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The Ingenium of a People, Common Language and Imagination in the Philosophical-Political of

Ayala Román AM* Department of Pedagogy, School of Education , Colombia Review article Volume 4 Issue 2 *Corresponding author: Ana María Ayala Román, Full- professor, Department of Received Date: March 16, 2021 Pedagogy, School of Education Sciences (Universidad Icesi), Member of the Center for Published Date: April 09, 2021 and (Universidad Icesi), Cali – Colombia, Tel: +57 5552334; Email: amayala@icesi. DOI: 10.23880/phij-16000171 edu.co

Abstract

This article reviews some central philosophical theses on the philosophical-political thought of Baruch Spinoza in relation to language, imagination and the ingenium of a collectivity, in order to establish how common makes possible the of a political community. We focus on Spinozist considerations on prophecy, the prophet and the Holy Scriptures to analyze the political and moral purpose of the Holy Scriptures the Hebrew people. Finally, we propose, following Spinozist thought and theorists on sociability, a way of the constitution of communal bodies (or community). , and the role of the prophet in the communal configuration of

Keywords: Ingenium; Language; Imagination; Community; Affective Theory; Spinoza

Abbreviations: TT-P: Tractatus Theologico-Politicus; Eth: Ethica; TP: ; G: Gebhatrdt. people vary according to the context of the prophet and his by the prophets to communicate ’s word to Hebrew Introduction [1], the prophet in uttering the signs does not reveal the divinetemperament. , butIf, as the Deleuze relation affirms: between “everyone the sign claims and his a sign” own Signs and Language nature, what it means prophecy is an adaptation of the sign to the ingenium of the prophet. Language is linked to everything that is not rational: words (which are bodily movements), memory and images. This variability is due to the chains of association (images, words, affects) where sign is found and depending on the nature of the chain, the sign varies. According to this, areLanguage characterized is inserted by invariability the field ,of associativity the body, in andthe images equivocity and. Spinoza, referring to the , states that in order to Spinozasigns of therecognizes body. The the Signs variability are not constant or fixed, as they that in order to interpret the Holy Scriptures correctly, it is necessary to know life, customs, ofperceptions the sign when and he ingenium affirms whointerpretate transmitted the “miraculous them afterwards stories” in it writing. is necessary A distinction to know of their authors (TT-P, Ch. VII; G, III, p. 102).1 The signs used mustthe opinions be made of both:between the opinionsfirst men andwho thingstold them as theyand thosewere presented to the senses (TT-P, Ch. VI; G, III, p. 92).

Opera (Gebhatrdt, abbreviated: G), specifying the volume and page. The following is the abbreviation we will Politicus (TT-P); Ethica (Eth.); Tractatus Politicus (TP) use1 for To the cite works Spinoza’s of Spinoza work, worked use the on in this paper: Tractatus Theologico-

The Ingenium of a People, Common Language and Imagination in the Philosophical-Political Thought Philos Int J of Baruch Spinoza 2 Philosophy International Journal

Language is the associative chain in which signs are certainty of a thing that was revealed by God to found, and cannot be thought of except at the level of TT- between words that refer to relations between P, Ch. I; G, III, 19). According to Pierre-François Moreau, the things. These associative chains are, as Spinoza points out differencemen by means between of words the prophetsor figures (and(real thereforeor imaginary) between ( in the scholium of XVIII of Ethica II referring to memory, a certain concatenation of involving the or character of the prophets, i.e. the does not nature of external things. Now, this concatenation is not involvetheir words a historical and their element, figures) only is a duedifference to the in temperament the singular produced by the nature of things themselves, but according ingenium [2]. However, although there are differences among to the concatenation of the that occur in human the prophets, it is also true that there are characteristics they share: their imagination is at the service of charity and speak of the concatenation of ideas that explain the nature of (TT-P, Ch. II; G, III, 99). In this case, there would be a valuation things,bodies. but Spinoza’s only how emphasis concatenation here is implies important: them he. Therefore, does not of the prophet in the ethical sphere, but a devaluation in language is a product of the concatenation of ideas according the rational sphere, since the certainty of the prophets is to affections, not according to understanding. not mathematical, but only moral (TT-P, Ch. II; G, III, 32). As Moreau points out, after chapter XVII of the Tractatus Associativity as a characteristic of the sign helps to Theologico-Politicus, piety and justice are no longer qualities explain, not the nature of a thing, but, for example, why peculiar to the prophet, but are characters of the Scriptures themselves; in turn, in chapter XVIII, using the example of the to a soldier. The cause of this variation in the of the Hebrew people, piety and justice are put into practice by the “horse” means something to a peasant and something else State [2]. Following the argumentative scheme above, piety different in the two men. and justice as indicative of the prophet change to a word (“horse”) is that the associative affective chains are of the State. There is an exploration of the ethical realm on The equivocity of the sign unveils diverse meanings or senses of the signs. According to Deleuze, this equivocity prophet and language is given by the affective association appears in a determinant way in , which explains the ofthe both: field the of historyprophet and (his politics. temperament, The relationship the constitution between of central problem in the interpretation of the Scriptures. The 2) and the complexion of the signs have two dimensions: on the one hand, the everyday community to which the prophet speaks. It is no longer the prophetthe body who and calls even for his justice office and charity, it is the State itself things; and on the other hand, the extreme dimension that that does so. revealsdimension the relationship that reflects with the God relationship (within this of dimension the sign with are the signs of prophets, preachers and theologians). Revelation only exists where a community in divine justice and, therefore, the need arises for the existence Signs, in turn, are constituted by three types: signs- of explicit norms understood for all its members. In this case, (or indicatives) that designate the of an there are two ways in which God addresses men: on the one external body on a body. These signs of affections say more about the nature of the affected body and not as much from here are of a character and are not mediated by the body that causes affection (Eth., II, prop. XVI, coroll. 2; G, thehand, transmission God speaks of tothe men’s prophet, hearts. but by The the norms common enunciated notions II, 104). In this case, the thing is presented as separate from that men have and make them sensitive to justice and charity. This does not automatically make men just or charitable, given by Spinoza (Eth., II, prop. XXXV, school; G, II, 117). In but the of the just and charitable that allows its efficient cause: this is the case of the example of the sun them to recognize just and charitable actions (even if they prejudices and are found in all morals that employ devices do not practice them). On the other hand, God can reveal ofaddition, rewards there and arepunishments. imperative-signs Finally, that the interpretative-signsarise from finalistic himself in a particular way at a particular time, and it is that use memory to revive things, that is to say, they use the here that the intermediation of the prophet is necessary [2]. sign of one thing for the consideration of another. This is the This revelation has a particular validity, since it is given to a case of the soldier who seeing the tracks of a horse on the path, conceives the horse to conceive afterward the rider, and from this interpretation can conceive war (Eth., II, prop. peopleWhat at ais specific the function historical of moment.revelation? If the prophet is XVIII, school; G, II, 107).

Prophetic Power and Language when he speaks of the story of , for Joshua and whoever wrote the What is the relationship between prophetic power and story2 Spinoza of the stoppingmakes it clearof the that sun, office believed plays that a fundamental the sun revolved role in around prophecy the language? Prophecy or revelation, according to Spinoza, is a earth. Joshua, a soldier and not an astronomer, ignored the true cause of the prolongation of the day (TT-P, Ch. II; G, III, 36).

Ayala Román AM. The Ingenium of a People, Common Language and Imagination in the Philosophical- Copyright© Ayala Román AM. Political Thought of Baruch Spinoza. Philos Int J 2021, 4(2): 000171. 3 Philosophy International Journal not a man of understanding, but he is a man with strong the instruments by which God manifested himself to men, imagination, the purpose of the prophetic discourse is to as Moreau points out [2], but also to show that the effects of the imagination, in this case of language, arise from the particular constitution of the body (singular and political) strengthen certain affections by means of figures and words. and of the .4 seenHe seeks as an to authority configure (in a certain short, inpraxis a community within the that community, believes Tractatus Theologico-Politicus thatand itGod can speaks only be to configuredcertain men). where Hence, the oneprophetic of the wordaspects is attempt to identify In thethis levelperspective, of Antonio that is Negri constituted affirms of the Spinozist method for the study of the biblical text is bythat the the imagination first six books (or ofconstitution the of modal reality ) [3]. related with the analysis not only of the person who writes The imagination of a community has a political power that the text, but also of the audience to whom it is addressed (TT- constitutes the reality that is expressed through and P, Ch. VII; G, III, 101). institutions. Thus, it could be said that the imagination that occurs in the prophetic discourse is a function of the Now, if in Spinoza is related to true production and maintenance of a particular social order knowledge, which is intellectual and not imaginary, it must that is a guarantee of the institution and duration of the be said that the biblical text has a political function rather community. than an ethical function. In the sense, this is what provides authority to the prophets and to those who administer the Biblical Hermeneutics and Political Analysis of given by God: the text guarantees the practice of justice the Community and charity through obedience to the Law. The sacralization of the biblical text, which is produced by multiple categories The Holy Scriptures are the expression of the imagination deployed within it, is a political simulacrum which, does not of the Hebrew people at a given time, which is instituted as allow to see the historical origin of the text, and therefore a community only when the covenant with God is given, of the revelation and the theology that can be derived from since no community is the work of nature because nature the historical text. This guarantees an exercise of power only produces individuals (TT-P. Ch. XVII; G, III, 217). In this by those intermediaries between God and men (prophet, case it is the law that institutes the community. Hence, the theologian or priest) (Chaui, 2012, p. 53). This assures the philological, hermeneutical and historical analysis of the exercise of power when laws that call for charity and justice Tractatus Theologico-Politicus allows us to interpret, in the cease to be political-religious norms and become universal stories that the Hebrews themselves make of themselves, ethical norms (based on abstract values) that guarantee their the meanings or senses that have constituted them as a survival beyond the context in which they were constructed [2].3 (a composite and productive body) of meaning. Hence, the importancecommunity. Theof a community historical reading would be in the order field to of understandproduction With respect to sacralization, Spinoza points out that for the study of the Scriptures it is necessary to reconstruct and write the biblical text. It is important to note here that the history of the books that compose them, and this inthis chapter field of VII production of the Tractatus that made Theologico-Politicu it possible to s, conceive where reconstruction takes into account the recognition of their Spinoza explains the method he will use for his analysis of the Scriptures, he states clearly that what matters to him community (TT-P, Ch. VII; G, III, 101). There is a historical, is to investigate the meanings (and not the ) of each butsacred also character a theological-political first by a few contextpeople, ofand sacralization. then by the Thiswhole is sentence, taking into account the habitual way of speaking of revealed by Spinoza when he alludes to three similar stories: the Hebrew people (hence the importance of a philological and not a ). a humorous story, the second a political story and the last a sacredEnraged story Orlando, (TT-P ,Perseus Ch. VII; Gand, III, Elias; 110). the first is considered Et quia omnes tam Veteris, quam Novi Testamenti scriptores Hebraei fuerunt, certum est, Historiam linguae The prophet is for Spinoza a man of imagination, this Hebraicae prae ómnibus necessariam esse, non tantum ad is a man who transmits the word of God through words or intelligentiam librorum Veteris Testamenti, qui hac lingua scripti sunt, sed etiam Novi. (TT-P, Ch. VII; G, III, 100) beginning of the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, on prophecy figures.and the Oneprophet could is bedue said not thatonly theto the double interest analysis, in studying at the interpreted in its literal sense, or given a different meaning by the useOn thisof language, aspect, Spinoza judgment affirms must thatbe suspended if a word cannot(TT-P, Ch. be

Tractatus Theologico-Politicus that the divinity of Scripture is given by the3 exclusiveOn the sacralization content that of is the given text, in Spinoza it. It is theaffirms moral in teachingschapter VII given of the in Scripture that make it divine (TT-P, Ch. VII; G, III, 99). G, IV, 77).

4 Confront Spinoza’s letter XVII ( Ayala Román AM. The Ingenium of a People, Common Language and Imagination in the Philosophical- Copyright© Ayala Román AM. Political Thought of Baruch Spinoza. Philos Int J 2021, 4(2): 000171. 4 Philosophy International Journal

VII; G, III, 101). This way of proceeding is different from that chain [4]. Although language is not conform to rational or of the dogmatic , such as , who read the Scriptures under the shadow of philosophy. words or signs do not only refer to images, but to of oppositions,logical , derivations it does andconform vital tomarks the “use that of are life”, the that same is, Spinoza adopts the Protestant of sola scriptura associative chains we have spoken of before [4]. Hence, in (TT-P, Ch. VII; G, III, 99), since the categories that operate the analysis carried out in the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, within the Scriptures (revelation, prophecy, prophet, for the ordinary use of a word makes it possible to know the meaning of a word used in the biblical text. understandingexample) “[...] create of the the biblical field of text intelligibility it is possible of the to discourseknow the Ingenium, Common Affection and Community singulartherein” (Chaui, 2012,of a community p. 31). Thus, (the through Hebrew, the for studyexample) and Life and the revealed , and this understanding supposes a study and understanding of the images elaborated by the What makes this associative chain possible? The community itself (Chaui, 2012, p. 39). ingenium of a community (ingenium gentis) can be translated as the determinations of the community, which make Language, seen as a chain of images, will show its it a singular thing, and it is differentiated from another communitarian dimension, since these images, as it was community. Therefore, a necessary element when it comes seen above, are produced in a community that has particular to understanding its laws, its ways of life and its texts affections. For example, on this aspect Pierre-François (they have the characteristic of non-universality). In this Moreau warns that words are formed according to the Tractatus Theologico- multitudo: the use of positive and negative words will mark Politicus is directed towards those who want to use the this particularity, because according to everyday language Hebrewperspective, Theocratic Spinoza’s State criticism as a political in the model to legitimize monarchical power. although the former have less reality than the latter, and thereforefinite the latter are moredo not thinkableentail any thanreal negation. infinite beings,Why is The ingenium this so? It is because positive names are given to the that are reinforced by certain historical events, laws and that are observed on a daily basis, and as opposed to the institutions. Let us of recall a community that by ingenuim is caused Spinoza by “tendencies” means a imperishable realities, negative names are given to them. In this perspective, the language of the multitudo is arbitrary and contrasts with the rational order [4]. configuration of images, ideas and affections that depend on Thesean individual’s tendencies own can constitution, be found and in thatpotential, would determinesince the Habit and memory (which are within the sphere of institutionthe latter’s ofjudgment the community with respect and tohistorical the , circumstances for example. everyday life) produce the sphere of language: the chain of intensify them or turn them into a common character. associativity that is produced in and by the affective chains This is the case, for example, of the violent ingenium of the Romans who owe the foundation of the city to a violent act order that is imposed by means of images. This would be the (the murder of Remus at the hands of Romulus) [4]. Hence, casethat occurof the accordingorder of signs to one’s that own are presentednature or toin aan story external and to know the ingenium we do not only have to to know the natural tendencies of individuals or the community, but to the case of prophetic or religious discourse. Now, habits are know its institution, its origin. We are not speaking here necessarythat is intended for the to constitution influence the of actionslanguage, of sinceindividuals. there is It no is of a mythical-foundational moment, but of a tendency that similarity between the things it relates, there is no similarity transits and is reproduced in the constitutive moment of a community. pomum abetween tree. It “horse”is the biography and “war”; of nor a person is there or similarity a people, between and the If the imagination of a man and of a community is constantthe sound union or calligraphy between two “ (or more)” and elements the apple that found allows on such association [4]. Now, in the case of the Roman citizen pomum an affective production, in order to speak of “common a tree, this association is of a collective nature, since the orimagination” operator of one the must community, speak of since “common it is this affection”. that makes It can a whoassociation associates already “ existed” with before the the apple individual he observes has made on communitybe said that have the its “common own consistency, affection” isbesides the efficient being part cause of numerous . This is of the utmost importance: its ingenium [5]. how can subsist an arbitrary connection, i.e. particular and affective, and not logical, between two (or more) things? The subsistence of the connection is given thanks to the on the that presupposes all types of political organization;The of this community idea postulates has been an inscribed already in given a reflection order stability generated by the “collective use” of an associative Ayala Román AM. The Ingenium of a People, Common Language and Imagination in the Philosophical- Copyright© Ayala Román AM. Political Thought of Baruch Spinoza. Philos Int J 2021, 4(2): 000171. 5 Philosophy International Journal as the foundation of sociability. For example, the idea Affections (G, II, 200). Emulation is born from the imagination of considering the affection of a thing which it is considered expression of a territory, a population and sovereign power: similar, this sort of imagination makes one feel a similar thereof “national is no community community” (nation) presupposes without a theState. “State” The concord as an affection (simili affectu) (Eth., III, prop. XXVII; G, III, 159). The among the individuals who constitute the community only occurs where there is State coercive power. This idea is in detriment of any communitarian constitution that is thought causeconsideration of loving of orthe hating similarity certain of a thingthings: to one’sthings own similar nature to beyond the State [6]. othersis at the that basis produce of the “”joy will arouse and the “antipathy” sympathy that of men; are the on the contrary, those that resemble those that produce sadness will arouse hatred (Eth., III, prop. XV, schol; Eth., III, prop. the foundation of the community in free association, that is, XVI, demonstration; G, II, 151-153). The common affection the willOn the of menother to hand, associate there themselves. are political This theories is the that case find of is that which is shared by the human beings of a community is seen as a rational faculty for understanding with others, among others; it also constitutes what is desirable, what sinceFerdinand it is theTönnies’ will that theory is the of communitycause of all inhuman which behavior. the will isand useful, configures what theis bad, ideas what of “good,” is indigestible, “,” “beauty,” what destroys“ugliness,” a community. However, Alexandre Matheron points out that ways and tend toward mental and physical well-being [7]. this similarity does not necessarily lead to harmony, since in Tönnies’ theory states that human wills interact in various many cases it is counterproductive: if two men, because of These ways of conceiving the community point to a affective imitation, the same thing, and these things are not divisible (power, land, etc.), rivalries and seditions will be generated [8]. ofprocess individuals. of sociability Exogenous that comes action, from on “above”,the one the hand, coercive and endogenouspower of the action State, on or fromthe other. “below”, Is it the possible power to of think the will of This common element is studied by Frédéric Lordon [5] through the of Imperium. For Lordon the common is the it is neither the coercive power of the state nor the will of right and power of the multitudo, and this right is expressed individualsa different that communal shapes the flow? community, Spinoza wouldfor on the answer one hand yes: in the production of affects and the capacity of self-affecting, power does not come only from above, but the community that is, the multitudo is self-affecting by deploying its own must be thought of as the power of the multitudo. The power. The multitudo, as a thing without a pre-established community exceeds the of , since the latter form, produces a common affection by self-affecting and it would be either a name for a group of individuals or an advanced organism in which individuals are conglomerates, and whose growth entails an of its complexity and affection.is in this actionThe imperium ceases to orbe Statesomething is produced “without in a the definite self- structure (Spencer, 2004). And on the other hand, what is affectiveform” to exercise become of something the multitudo determined. The State, under thus, a is common seen as composed is not a society or conglomerate of individuals, the product of a phase transition. but the common affections of a multitudo, that is to say, what is produced with the constitution of a community are not Why do individuals adapt to certain customs, why do they respect certain authorities and not others, why do they decided to live together or receive the external determination follow the implicit or explicit indications of institutions? Sstatethe selfish coercion) and calculated to remain relationsin society between respecting individuals an initial pact.who Because all institutional forms produce something for them, they them. And because this power to affect on a large scale has a place only on the basis of this deposit of power on In thisDeinde sense, notandum,Spinoza, speaking quod ofin the jaciendis , fundamentis affirms: a large scale, the one offered by the itself; a deposit maxime humanos affectus observare necesse est, nec to which, taking Durkheim as a basis, another name can be given: the social [9]. possit, ut homines, sive affectu sive ratione ducantur, jura ostendisse sufficit quid oporteat fieri, sed apprime qui fieri According to this, all authority (State or institutional) is publica, solo invalido legume auxilio nitatur, non tantum produced in the strength of the multitudo: political power nullatamen ejus rata obtinendaefixaque habe erit ant. civibus Nam si imperiisecuritas, jura, ut sive art. libertas 3 cap. is the power of the multitudo that can be held by one man, praec. ostendimus, sed etiam exitio erit. (TP, VII, § 2; G, III, some or all, according to a unanimous agreement. 308)

This common affection that is composed and constituted appellari solet. Atque hoc is tenet, qui curam by community has as mechanism the emulation of which reipublicaeHoc jus, quodex communi multitudinis consensu potentia habet, definitur, nempe imperium jura statuendi, interpretandi et abolendi, urbes muniendi, de

Spinoza speaks in Article XXXIII of the Definition of the Ayala Román AM. The Ingenium of a People, Common Language and Imagination in the Philosophical- Copyright© Ayala Román AM. Political Thought of Baruch Spinoza. Philos Int J 2021, 4(2): 000171. 6 Philosophy International Journal bello et pace decernendi, etc. (TP, II, § 17; G, III, 282) when a new structuring of images and the that are socially organized through a different thought of what God The common affection that gives consistency to the multitudo, and by which it becomes a community, produces a surplus in the parts (the individuals); this is why the acting,is. This and entails the replacement an “economy of of images passion” that that are subvertsin solidarity the withflow ofthis passion potency. that This diminishes makes thesense potency when ofwe thinking speak ofand a the union of individuals, but the whole that is larger than its dynamic sociability that is based on the power of bodies, parts,community that is cannot to say, itproperly involves be more called than “society”, mere individuals. for it is not In which are multiple and complex: recall that in postulate IV this sense, Lordon is explicit when states that the community of Ethica II, Spinoza states that the human body, in order to only exist when this surplus is produced [5]. This vision of the preserve itself, needs other bodies to regenerate itself (Eth., community is contrary to the whole conception of sociability II, Lemma VII, schol; G which places as its central axis the sovereign individual who need of the body to integrate other bodies, so we could not decides autonomously on political, i.e. affective, relations. , II, 102). Spinoza affirms, then, the [5,10]. The community or body politic could be considered a composite,think of bodies open “closed or porous in themselves” body. but of “porous bodies” Lordon calls this surplus, which Durkheim calls “society”, “immanent transcendence”. Lordon is aware that the concept References “transcendence” is rejected by Spinozist thought, since in therethe first is a instance transcendental, it seems but to contradictnot transcendent the other component part of the in 1. Deleuze Gilles (2008) En medio de Spinoza. Buenos Aires, concept, this is the term “”. We can affirm that pp: 509. affective relations of are produced, that is God. But Spinoza’s philosophy: the where all the 2. Moreau Pierre François (2014) Spinoza. Filosofía, física y ateísmo. Antonio Machado Libros, pp: 272. abovethis is notall its the members sense that through Lordon diverse gives to symbolic “transcendence”, productions for 3. Negri Antonio (2015) La anomalía salvaje Poder y thatit reflects all have a relation contributed of verticality, to produce since [5]. the community raises potencia en Baruch Spinoza. Buenos Aires.

Conclusion 4. Moreau Pierre François (1994) Spinoza: L’expérience et l’éternité. Presses Universitaires de 34(1): 143- 145. The Great Wave of Kanagawa that emerges from below, but Lordon’srises above concept, the substratum as he himself that makes has givenit appear, rise isto like it. 5. Lordon Fréderic (2015) Imperium. Structures et affects des corps politiques. La Fabrique éditions, pp: 368. an ascending element (the immanent) and a descending elementThe verticality (transcendence) presented [5]. in In “the order social” to avoid is the composed paradoxes of 6. Pendas Benigno (2005) Nación, comunidad nacional y that can occur with the union of the two terms presented by otros conceptos no intercambiables. Una perspectiva Lordon, we prefer to speak of a surplus that is generated in desde la teoría política. Cuadernos de Pensamiento immanence, since, as Lordon rightly points out, this surplus is Político. 6: 199-217. 7. Tönnies Ferdinand (2001) Community and civil society. individual. Common affections, as social constructions, Cambridge University Press 44: 266. orderwhat is the “out potencies of control” (whetheror “beyond increased the reach” orof thediminished) sovereign of the community, thus developing a network of symbolic 8. representations that exercise social power. It is worth asking éthique de la similitude. In: Revue de Métaphysique et, here: is it possible to reverse the domination or subjection PressesMatheron Universitaires Alexandre de (1994) France, Les Paris, fondements pp: 475-491. d’une that seems to occur with the production of common affects? Could there be a non-totalitarian totalization? Can we think 9. Lordon Fréderic (2017) Los afectos de la política. Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza, pp: 220. becomes a common affection that makes men cede power th tobeyond theologians a “closed or community”? priests to If,guarantee for example, their the protection,fear of God 10. Spinoza B (1925) Opera. 4 (Vol), Carl Gebhardt (Ed.), there could be a change of common affection, for example, Winter, Heidelberg.

Ayala Román AM. The Ingenium of a People, Common Language and Imagination in the Philosophical- Copyright© Ayala Román AM. Political Thought of Baruch Spinoza. Philos Int J 2021, 4(2): 000171.