface coating. (iii) Thirdly, the pickling process during hot dip galvanizing can lead to hydrogen embrittlement of the reinforcement. The greater the cold working of the steel, the more susceptible it is to hydrogen embrittlement. The larger pin diameter for galvanised bars and for bars to be galvanised reduces the cold working of the reinforcement. Where there is a problem of fitting a hooked bar into a thin concrete section, it must not be solved by using a smaller pin diameter. Instead, the bar must be rotated, possibly up to 90º, to ensure adequate cover. Cutting and Bending Bars from a Coil Bar 16 mm and smaller is available in coil form, each coil being about 2 tonnes (approximately 2200 metres of N12 bar). Bars are cut from a coil, either singly or in pairs, after passing through a straightener. Handling is the main limit on available length. The straightener often leaves a series of marks on the bar surface, but this does not affect the anchorage properties.

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An alternative machine permits a coiled steel to be straightened and then bent in a continuous operation, after which the bent piece is cut from the coil. The shape and dimensions can be programmed. Bending Bars Cut from Stock Lengths After cutting, a separate operation is used to produce the required shape. Again, depending on bar diameter, one to six bars can be bent at once. Cutting and Bending Mesh Reinforcement mesh can be cut to size in the factory using a guillotine or cut on-site using bolt cutters. Site cutting is slow and very labour intensive. The reinforcing fabric can be bent to suit the concrete profile. The mesh is bent to the required shape using equipment specifically designed to ensure that the bends on each wire are accurate and within construction tolerances.

Mesh bending and cutting machines Heating and Bending Hot bending is not a normal factory operation. It is more likely to be done on-site, generally with poor supervision and inadequate quality control. Since the strength of the steel will be reduced, uncontrolled hot bending is a dangerous practice. As a general rule, heating Grade D500N bars of any type must be avoided at all times. AS3600- 2009 Clause 17.2.3.1 (b) gives a maximum temperature for reinforcement as 600° C. At 600° C the bar is only just starting to change colour. If any colour change is observed whilst heating, the reinforcement should be discarded. If the bar is heated over 450º C, the steel is softened due to changes in the crystalline structure of the metal. Once heated over 450º C the yield strength of the bar is reduced to 250 MPa. The only practical method of monitoring heat in the bar is the use of heat crayons. Galvanised bars should not be hot bent.

Bending bars on site left 10mm note the 90° not quite as good as factory bending and right 2 x 20mm

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Using Bars after Heating Overheating beyond 600°C will alter the structure of the steel. 450°C has been found to be a realistic limit because above this temperature the yield stress, while under load, reduces to 250 MPa. On-Site Rebending Rebending or straightening bars is a common practice on-site. Instructions on a suitable procedure should be given in the structural drawings, even if it is known that such bending will not be needed. A tolerance on straightness should also be provided; an axial deviation of the centre line of one bar diameter along with a directional change of 5° is considered acceptable. Any on-site cold bending should only be done with a proper bar bending tool. Pulling the bar against the edge of the concrete, hitting the bar with a sledge hammer or using a length of pipe damages the surface of the reinforcement, reduces its ductility, can cause breakage of the steel and may cause premature failure of the concrete element. When reinforcement is bent about a curve smaller than the recommended minimum pin diameter, or bent against an edge, the steel is excessively strained on the compression and tension faces. An attempt to straighten a bar bent too tightly may lead to bar failure. On-Site Bending of Reinforcing Mesh Site bending of mesh is usually done by poking a bar through the opening in the mesh, then rolling the bar over to bend the mesh about a cross wire. This is then repeated every two or three openings for the width of the mesh. This practice is not recommended as it bends the reinforcement about an effective pin size of one bar diameter, with the cross wire acting as the bending pin. This is well below the three diameter pin size required for Ductility Class L bars or the four diameter pin size required for Ductility Class N bars in AS3600-2009, Clause 17.2.3.2. On-site bending of reinforcement also tends to be very variable and inaccurate, usually outside construction tolerances.

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Final Advice on Mistreatment of Steel It cannot be stated enough that steel cannot be expected to perform its proper function if it has been mistreated by excessive tight bending or by overheating. Site bending, welding or heating of bars should only be permitted under very strict and competent supervision. A detailed job procedure and quality control system should be employed for site bending, welding or heating of bars. Welding Reinforcement Welding of reinforcement must comply with AS1554.3, Structural Steel Welding, Part 3: Welding of Reinforcing Steel. In general, preheat is not required for welding reinforcing steel. The heat input should be controlled to avoid changing the metallurgical properties of the steel and hydrogen controlled electrodes should be used. Tack welds require a minimum 4 mm throat and a minimum length equal to the diameter of the smaller bar being welded. AS3600-2009 Clause 13.2.1 (f) prohibits welds within 3 db from any part of the reinforcement that has been bent and re-straightened. AS1554.3 Clause 1.7.3 (b) restricts straightening or bending of a bar within 75 mm of a weld location. Special care is required when welding galvanised reinforcement. Welding galvanised reinforcement should be avoided

Mechanical splices Mechanical splices to reinforcing bars are usually achieved using any one of the wide-range of coupling systems available on the Australian market. The most common types of couplers are Ancon Bartec, Erico Lenton and Reidbar. AS3600-2009 does not have any rules governing the adequacy of mechanical splices. Factors that should be considered when selecting a coupler are: • Slip – Most international codes limit the slip in the coupler to 0.1 mm at 70% of the yield load. This is to restrict the width of cracking at the coupler location. Typically cracks in concrete are limited to 0.3 mm width. If the coupler slips 0.1 mm under load, then the crack at the surface of the concrete will be greater than 0.1 mm. Shrinkage, creep and flexural cracking will add to the crack width that has resulted from slip within the coupler. Reinforcing Bar Processing Uniform Elongation – To maintain the ductility of the structure, the coupling system must also be ductile. Although a uniform elongation greater than 5% would be desirable very few coupling systems can achieve this. The ISO standard is a minimum uniform elongation of 3.5% for mechanical splices. Care should be taken when locating couplers to ensure the ductility of the structure is not reduced below the design requirements. • Minimum Yield Stress – The coupler system should be strong enough to develop the characteristic yield stress of the reinforcement, typically 500 MPa. Be aware that actual yield stresses for D500N reinforcement can range from 500 MPa to 650 MPa.

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• Tensile Strength / Yield Stress Ratio – To maintain the ductility of the structure, the Tensile Strength / Yield Stress Ratio of the coupler system should not be less than 1.08, measured for actual stresses across the full range of yield stresses (500 MPa to 650 MPa for a D500N bar). • Dynamic Capacity – In areas subjected to dynamic loads, a coupler system that has been tested for cyclic loading and fatigue should be used. The ISO and ICBO codes have good cyclic and fatigue testing programs. When selecting the grade of reinforcement, whether it is L or N, assumptions are made about the design method and the structure’s performance. It is important that the designer ensures the coupler system selected is able to perform in a manner that is consistent with the reinforcement design. Rust and Protective Coatings - Rust and Reinforcement Accepting or rejecting a bar or fabric with visible rust is a decision often facing site engineers and superintendents. The criteria for acceptance or rejection is usually not known by the decision maker. When does the reinforcement have excessive rust that is detrimental to its performance? A moderate coating of rust is not detrimental to the reinforcement and can actually improve its bond strength. The improved bond due to moderate rusting is well documented and is included in the commentary to AS3600. Rust usually appears first at the bends of reinforcement, where the steel has undergone some cold working. Rust is only excessive if the cross-sectional area of the steel is reduced below the minimum tolerance permitted for a bar or wire. To check the area, take a rusty piece of steel, wire brush it to remove the rust, measure its length and then weigh it. The area is calculated taking the density of steel as 7850 kg/m3. Rust due to exposure to salt water can be detrimental to the reinforcement. The chloride ions in the salt water cause pitting of the steel, and this reinforcement should not be used without rigorous testing of yield stress, uniform elongation, tensile strength and cross-sectional properties. Even reinforcement that has only had mild exposure to salt water should be washed prior to use to remove any salt from the steel surface. Reinforcement that has been fixed for some time before concrete placement may, after rain, show lines of iron oxide (rust) on the forms. If the forms are not cleaned and the staining removed prior to pouring the concrete a rusty looking line will be visible on the concrete soffit. This is an aesthetic problem, not a structural or durability problem.

Rust as seen above is no grounds for rejection as it actually helps the bonding Mill Scale Mill scale on hot rolled products, in the levels found on Australian produced reinforcement, is not detrimental to the reinforcement. Wire and fabric are free of mill scale. Types of Coating The two principal protective coatings are hot dipped galvanising and fusion bonded epoxy coating. The former is generally available in most major centres, although there may be a physical limit to the size of the zinc bath in some localities. Fusion bonded epoxy coating in Australia is not easily obtainable.

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Hot Dip Galvanising of Reinforcement Galvanising of reinforcement is to AS4680 and AS4534. AS3600-2009 requires galvanised bars to be bent about a 5 db pin if 16 mm diameter or less and an 8 db pin for larger bars. This

The Galvanising Process 1. Preparation – Mill scale, rust, oil and dirt are removed from the reinforcement. It is then placed in a pickling bath of hydrochloric acid. After pickling the reinforcement is rinsed. 2. Fluxing – The pickled reinforcement is immersed in a solution of zinc ammonia chloride at about 65° C. 3. Galvanising – The reinforcement is immersed into a molten zinc bath at 445° C to 465° C. The molten zinc reacts with the steel to form layers of zinc – iron alloys. The galvanised coating of zinc improves the reinforcement’s corrosion resistance. The zinc forms a sacrificial coating about the reinforcement. Minor breaks in the coating, such as may be caused by bending of the reinforcement, are not detrimental to the corrosion protection offered by the galvanising. Embrittlement of reinforcement is rare in steels below 1000 MPa, however it must be considered when galvanising reinforcement. The major factors affecting embrittlement of reinforcement are the length of time the steel is in the pickling bath, the heat of the galvanising process and the presence of cold working, particularly at bend locations. A detailed explanation of this is given in the May 1994 edition of Corrosion Management, “Designing for Galvanizing – Avoiding Embrittlement”. Galvanised reinforcement should not be in contact with stainless steel, aluminium or copper and their alloys as the zinc corrodes preferentially to these metals. More detailed information regarding hot dip galvanising can be obtained from the Galvanizers Association of Australia. Their publication, “After-Fabrication Hot Dip Galvanizing”, provides an excellent overview of this subject.

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Galvanising of Reinforcement – AS/NZS4680:2006 AS/NZS4680, Hot-Dipped Galvanised Coatings on Fabricated Ferrous Articles, includes provisions for galvanising wire, bar and fabric in Section 5 General Articles. As a general requirement for reinforcement, the minimum average coating is 600 grams per square metre, or approximately 0.085 mm thick. Limits for the molten metal and finished appearance are given, together with test requirements for coating mass and adherence. It should be noted that a smooth finish on reinforcing products cannot be expected. The deformation on the surface of bars does not allow a particularly pleasing appearance but this does not detract from the overall performance. The steel should be reasonably free of dags of surplus zinc.

Galvanised rebar an galvanised mesh for special applications Appendix D of AS/NZS4680, Properties of the Steel to be Coated, which can affect or be affected by hot-dip galvanising, gives an excellent overview of steel embrittlement. Reinforcement that has been galvanised should not be bent on pin diameters smaller than those given in AS3600- 2009, should not be heated or bent on site and should not be welded. Appendix E of AS/NZS4680, Renovation of Damaged or Uncoated Areas, states that exposed steel situated within 1 mm of a substantial zinc layer, should receive sacrificial protection. This implies that cut ends of pregalvanised bar or fabric should be repaired. Galvanising of Welded Wire Fabric - AS/NZS4534:2006 AS/NZS4534, Zinc and Zinc/Aluminium-Alloy Coatings on Steel Wire addresses galvanising of welded wire fabric. As a general requirement for reinforcement fabric, the minimum average coating is 610 grams per square metre, or approximately 0.085 mm thick. Appendix C of AS/NZS4534 gives an overview of hydrogen embrittlement. Appendix F is a comprehensive guide to coating thickness selection for corrosion protection. Epoxy Coating An excellent reference is ‘The Epoxy Coated Rebar CD-Rom’, produced by the Concrete Reinforcing Steel Institute, 9333 North Plum Tree Grove, Schaumber, IL, 60173, USA. Applicable Standards AS/NZS ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management Systems provides the basis for steel industry QA systems. Explanations of the application of these standards is beyond the scope of this handbook. Quality Assurance for Steel and Wire In supplying reinforcement, there are two separate levels of quality assurance. Firstly, the quality of the raw material (steel bar and wire) is controlled during steel making and wire drawing. These materials are covered by test certificates or certificates of compliance with the appropriate

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standards. Each bundle or coil is tagged and identified by a serial number, from which the heat number, date of production and other details can be obtained. Delivery dockets show that the material is ‘deemed to comply’ with the relevant standard, indicating that the steel maker has a certified Quality Assurance programme in place. On arrival at the reinforcing steel supplier’s works the material is placed in racks from which it is withdrawn as needed. Quench and self tempered bars and micro alloy bars are not segregated because they are both Grade D500N to AS/NZS 4671. Secondly, accuracy of fabrication must be assured by the reinforcement supplier to comply with AS3600 as well as any relevant parts of AS/NZS 4671. Methods of Demonstrating Compliance AS/NZS 4671 has an Appendix A which sets out the various methods by which a manufacturer can show compliance with the Standard. These methods are described in the Standard as: (a) Assessment by means of statistical sampling. (b) The use of a product certification scheme. (c) Assurance using the acceptability of the supplier’s quality system. (d) Other such means proposed by the manufacturer or supplier and acceptable to the customer. Traceability of Heat Numbers for Bars Quality assurance procedures have removed the need for traceability to heat numbers. Whilst large structural steel sections and plate can be readily identified back to their heat, bar and wire cannot. The latter have one big advantage - if there is any doubt about quality, a sample length can be taken and tested very easily. Each heat of steel produces about 80 to 100 tonnes of steel, which is cast into billets of approximately 1.5 tonnes. The chemical composition of the heat is obtained by spectroscopic methods and is documented as a whole. Each billet is rolled to one size producing 1.5 tonnes so that if 4 tonne bundles are ordered, more than one billet is required. More than one heat may be involved, but this is unusual. After rolling, the finished bar is tensile and bend tested, and the results documented. Certificates of compliance with AS/NZS 4671 are received from the steel maker close to the time when each bundle of steel is delivered. These are cross-checked with the tag on the bundle which remains there until the bundle is opened and steel removed to the cutting bench. After cutting, an individual bar is no longer traceable back to its originating heat or bundle. Nevertheless, a bar on site can be related back to a group of bundles of stock material released to production on a specified date, but a direct link to a specific bundle is not available.

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Traceability of Wire and Mesh In each step of the manufacturing process there are several test procedures which must be followed and each one applies to the product manufactured by that operation. Wire is drawn from coiled rod which in turn has been rolled from the original billet. Rather than attempt full traceability for wire production, the wire making process is covered by a certificate stating that the converted material complies with AS/NZS 4671. This certificate is issued by the wire maker. After welding the wire to make fabric, an additional assurance is given by the fabric manufacturer that the fabric complies with AS/NZS 4671. It can be seen that traceability of wires in a sheet of fabric is not practical. A standard 2.4 metre wide sheet contains up to 25 individual longitudinal wires and 30 transverse wires, each coming from a separate coil weighing a tonne or more. Traceability of Material On-site traceability is the responsibility of the contractor. When performance assurance is given for the material, on-site traceability should not be required.

Examples of preferred specifications in a drawing: SL92 The style of standard D500L fabric covering the whole area of a slab. There is no need to specify either the number of sheets required to provide full coverage or the lap dimension. 8-N28 The number (8) of 28 mm deformed bars of Grade D500N in a layer or cross-section. 20-N16-200 The number (20) of 16 mm deformed bars of Grade D500N spaced at 200 mm centres across the width of a slab. 6-R10-150-T1 The number (6) of 10 mm plain round bars of grade R250N used for fitments of shape T1 and spaced at 150 mm centres. Cover to Reinforcing Steel According to AS3600, ‘cover is the distance between the outside of the reinforcing steel or tendons and the nearest permanent surface of the member, excluding any surface finish. The two primary purposes of cover are durability and fire resistance. As a general rule, cover is selected from an appropriate table but there are several cases where additional cross checks are required. A secondary reason for adequate cover is to ensure that the stresses in steel and concrete can be transferred, one to another, by bond. These actions are called stress development and anchorage. The cover required for these purposes is measured not to the nearest bar, but to the bar whose stress is being developed. Information from AS3600-2009 Section 4 Cover for Durability In AS3600, durability of the structure is very much related to individual surfaces of a member and to the compressive strength of the concrete. For one member to have the same durability resistance as another member, AS3600 requires the same cover to the nearest reinforcement or tendon, but the method of selecting the exposure classification and the appropriate concrete strength requires a number of factors to be considered. The following information must be obtained before cover for corrosion protection is determined: (a) The most severe Exposure Classification for durability (A1 to U); (b) The characteristic compressive strength of the concrete ƒ’c for the most severe situation for use in strength, serviceability and durability design, allowing for abrasion and freeze/thaw conditions; (c) The degree of compaction; and (d) The type of formwork.

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Cover for Concrete Placement Clause 4.10.2 limits the minimum cover, in the absence of a detailed analysis, to either the reinforcement bar diameter or the maximum nominal aggregate size, whichever is the larger. Table below is a combination of tables from AS3600-2009 clauses 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.10.3.2 and 4.10.3.5 for the selection of minimum cover for corrosion resistance of reinforcing and prestressing steel.

Cover for corrosion resistance. The above table does not consider abrasion, freezing and thawing, rigid formwork or spun or rolled members. Section 5 Cover for Fire Resistance During the course of a fire, temperatures in excess of about 200ºC reduce the strength of both steel and concrete. Fortunately the insulation properties of concrete are greater than those of steel, and the concrete cover is the best and cheapest method of increasing the fire resistance of structures.

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The cover for fire resistance depends on: (a) The type of member; (b) How that member carries the loads imposed on it; (c) Whether or not it is continuous (flexurally or structurally) with other members; and (d) The fire resistance period it provides. Concrete strength is not taken into account when selecting cover for fire resistance. Similarly, the effects of fire need only be considered for members which are required, by Building Regulations or through other Authorities, to attain a specified fire resistance level. In certain structures which have a high exposure classification, due to proximity with hazardous materials for example, resistance to fire may take precedence over all other factors. Section 6 Methods of Structural Analysis This section (previously Section 7) has been completely revised. Notably, Section 6 now includes simplified methods of flexural analysis, using both Ductility Class N and Ductility Class L reinforcement, in areas of negative and positive design moment. Clause 6.10.2 indicates simplified moment calculations for beams and one-way slabs which can be used with the provisos outlined in 6.2.1. These relate to span geometry, load distribution, ratio of imposed and permanent actions, member geometry, arrangement of reinforcement. In addition, moments at supports can only be caused as a result of actions applied on the beam or slab. Any predicted relative settlement of supports precludes the use of Ductility Class L reinforcement. Ductility of the bar is an issue after the bar has yielded and permanent plastic deformation of the bar has occurred.

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The temperature can be controlled by thermal crayons, etc. Quenching would totally alter the crystal structure.

This distance is intended to keep cold working from the original bending zone separated from additional bending.

The greatest need encountered with this bending is to control the bend curvature without notching the bar, and to prevent spalling of the concrete, particularly in thin members. It is very rare for a site bent bar to be bent correctly, with bars often being pulled out against the edge of the concrete or bent with a pipe. These methods of bending severely notch the bar and can cause bar breakage.

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Reinforcing Bar Hot Rolled, High Strength Deformed Bars of Grade D500N Both quench and self tempered and micro-alloy reinforcing bars are classified as Grade D500N and no distinction is made between them for supply purposes. Each steel-maker identifies their rolling mill with its individual surface mark.

Basic information about grade D500N deformed bars - AS/NZS 4671 Notes: 1. The calculated area of a deformed bar is calculated from the bar size, in mm, as if it was a circle. 2. The nominal area of a deformed bar is the calculated area, rounded to two significant places, and should be used in all design calculations and for routine testing for quality control. 3. The calculated mass is the calculated area multiplied by 0.0078 kg/ mm2/m (7850kg/m3) taken to four decimal places to assure accuracy for quantities measured by length but sold by the tonne. The actual area of a test bar (measured mass of a sample 0.00785) should be used only for fundamental research. 4. The nominal mass includes the rolling margin, based on the calculated mass, and is used for calculating the mass of material sold in all commercial transactions. Cold Rolled, High Strength Deformed Bars of Grade D500L Cold rolled bars are typically Ductility Class L. D500L bars are used as fitments and in residential slabs on ground.

Basic information about grade D500L deformed bars - AS/NZS 4671

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Reinforcing Bar Bar Tension Lap and Anchorage The most important factor for successful detailing of concrete structures is ensuring that all stresses can be transferred from concrete to steel. Lengths are based only on full yield stress of the steel. It is most unwise to specify lap or anchorage lengths for a lower steel stress. For laps, this practice is not permitted in AS3600- 2009. Calculations will show a dramatic reduction in the anchorage length when cover or spacing is increased. To assist with anchorage you can use a standard hook to provide end anchorage of a bar where there is insufficient embedment for a straight length to develop its design stress. A hook or cog reduces the development length by 50%. AS3600-2009 Clause 8. 2. 12.4 gives the requirements for fitment hooks. Whether or not a bar should be anchored by a hook is a design matter. It is not a scheduling decision, however the hook orientation must be such that it will stay within the concrete with adequate cover and also satisfy bending-pin requirements. Mesh General Information Cold Rolled, High Strength Fabric of Grade R500N ARC produces a 500 MPa Ductility Grade N mesh to suit your project requirements. The Ductile Mesh 500 fabric sheets are a welded square or rectangular grid of R500N bars.

Cold Rolled, High Strength Deformed Fabric of Grade D500L Mesh fabric is available in 2.4 x 6.0 metre sheets and in 2.4 metre wide rolls. It is also available in purpose made sheets to suit your project requirements. The mesh sheets are a welded square or rectangular grid of D500L bars. Welded fabric permits maximum construction speed and economies. The cost and time required to lay mesh sheets is much less than that required to place, space and tie together loose bars. Typically fabric also provides greater crack control than loose bars as the bars that make up the sheet are of smaller diameter and at closer spacings. Mesh fabric is commonly available in sheet sizes ranging from SL42 to RL1218 and in trench mesh strips from L8TM3 to L12TM5. Notes: 1. Trench mesh is normally specified by the number of wires used in either the top and/or bottom of the footing so that the design cross-sectional areas given above are not often referred to. Common trench mesh strip widths are 200 mm (3 wires), 300 mm (4 wires), and 400 mm (5 wires). See AS2870. 2. The steel grade for standard fabric and trench mesh is D500L. 3. Fabric configurations are not limited to the standard fabrics shown above. Fabric main wire spacings are the most critical factor for special meshes, and detailers should check with ARC before finalising a design using any fabric not included in the list of standard fabrics.

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4. Fabrics SL 63 and SL 53 have an internal mesh size of 300 mm x 300 mm. The sheet size is 6 m long by 2.3 m wide. The 100 mm closer wire spacings on the side reduce the minimum side lap to 100 mm, rather than 300 mm. They are not available in every state. 5. Although the fabrics listed above are generally available ex-stock, we recommend that designers and users check with their local ARC office if they have any questions about properties or availability. Mesh Detailing Specify the Sheet Direction The most important requirement for structural safety of a slab is that the correct reinforcement is placed in the direction of the span which controls the strength characteristics. In slabs supported on beams or walls, the controlling span is the SHORTER span – this is true whether the slab is supported on three sides or on all four sides. In slabs supported by columns, such as flat-slab floors and flat-plate floors, it is the LONGER of the two spans which control the strength. Because the reinforcement for these is complicated, well prepared detail drawings must be provided. However for minor structures, the reinforcement details are often not well documented and steel fixers must be given additional instructions on the sheet direction. All drawings should indicate the direction in which to place the longitudinal wires of fabric, and also illustrate how fabric sheets are to be lapped. Rectangular fabrics such a RL718 and RL818 require particular care when detailing them. Where suspended slabs have a span less than 6 metres, it is unusual that fabric would need to be lapped at the end of a sheet. If end laps are required, the actual length of the overhang should be allowed for and specified, and a clear statement made on the drawings whether or not the overhang is included in the lap unless the following rules are observed: 1. Full width sheets are overlapped by the distance between the two outermost edge wires. 2. When cut sheets are lapped, the outermost two wires are also overlapped, and the length of the overhang is neglected. Example of laps are given in drawing

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Specify the Fabric Position The next factor to be considered is to locate the fabric in the right position. Fabric in the bottom of a slab must be supported on bar chairs from the formwork. Continuous bar chairs, such as the “Goanna” chair, are the most suitable here because they can be set out on the forms before the fabric is placed and the weight of the fabric is evenly spread over many legs. Thus, there is no need to place chairs under the steel that fixers are standing on. Top reinforcement must be supported on high bar chairs, on high “Goannas” or on “Deckchairs”. Mesh Laps These laps are based on AS3600 and on AS2870.1. The wires should be tied together to prevent slippage. For tying, the orientation of the sheets is not critical. That is, the lapped wires may be in the same layer or separated by the wires at right angles. Additional strips or finger mesh must be used when it is critical that the effective depth be maintained. Notes: 1. The longitudinal wire spacing should be restricted to between 100 mm and 200 mm, although a 300 mm spacing is acceptable provided the quantity of fabric can be manufactured economically for the project. 2. The longitudinal wire spacings should be regarded as a practical manufacturing limitation to conserve costs. The size of the cross wire should be not less than approximately one-half the diameter of the longitudinal wire, and spaced at 200 mm or 300 mm centres. Cross wire size and spacing is determined by the design requirements. 3. Strip fabrics resemble trench mesh in that the sheets are narrow (usually restricted to eight wires as a maximum) but of a length calculated to fit the job dimensions. The controlling factor of the size of the sheet is its mass. Where possible each sheet should be capable of being carried and placed by one or two men. 4. In all cases, please consult with your local engineer before commencing a project using these fabrics. A simple variation of a standard fabric may prove the most economical.

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Reinforcement Bar Chairs and Spacers

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Pile and column mesh maker

The Pilemaster III for column mesh forms of most sizes All pile and column cage machines on the market today weld automatically only round cages, but the new-patented system allows the welding of square, rectangular and triangular cages. To achieve these features.

In order to guarantee no "over bends" at each angle, the weld has to be very precise. This is secured through a flexible welding head and through an integrated bar support, which follows the curve of the polygonal cage easily.

The standard disc rings system allows you to produce cages without a fixed measurement.

These solutions allow the production of cages having a continuous range of diameters.

An important feature is the control unit which checks the quality of the actual welding and in case of failure at two consecutive points, according to the parameters set, the machine will immediately stop and an alarm is set. The same will occur if the pressure of the protection gas falls below an established threshold.

1. Siemens touch panel with colour screen and intuitive user surface built in the machine frame.

2. Heavy-duty welding robot with exchangeable welding heads for producing round or square pile cages.

3. Adjustable straightening unit by a spindle either with hand wheel or optional electrical motor.

4. Easy exchangeable rings, without removing the star. Other disc designs available!

5. Robust hydraulic roller support which comes up automatically during production.

6. Heavy duty beam construction of the base, makes installation at sites on uneven ground possible.

7. Frequency controlled motor for the movement of the disc with variable speed, and fast return to start.

8. Both discs are powered by a gear motor, and with a direct pinion to the toothed ring at the outside of the disc.

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NATURE OF CONCRETE Although batching and delivering concrete are common tasks, they are driven by many material- specific considerations. Concrete is a Perishable Material: Concrete consists of coarse aggregates, fine aggregates, cement, and water, plus admixtures if specified. Aggregates, cement, and admixtures separately can be stored for long periods of time. Concrete itself, though, is a perishable material. Once water has been added to the mix of dry materials, concrete only has a mere hour and a half or so (unless retarders are used) before the hydration process will form a gel that, if disrupted, would jeopardize the ultimate strength of the concrete. Hence, fresh concrete leaves little room for variability in terms of time for delivery and placement after water has been added. Concrete is a Custom Specified Material: Designers, usually civil/structural engineers, performing the structural calculations for a project determine the strength and other quality requirements for concrete. They may specify a concrete mix design or performance and then leave it up to the batch plant to propose a design that meets the specifications. Different mixes may be needed in different quantities on a single project because of different uses for the concrete (e.g., shear wall vs. foundation slab) and a priming mix is needed prior to pumping. Not all projects require a uniquely designed mix, however. Standard mixes are specified for instance by government agencies for public works such as sidewalk and road paving. Accordingly, most batch plants have an on-line database with recipes for hundreds if not thousands of mixes that they can load to program their facility. This makes it easy not only to add new mixes or find those that meet an engineer’s requirements, but also to name them based on customer preferences. Availability of Ingredients: While finding a suitable mix recipe may be easy, a batch plant may not stock all aggregate types or admixtures in quantity or at all (e.g., colour additives). When given the project specifications, the contractor must recognise when special ingredients are needed and notify the batch plant in a timely manner so that it will have enough lead time to obtain them.

Once the reinforcement has been signed off by the engineer against the schedule the pour may commence.

Type Title Standard Issue Version Ref Release date LR CPCCSF2002A Standard 1 1 1 Use steelfixing tools and equipment 30/11/2015 Page 65 of 117 19/082013 Appendix 1: Dictionary Australian Standard means a standard, rule, code or specification of the Standards Association of Australia. Clean out adaptor means a short length of pipe with one end blanked off and connections for a water or air hose coupled to the pipeline for cleaning purposes. It should have a separate air relief valve vented to atmosphere and a pressure gauge when used with compressed air. Competent person means a person who the concrete pumper ensures (prior to appointment), has current skills and knowledge through either training, qualification, or experience or a combination of those, who is industry based, and who may have obtained training certification from the appropriate manufacturer to have the knowledge and skill to enable that person to correctly perform the task required. Concrete pumper means the PCBU of a concrete pumping business engaged by a principal contractor, subcontractor or person in control of a workplace to pump concrete. Concrete pumping pressure means the pressure exerted by the pump on the concrete at the piston head. Condition of tipping means a pump should be considered to be in the condition of tipping when the stability moment equals the overturning moment. Coupling system means the connecting sections of a delivery pipeline. Delivery hose means a flexible hose used in or at the end of the pipeline. Delivery pipeline means a portable rigid or flexible piping system supplied in sections with the provision for joining together with a coupling system. Employee representative means an employee, member of a health and safety committee or a person elected by the employees at a place of work to represent them on health and safety matters. Hose whip means the uncontrolled and rapid motion of the flexible rubber hose on the end of a concrete placement boom or other concrete delivery line. Outriggers means extendible structural members on the pump unit to increase the dimensions of the base to ensure the stability of the pump in set up, dismantling and use. PCBU means person conducting a business or undertaking. See Work Health and Safety Act 2011. Placing boom means a powered device to support and position a concrete delivery pipeline, which may incorporate folding, luffing, extending and/or slewing motions. Principal contractor. See Work Health and Safety Regulation 2011.

Professional engineer means a person eligible for membership of the Institution of Engineers Australia or a Professional Engineer of Queensland. Pump unit means the concrete pump, placing booms and associated equipment. Reducer means a pipe that changes the internal diameter of the pipeline. Relevant workplace area means: (a) Any place, or a part of a place, used as a workplace, and (b) Any area adjacent to the place or part associated with the use of the place or part as a workplace.

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1. Types of Steel Reinforcement.

Steel reinforcement comes in the form of steel bars, wire fabric sheets but not pretension steel cables. Steel reinforcing bars are called Rebars and come as, plain bars or deformed bars and are in many diameter sizes from10mm through to 40mm and are available in stock lengths of 6.0 m, 9.0m, 10m & 12m.

Note:

The Australian Standards for steel reinforcement have had the following changes. All new steel reinforcement; have a new strength grade rating from 400Mpa to 500Mpa. Deformed or plain bars are manufactured from carbon steel hot rolled to a strength grade of 500Mpa, with a classification of 500N in deformed bar and 250N in a plain bar, AS/NZS 4671 - 2001. So the new code is “N” for steel reinforcement, Engineer drawing and steel schedules will now show N12 for a 12mm reinforcement deformed bar not Y12.

Example of how the new Classification for deformed bars will read:

Old 400Mpa New 500Mpa Y12 N12 Y16 N16 Y20 N20

Deformed steel reinforcement

Deformed steel reinforcement bars are called Rebars; they are made of high strength steel with a rating of 500Mpa. Rebars have a pattern on their lengths, knowing as ribbing, this ribbing is a process on the surface in manufacturing. This ribbing gives steel reinforcement greater holding strength in reinforced concrete because the concrete is moulded around these ribs to stop reinforcement moving or slipping within the concrete. Deformed Rebars are available in diameters sizes N12, N16, N20, N24, N28, N32, N36 and N40. This steel reinforcement must conform with AS/NZS 4671 – 2001.

Deformed steel reinforcement showing ribbing

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Plain round steel reinforcement

Plain round bars are exactly that, plain. They do not have any pattern or ribbing to their surface. Plain bar can be bent into various shapes and come under the title of fitments; their shapes can also be called tie bars, dowel bars (hot dipped Gal), stirrup and ligature. In some cases in construction plain round reinforcement is greatly used to allow for movement. An example of this, in large construction slabs areas, where there are many slabs coming together to form a joint, this is called an expansion joint EP. Engineer drawings can also shown as EP as dowel joints DJ & control joints CJ. These expansion joint, tie the slabs together by using various dowels systems, the plain bar allows for sideway movement between the slabs while maintaining a level line across the surfaces joints. Plain round Rebars are available in diameters sizes of R6, R10, R12, 16N, and R28. This steel reinforcement must conform to AS/NZS 4671 – 2001.

Plain steel reinforcement bar

Welded steel wire reinforcement fabric

Welded steel wire fabric is a manufactured finished product, (it is mostly referred as mesh sheets). Fabric steel with a strength grade of 500 Mpa is made with wire strands, woven lapping each other in a horizontally and vertically pattern, or crisscross pattern. The intersection of these wire are then welded together to form the fabric sheet. Fabric’s sheets are the most commonly used reinforcement used in the construction industry today, they are manufactured with deformed wires because of it greater holding strength in concrete. These fabrics sheets are used in reinforced concrete such as slabs, walls, title panels, strip footings, pathways and driveways. The standard fabric sheet stock size is 6m x 2.4m. Welded steel wire fabric must comply to AS/NZS 4671 – 2001. The standard Manufacture codes for these fabric/sheets are as follows;

RL SL TM

R = Rectangular mesh S = Square mesh TM = Trench mesh

L = Ductility; meaning Low Metal property which permit it to be drawn into a reduced cross sectional width without fracture. This is called Ductility.

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On this page is a sample of Onesteel product information on their reinforcement Fabric/Mesh.

An example of how to read this product information; Looking at the column “Product Code” and SL92, if we were to break this code down it will tells us that it is “S” means a Fabric Mesh with wires in a square pattern, the “9” means 9mm bar size (8.60mm actual size), the “2” refers to wires welded spacing, which is 200mm.

Wire welded spacing

Wire spacing

Wire size Actual Wire size

All product information is available from any of the steel reinforcement supplier, online or brochures

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2. Workplace Health and Safety

As with all on-site activities, it is the responsibility of Employer and all Workers on-site to be aware of OH& S Policies and Procedures in the workplace at all times.

In regards to Steel Reinforcement arriving onsite, it must be unloaded carefully and stored safely by using your Safe Work Procedures, in conjunction with the correct PPE to be used at all times (this includes sun creams, sun brim for hard hats and safety sun glasses).

When craning steel reinforcement watch out for overhead power lines and other site personal in the area, use barricades to block or close off area to preformed the work. Make sure the crane operators are aware of the weight of each lift, this is gained from the steel reinforcement buddle Tag or the Steel Schedule Forms. Look at where the reinforcement is to be located, especially with suspended formwork decks check the area, use a dogman to assist and supervisor the load. Also make sure you have clearance from Foreman to load formwork deck. Do not load in the one area, distribute the weight evenly over the deck. Beware of steel reinforcement ends as these can be very sharp and watch for whipping (bounce back) when dropping long Rebar lengths, either when crane of by manual handling.

In the case of Manual Lifting use the procedures, Plan – Assess – Think. An example of this is, you are required to pick up and carry a standard sheet of fabric 6.0m x 2.4m and relocate on site.

1. Prepare a clear pathway to travel. 2. Use help. 3. Stand on the length side facing the fabric about 1.5m from end. 4. Bend to a squat position using your knee while maintaining a straight back. 5. Grab the fabric with both hands and stand upright, in the same motion walk the sheet up till vertical without lifting the fabric off the ground. 6. Turn and face the direction to travel, using your hand furthers away from the steel fabric to hold a section of fabric above you head. 7. With the other arm straight by your side closest to the fabric, bend your knees and grab with your hand the lower horizontal section of fabric, then stand up straight. 8. Start to walk slowly together to the intended location. 9. With the fabric in its intended location, reverse steps for placement.

During your work and at the end of each day, the work area should be cleaned and kept safe for yourself and others to use. It is, your daily responsibility to maintain good house keeping and have a duty of care for others.

• Make sure Reo Soks (plastic bar caps ends) are on all exposed Rebars ends.

• Tidy up loose bars and stock bundles.

• Collect waste materials such as tie wire and reinforcement off cuts and placed in waste bins or rubbish stockpiles. • Tools and equipment should be cleaned and made ready for the next day.

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3. Reinforced concrete

Reinforced concrete is the name given with the combination of both steel reinforcement and concrete. Reinforced concrete is the most common and widely used structural construction that is used today, for foundations, slabs, walls, tilt panels, columns, suspended floors & beams. The properties and characteristics of reinforced concrete are detailed in AS 3600 – 2001.

Here below the properties are simplified. You will understand why reinforced concrete is better for construction, than ether steel or concrete alone. The two columns compare steel and concrete and note the advantages and disadvantages of both.

Steel Concrete Adv Can be moulded into shape at high Adv Workable at normal temperature temperatures Adv Can be formed into required Adv Plastic and mouldable when fresh shapes only by using heavy poured machinery Dis Low resistance to high Adv Highly resistance to fire temperature Dis Poor insulator Adv Good insulator Dis Highly corrodes if not protected Adv Resists corrosion Adv High compressive strength Adv High compressive strength Adv High tensile strength Dis Low tensile strength

When you combine the properties of steel and concrete it creates reinforced concrete producing a material which has;

• A high tensile strength of steel with the compressive strength of concrete • Resist shear forces with steel • Spans and supports of distances in a combination • Has very good fire resistance • Has good corrosion resistance, (steel protected by the correct cover) • Can be moulded and formed at normal temperature • And very durable long life product

4. Types of stresses in reinforced concrete.

As you may have learnt from the previous Modules concreting which covered reinforced concrete. Steel reinforcement in concrete, especially in structural construction such as, slabs, walls, tilt panels, strip footings, suspended floors and beams, came be subject to many types of loads and stresses. For example, a suspended slab and beam with load will cause stress to the top and bottom. The top of the slab/beam will be under compression stress (to squash together) the bottom of the slab/beam will be under tension (to stretch apart) as seen in Figure 1.

This is where Structural Engineers play an important role in reinforced concrete design. The structural design and size of the reinforced concrete beam has to carry the slab and given floor loads. In their design, the steel reinforcement sizes and correct placement within concrete form a very important package in structural design.

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Figure 1 A beam under stress or load tends to sag. The top of the beam is under compression, the bottom is under tension. In suspend slabs steel reinforcement is placed top and bottom to resist this.

Figure 2 This is a beam which is fixed at both ends which is under load, it tends to sag.

Figure 3 This is a slab, under load and cause a shear stressing in a single line, in a beam it will happen on the ends.

Figure 4 This is a multi-span beam and slab, supported over more than 2 points, it creating tensile stresses. Reinforcement is needed at top and bottom at these points.

Figure 5 A simple cantilever slab or beam under load tends to deflect or droop at the unsupported end.

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5. Steel Scheduling and Forms The Structural Engineer & the steel schedule To understand what a Steel Schedule is, we first have to look at when and how it is developed. When a building is designed by the Architect and has met the clients design needs and budget requirements. The Architect will engage a Structural Engineer to design the support structure to support his building design and ideas.

These Engineer’s Structural drawings which are always Titled S1, S2 and so on (meaning Structural drawings 1 & 2) will show all components and junctions details, which will all be clearly labelled. Whether it is a concrete slab, footings, columns, walls, or the steel structural of the roof frame, all of these steel components will have a label. In these drawings it will show, the steel reinforcement component with their own identification labelling. This labelling will then be used by the Steel Supplier, which has been engaged under contract by the builder to supply steel reinforcement for his upcoming project.

Steel Scheduling Forms The steel supplier’s company employee, who is called a Steel Scheduler will produce a steel supply schedule order for the entire project, this is called the “Steel Schedule”. It will be computer formatted by the Scheduler and used to help both the steel supply and the Builder to develop a program from the Engineer drawings, of what section is to be poured first to last. On large construction projects there will many different concrete pours to take place, over a number of days or in some cases weeks and months, with different steel reinforcement requirements. With a project program in place the builder will request from the steel supplier Scheduler an individual schedule broken down to suit the stages of pouring. This is what we call the a “Steel Schedule Form”, one for each delivery, for example;

• 1st steel schedule form will be for the slab and footings, • 2nd steel schedule form will be for the columns and walls, • 3rd steel schedule form will be for the fist floor & stairs, and so on.

Knowledge of Steel Schedule Form symbols and notations also enables you to interpret delivery orders for any mistakes. On the Steel Schedule Form on the next page you will find various columns headings with a lot of very useful information. For example, one of these columns shows the reinforcement bundle weight (Wt), which will assist with craning.

Label / Tags

This is a tagging system on the Steel Schedule Form identify label codes with steel reinforcement to the Engineer drawings. This depicts the placement of the reinforcement as you will see on the example of a Schedule Form on the next page, in the columns with the heading Colour and Bar Mark. The identification coloured tag, which has the printed required information is either a tear off section or duplicated tag type system (see page 17). This is because one can be removed, to be used to check against the Steel Schedule Form and the other is left on the tied bundle for future identification for placement by the steel fixer or installer. Under No Circumstances do you remove both tags because this is going to cause many problems? You will have a number of steel reinforcement bundles with no identification for placement, causing a great deal of lost production time through unnecessary measuring and sorting through quantities of reinforcement.

For example of a Steel Schedule Form, we have chosen the format One Steel, as shown below. From this you will see importance of how that tagging and steel reinforcement come together to form an identification system by tag colour. These Steel Schedule Forms are very important tool on any projects, with large quantities of steel reinforcement on site at any time this could be 1 of 100s, of Steel Schedule Forms

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Contact Type Pag Of Total Tonnes 1/007 Schedule e 1 1 1

On Site 6/2/06 Load 6/2/06 Produce 4/2/06 Customer She’ll b right Schedular Richard Head 4/2/06 Constructions Project North Point Tafe Bracken Phone Fax Ridge Description Redevelopment Contact James Bond Total Tonnes will be to total At Site Phone 007 Fax Norris Road Bracken Ridge delivery weight Cust Ref not just this page F Block Map Ref UBD 109 P5 Fixing

Drawing Numbers Rev Supply Site Narrative S1 A S2 B S3 A

Colour Bar Mark ProductNo Off Length Shape(Dimensions Overall) Remarks Wt

White Slab A SL82 10 Reinforcement Mesh Size .520 2400 x 6000

This should show the current working

drawing issue

Total weight per reinforcement Tagged bundle White ET1SB N 12 20 1600 .029 h

1200 x 400

k White ET1 L8TM 10 6000 2000 x 6000 .070

Total number of items in tagged bundle

Total Tonnes .620

Bar mark refer to the Product will be the Colour will refer to label code on the Tag suppliers’ product the Tag colour on which will reference to stock item coding This will be the the reinforcement the Engineer drawing total weight in tied bundle for placement tonnes to this page

All suppliers will use the same product coding for reinforcement products, AS/NZ 4671-2001.

From the Engineer drawing below of stairs well, which has the steel reinforcement sizes left out (such as N12) for ease of reading. We can find information regarding the number pours (sections) to take place, as constructed of the building progress. This section labelling of the steel reinforcing will be seen on the Steel Schedule Form list and Tag system on the reinforcement bundles. As you can see from this labelling and Tag system it is going to be easy to identify Tag bundle for their correct placement.

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First Pour F1 (stair flight 1) L1 (landing 1) Second Pour F2 (stair flight 2) B2 (beam 2) L2 (landing 3) F3 (stair flight 3) B3 (beam 3) L3 (landing 3) Third Pour F4 (stair flight4)

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Item to check with the Steel Scheduler

• Is the address of the job correct?

• Have you got the Scheduler contact number and name?

• Is the schedule number and the customer order number are correct?

• Is the reinforcement tag coding correct with the schedule form?

• Is the delivery date correct?

• Is the Drawing current?

This is important

One very important item to check. Is the Steel Scheduler using the current revised addition of the structural drawing, (example see S2 B on the Steel schedule Form on previous page). Drawing number and currency should be checked before any ordering is to take place by the Builder. On larger construction project, there can be many structural changes and the Scheduler needs to be kept up to date with any changes. Also the installer or the Steel Fixer needs to be informed of any drawing revised addition.

Some additional steel reinforcement product item codes

Such as N = deformed, R = plain round, RL = rectangle mesh, SL = square mesh, TM = trench mesh and Lig = ligature, B = bend, F = fitment, C = cranking, H = hook and L = L shaped.

This is a sample of Onesteel double tagging system on a bundle of Ligatures.

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6. Estimating quantities

In the housing construction industry and in many cases, there will be no structural engineer drawings; this is because the Architect has used a basic slab design.

You may need to estimate material quantities by referring to the Architect working drawings. These quantities take off may be necessary for the following purposes:

• To identify the appropriate steel reinforcement product to be ordered

• To estimate and order the correct number fabric sheets required

• To estimate and order the correct number of trench mesh lengths required

• To verify that the material quantities that have been selected and are correct

• To work out quantities of component such as ligatures and bar chairs

• To enable correct quantities to be priced by supplier for quotation and tendering

It is very important when working out reinforcement quantities from Engineer’s drawings in relation to Rebars lengths and shapes required. You need to know the exact sizes with lapping taking into account and type of shapes and their lengths required to avoid cutting or bending on site, which results in labour cost and waste.

Quantities Formulas

Slabs

Fabric Mesh: Slab Area (m2) = No of 6m x 2.4m Fabric sheets (round up to full sheet). 12.5

Bar chairs: Slab Area (m2) x 1.5 = No of Bar chairs required.

Strip Footings

Trench Mesh: Total Footing lengths (Lm) = No of lengths required (round up to full length). 5.4

Support chairs: 7 chairs per 6m length of Mesh.

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7. Onsite delivery procedures

It is very important that the site deliveries of steel reinforcement are controlled. This allows the steel fixer or installer time to check and inspect the delivery and store correctly until ready for use.

The key to efficient delivery procedures is keeping everyone informed about what is going on. Keep an eye on site space available for delivery and storage, this is particularly necessary if the project takes up the whole site leaving little or no room for storage. Also communicate with delivery driver and crane operators so that materials can be stored systematically so components bundles can be easily located when needed. This can easily be achieved by letting your supplier and crane operators know what is required off the truck first and last, in other words steel reinforcement bundles should be stacked with what is on top is needed first, (last off the truck).

The Builder and the Steel fixer or installers have a number of responsibilities on site.

They must:

1. Keep the supplier informed about developments which may affect progress and may result in changes to delivery times.

2. Provide the supplier with the latest drawings.

3. Ensure that components such as ligatures and bar chairs are the right size.

4. Inform the supplier of the order in which to load materials so that reinforcement which is to be used last, is loaded first.

5. In the first load order sufficient tie wires and bar chairs, this means work can start placing and fixing the reinforcement immediately.

6. Ligatures and reinforcement bar for Beam and cages also need to be ordered and delivery early because of the time facture they take to construct.

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8. Bending and cutting steel reinforcement bars

There should be very little bending and cutting to take place on site. If this practice was to take place, it would be a clear indication that steel reinforcement has been ordered or scheduled incorrectly.

However in a number of situations that may arise where steel reinforcement Rebars must be bent or rebent on site, or where pre-bent bars must be straightened. If conditions are too cold reinforcement will become brittle if bent, it is preferably to be performed at ambient temperatures, as this has the least effect on steel properties. In some extreme cases heating may be the only solution for rebending some Rebars and this may reduce the strength. This should never be done on site without the approval of the Structural Engineer.

The following guidelines should be observed on bending.

1. The initial bend (by the supplier) should be preformed around a diameter pin specified in the relevant code, or generally not less than 4x diameter of Rebar, for a N12, pin would be 48mm.

2. Rebending or straightening should be preformed using a powered bending tool, as seen in Figures 1 & 2.

3. Rebending or straightening onsite should be done with a pipe with internal diameter not greater than 2x the steel reinforcement diameter, as seen in Figures 3 & 4.

4. Do not bend with impact blows from a sledgehammer, as this is not acceptable.

5. Take care to minimise the Rebars surface damage.

6. After bending, visually inspect the rebent area on the Rebar for cracks and report if any.

An electric power-bending tool

Figure 1 Figure 2

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Manually re-bending Rebar

Figure 3 Figure 4

When manually rebending reinforcement Rebars with a pipe, only bend back to its original position, as shown in Figure 3. Avoid over bending or bending past original shape, as this may cause cracking (metal fatigue) to base of bent Rebar, refer to figure 4.

The AS 3600 recommends minimum diameters for bends for different grades of steel, in different situations. These recommendations are shown and actually take the form of recommending the minimum diameters for pins sizes, in which the steel reinforcement is to be wrapped or bent around. These standards (AS) recommendation for the suppliers to follow in manufacturing for customer supply.

Cutting

If cutting is required onsite there are number of tools which can be used and are;

• Bolt Cutters can be used to cut fabric mesh sheets to size required

• Shears which are used to cut reinforcement Rebars to lengths

• Cut-off Drop Saw for cutting reinforcement Rebars to lengths

• Angle Grinders for cutting all types steel reinforcement

• Electric power cutters for cutting Rebars

• Oxy-acetylene equipment is used for cutting larger reinforcement section

Beware of hazards, sharp ends after cutting and placement of Rebars; all exposed reinforcement cut ends should be covered with Reo Soks.

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9. Cover

Cover refers to the amount of concrete required to cover the steel reinforcement. The Engineer drawings will clearly state and show how much cover is required at various sections of the reinforcement. Cover will vary from Engineer to Engineer and some Local Councils may require more cover. On a Engineer drawings No S1 it will state under a typical heading Concrete with sub headings reading something like this;

Concrete

Cover Exposed to Weather Not Exposed to Weather

Footings 50mm 50mm Slabs 40mm 20mm

This cover is measured in all direction as shown below, top, end and the underside.

Cover of steel reinforced in concrete provides durability and strength and also provides fire resistance for the steel. Steel reinforcement which has had poor concrete cover can be subject to fail, caused by steel corrosion:

• Water and rain • Chemicals • High temperature • Closeness to the sea • Aggressive soils

Above are results of too little concrete coverage

Check and measuring that cover is correct When setting up reinforcement to the correct height on bar chair, make sure you measure the minimum cover, that is, the thinnest section of concrete between the outside face of the reinforcement and the concrete finish surface line to be. This is vital to ensure the steel reinforcement is protected.

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10. Bar Chairs and Spacer products

Bar chairs and spacer products are used to support and hold steel reinforcement and maintain a set cover, as requirements by the Engineer drawings.

Bar chairs are generally used to support Rebar or fabric reinforcement mesh to a horizontal level line. They come in various shapes and sizes and materials, wire, plastic and even concrete. These are the most common used, as seen below.

Plastic ground bar chair Plastic trench mesh support Wire bar chair for formwork

The typical cheap plastic bar chairs are used on packing sand because of their flat bases which doesn’t punch through the plastic protective membrane, also where the underside of the concrete finish is not to be seen. As for the wire bar chairs they are used on formwork where the underside of the concrete is visible, such as a suspended slab which is not going to be lined. Also these wire chairs have plastic coated grey legs, this is to make them difficult to see on the underside of the concrete which is now a ceiling and to stop future rust occurring.

So when ordering bar chairs it is important to know what the application will be for the best finish result.

Spacers

Spaces are just that, they create the required space (cover) between the reinforcement and the formwork. These types of spacers are all plastic and are used on formwork in which the concrete may be exposed (they have raised feet) such as columns, walls, suspended slabs, stairs and ramps. The main advantage with these spacers is that they snap onto reinforcement bars, when used in the columns and beams they require no wire tying to the Rebar or Ligatures.

B Type BP Type Additional bases for B & BP types

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Selecting the correct type bar chair

A bar chair should be selected to provide the correct cover as requirements by the Engineer drawings. Wire bar chairs must not be used in positions where they can corrode such as external areas, plastic type should be selected. Spacing of bar chairs must be selected to ensure that reinforcement is in the required position. Also snap on spacing will need to selected to suit the steel reinforcement they are to be used on because of bar size.

To maintain the correct concrete cover and to hold the reinforcement securely in position during pouring, use bar chairs of the right size, strength and frequency. If you are having difficult selecting the right bar chairs or spacers, ask your supplier for advice.

Working out the correct height chair or spacer

For this example, an Engineer has designed an internal suspended slab which is 250mm thick and the specification has requested cover of 25mm for internal exposed concrete. The steel reinforcement sheet fabric to be used is SL102, this is made from a 10mm wire, there for the fabric thickness will be 20mm, see sketch below. The bottom bar chair height will be 25mm and the equation for the top bar chair will be;

250mm Slab thickness -40mm 20mm for fabric type thickness + 20mm cover 210mm Is the bar chair height to be used (see supply table next page)

Fabric sheet overall thickness

For the top sheet of fabric For the bottom sheet of fabric BCPT 210 type bar chair BCPT 25 Type bar chair will will be selected be selected

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Smorgon ARC Wire Bar Chair Stock

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Smorgon ARC Plastic Bar Chair Stock.

Smorgon ARC. Plastic Clip Spacers Stock.

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13. Lapping and splicing of steel reinforcement

Lap and Splicing Rebars.

Lap-spliced is the term used to join reinforcement together without causing any weakness to the structure. This involves extending the reinforcement to overlap the already in place section. In sheet fabric this is called “lapping”, in Rebars this called “splicing”. The lapping or splicing of Rebars must be in contact with each other and tie, unless drawings show or state otherwise.

The minium requirement for lapping of fabric and Rebars will be stated on the Engineer’s drawing No S1 and will follow the strict guidelines in AS 3600, see below table for guide.

Splice Rebar, lapping length.

Lap length Table. Bar Diameter Cover mm Concrete strength N10 N12 N 30 20 25 20/25 450 600 20 20/25/32 40 20/25 30 25/32 25 32/40 300 450 20 40/50 50 20/32 40 32 30 40/50 250 350 25 50

Fabric lapping

The general rule with fabric/sheet lapping to avoid bunching, are the lapping sheets reversed and stagger sheet runs. This can cause problems with cover with the thickness of the sheets junctions. The top sheet will lap the under sheet with the two outmost wires locking over the cross bars, as seen below and tied.

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14. Ligatures or Fitments

Ligatures or fitments are items of various shapes and sizes bent into their Engineer designed shape by supplier with the use of bending equipment, which are made to order. Most fitments and ligatures are manufactured out of plain round bar but deformed bars can be used. A ligature is a closed shape used in column and beam assembling as seen below. Fitments is a general name given to types of Tie Bars such as, starter bars, corner bars and short lengths of hook and cog bars, see below.

When installing and using ligatures or fitment, tags labelling and Schedule Forms for each bundle needs to be checked to make sure the correct items are used for intended location as shown on the Engineer drawings. The sequence of placing reinforcement with fitments comes from reading and understanding the Structural Engineer drawings. You need to know the sequence of assembling before you position and tie the reinforcement to ligatures or fitments.

Ligature Tie bars

For supporting Rebars in Beams & Columns. Used in Slab step downs or change of horizontal direction.

Standard Cog

These are used for tying two slab pours together, corner bars for walls junctions and starter bars for block work.

Standard Hook

These are used in slab ends, beams and stair to tie upper and lower fabric sheets together.

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Fitments location

Below are Engineer’s drawings sectional details with various tie bars, cog, hog, starter bars and control joints dowels to be used within each section.

Start bar Tie bar

Cog

Figure 1

Tie bar

Hook

Start bar

Figure 2

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15. Cranking

Cranking is reinforcement Rebars lap or spliced, used in columns and beams which are manufactured by the steel supplier. They occur just above floor level so that the protruding bar forms a lap, an offset as seen below. The column bars are bent at the top end above the floor level, so that they can be spliced with the bars in the above column, this formes a continue length. If they Rebars were not cranked it would be impossible to splice them as they would be in the same position as the bars above.

Standard Cranked Rebar

Cranks ready for next floor column inside cage

Cranks from lower floor column inside cage

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16. Placement and Tying of Steel Reinforcement

When handling and placing steel reinforced fabric or Rebars, make sure it is clean and not coated with mud, dirt, scale, oil or grease and if not, clean and remove. Use the Steel Schedule Form to select the right steel reinforcement and refer to the Engineer drawings for their placement.

Look for details on drawings showing requirements for, lapping and splicing of sheet fabric and Rebars, as these need to be followed. Also be aware if installing loose Rebars for direction of bar to be laid, first to last direction, see engineer’s drawing for information. Once the reinforcement has been placed in its correct position, it must be tie to prevent dislodgement during the placement and vibrating of concrete. Also reinforcement chairs and spacers for columns, walls and beams must be firmly tied if required that they cannot be easily dislodged when vibrating.

How to tie

Black Annealed Wire is used to tie steel reinforcement together and most common size used is 1.6mm. Reinforcement and Rebars are tied together by many different types of ties, below are pictures showing the most common type ties, the Slash and Crown tie.

Slash Tie

The Slash tie is achieved with a single tie wire across the diagonal of the bar intersection.

Crown Tie

Crown tie is a single loop twice under the bottom Rebar and twice diagonally over the top Rebar.

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This triangle shape is the symbol for They found a crane had fallen over, hitting three caution. The exclamation mark in the workers. Firefighters say they managed to pull out a centre means Pay Attention. In some man in his early 20s trapped under the load, but he instances, the triangle-shaped sign will died at the scene. The two other workers suffered show a picture. Other times, words minor injuries and are receiving hospital treatment. explain why the sign is used. The construction union's Jason O'Mara says the

Take Control of Your Own Safety dead man had only been in the job for four weeks. "This again is a tragic wakeup call for the industry. It's Objective our fourth fatality in Canberra in the last eight 1. List the two most commonly reported months," he said. Worksafe ACT says early causes of death of tilers. investigations suggest equipment failure may have caused the accident. Police will prepare a report for 2. Interpret the meaning of commonly the coroner posted warning signs. 2. Falling steel kills

Greatest Dangers to Life Stay away from loads being lifted by cranes In construction projects, either for an especially around highrise projects

individual homeowner, or a major commercial contractor, workers use all types ! Here, that cost one worker his life. Two workers of concrete materials. This construction had just completed installing steel mesh on a balcony. The crane was bring more steel for the next work involving concrete materials is floor up.. One of the workers held the rope and especially dangerous because it can involve attempted to guide the load. The crane operator overhead (booms & cranes) work and the knew the winds were above operating speeds but possibility of falling objects. It comes as no continued with the lift. surprise that these objects can be very By the time the load got to the tenth floor were the heavy if they are made of cement, steel, or steel fixer was waiting the winds and updraft was much greater and the spotter holding the guide rope concrete. If there is an unfortunate accident was unable to steady the sudden movement caused and materials fall serious and catastrophic by a gust. The wind unbalanced one side and the injuries can occur. These catastrophic load tipped suddenly striking the waiting steel fixer. injuries can result in serious bodily injury or He fell ten floors onto more reinforcing steel below even death. and was unfortunately pronounced dead on site by the attending emergency doctor despite immediate Fortunately there are ways to prevent ceiling first aid and CPR.

accidents including properly securing the Help Yourself construction area, wearing PPE and Safe work habits are important. Here are ensuring that nobody is under raised loads. three actions you can take to be safe on the It is also important to post warning signs job site. during construction to alert passer-by’s. In some situations, nets or platforms can be 1. Learn all you can. used when concreting at heights. Pay attention to safety instructions on your job site and if you see unsafe work If you have been injured by a falling objects practices then report them. If you have it is important to first receive the necessary questions, stop and ask your supervisor medical treatment and then an experienced before you continue. construction accident attorney can discuss your legal rights with you. If you have been 2. Concentrate on working safely. hit by a falling materials someone has been Sometimes you may be tempted to take negligent and you have the right to risky shortcuts. Remember that an compensation from either the construction accident can leave you permanently site owner, the contractor, or possibly the injured or cut your life short. For your manufacturer of the tiles. safety and the safety of those around you, do not take unnecessary risks. No 1. Crushed by steel mesh deadline is so pressing you can't take the A construction worker has been killed and two time to do your work safely. others injured after they were hit by a falling budle of steel mesh 3. Additional Precautions ! Emergency crews were called to a worksite on the Do not work if you are tired or have taken shores of Lake Burley Griffin in Kingston just before 10.00am (AEST) yesterday. drugs or alcohol. If you are on medication,

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discuss with your doctor or pharmacist if you Draw up an emergency plan are capable of carrying out your job safely. An emergency plan is vital. Some

Report any missing or damaged safety suggestions include: equipment to your supervisor Ensure easy access to a suitable and • well-stocked first aid kit. Report any missing! A orconcreter damaged safety was equipmentworking toon your scaffolding, supervisor pouring a building balcony. The scaffold became unstable in • Make sure at least one person on the windy conditions and as there was no hand rail job site is trained in first aid. protection in place the concreter was either thrown or • Keep emergency numbers and correct lost his balance and fell 7 stories to the ground. He addresses next to the telephone. was taken to hospital with severe head injuries and died 2 days later without gaining consciousness. • Plan routes to the nearest hospital. • Regularly talk through your emergency The Safety Procedure includes: plan with other workers.

Safety measures Where to get help 1. Keep a well-stocked, up-to-date first aid kit Your doctor in an accessible area. • In an emergency, always call triple zero 2. Always wear appropriate protective gear. (000) For an ambulance

Train workers thoroughly Remember Your site is a workplace and you are Ensure that everyone working on the job is responsible for the health and safety of thoroughly familiar with operating procedures workers and visitors. Inexperienced workers and safety requirements for all tools and are much more likely to be injured in job site machinery they use.

accidents. You can prevent injuries in many Safety Messages and Signs ways: Manufacturers put important safety • Supervise inexperienced workers at all messages on each piece of equipment and times. in the operator's manual. It is critical to read, • Make sure your workers are thoroughly understand and follow all safety messages. trained in equipment operation and safety. Many safety messages use the words Caution, Warning and Danger to get your • Keep all equipment in good repair. attention. Following are safety messages • Warn workers of potential hazards and insist they use equipment safely. and their meanings. Each of these signs will have a written message, and perhaps a • Only allow a worker to perform a task when you are confident they can handle picture, about an unsafe condition. Below it. the well known stop bat traffic controller. Who should be used on large sites where • Keep visitors well away from operating machinery such as grinders and wet saws deliveries of many truckloads of tiles and materials may occur. and warn them of potential hazards.

Protect children from accidents Children account for one in seven job site related fatalities and children under the age of sixteen account for one in four job site related deaths. You can protect children from harm in many ways: • Warn children of the hazards and make

them aware of safety issues. • Always remove keys or power from CAUTION means you need to be careful. machinery. Follow the directions on the sign or you could get hurt. • Make sure that equipment storage areas are securely locked and inaccessible. • Don’t leave tools unattended.

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Environmental protection on the building site Environmental protection begins at the building site with the air workers have to breathe. They should be protected from any fumes from construction machinery, as well as fumes from building waste or materials such as glues, waterproofing and epoxy materials

WARNING is more serious and means you which need to be carefully separated and need to follow the directions on the sign or properly recycled or disposed of when the you could be badly hurt or killed. job is complete, the soil should be treated as a valuable asset and left unpolluted.

In residential construction, large vehicles on small lots present special hazards for workers and home owners, especially during remodelling or making additions. A ground guide should help move big vehicles that have limited views. A sign warning of a laser in use is required when

using a tiler’s laser! This environmental accident was caused by a tiler

washing his epoxy grout bucket out and pouring it into Environmental Hazards the drain that ran directly to the local creek

Objectives Sun Exposure 1. Identify environmental hazards. Prolonged exposure to sunlight causes skin 2. Recognize treatment and first aid for cancer, cataracts and other serious exposure to environmental hazards. illnesses.

All workers in Australia are committed • Choose a sunscreen that is marked observing and practicing environmental broad-spectrum. This will protect you management in all aspects of their job and in from both UVA and UVB rays. Ensure the undertaking activities in compliance with all Sun Protection Factor (SPF) is at least 15 statutory legislation and other legal preferably 30+ requirements. • Wear a hat or sun visor, sunglasses, and lightweight long-sleeve shirts and pants on sunny days to help control body temperature and block the sun.

Treating Cuts and Burns Minor cuts &burns can be treated on the job site. Seek medical attention if: • Cuts are severely bleeding, more than one-half inch long and one-quarter inch deep, or the result of a puncture wound. • Burn area covers more than one-fifth of the body with blisters, blisters occur on the hands, feet, face or genitalia, or if the skin is blackened or charred. Treating Cuts • Clean the area thoroughly.

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• Remove any debris that may be in the types of incidents can be easily be wound. prevented just by cleaning up the • Apply pressure to the wound using construction site. A clean site make jobs gauze or a clean, absorbent cloth until more efficient and safe.

the bleeding stops. If blood seeps Scraps and off cuts that come from through the cloth, do not remove it, construction come in all shapes and sizes, continue adding more gauze or cloth so it can be a hassle to clean up. Also as over the previous one. workers are busily working packaging gets • Apply an antibiotic ointment and cover removed and then just thrown on the with a bandage or clean gauze. ground. This creates tripping and slipping • Allow wound to heal and keep dirt from hazards. If the ground is covered then it also creating infection by changing the makes other potential problems hard to see. bandage or gauze frequently. When the site is not cleaned up, no one • If a limb has been amputated, elevate cares about leaving garbage where it drops. while applying direct pressure and call This is extremely dangerous! 000. Just by carefully making sure that the job Treating Burns site is clean is one of the easiest ways to • Cool the burn by placing it under cool improve the safety of the workers during the running water or in a container of cool job. When the workplace isn't continually water for at least 15 minutes. kept clean then this creates incidents • Cover the area with gauze or a clean waiting to happen. cloth. It is easy to keep a construction site clean • Allow burn to heal and keep dirt from during. The problem is that far too often creating infection by changing the gauze workers are careless about the mess that is frequently. made. Cleaning up on the job means • If blisters occur, do not break them. cleaning up scrap material, trash and debris Cover with gauze and allow them to and putting it in the appropriate containers, break on their own. and making sure the containers are emptied

regularly. Also proper storage of materials Clean Up and equipment will help to make a clean and All too often construction sites are left in a safe work site. mess and are very dangerous to work

around. There are some simple things that can help decrease the amount of injuries and in turn keep the site cleaner and safer for those working around it. Here are some guidelines in keeping your construction site clean and safe during a home remodel

All waste should be recycled where possible. Here are some other key things you can do Construction sites that are not kept clean to help keep your construction site clean are the frequent cause of workplace and safe during the life of the job: incidents and work injuries. Often these

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• Don't handle materials multiple times. Have one person take it and throw it out Care of Tools and Equipment to ensure others aren't dropping pieces You should remove excess mud clay and as they walk. concrete or concrete residue from tools

• Minimize how far workers have to take immediately after their use has finished. the materials to where they are being Failure to do so will make the tools and used. equipment difficult to use and inefficient to operate, and could mark or damage the Make sure that materials can easily • finished work. A system I have employed is a pass to where they need to go. Keep all wheel barrow of water on the job, let the tools walkways and paths clear. soak a couple of minutes and scrub with a • Clean all equipment during the day and brush and allow to dry then oiled or greased especially at the end of the day to as required and stored in a dry secure place. ensure the next day will start clean and During storage, handling and use, finishing safe and ready for work. tools should be stored in such a way that the surface in contact with the concrete is not All waste should be recycled where accidentally damaged or bent. possible. If storage is to be for a considerable period of Here are some other key things you time, then tools can be coated with a light can do to help keep your construction application of WD40 oil to prevent corrosion. site clean and safe during the life of the job: • Don't handle materials multiple times. Have one person take it and throw it out to ensure others aren't dropping pieces as they walk. • Minimize how far workers have to take the materials to where they are being used. • Make sure that materials can easily pass to where they need to go. Keep all walkways and paths clear. • Clean all equipment during the day Rust Prevention for Your Tools and especially at the end of the day It is much easier to protect your tools from to ensure the next day will start rust than to deal with the consequences of clean and safe and ready for work. rusty tools later. You have three main Make sure that these guidelines are choices in protecting your tools from rust: done throughout the day, instead of Apply a protective coating, reduce the when workers clean up to go home. If moisture level, or use a rust-inhibiting the precautions are continually being vapour. done throughout the day then this will greatly decrease the injuries that occur. Following these guidelines in keeping your construction site clean and safe during a job. This will greatly reduce sickness and injury. Having a safe workplace means that everyone around it will be safe from any harm. Take the time to follow these

guidelines so your job goes smoothly All rubbish correctly disposed of and without any injury.

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Self-Check Questions

QUESTION 1 What are the two Australian Standards in relation to steel reinforcement?

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QUESTION 2 What is a Rebar?

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QUESTION 3 What is the difference between Deformed and Round Rebar’s?

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QUESTION 4 What is the standard size of a sheet of mesh?

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QUESTION 5 Explain what RL, SL and TM mean?

RL ______

SL ______

TM ______

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QUESTION 6 A fabric sheet with a produce code of SL82, what does the 82 mean?

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QUESTION 7 When working onsite and out in the open what are the three PPE that should be worn?

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QUESTION 8 What is the protective item called that cover the hazarded ends of Rebar’s, and why?

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QUESTION 9 How is the waste material cared for?

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QUESTION 10 Why do wire bar chairs have their legs coated in a grey plastic?

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QUESTION 11 What is the different between a bar chair and a spacer?

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QUESTION 12 When lapping or splicing steel reinforcement together, should you tie it, and why?

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QUESTION 13 Who will have to develop the environmental plan for a large site?

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QUESTION 14 What is a SMWS?

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QUESTION 15 Name six tools that will be needed to install materials on your job site?

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QUESTION 16 Who is responsible for the direct supervision and coordination of the steel fixing?

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QUESTION 17 When lapping fabric sheets reinforcement together, how are sheets placed on top of one another?

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QUESTION 18 What type of reinforcement are ligature and fitments general manufacture out of?

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QUESTION 19

What are ligature and fitments used for?

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QUESTION 20 Where would source the correct information for spacing of ligature and fitments?

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QUESTION 21 What is purpose of cranks in Rebars and where are they general used?

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Draw a picture if you require

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QUESTION 22 You are directing the steel delivery truck in its unloading operations. List some of the precautions you would make or watch out for?

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QUESTION 23 How must mesh and rebar be delivered on the ground at a building site and why?

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QUESTION 24 How would you communicate with the crane driver when moving rebar or mesh?

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QUESTION 25 When lifting mesh how is it best attached to a crane?

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QUESTION 26 How would you work out the number of sheets of mesh required to be lifted into an area?

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QUESTION 27 At the end of the day when all mesh and reo has been laid what will you do with the leftover off cuts ?

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QUESTION 28 What signs have to be displayed by WH&S legislation?

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QUESTION 29 List two methods you would employ to cut steel rebar?

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QUESTION 30 Before using any electrical tool what are the safety check you would carry out?

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QUESTION 31 One sheet of mesh is positioned wrong, explain how would you move it considering all the rebar that has bee attached ?

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QUESTION 32 You have started laying sheets of reinforcing mesh, some are already tied when your supervisor points out the tag indicating the sheets are the wrong gauge. What has happened and how can the problem be solved. ?

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Guidance Instructions to Trainers There are 3 practical assessment activities for this unit of competency for a simulated or real on the job situation. These practical tasks by no means prove competency but are rather part of the range statements ongoing essential operating conditions and learning process and a pathway to competency over a longer period of time.

These are reinforced by daily/weekly/monthly work site activities or learning experiences in which steelfixing tools and equipment are used, then ticked and dated in the student’s logbook over a period of 2 (two) years (is recommended), this showing that the student has demonstrated competency over a period of time and thus reflecting the scope of the role and the practical requirements of the workplace.

The range statement for this unit of competency allows for different work environments and situations that may affect performance but in general the student should be able to use and achieve the following over this period of time: Trainers should apply due diligence in following the above guidance in particular where it relates to school leavers, new apprentices to the trade and SBAs (School based apprentices).

Trainers must check and confirm that this period of time requirement has been fulfilled and that all requirements have been achieved and signed off over the period of time by checking and endorsing the students log book and collecting a photo copy as evidence before signing the Assessment cover sheet at the front of this document.

Students should be able to liaise with, use, achieve or demonstrate the following Bolt cutters Tools and Equipment include Wire nippers Tie wire reels Angle grinders Measuring tapes and rules Mesh guillotines Cutting attachments May include: General and hand power tools Generators for angle grinders Reinforcement benders Welding sets Environmental Clean-up management, Dust and noise requirements include: Stormwater protection, Vibration, Waste management

Scope of work May involve reinforcement for foundations, pits and slabs, columns, walls, stairs, plinths, kerbs, gutters, pathways and hard standings. Deformed bars Materials include: Ligatures and spacer/spreader assemblies Mesh sheets of deformed bars Mesh sheets of plain bars Plain rods Wire ties May include: Pipe sections Scaffolding components Structural steel sections.

Your practical assessment consists of three (3) practical activities, which are listed below: Activity 1 - Complete a JSA for the job. Activity 2 – Use and maintain hand and power tools & equipment Activity 3 – Use and provide operator maintenance to equipment

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Practical Exercise / Activity 1

Complete the JSA Your company is contracted to complete the steel fixing of a number of house slabs that includes concrete columns and lintels. The site borders on a busy road and is in an environmentally protected region where water that runs of will end up in the river where platypus abound.

Make up a job safety analysis for the delivery of all general tools and machinery, setting up the street site, delivery of all steel fixing equipment and materials, signs and barricades and cordoning off of the street for truck deliveries, marking out of work areas, unloading of all gear using correct WH&S lifting procedures and methods of work and the ongoing setting out and steelfixing work, part of your crew will also carry out formwork and concreting over a period of

approximately one week per site Complete the JSA and make notes for it below. You will need to inspect the work site or training area with your Trainer and discuss the activity to be undertaken, and the possible hazards and the safety controls you would implement. Make notes on the next page of conditions or hazards that will prevent you working effectively and safely. Doing this as part of team or think tank is preferable to identify hazards, although the final JSA should be your own individual work effort. List the tasks or job steps in the first column of the JSA for your proposed work activity. Inspect the proposed work area making a list in the second column of any hazards you are able to identify which could include any of the following but is not limited to:- Falls from working at height, Crush injuries in excavation work, Slips and trips, Being struck by falling objects, Moving heavy loads, Bad working positions, often in confined spaces, Being struck or crushed by a workplace vehicle, Receiving injuries from hand tools, Inhalation of dust, Handling of rough materials, Exposure to dangerous substances (chemical and biological), Working near, in, or over water, Exposure to radiation, Loud noise, or Vibration from tools or vibrating machinery, underground or overhead services - possible electric shock, open trenches and many more.

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Assign your hazards a risk index number using the “Risk Matrix” comparing the ‘likelihood’ against the ‘consequences’ of something happening involving those hazards if nothing is done to downgrade or eliminate them. Make a list under the ‘control measures’ column of the steps or control measures you will be implementing to reduce or eliminate the risk of that hazard. Give each of these ‘control measures’ a risk index number using the “Risk Matrix” comparing the ‘likelihood’ against the ‘consequences’ now that the control measure will be implemented. Seek input and give feedback to other students or work mates to ensure that you have not missed any critical work steps or hazards and that they are also aware of the JSA results. Your goal is to achieve a reduction and where possible a large reduction in the ‘Risk Index Number’ where possible to at least the medium rage or lower. Ultimately your ‘job site’ should be now a lot safer to work on as you and your work mates are aware of the inherent dangers. NOTE: If your work task still remains in the extreme range after completion of this JSA then further control measures are required before commencing work.

Assessors “Complete the JSA” Checklist (Activity 1) Yes No Procedures – Work site activity steps listed ☐ ☐ Possible Hazards Identified ☐ ☐ Consequences & their effect determined ☐ ☐ Risk score determined & given ☐ ☐ Safety control measures a implemented ☐ ☐ Revised risk score determined & given ☐ ☐ The candidate’s performance was: Not Satisfactory ☐ Satisfactory ☐

Assessors Name Date Signature

List all the possible site hazards you can think of & their required control measures here individually or as part of a team-working group before attempting to complete the JSA!

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Practical Exercise / Activity 2

Job Site ______

Date ______

Use and maintain hand and power tools & equipment As part of a small team carry out steel fixing activities as part of your normal work tasks using the delivered steel materials and using your job plans and specifications. In doing so you are to ensure that correct PPE is worn, that the tools and equipment are used safely and correctly for the purposes they were designed and cleaned and stored correctly after use.

List the job site address/date above. Below list the types of tools. You must pay particular attention to the following criteria. Locate, interpret and apply relevant information, standards and specifications Comply with site safety plan and WHS legislation, regulations and codes of practice applicable to workplace operations Comply with organisational policies and procedures, including quality requirements Communicate and work effectively and safely with others Select, use and maintain the hand and power tools and equipment listed in the range statement Select, use and provide operator maintenance for the equipment items listed in the assessor checklist

To carry out this activity you will require the following tools:

Bolt cutters

Wire nippers

Tie wire reels

Angle grinders

Measuring tapes and rules

Mesh guillotines

Cutting attachments

All work must be carried out according to the assessment criteria and tolerances specified in the Assessors marking guide

You may find it useful to refer back to relevant segments of the instructional material while carrying out this activity or the example below. You may make notes and sketches on the following page for detailing set out and other incidentals. Either way describe the project, the tools used and how you completed it.

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Assessors “hand and power tools” checklist (Activity 2) Yes No

1 Delivered materials selected and checked against specifications/instructions.

Tools and equipment selected in accordance with the requirements of the project and 2 checked for safe operation.

3 Personal protective equipment correctly selected and used safely.

4 Complied with site safety plan regulations & codes of practice applicable

Safety hazards identified through JSA and correct procedures adopted to reduce hazards 5 to self and others.

6 Correct procedures, documents, regulations and legislation adhered to Communicates and works effectively with others to receive, clarify and pass on 7 instructions

8 Location determined and marked out for steel fixing

9 Traffic plan set in place to manage site

10 Successfully used the following tools and equipment

Bolt cutters

Wire nippers

Tie wire reels

Angle grinders

Measuring tapes and rules

Mesh guillotines

Cutting attachments

May include: below equipment types are likely but not compulsory for this unit

General and hand power tools

Generators for angle grinders

Reinforcement benders

Welding sets

11 Clearing work area and disposing of, recycling or storing materials

12 Cleaning, checking, maintaining and storing plant, tools and equipment

The candidate’s performance was: Not Satisfactory Satisfactory

Assessors Name Date Signature

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Practical Exercise / Activity 3

Job Site ______

Date ______

Use and provide operator maintenance to equipment As part of a small team carry out steel fixing activities as part of your normal work tasks using your job plans and specifications. In doing so you are to ensure that correct PPE is worn, that the tools and equipment are used safely and correctly for the purposes they were designed for and cleaned and stored correctly after use. During the operation of tools and equipment carry out operator maintenance. This may include tightening of guards or belts, drying, removing dust or blockages, oiling or light greasing, tightening of screws and bolts, tightening of handles, changing of bits, disks, blades, chisels or attachments and their maintenance.

List the job site address/date above. Below list the types of tools you used and a description of the work carried out. Note – You must use all the tools listed below over a period of time. You must also pay particular attention to the following criteria. Locate, interpret and apply of relevant information, standards and specifications Comply with site safety plan and ohs legislation, regulations and codes of practice applicable to workplace operations Comply with organisational policies and procedures, including quality requirements Communicate and work effectively and safely with others Select, use and maintain the hand and power tools and equipment listed in the range statement Select, use and provide operator maintenance for the equipment items listed in the assessor checklist

To carry out this activity you will require the following tools:

Bolt cutters Wire nippers Tie wire reels Angle grinders Measuring tapes and rules Mesh guillotines Cutting attachments

All work must be carried out according to the assessment criteria and tolerances specified in Assessors marking guide

You may find it useful to refer back to relevant segments of the instructional material while carrying out this activity or the example below. You may make notes and sketches on the following page for detailing set out and other incidentals. Either way describe the project, the tools used and how you completed it.

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Assessors “operator maintenance” checklist (Activity 3) Yes No

1 Delivered materials selected and checked against specifications/instructions.

Tools and equipment selected in accordance with the requirements of the project and 2 checked for safe operation.

3 Personal protective equipment correctly selected and used safely.

4 Complied with site safety plan regulations & codes of practice applicable

Safety hazards identified through JSA and correct procedures adopted to reduce hazards 5 to self and others.

6 Correct procedures, documents, regulations and legislation adhered to Communicates and works effectively with others to receive, clarify and pass on 7 instructions

8 Location determined and marked out for steel fixing

9 Traffic plan set in place to manage site

10 Successfully carried out operator maintenance on the following tools and equipment

Bolt cutters

Wire nippers

Tie wire reels

Angle grinders

Measuring tapes and rules

Mesh guillotines

Cutting attachments

May include: below equipment types are likely but not compulsory for this unit

General and hand power tools

Generators for angle grinders

Reinforcement benders

Welding sets

11 Clearing work area and disposing of, recycling or storing materials

12 Cleaning, checking, maintaining and storing plant, tools and equipment

The candidate’s performance was: Not Satisfactory Satisfactory

Assessors Name Date Signature

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How to use this Risk Assessment Matrix Step 1 List work steps in order and then the possible hazards & determine “Likelihood” What is the possibility that the effect will occur? Criteria Description Almost certain Expected in most circumstances Effect a common result

Likely Will probably occur in most circumstances Effect is known to have occurred at this site or it has happened

Possible Might occur at some time Effect could occur at the site or I have heard of it happening

Unlikely Could occur at some time Effect is not likely to occur at this site or I have not heard of it happening

Rare May occur in exceptional circumstances Effect is practically impossible

Step 2 Determine the Consequence What will be the expected effect? Level of effect: Example of each level: Insignificant / Acceptable No effect – or so minor that effect is acceptable

Minor First aid treatment only, no lost time from injury

Moderate Medical treatment, serious injury, temporary partial disability, lost time < 7days

Major Hospital admittance, Extensive injuries, Lost time injury > 7 days, Permanent total Disability, injury or death

Catastrophic Multiple Permanent Total Disability injuries, multiple deaths

Step 3 Determine the Risk Score Consequence Likelihood Insignificant Minor Moderate Major Catastrophic

A (Almost Certain) 11 16 20 23 25

B (Likely) 7 12 17 21 24

C (Possible) 4 8 13 18 22

D (Unlikely) 2 5 9 14 19

E (Rare) 1 3 6 10 15

Low Medium High Extreme

Step 4 Record risk score on JSA worksheet (Note – Risk scores have no absolute value and should only be used for comparison and to stimulate discussion) ScoreWhat will be the expectedAction effect?

Red - Extreme DO NOT PROCEED – This requires immediate attention. Introduce further high-level controls to lower the risk level. Reassess before proceeding Review before commencing work. Introduce new controls and or maintain high-level controls Yellow - High to lower the risk level. Monitor frequently to ensure control measures are working

Maintain control measures. Proceed with work. Monitor and review regularly, and if any Blue - Medium equipment/people/work processes or procedures change

Record and monitor. Proceed with work. Review regularly, and if any equipment/people/work Green - Low processes or procedures change

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Job Safety Analysis

Student Name : Student Signature:

Project : Trainers Name:

Location : Date : Accepted : Yes ! No !

Procedure - List of steps Possible Hazards – What things can happen or go Risk Safety Control – How can I stop or minimize these Risk in doing a Job on a site. wrong, also what hidden dangers are there on this Job Site? things happening or going wrong or injuries occurring?

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Signature Trainer / Site Leader______Signature Building Supervisor______

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Left blank on purpose

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