Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows and Instrumentation for Their Study: from BOOTES to X-Shooter

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Gamma-Ray Burst Afterglows and Instrumentation for Their Study: from BOOTES to X-Shooter Departamento de F´ısica Estelar INSTITUTO DE ASTROF´ISICA DE ANDALUC´IA Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient´ıficas Gamma-ray burst afterglows and instrumentation for their study: From BOOTES to X-shooter Memoria que presenta D. Antonio de Ugarte Postigo para optar al grado de Doctor en F´ısica. Directores de Tesis: Dr. Alberto J. Castro-Tirado Dr. Filippo M. Zerbi INSTITUTO DE ASTROF´ISICA DE ANDALUC´IA junio de 2007 Editor: Editorial de la Universidad de Granada Autor: Antonio de Ugarte Postigo D.L.: Gr. 1442 - 2007 ISBN: 978-84-338-4389-0 iii Resumen en Castellano Desde el anuncio de su descubrimiento fortuito en 1973, las explosiones de rayos gamma han sido uno de los mayores misterios de la Astrof´ısica moderna. Durante este tiempo, los avances en el conocimiento de las explosiones de rayos gamma han estado determinados por desarrollos tecnol´ogicos que hicieron posibles nuevas y mejores observaciones. Durante casi tres d´ecadas, la baja precisi´on de las localizaciones en rayos gamma y la demora en la distribuci´on de las coordenadas impidi´ola detecci´on de contrapartidas en otras longitudes de onda. El completo desconocimiento de la escala de distancias a la que se produc´ıan estos fen´omenos llev´oa la formulaci´on de un gran n´umero de modelos de la m´as diversa ´ındole. El gran avance se produjo cuando, en 1997, el sat´elite BeppoSAX fue capaz de observar las contrapartidas X de varias explosiones de rayos gamma y de determinar su posici´on con una precisi´on de unos pocos minutos de arco. Esto llev´oal descubrimiento de las primeras contrapartidas en bandas ´opticas, milim´etricas y radio y a la medida espectrosc´opica de su distancia, ubic´andolos a distancias cosmol´ogicas. De este modo se entr´oen una era de descubrimientos a trav´es del estudio multibanda de estas contrapartidas de larga duraci´on, las conocidas como postluminiscencias. Observacionalmente, las explosiones de rayos gamma son breves (entre 10−3 y 103 se- gundos) pero muy intensos fogonazos de fotones de alta energ´ıa (de ∼ 1 keV a 10 GeV) que ocurren a un ritmo de unas pocas por d´ıa en el Universo. Durante estos breves segundos se convierten en las fuentes m´as brillantes de todo el cielo en rayos gamma para despu´es desaparecer. Sin embargo, la postluminiscencia de estas explosiones se puede observar en todo el rango electromagn´etico y pueden ser estudiadios durante periodos mucho m´as largos en escalas de d´ıas, semanas o incluso meses en el caso de ondas de radio. Las explosiones de rayos gamma pueden dividirse en dos clases principales, atendiendo a su duraci´on: ex- plosiones largas, con una duraci´on media de unos 20 segundos y comprendiendo el 75% de los eventos y las explosiones cortas, con una duraci´on media de 0.1 segundos representando el 25%. Se han realizado otras clasificaciones, de las cuales es mayoritariamente aceptada la divisi´on entre explosiones de rayos gamma, explosiones ricas en rayos X y fogonazos de rayos X. Esta divisi´on (referida al grupo de explosiones largas) corresponde a la diferencia de la dureza espectral en la emisi´on temprana, teniendo las explosiones de rayos gamma el espectro m´as energ´etico y los fogonazos de rayos X el m´as suave. A diferencia de la divisi´on entre explosiones cortas y largas, esta divisi´on no parece distinguir entre diferentes tipos de fen´omenos astrof´ısicos. Hasta el a˜no 2005, todas las postluminiscencias que se hab´ıan detectado correspond´ıan a la clase de explosiones largas y, a d´ıa de hoy tenemos una imagen m´as o menos clara de su origen. Se piensa que las explosiones de rayos gamma largas son el resultado del colapso de estrellas supermasivas, con tiempos de vida extremadamente cortos y que acaban sus d´ıas convirti´endose en agujeros negros y liberando enormes cantidades de energ´ıa a trav´es de un par de chorros con expansiones ultrarelativistas que producen los rayos gamma mediante choques internos y la postluminiscencia mediante la interacci´on de los chorros con la materia interestelar que rodea la explosi´on. En el momento del colapso se produce tambi´en una explosi´on de supernova que, en los eventos m´as cercanos, puede ser observada al emerger pasadas unas semanas de la explosi´on inicial. Debido a su corta vida, estas explosiones se producen muy cerca de los lugares de nacimiento de las estrellas progenitoras, en las iv zonas de mayor formaci´on estelar de galaxias extremadamente azules, subluminosas y con una baja metalicidad. Por otro lado, las explosiones de rayos gamma cortas no est´an a´un tan bien estudiadas, aunque se sabe que se producen en tipos de galaxias mucho m´as heterog´eneos, con poblaciones estelares dominantes de edades t´ıpicamente mayores. Debido a la falta de componente de supernova y a la forma de la emisi´on gamma temprana, se piensa que son producidas, no por el colapso de estrellas supermasivas, sino por la coalescencia de un sistema binario compacto, probablemente formado por dos estrellas de neutrones o una estrella de neutrones y un agujero negro. Sin embargo, la naturaleza de estas explosiones cortas dista mucho de ser bien comprendida e incluso observaciones recientes parecen indicar que podr´ıan no estar producidas por un ´unico fen´omeno. En esta Tesis hemos estudiado una muestra representativa de explosiones de rayos gamma que nos dan una idea de los diferentes tipos de explosiones que se observan. Una explosi´on larga cl´asica, una explosi´on rica en rayos X, una explosi´on corta oscura y una brillante explosi´on corta que localizamos a alto corrimiento al rojo: GRB 0210041 es una explosi´on cl´asica, brillante y de larga duraci´on que fue localizada r´apidamente y con un seguimiento intenso en todas las longitudes de onda. Reunimos observaciones abarcando desde unos minutos despu´es de la explosi´on hasta varios a˜nos despu´es, cuando s´olo la galaxia anfitriona pod´ıa ser detectada. La curva de luz se caracteriza por una serie de jorobas que la desv´ıan de la evoluci´on t´ıpica de ca´ıda seg´un una ley de potencias predicha por los modelos est´andares. Ajustamos la curva de luz, en las 14 bandas diferentes para las que tenemos datos, utilizando un modelo de bola de fuego al que hemos a˜nadido hasta 7 inyecciones de energ´ıa. Estas inyecciones son debidas a la llegada de sucesivas conchas ultrarelativistas que se emitieron en el momento de la explosi´on con diferentes velocidades. La postluminiscencia estar´ıa producida por la interacci´on de la concha m´as r´apida con el medio circundante. Al irse decelerando esta por la interacci´on, ser´ıa alcanzada por la siguiente m´as r´apida, produci´endose un abrillantamiento de la curva de luz. Los sucesivos episodios de inyecci´on producir´ıan cada una de las jorobas. As´ımismo presentamos un estudio de la galaxia anfitriona de esta explosi´on, caracterizada por estar dominada por la baja extinci´on, un brote de formaci´on estelar y una magnitud absoluta de MB ≃-22.0. GRB 050408 es una explosi´on rica en rayos X, el grupo intermedio entre las explosiones de rayos gamma cl´asicas y los fogonazos de rayos X. Para este estudio obtuvimos una com- pleta curva de luz multibanda, que abarca desde el mismo momento de la explosi´on hasta varios meses despu´es, cuando ya solo la galaxia anfitriona es detectable. Las observaciones se completan con datos de radio y ondas milim´etricas que, combinadas con los datos X de la literatura, constituyen el conjunto de datos m´as completo para una explosi´on rica en rayos X recopilado hasta la fecha. Las curvas de luz se caracterizan por una ´epoca temprana en la que la curva es plana y una intensa joroba con un m´aximo en torno a 6 d´ıas despu´es de la explosi´on. Explicamos la primera como debida a un chorro visto ligeramente fuera de eje y la joroba mediante una inyecci´on de energ´ıa de intensidad comparable a la explosi´on inicial. El an´alisis de la distribuci´on espectral de energ´ıa de la postluminiscencia revela una extinci´on compatible con un bajo enriquecimiento qu´ımico del entorno de la explosi´on. 1Las explosiones de rayos gamma se nobran siguiendo la notaci´on“GRB AAMMDD”, siendo AAMMDD el a˜no, mes y d´ıa en que ocurri´o.GRB procede del ingl´es Gamma-Ray Burst (explosi´onde rayos gamma). v Conjuntamente con la detecci´on de una galaxia subyacente con brote de formaci´on estelar, t´ıpica de las explosiones largas, nuestras observaciones fortalecen la asociaci´on entre las explosiones ricas en rayos gamma y las cl´asicas explosiones de rayos gamma largas. GRB 050509B fue la primera explosi´on de rayos gamma corta detectada y localizada con precisi´on a trav´es de rayos X por Swift. Los datos que recogimos para este evento abarcan desde el momento de la explosi´on hasta 18.8 d´ıas despu´es. A pesar de la r´apida respuesta y de la profunda campa˜na de seguimiento, no se consigi´olocalizar contrapartida alguna en ´optico, infrarrojo cercano u ondas milim´etricas. Sin embargo, una galaxia el´ıptica brillante, localizada a un corrimiento al rojo de z = 0.225 fue identificada en el borde de la zona de error y se propuso como el candidato m´as probable a haber albergado la explosi´on de rayos gamma.
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