NATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE OF PRODUCTION

Practical aspects of breeding and production

Training materials of project

IMPROFARM - Improvement of Production and Management Processes in Through Transfer of Innovations, Leonardo da Vinci Transfer of Innovations programme, number 2011-1-PL1-LEO05-19878

www.improfarm.pl

This project has been funded with support from the European Commission. This publication reflects the views only of the author and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

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Content 1. Origin of ...... 7

2. Basic rabbit anatomy...... 8

2.1 Skeleton ...... 8

2.2 Digestive system ...... 15

2.3 Respiratory system ...... 27

2.4 Circulatory system ...... 27

2.5 Genito-urinary system ...... 28

2.6 Nervous system...... 29

3. The most important breeds of ...... 35

3.1 New Zealand White ...... 35

3.2 Blanc de Termonde rabbit ...... 36

3.3 Dutch White ...... 36

3.4 Californian ...... 37

3.5 New Zealand Red ...... 37

3.6 Alaska ...... 37

3.7 Chinchilla Giant ...... 38

3.8 Checkered Giant ...... 39

3.9 Belgian Giant ...... 39 2

3.10 French Lop ...... 39

3.11 Hybrid rabbits ...... 41

3.12 -bearing rabbits ...... 42

4. Husbandry: the equipment and the rooms...... 43

5. Microclimate conditions of breeding rooms for rabbits...... 51

5.1 Temperature...... 51

5.2 Light ...... 53

5.3 Ventilation ...... 55

6. Rabbit behaviour in breeding conditions...... 56

6.1 Digestive behaviour ...... 56

6.2 Elimination behaviour ...... 58

6.3 Sexual behaviour ...... 58

6.4 Protective behaviour ...... 59

6.5 Behaviour connected with hierarchy in a group ...... 59

6.6 Aggression...... 59

6.7 Imitating ...... 60

6.8 Self-preservation activity ...... 60

6.9 Relaxation ...... 60

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7. Rabbit nutrition in relation to the aim of husbandry ...... 61

8. Basic terms, types of nutrients and plant fodders applied in rabbit nutrition...... 63

8.1 Need for nutrients and energy in different physiological states...... 65

8.2 Rabbit need for energy...... 65

8.3 Rabbit need for protein...... 69

8.4 Rabbit need for fat...... 70

8.5 Rabbit need for fibre...... 71

8.6 Rabbit need for carbohydrates...... 71

8.7 Rabbit need for minerals and vitamins...... 72

8.8 Rabbit need for water...... 82

9. Fodder used in rabbit’s nutrition. The preparation and storage rules, industrial fodder...... 83

10. Industrial fodder ...... 85

11. Anti-nutritive components in fodder ...... 86

12. Nutrition techniques and hygiene ...... 87

13. Daily food doses in various physiological states ...... 88

13.1 Traditional nutrition...... 88

13.2 Nutrition with granulated fodders ...... 93

14. Disposal of rabbit waste (vermicompost production - Red Californian Earth Worm farming) ...... 95

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15. Rabbit diseases ...... 97

15.1 Viral diseases...... 97

15.2 Bacterial diseases ...... 98

15.3 Parasitic diseases...... 98

15.4 New disease entities in rabbits ...... 106

16. Farm monitoring ...... 108

17. How prevent from prompt relatedness within the herd ...... 115

18. Disinfection of breeding rooms and cages ...... 117

19. Production costs calculation ...... 119

19.1 Fodder cost...... 119

19.2 Veterinary care costs...... 120

19.3 Heat and power cost...... 120

19.4 Costs of current repairs...... 120

19.5 Sales revenue...... 121

20. Assumptions for calculations of costs and incomes in rabbit production...... 121

21. The way to improve profitability of the rabbit farms (and not only the rabbit ones…)...... 125

22. The ways of boosting rabbit performance in a husbandry...... 125

23. Farm preparation to springtime ...... 126

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24. Rabbit reproduction ...... 128

25. Insemination ...... 134

26. Nutritional values of rabbit ...... 137

27. Vade mecum of rabbit livestock production (F.A.Q.) ...... 139

28. Husbandry humanisation...... 143

29. Selection of animals for the herd, introduction of the new animals, farm populating...... 144

30. Examples of rabbit farms...... 147

31. Case study ...... 154

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1. Origin of domestic rabbit. From all species of the breeding animals only rabbit, as a representative of the rodent order, has an economic importance and is used as a laboratory animal and an animal providing meat, fur and . It also more often finds place at home as a , kept for a company. Rabbits belong to a family and although they show external similarity to , they are genetically quite far from hares. There are the differences also in behaviour. While the rabbits are the animals that dig burrows and spend most of the time in them, the hares don’t show any skill to dig burrows or any interest in them. The attempts to breed a crossbreed of a rabbit and a are still failing. It was a man who played an important part in rabbit’s spread by carrying out a more or less well-thought breeding. The first references about this topic come from 1 100 BC from Phoenicians who gave its present name that in free translation means „Land of rabbits“. Phoenician sailors from Sidon and Tyre, visiting the coast of Spain at the end of the 12th century BC noticed that the ground of this land is all covered with burrows and mounds made by fluffy animals similar to the animals from their own country, to – shephan. This name‘s abbreviation became Spain. A roman – Warron, carried out the first half-free breeding. The Romans valued both rabbit meat and fur. Hedonistic approach to live of patricians bore fruits in very strange, from our point of view, culinary recipes. There were dishes made of new-born rabbits that enjoyed huge popularity, and later they were even made of embryos called laurices. Warron introduced rabbits to so-called leporarii instead of hares. Leporarii were something like fenced pastures where it was easy to catch the animals in consumption purpose. In such conditions the hares didn’t reproduce though and it was necessary to fill in their number by bringing the animals, which got caught in quite difficult yields in natural environment. The rabbits introduced to leporarii breed in captivity and were the inexhaustible source of meat. And in time the rabbit pits started to be called cunicularia. The farms for rabbits were different to the hare ones in that that the fence had to be buried deeply into the ground because of the animals’ excavation and mass escape. However, the rabbits kept in this way can't be called domesticated because in cunicularia there was no planned breeding or selection towards a specific useful feature. Selection, in this kind of breeding, favours the animals with wild features, eliminating (by yield) the animals with peaceful features and that trust in man. In this way in so-called „rabbit’s gardens“ (rabbits courts) rabbits were kept more or less until the 14th century in France and until the 17th century in England and Germany. Through all this time they were the source, which supplied natural environment with run-away rabbits forming some wild populations or just filling them up. Populating of many different parts of by wild rabbits dates since the 12th century, and the latest they were noticed in Germany in the 15th century. It is highly probable that this happened because of monastery husbandries, which were the leaders in rabbit domestification process. Selective works carried out by the monks led to creation of rabbit breeds of diversified fur colour and of different size. The breeds created in this way are quite different to the wild rabbits.

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2. Basic rabbit anatomy Knowledge of rabbit anatomy is necessary both during daily work with these cute animals and during kitchen work (while preparing some dishes). Learning rabbit anatomy is of course the easiest while slaughtering and preparing food. It is possible to learn the anatomy also during a post-mortem examination in order to determine a cause of a rabbit’s death.

2.1 Skeleton To learn how rabbit skeleton is build, it is the best to look at the attached photographs. While examining the particular bones coming from your own animals, you should note firstly if there are no signs of earlier and already healed fractures and if there are any unnatural deformities and growths. In case of frequent occurrence of healed fractures you can suspect that the bones are weak as a result of some nutritional mistakes, decalcification or bad construction of the cages. If the mesh is too big it happens frequently that the young rabbits break their legs, which then consolidate and the animals live quite normally. Such an occurrence can often be unnoticed by a breeder and it can be spotted only after thorough examination of the animal’s bone.

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Skull: skull bones can be divided into cranium bones and mandible bones. When examining a skull, the best after cooking and removing all meat, you should pay special attention to the condition of all bones, and especially if the skull is symmetrical: left and right side has to be identical. It is very often that mandible bones while cooked get disintegrated into two halves, but it should be treated as a normal phenomenon not connected with any development disorders or other pathologies. Quite important thing is the look of acoustic meatus inlet. It should be round, without any internal growths. If there are any changes in the way the left and right acoustic meatus look. You can suspect that while alive a rabbit suffered from chronic otitis media or, what is less probable, it was deep and hidden mite infestation Within skull you should have a look at the teeth.

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So-called overgrowth of teeth (constantly growing incisors) is a genetic disorder transmitted from parents to offspring. If there is any change in the teeth, we shouldn’t use a sibling of this rabbit for further reproduction. Incisor overgrowth will take place also when a rabbit doesn’t have a possibility to wear them down as they continually grow. Such a phenomenon may take place if the animals are fed with soft fodders only, because even giving granulated fodders will result in sufficient wear. Skull is connected with corpse in the same way as in all cases by seven cervical vertebrae that pass in thoracic vertebrae with 12 vertebrae.

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These vertebrae have special spinal processes and articular surfaces to connect with ribs. After thoracic vertebrae the spine passes in lumbar vertebrae consisting of seven vertebrae that have big transverse processes to attach the muscles responsible for all rabbit saddle’s motility. The next part of the spine is sacrum originating from four fused vertebrae. Sacrum has at both sides the articular surfaces to connect with the pelvic bone. The spine ends with caudal vertebrae of changeable amount, the most commonly amounting to 16 vertebrae.

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Ribs that make thorax are attached by means of joints to thoracic vertebrae on one side and to sternum. There is no clear connection between the forelegs bones and the rest of skeletal system. Foreleg consists of scapula, shoulder joint, humerus, fused bones of forearm (ulna and radius), carpus and phalanges ending with claws. Hindleg is attached to pelvic bone through hip joint and consists of femur, knee joint with patella and tibia. Foot includes tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges with claws. The important part is played by calcaneus connected rigidly with tarsus. It constitutes the place of attachment of the extremely strong tendons connected with the muscles responsible for performance of rabbit jumps (hock).

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While looking at rabbit skeleton it is easy to see the significant imparity in hindlegs and forelegs construction. Forelegs have greatly expanded bones of phalanges and metacarpus and quite weak, in comparison with analogical bones of hindleg, forearm and arm. On the other hand hindlegs have strong femur and tibia. It is caused by nature of wild rabbit life and was formed during evolution. The necessity to dig burrows forced formation of quite strong bones of metacarpus and phalanges, and the need to perform jumps and run fast led to formation of strong drive set within the bottom body part (pelvis and well-developed lumbar vertebrae) and strong bones of hindlegs with their extremely strong femur and tibia. Such a powerful skeletal system of bottom part is the place of attachment for the biggest rabbit’s muscles responsible for efficient motility of an animal.

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2.2 Digestive system Description of photos – 1. 2. Oesophagus 3. 4. Spleen 5. Duodenum 6. Liver 7. Gallbladder 8. Pancreas 9. Jejunum 10. Ileum 11. Ileocecal fold 12. Caecum 13. Vermiform appendix 14. Colons 15. Anal scent glands 16. Anus

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You should remember that the greatest losses in rabbit husbandry result from diseases and disorders of this particular system. Analysing the causes of problems with both the young and the adult rabbits in almost 90% cases an animal’s death is the result of digestive system malfunctioning. Next in order of cause are diseases of respiratory system. Digestive system starts with mouth with tongue (number 1 in the attached photo of gastrointestinal tract). There are the outlets of salinary glands (sublingual, submandibular and parotid). Produced saliva moisturises eaten food, and the enzymes contained in it are responsible for some of the digestive processes. Rabbit has quite big tongue for its body mass and in comparison with other species of animals. Such a big tongue takes active part in food crushing. It helps to grind it on so-called rugae palatinae that has quite high hardness. When looking inside a mouth you should pay special attention to all little wounds on mucous membrane. The formation of erosions may be caused by fodder contamination with chemicals, mineral fertilizers, salt and metal pieces (metal filings from machines used for fodder’s production). Throat is a part of gastrointestinal tract where are also connections with respiratory system as well as the outlets of pharyngeal-tympanic duct, which joins throat with middle ear. Oesophagus is a thin-walled almost transparent tube connecting throat with stomach and it is an element that would catch your eyes both during post-mortem and after-slaughter examinations (No 2 in the photos). Rabbit’s stomach is a one-chambered weakly muscled organ and if a rabbit is full of food it takes more space of abdominal cavity than liver (No 3 in the photo). Outside, as it were glued to stomach, is spleen connected with it by means of gastrosplenic ligament (No 4 in the photos). Just after stomach start intestines. The first is small intestine that begins with duodenum (No 5 in the photos). Then there are following parts of small intestine: jejunum and ileum (No 9 and 10 in the photos). Small intestine almost at all its length is suspended on intestine mesentery that hold up duodenum and the initial segment of jejunum that includes diffused gland of internal secretion – pancreas. (No 8 in the photos). The final segment of ileum connected with ceacum is called ileocecal fold and is shaped as a bubble. Caecum it is the first segment of large intestine that consists also of colon and rectum. Caecum is optically the biggest and the most eye- catching intestine within abdominal cavity (No 12 in the photos). It has typical spiral shape and clearly outlined embossed pockets. Its final segment is vermiform appendix (No 13 in the photos), usually of grey-creamy colour that is easy to tell from almost always dark, nearly black caecum. Vermiform appendix has usually length of 8 to 10 cm and is more or less of a little finger thickness.

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Strongly ridged colon leaves caecum close to the outlet of ileum. After many refractions it passes into smooth rectum ending with anus. On both sides of anus there are anal glands (No 15 in the photos). These glands while slaughtering for food should be removed immediately after skinning and gutting. While doing it you should be careful not to damage them and perform the whole operation with one smooth cut. If you don’t remove the glands it will result in specific taste of meat, which is not liked by all people.

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2.3 Respiratory system Rabbit respiratory system does not differ essentially from other ’ respiratory system. It starts with nostrils passing into quite long nasal cavity that opens into larynx. The further segment of is made of trachea build of cartilaginous rings. While performing a post-mortem examination as well as after cooking a rabbit, trachea is very well visible as a pipe with transverse rings on its entire length. Trachea forks into two bronchial tubes that forking on, already within lungs, make bronchial tree. During a post-mortem examination of a dead animal you should pay attention to outside look of lungs and bronchial tubes as well. After cutting trachea you should check if its forking in bronchial tubes is not clogged and if there are no purulent exudates. While slaughtering rabbits you should always exsanguinate them accurately by cutting the throat blood vessels. If it is not done properly the blood vessels won’t get completely empty and in such a case it will be possible to observe some dark red stain infiltrations within lungs. They are not the symptom of a disease in this case, but just the result of inaccurate exsanguination. Lesions of similar look can be distinguished by different consistency of the lungs within their range. Lesions are always much softer or, quite opposite, notably hardened. Also if outer rim of the lungs ends sharply and has changed colour it counts as lesions. We should remember though, that all observations should be carried out on an animal, which has just died or has just been killed (still warm).

2.4 Circulatory system The work of this system doesn’t cause any danger in reference with excessive drops in a herd. The only drops that occur at the farms and are connected with circulatory system that are myocardial infarctions (MI). It is possible to observe every now and then a sudden death of a rabbit, usually a buck during mating and precisely MI causes it. The changes within the heart such as local bruises and redness can be observed while carrying out post-mortem examination. It is not easy to notice them, because sometimes there are embolisms (blockages) within the internal structures of heart. It is an interesting fact that, what is very rare with animals, the rabbits have thymus gland attached to the heart. However, this gland is present only in the young animals and when they get old it disappears. For an inexperienced eye it is very difficult to see. Very important part in normal physiology is played the blood vessels within the earlobes. The rich network of vessels there constitutes of the pairs of blood vessels, veins and arteries, located in nasal concha, its middle and inferior part. This rich blood circulation of an ear in visible and easily accessed blood vessels caused that rabbits became the proverbial laboratory rabbits. Many tests on the field of natural sciences are carried out with the use of this species and it is not connected with its breeding and livestock production at the same time.

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2.5 Genito-urinary system Urinary system is almost the same in females as in males with the exception for its final segment. However, both in females and in males it ends with urethra to which leads bladder neck. Bladder is placed directly below abdominal sheath and is easily visible after its disclosure. It is a thin-walled little bag filled with yellow urine. It is physiological matter for a rabbit to have cloudy urine of different tints from light yellow to almost brown. The look of urine can be a diagnostic tool to assess physiological condition of a rabbit. Cloudy urine with alkaline reaction attests to good condition of an animal and what more it informs about its correct nutrition. Clear urine of acidic reaction is the most common symptom of malnutrition and shortage of nutrients in a food dose. There is a pair of ureters coming out of kidneys and because of their transparency and small diameter they are not easy to separate. The kidneys of a big bean size are attached to spinal side of abdominal cavity in lumbar part of . There is a small shift of the kidneys with respect to the horizontal body axis. One kidney is a bit higher than the other. They are surrounded by paranephric fat that stretches in patches along the spine. In young animals its amount is small but in the adult and mostly the old fat does its amount jointly with the kidneys can reach even to 0,5 kg. The hue of paranephric fat depends on a way of nutrition. Giving the animals in a food dose fair amount of plant food including carotene (carrot) will result in clearly visible yellow colour. Despite the lack of essential differences between urinary system of females and males, there are some differences in the way of urination. Females always urinate under themselves and usually in one place inside a cage. Due to construction of urethra that is placed inside penis, a male can sprinkle the surrounding within 1,5 meter with urine stream. This way of urination doesn’t take place always, but only if the male wants to mark its area, the closest surrounding. Therefore its desire to mark the area can be read as one of determinants of male readiness to reproduce. Reproductive system of a male consists of testicles, epididymides, vas deferentia, additional glands and penis. In the young males the testicles are within abdominal cavity and only during adolescent stage move to dual-chambered scrotum. Scrotum through all life of a male maintains connection with peritoneal cavity and that is why even a fully mature specimen is able to pull testicles and scrotum into its body. The older male gets the rarer is this situation. Inexperienced breeder can treat this sign, mostly in young males, as an infertility symptom, what is of course not true. Reproductive system of female starts with ovaries placed on both sides of the body. An ovary is an oval-shaped and elongate organ. On its surface there are follicles that are small round sacs, which contain the egg cell at different stage of productive cycle and which are seen with naked eye. At one end ovaries are clasped by oviduct infudibulum having its outlet in two uteri. Uteri have separate outlets to vagina through cervix. There in vagina, in its vestibule, is the outlet of urethra. The final segment consists of opening of the vagina with labia. The way the labia look is a certain determinant of female readiness to reproduce.

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2.6 Nervous system. Typical feature of rabbit nervous system is the construction of its brain. In the front part there are clearly visible olfactory nerves. In the bottom part, under their trunk you can find thick optic nerve. Brain hemispheres are smooth and narrowed in the front part. Brain includes also cerebellum that is clearly visible in the bottom part of the brain and that passes in spinal cord.

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Description of photos – internal organs 1. Tongue 2. Oesophagus 3. Heart 4. Lungs 5. Liver 6. Gallbladder 7. Stomach 8. Spleen 9. Kidney 10. Jejunum 11. Caecum 12. Ileocecal fold 13. Colon 14. Bladder 15. Anus

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3. The most important breeds of rabbits All rabbit breeds can be divided, depending on the way of usage into: meat, meat - fur-bearing, fur-bearing and woollen. Taking into account the size obtained by the adult rabbits we divide them in the large breeds - body mass more then 5,5 kg, the medium breeds - 3,5 to 5,5 kg and breeds up to 3,5 kg, the small breeds treated as decorative and typically for amateur. For the backyard breeding on a small scale the best suited are medium breeds that are used for meat and fur: New Zealand White, Californian White, Blanc de Termond and the breeds similar in usage of fur-bearing: New Zealand Red and Silver French (Argente de Champagne). Good results are obtained in amateur breeding by applying crossbreeds of white breeds and crossbreeds with Chinchilla Giant or American. However, rabbit livestock production performed as business activity requires application of typical breeds Blanc de Termond or imported hybrid rabbits. Bellow we present the most popular rabbit breeds, but please be reminded that there are much more rabbit breeds both registered in the country and registered abroad.

3.1 New Zealand White Rabbits of this breed were brought to Poland for the first time in 1964 and immediately gained recognition among the breeders. They have white fur, sometimes with yellowings, which are seen as deviation from the breed standard. They grow up to 5,5 kg and have cylindrical body-built both in the front and the back part of the body. There is no clear narrowing of trunk either excessive saddle. They have head with Roman nose and hairy 12 to 15 cm long. There are two lines of rabbits: one with longer ears and the other (usually imported to Poland from Slovakia) that have ears distinctly shorter. They can be used for reproduction when they are 4 months old and weight more then 3,0 kg. The females deal well with intense reproductive method and in favourable conditions give about 40 reared heads in a year. The females are inherently good mothers; produce much that enables fast growth of the kittens, which at age of 30 days should obtain mass of approx. 550g (new-born kitten is 60g). Dressing percentage, the most interesting parameter from processing industry point of view, is in theses rabbits more than 60 % and it is possible to gain after obtaining by animal the weight of 2,5 kg at age of 90 days. Meat content in a carcass is very high and is experimentally determined as 82% with low fat content limited to 6 – 7%. More than a half of skin coming from the at age of 90 days was classified as fur material. These rabbits are the most commonly bred among the medium breeds and an exchange or a purchase of breeding materials is not a problem.

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3.2 Blanc de Termonde rabbit These rabbits were brought to Poland (to Experimental Station of National Research Institute of Animal Production in Chorzelów) for the first time from Belgium in 1977. To make this breed required the use of rabbits of Belgian Giant White and hence number of breed standard features in Blanc de Termond comes from the first breed. Let’s name only the big ears, the elongated trunk and muzzle. When providing nutrition with fodders richer in proteins than fodder for New Zealand rabbits it is possible to obtain more numerous litters and a bit faster weight gain. It is typical breed to run industrial breeding at the large scale when the final financial statement is based on even a gram difference in the used fodder and small increase in rearing time indicator. Taking into account mass-production in these conditions and turnover of the large number of animal and fodder these small differences make per annum a substantial factor that decides about production profitability. The remaining operational parameters are close to the parameters described for the New Zealand White breed with only the difference that Blanc de Termond rabbits obtain slightly bit bigger body mass, provided that they are fed with this mentioned above richer amount of protein in food dose. Considering smaller range of this breeding it is more difficult to purchase a valuable breeding material, thus there is bigger risk of breeding the rabbits in close relationship.

3.3 Dutch White The weight of the adult specimens amounts to 4,0 kg, so this rabbits are smaller than the other. They are characterized by good use of fodder and they are resistant to adverse environmental conditions. Until recently they have been bred because of their springy and dense fur, what was recognised among furriers. Nowadays, they are not popular and their number is decreasing systematically.

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3.4 Californian Theses rabbits are a bit smaller then New Zealand, but they owe their popularity among the breeders to their look. They are not entirely white as the previous ones but they have black endings of paws, ears, nose and tail. Considering lesser and lesser number of this breed of animal, they are not suitable to breed at large scale. Outside those listed white rabbits, there are a number of the medium breeds of various colours of fur, which enjoy bigger or smaller recognition among the breeders. Let’s list here: French Silver, Chinchilla Giant, Vienna Blue, New Zealand Red and Fauve de Bourgogne. These are the breeds of lesser economic significance breed by amateurs in small numbers and in dispersion.

3.5 New Zealand Red These rabbits have golden red colour of fur with good shine. Their trunk is medium-long, cylindrical, well-muscled with well-developed front and rump, wide blades and saddle. Head is strongly embedded in the short neck, strongly attached to the trunk. Limbs strong, massive and short. Chunky ears, fat, embedded well, spoon-shaped with round endings, hairy, 12 to 12,5 cm long. When the rabbits are 3 months old they weight 1,7 kg. They grow up to 5,1 kg.

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Alaska Colour of fur is homogenously pitch black with visible shine on the whole body. On the belly part this layer is less shiny. Harmonious body construction. Stocky, cylindrical trunk, with well developed the front and the back body part. Head embedded in short neck, in females more delicate. Limb strong and medium- long. Chunky ears, spoon-shaped, hairy, 11 to 12 cm long. Body mass is 1,5 kg at the 3d month. They grow up to 4,5 kg.

3.7 Chinchilla Giant Fur colour is grey of blue shade with dark and white tops (called a veil), monotonous on the whole body. Wedge-shaped mark on neck is small in light grey colour. On the belly part the fur is lighter. Ears are dark, framed with black and white at the bottom. Tail is black on the top plaited with white-grey hairs that get white at the bottom. Trunk is long, cylindrical, and well-muscled. The rabbits grow up to weight of 5,8 kg. Front and rump are wide and saddle is strongly developed. Head embedded well on a short neck. Limbs are strong and medium-long. Head is short. In males it is wide and with Roman nose. Chunky ears well embedded with spoon- shaped ending, 14 cm long. The external surface of ears is evenly hairy. When they are 3 months old their body mass is 2,2 kg. They grow up to 5,8 kg. Very popular among the breeders are the large breeds that gain more than 6,0 kg of body mass. From economic point of view breeding of the large breeds seems to be not profitable in the further future. Theses breeds have notably smaller dressing percentage and bigger percentage of inedible parts (skin, guts, hock) in a carcass. In comparison with the medium breeds there are less reared rabbits from a doe obtained per year.

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3.8 Checkered Giant Fur is sheer white with black spots. The breed standard strictly determines the layout of the spots. Harmonious body construction, straight line of saddle, round rump, well developed chest, wide well-muscled trunk. Head is big, wide and embedded in the short neck. Legs are strong and wide apart. Length of trunk is 66cm and more. Strong, chunky ears that flare toward the upper part, 16 to 17 cm long. Body weight at the 3d month is 2,3 kg. They grow up to 6,0 kg of mass and more.

3.9 Belgian Giant It occurs in several colours – grey, light grey (hare-like), ferrous, blue, black and chinchilla-like. Harmonious body construction, straight saddle line, round rump, well developed chest. Legs are strong and wide apart. Head is big and wide, with little Roman nose embedded in short neck. Trunk length is 70cm and more. Strong, chunky ears, hairy all over, strongly embedded, 19 cm long and more. Body mass at the 3d month reaches 2,6 kg. They grow up to 7,0 kg and more.

3.10 French Lop Alike Belgian Giant it also occurs in several colours – grey, ferrous, black, blue, Havana, Madagascar-like, chinchilla-like, yellow, checkered, red-eyed white, blue-eyed white. Its silhouette is stocky and packed. Trunk is cylindrical. Rump is slightly bevelled and well-muscled. Neck is short (invisible) and strong. Legs are short and strong. Head is wide and stocky, visibly Roman-nosed. Cheeks well developed, wide, marked. Chunky ears, hairy, well embedded, symmetrically hanging with their openings towards the head, apart from 38 to 45 cm. Body weight at the 3d month is 2,5 kg. The rabbits grow up to 5,kg and more.

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For a small number of breeders a certain economic meaning has breeding of dwarf rabbits intended for pet shop supply. These rabbits can cost the same or even more than the rabbits sold to the processing plants, and use several times less food. However, on the whole country scale this is marginal activity worth only mentioning as an interesting fact. Certainly it is not the activity with bright future when considering the limited potential customer market and a frequently changing trend for keeping some animals as at home.

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3.11 Hybrid rabbits Hyla rabbits, Hyla 2000, Genia, Hycole, German Zica, or recently very popular line Hyplus produced by French genetic company Grimaud Freres. The animals from these synthetic lines are characterised by: the fast pace of the young growth, the intensity of reproduction, large fertility and ability to rear kittens, shortened lactation period and very short fattening period of the young in total. To create these breeds one used a phenomenon called heterosis manifesting as exuberance of a determined feature in the offspring in comparison with their parents. The female hybrid lines were created separately to the males. Despite that the combinations of applied crossbreeding and participation of breeds is the trade secret guarded by a patent, it is well-known that while creating the does there are crossbreed about 12-16 breeds. Each of them „adds“ something of its own to the final effect e.g. ability to intense usage, high fertility, lactation, caring, meat features, good use of fodder, fur colour etc. During the males formation this number is lower and amounts to 8-9, and also in this case each of the breeds has its share in the final effect e.g. well expressed meat features, high potency, high fertility etc. The companies producing synthetic lines sell usually only the females that are used for breeding through artificial insemination with the delivered semen and their whole offspring is intended for fattening. Only in perfect farming conditions proper for each line theses rabbits are able to exhibit their potential possibilities – ability to intense usage for reproduction (6-8 litters per year), high fertility and ability to reproduce (on average 8 heads per litter), the fast pace of fattening ensuring gaining body mass of 2,5 kg in70 - 75 days. The proper conditions include also correct nutrition based on the specialised granulated fodders. The companies dealing with hybrid line making ensure obtaining the advertised effects only on condition that all recommendations are strictly followed by a final producer. It concerns especially the following: ensuring the proper maintenance conditions for the animals, the suitable nutrition and compliance with the animal hygiene standards.

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3.12 Fur-bearing rabbits In previous years, more or less until the 80s of the previous century, it was popular to breed two other types of rabbits: the fur-bearing rabbits intended for fur articles and also almost unknown today breed of rabbits that is the angora rabbits. The latter were kept for periodical shaving of their fur to get a product needed to produce the angora wool. There were the breeds just described earlier – New Zealand Red, Alaska, Chinchilla Giant, the large breeds such as Giants Grey and Black and Checkered. It resulted from the fact that to prepare a fur coat of these rabbits you needed to have much more coneys than the dimensions of a surface and the whole case usually used to crash on choosing the right hue of fur to gain homogenous look of a product. With time, as far as progress in rabbit coney dying techniques progressed, the rabbits from the colour breeds lost their importance and their popularity went down. The tanners and furriers preferred often the coneys from white rabbits because after applying the suitable dying techniques they got even material to make fur coats or hems. The use of standard-hair coneys for fur production is nowadays marginal because of the low durability of the products. As a waste product of rabbit livestock production in slaughter plants, noticeable amounts of coneys are left and then they are used to the felt production. The only coneys that are used in fur industry are the coneys of Rex rabbits. These rabbits have shortened fur, which is velvety and soft in touch. They come in many colours and their coneys are the only rabbit coneys that are noted at European Fur Auctions. Such rabbits are bred usually under carports, outdoor to get the fur as dense as possible. The slaughter for coneys is carried out when the animals are 6 – 7 months old and until then they have to be kept in separate cages. It is specialised production of the rabbits that requires a lot of experience and involves some risk related to possibility of the quick changes of fashion and hence a decrease of production profitability.

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4. Husbandry: the equipment and the rooms. It is important in rabbit breeding as well as in rabbit livestock production to use the suitable equipment. The applied technical solutions should ensure good disposition of the animals as well as not to cause any trouble in the daily maintenance works. Very important matter is the choice of cages or hutches for the planned size of the breeding and for the existing room conditions. However, you should always have in mind the legal regulations in force. Regardless the way of running a husbandry, the types of cage or if it is an open-air breeding or inside, we have to fulfil the obligation referring to tax payment. Such an obligation arises in the situation when the size of the basic herd (amount of the females that are ready and able to reproduce) is more than 50 heads. Then you should register your business activity as a special department of agriculture production in a territorially competent administrative body and then notify about it a competent tax office too. This kind of business activity is taxed with the lump-sum tax based on the amount of kept females. If we plan to breed the rabbits for a small scale, for pleasure or for meat for our own use, it is enough to have not heated rooms equipped with the hutches with deep bedding or the wooden cages. The hutches should be made of wood impregnated with a substance that is non-toxic for the rabbits. It is in their nature to bite the wood and that can cause some poisonings. To use the space in a better way instead of the hutches we can use the wooden cages. The size of a hutch should be suitable to the size of the breed rabbits and in accordance with the binding standard. The 43 hutches should be placed on the hard floor to prevent rabbits from digging the burrows. The floor should be protected from absorption. The best location for the hutches is the concrete floor insulated with bituminous materials. Before letting the animals in you should put a layer of sawdust about 3 – 5 cm thick as an absorption layer. As proper bedding on sawdust we use straw (except for rye straw), or some wood shavings from a planer. Breeding practice tells us that the best results are obtained when using the wood shavings, not sawdust that could be put at the bottom. Both straw and hay have very low capacity to absorb water and urine in comparison with such a capability of the wood shavings. Additional aspect in favour of the wood shavings is the fact that the animals eat the straw and hay, given as the bedding. It is not favourable phenomenon because it results in uncontrolled dilution of daily food dose. In the hutches there is no need to mount the litter pans because the females build a nest using the accessible bedding in one of the hutch’s corner.

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Of course there is the necessity to equip the hutch with a water pan and a food pan. They can’t be the pans that would be easily knocked over by the rabbits, what would result in spilling water and food. The best is when water pans (water bottle) and food pans are hanged on a side of the hutch. If we use combined nutrition system on a wall of the hutch should be mounted also a feeder to provide hay. As it was mentioned before, an alternative for the hutches in the husbandries on a small scale, can be the wooden cages. They allow for better use of the space as well as they enable to breed the rabbits in an open-air. The cages alike the hutches should be equipped with food pans, water pans, hay feeders and litter pans. In the cages you can use as a floor a grind made of spot-welded metal net (it is not allowed to use ever a woven net as a floor) or a wooden grind made of small wooden boards of 1,5 cm size and the gaps between them also 1,5 cm. The cages need to be made in such a way that urine and droppings from the cages above would not fall directly on the cages below. Manure from the hutches and the cages are removed manually after the end of production cycle. The bedding in the cages and the hutches with the adult rabbits is changed after weaning of the young. In meantime it is enough to add some bedding periodically. In the cages and the hutches with the young rabbits we exchange the whole bedding after the fattening period. Every time we exchange the bedding we should at the

45 same time clean the equipment carefully and carry out disinfection. If it is the breeding on a larger scale we should use the metal cages made of spot-welded net, placed on the racks in the breeding rooms. Such system of running a farm is already a form of rabbit’s livestock production.

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The cages can be made in-house or bought from a specialised production company. What needs to be remembered is that there are the legal regulations in force, which refer to the mandatory dimensions of cages for the most commonly breed animals. Each time before we start making our own cages, we should carry out an accurate economic analysis of the undertaking. It happens often that the cages made in-house are more expensive than the bought ones. It results from the fact that, the producing companies have preferential prices of the nets and the other materials and have also the experience how to make the cages with the least amount of waste.

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The cages can be placed both on a flat floor and on the manure-drying duct, which facilitates the manure disposal. They can be put in one-level system or in a cascading way. Manure removal is done manually if the cages are placed on the flat floor or if the scale of production is larger, it is removed by a mechanical system. If we have the cages situated above the flat floor, it should be protected against absorption with bituminous substance and covered with small amount of sawdust to catch moisture. On the whole length of the sides of the racks that hold the cages you should put horizontally the wooden boards to prevent spilling of manure on a fodder hallway. The cages for all rabbits have to be equipped with water bottles (to suck water), that are supplied from the central low-pressured water-tank. There should be also mounted, except the water bottles, food pans to provide

48 a granulate. It is recommended, that they would have the partitions preventing from fodder scavenging by the rabbits. A farm has to be equipped with transfer carts for the rabbits and transfer carts for the fodders. The named carts don’t have to look like the ones in the photographs. However, they must operate faultlessly and they can’t cause any body damage to a rabbit or be at the bottom of fodder contamination.

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Breeding rooms for the rabbits don’t have to have any special structure and they can be adapted e.g. from an unused hen house or any other farm building. If we want to build a farm from a scratch we can make use of the typical designs concerning hen house construction. They have to be equipped with a ventilation system ensuring sufficient multiplicity of air-exchanges and sufficient amount of light (see numerical data below).

Zoo-hygine conditions:

1. Temperature – minimal - 12ºC; optimal – 18ºC – 22oC; maximal – 26ºC 2. Speed of air-flow– 0,25 m/sec 3. Air exchange– winter 0,8m3/h/kg; summer –4m3/h/kg 4. Maximal – 75% 5. Lighting – productive herd – 70luces; fattening area – 50luces

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5. Microclimate conditions of breeding rooms for rabbits. The main factors forming microclimate are: temperature, humidity and light as well as the air containing harmful elements. Providing animals with suitable living conditions doesn’t concern only the production farms. The same breeding parameters should be applied to one head and the few thousand of heads. We should remember that a cage where a rabbit is kept it is the whole world for its and in it should be maintained the discussed parameters of microclimate. Ii is not important how we will feel in a room with the animals. Important are the conditions the animals will have in the cages or the hutches. All parameters should be measured at the level of the cages, in animal habitat area. It can happen that at the level of our face the conditions will be completely different than at the cage level, where some draughts may occur or toxic gases emission can be substantial.

5.1 Temperature. Rabbits belong to the animals of the limited thermoregulation. That is why it is important to provide them with proper temperature of surrounding. Rabbits are extremely sensitive to high temperatures because they don’t sweat and the heat excess is lost through increased frequency of breaths. Rabbits, if the temperature is high, loose their appetite, don’t grow and even lose weight. Rabbit’s overheating during transportation on a hot day can be the cause of its death. Particularly unwanted are too high temperatures (25° C), during an intense fattening period. Big amount of animals in a room causes the increase of humidity and temperature of the surrounding. The threats of disease grow too. Skin diseases develop, weight growth gets smaller and the results of fattening are worsened. The optimum temperature in the rooms, where takes place the fattening of the young, should amount to 14-18° C, depending on the rabbit’s age. If the rabbits were weaned at the age of 28 days it is recommended to keep the temperature about 18° C for about 10 days. For slightly bit older rabbits decreased temperature of 14° C is fine. The temperature drops below 10o C should not be allowed because in such a temperature gaining the weight is significantly slowed down. The temperature in a room with a female production herd should be kept within the limits 16-20°C. It results from the necessity to protect the new-borns from getting a cold. The temperature in the rooms both for the basic herd and for the young being fattened should be constant without daily and seasonal fluctuations. To keep constant temperatures in a rabbit house we 51 need to use some heating devices. In our country conditions the most common seems to be a central heating system. However, it is more and more often in the country that hot air blowing system is used. (For this purpose we place in the building a perforated plastic or metal tube under the ceiling of the whole building. A fan forces hot air into the tube, which comes out of it thorough the openings placed at the bottom and on the side of the tube. The openings are made at different distances, at the beginning (closer to the fan) they are quite rare, and their density grows towards the end of the tube. The diameter of the tubes is 45 to 60 cm, depending on the length of the room. During summertime this tube can be used as a ventilation appliance to lower the temperature inside the building.

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5.2 Light Light it is very important factor influencing the reproductive usability of rabbits and the fattening results. We distinguish the light: natural, artificial and combined. In the buildings for the basic herd in so-called reproductive sector should be the windows. So there is natural light that should be supplemented with artificial light in autumn, winter and spring. In the commercial farm buildings there are no windows at all. So there has to be artificial light in them. The best results are gained while using so-called fluorescent lamps that give blue and yellow colour, which is alike daily light. Significant influence on lighting the production building has the length of daylight and its intensity. In the literature there are reported different values for day light and for it intensity. The best effects of fattening the young are gained when using maximum length of daylight at the level of 12-14 hours daily with luminous intensity of 25 luces. It is possible in the big commercial rooms intended for rabbit fattening to use the light for the period of 8 hours only, but is has to be connected with monitoring the pace of body mass growth. In absence of the measuring devices to measure the luminous intensity, we can apply the method of determining the light application on the basis of installed lamp power. In such a case in a fattening area we use the light at the level of 3 to 4 W per square meter. Because part of light gets smaller with the distance squared, we should try to mount the lamps not higher than two meters from the cage level and for this level we will make calculation of the lighting. For a reproductive herd the length of daylight should be 14 -16 hours daily, and luminous intensity should be 50 luces. After conversion to the area of the female cages there should be 6 to 8 W per 1 square meter of the cage bottom surface. Light has decisive influence on reproductive activity and it is one of the stimulants of sexual drive and proper hormonal management in females. Rabbit is an animal of „long day“, which means that increased reproductive activity occurs at the moment of daylight prolongation that occurs in spring months. If we use an artificial lighting we have to remember to adjust the time of switching on and off by means of the control clock to make it similar to the natural conditions. In practice, the most frequently used system is a combined system: natural and artificial. And in such a case the springtime adjustment is made so to say automatically. A problem arises in autumn time when the daylight gets shorter naturally and about 4 p.m. it gets dark. In this period, it is usually the end of October; we allow the insemination percentage to drop due to the shortening day, for the period of two weeks. After this period, in November, we increase successively the length of daylight to the recommended value of 16 hours daily, adding everyday a half an hour. In practice it is carried out by switching off the light later and later. Such a growth of the length of daylight that is received by the animals as a kind of an artificial spring, it can’t be shorter than two to three weeks. It has been proven experimentally that it is possible to introduce one „artificial spring“ in the autumn months in this way, whereas the attempt to cheat rabbits by introduction of three or more peaks of day length maximum value doesn’t bring any results and causes even decrease of their reproductive ability below the average annual value.

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As the lighting at a farm it is the best to use fluorescent lighting with lamp colour reminding white hue. More and more popularity are gained by so-called „energy efficient“ light bulbs, which allow reducing the costs of lighting. When using any type of artificial lighting we have to remember about mounting the lamps adjusted to work in condition of the breeding farms. They are the lamps that construction excludes getting damp inside and protects from electrical .

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5.3 Ventilation Ventilation controls humidity in a rabbit house, removes the used air containing harmful gases and supplies fresh air. Ventilation can be natural or mechanical. Natural ventilation works at the proper temperature and pressure difference both inside and outside the building. Its efficiency depends mostly on the amount of heat generated by the animals inside the building. In the lowest outside temperatures the ventilation works on the basis of gravity, which is the difference between warm, light air mass and heavy cold air. The air exchanges are performed by rightly opened exhaust ducts and intake opening. Wind, moving ventilators, additionally increases the efficiency of the exhaust ducts. In the higher outside temperatures ventilation takes place at the full transport capacity of the exhaust ducts and intake openings, with an option to open the windows. On the other hand, if the temperatures are high, beside open duct ventilation it is necessary to open all windows and even the doors. Air exchange is done then on the basis of the pressure difference of inside air containing high value of steam and dry air from outside. Forced ventilation (mechanical) is the exchange of air in the building with the use of ventilators driven by the electric engines. Mechanical ventilation is used only in the big rooms. It is very expensive and has to be controlled automatically by proper sensors – the thermostats. Excess of steam and harmful gases is removed by ventilation system. Ventilation appliances have to be constructed in such a way that the air flow speed would be from 0,20 m/s to 0,25 m/s. Higher speed of air cases draughts and can lead to colds among the rabbits. Here are technical indicators that are decisive about the proper ventilation of a room depending on the time of the year:  Ventilation in wintertime 0,5-0,6 m3/! kg of body mass/h; in springtime: 2,5-4 m3/! kg of body mass/h;  Air exchange 0,8 m3 (winter) do 6 m3 (summer) /l h;  Airflow speed 0,1 m/s in winter; 0,4 m/s in summer;  The distance between the animals and the air intake min. 1,5 m, recommended from 1,8 to 3,0 m.

The practical assessment of the air exchange degree we can carry out by watching the moves of pieces of fur left on the cages or by observing smoke from a blown down candle or a cigarette. If we will observe that the fur stuck on the cages move because of airflow, there is high probability that the airflow is too strong and there were some harmful for animal’s draughts. To small flow of air will occur in the case if the mentioned above smoke disperses in the air without heading towards a determined direction.

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6. Rabbit behaviour in breeding conditions. While examining rabbit behaviour we distinguish the numerous reactions that are the most essential and typical and that result from rabbit biology and that are closely related to their environment. There are the special catalogues of rabbit behaviour depending on the maintenance conditions.

6.1 Digestive behaviour Rabbits kept individually in the cages spend different amount of time at eating granulate and hay drinking water that depends on physiological state and sex. Rabbit sex and physiological state Time spend at absorbing food and water Granulate Hay Water Minute % of Minute % of Minute % of s day s day s day Males adult 91,6 2,54 45,4 1,26 25,6 0,71 Females at rest 90,6 2,52 105,3 2,92 25,4 0,70 Females in 2d half of gravidity 114,9 3,19 38,1 1,06 38,0 1,06 Females 1-2 days before litter 55,5 1,54 40,4 1,12 18,9 0,52 Females with the young up to 7 days 157,0 4,36 188,8 5,24 33,0 0,92 old Females with the young aged 10 to 90,8 2,52 379,1 10,53 33,0 0,92 14 days

In the adult males the biggest intersubject variablity is in the amount of time spent at drinking water, the smallest in the amount of time spent at eating granulate. Females at rest eat granulate during the whole day for almost the same amount of time as the adult males but with the bigger intersubject variability. Rabbits seek food with the same intensity thorough the whole day no matter the physiological state. The only differences to be noticed are that for the males and the females at rest the periods of food consumption occur every 15-20 min. on average and last 5-10 min. with intensification in the afternoon. The pregnant and feeding females absorb food every 10 min. on average at the shorter period of food seeking. 56

The non-pregnant females and the males that weight 3,5 - 4,0 kg drink about 325,6 ml of water per day. The females in the first half of gravidity - approx.380, 4 ml, and in the second half 393,6 ml water per day. With rabbits during a fattening period decisive influence on the production results has the rhythm of the fodder deliveries. The best results are obtained when a fodder is delivered at least once a day no matter the time of the day. When distributing a fodder once a day the body mass growth is 1 kg to 3,7 kg of fodder. The high consumption of fodder takes place when a nutritional fodder is distributed once every two days and when an animal can eat as much as its likes, which is 6,0 kg per 1 kg of growth. It is the result of on one hand the fodder waste because of scavenging and on the other hand not entire absorption by the body. Rabbit doesn’t have peristalsis of the small intestines. It moves digestive tract content by taking new portions. In this situation when a fodder is taken out of habit and because there is constant access to it, the food is not digested and absorbed entirely before expulsion. Rabbits have quite well developed taste, what you can check by giving them choice of a traditional granulate of the natural flavour and a flavoured granulate. Among four basic flavours given to the young and to the pregnant females, the sweet tasting granulate was the most willingly eaten. Similar daily rhythm as well as frequency of fodder absorption occurs in wild rabbit. Wild rabbits seek food at the zone of a certain tribe in the early morning hours treating it as the basic feed. Beside of it they pick at the plants close to their burrow through all day choosing the tastiest bits. General time spend at eating in breeding conditions is from 2,5 to 3,0 hours and is divided in the few-minute intervals.

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6.2 Elimination behaviour

Frequency of and urine elimination and coprophagia. Rabbit sex and physiological state Intervals between subsequent activities Defecation Urination Coprophagia Minutes Minutes Minutes Males adult 38 100 260 Females at rest 37 38 200 Females at 2d half of gravidity 78 83 360 Females 1-2 days before litter 267 164 360 Females with the young up to 7 days 139 144 360 Females with the young at age of 10 140 248 360 to 14 days

Coprophagia concerns all animals no matter the physiological state and sex and its occurrence is being noted during the whole day without any clear intensification in the night hours. Rabbits try to defecate at the same place in the cages. In 79% of the cages the defecation place is localised in the cage corner, in 12% of the cages this place can’t be located and in 9% of the cages it is the middle or the place next to the walls. On average, for the design purposes of the farms, it is presupposed that an adult rabbit eliminates 120 g of feces and 480 ml of urine per day and a young rabbit aged 40 days in the same time eliminates 40 g of feces and 180 ml of urine.

6.3 Sexual behaviour There were 227 pairs of coupled rabbits. Their behaviour was recorded. In 159 cases the animals before copulation chased each other in the cage, in 59 cases they liked and sniffed each other. In 227 of the females only 124 of them allowed for mating. Among these 124 females only 95 of them showed clear desire for mating. 29 females were mated, so to say, „by force“, which affected the efficiency since percentage of insemination, was for them only 20,7. Observing the male activity it was found that it doesn’t matter if the female before mating was in vicinity of the mating male. It was found that the males often climbed on the females on their side or from the head side. After putting the male into the

58 other male cage, it also climbed on the other animal. It turned out that the older males commit this kind of mistake more rarely than the young ones.

6.4 Protective behaviour One observed the behaviour of the females with their young when somebody put a hand inside. It was found that the females often attack to protect their offspring. This attack depends on the young’s age. The most aggressive in defence are the females with the young aged 5-10 days, and then this aggression gradually decreases, as the young get older. While carrying out all-day observation of the females with their young it was not found that they would be interested in nursing. Feeding the young until the age of 7 days took the females 4,5 min per day on average. The older rabbits /14-17 days/ were able to demand feeding and this lasted 6,6 min. per day averagely. The females with the older bunnies more often stayed in the nest than the females with the small rabbits. There was observed no interest of the females in the small ones, which fell out of the litter pan. They fixed the nest sporadically and it was done only on purpose. The rabbits aged 7 days doing some sudden moves were able to cover themselves with fur and bedding, making the nest this way. Licking the young by the mother was not dependent on their age and also happened rarely. Humanizing, it is possible to say, that the females don’t behave in warm and tender way towards their offspring. The care is limited to feeding the young and protecting the nest.

6.5 Behaviour connected with hierarchy in a group Young rabbits were observed, grouped in 4 heads per cage and there was an attempt to determine, which one of them using its domination above the others goes as first to a filled up food pan with a fodder. It turned out that all animals started eating at the same time. Only the animals visibly weaker had problems with finding a proper place at the food pan. It was not observed that they would ward off each other from the food pan. Hierarchy in a group of wild rabbits is often connected with the female struggle to get the best position in a herd. In natural conditions rabbits live in the family groups including few to dozen or so females, among which a hierarchy of importance is established and this ensures the dominating females with the best place to nest and to seek food. The role of males in establishing a hierarchy has been not examined yet.

6.6 Aggression Aggression was assessed on the basis of the behaviour of the young and the adult. The most often aggressive behaviour was observed in the females protecting their nests. It was found that such aggression, just like the mentioned one, was dependant on the age of the young. The females were more aggressive in relation to an incidental watcher than to a permanent maintenance worker. It was determined that the bigger aggression is in the rooms with frequent exchange of the maintenance staff. Watching the rabbits grouped in 4 per cage and kept in it since

59 weaning, it was found only a few cases of bite in a room with 960 cages. In case of grouping in 4 of the older rabbits only in 47 cages out of 78 the bites were noticed.

6.7 Imitating Observing the young rabbits it was found that if there was an activity started by one animal in a cage, in almost 50% it caused imitation of this activity by the other animals. If the young rabbits imitate the females was difficult to determine. The young showed significant mobility and curiosity about the surroundings. It is difficult to define if the use of food and water pans was the result of mother mimicking or their own search.

6.8 Self-preservation activity In formed artificial conditions self-preservation activity can be expressed only by attempt to escape in dangerous situations. The carried out observations allowed to state that sudden activation of an unknown impulse resulted in panic hustle of the rabbits in the cage. The biggest panic was caused by unexpected sounds that were new to the rabbits and that normally didn’t occur at the farm. Similar reaction was after a sudden entrance of a worker to the building. One of the anxiety symptoms was thumping. The upset rabbits, before they identify the source of threat, warn or drive away by thumping with a hindleg on the floor. If one rabbit starts thumping the rest will follow.

6.9 Relaxation In progress of carried out round-the clock observation one found out that the rabbits to relax need only approx.70% time of the day. It is in compliance with the other reports according to which this value fluctuates from 60% to 75% time of the day. Usually the rabbits relax by lying on their belly or sitting with their saddle placed horizontally.

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7. Rabbit nutrition in relation to the aim of husbandry Rabbits are typical herbivores and their gastrointestinal tract allows them to use of plant-based nutrients from the fodder efficiently. Wild rabbits, in their natural habitat, regulate their daily nourishment depending on the availability of particular ingredients, age and their physiological condition. Proper environment allowing proper nutrition of the organism determines survival of the species on a given territory, increase of population and expansion on neighbouring territories. The law of evolution and determines all those factors. Rabbits, in their natural habitat, select the food. This is one of the basic forms of their behaviour. Provided with an access to various nutrition options such as plant growing within their habitat boundaries, rabbits make independent decisions concerning the amount and type of food they eat during twenty-four-hour cycle. Devoid of proper food base, rabbits migrate in search for food. As a result, new territories become inhabited, ensuring maintenance of animals’ good condition and most effective reproduction within the herd of rabbits. process, including the change of living conditions as well as increased use value, deprives rabbits of the ability of food selection. Requirements concerning intensive reproduction and maximum growth rate have changed nutrition habits of those animals radically. Their demand for particular ingredients and the amounts needed have changed alongside. Rabbit’s husbandry resulted in multiplication of breeds varying with regard to use and nutritive elements requirements. Most significant biological progress was made in creation of breeds with high meat usability characterized by relatively fast growth of specimen weight as well as intensive reproduction. Animals kept in conditions allowing intensive production of meat are completely dependent on nutrition provided by human. Proper nutrition programme is necessary in order to require from the herd given for specific zoo-technical conditions productivity. Such a programme needs to ensure delivery of adequate amounts of nutritive substances and needs to be justified economically. Rabbits are to be fed with the forages in amounts covering their nutritive requirements at lowest possible cost. Providing excessive amount of maximally diverse fodder would allow satisfying the needs of animals in various physiological states and at different ages but would not guarantee profitability of production. Despite unlimited access to different types of products of plant origin one might face a reduction of the rate of weight gain and fertility. Only the use of carefully balanced food rations guarantees obtaining positive financial result in the production of rabbit’s livestock provided, of course, that other requirements of technology are fulfilled. Balanced nutrition of a rabbit should apply equally to animals raised on large commercial farms as well as to animals on amateur farms conducted on a small scale.

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Depending on the scale of breeding nutrition problems will prove more or less important for its success. We can keep rabbits, or even one rabbit, in a flat and treat it as a pet accompanying a man on a par with a dog or a . The bunny becomes over a period of time a kind of full member of a family and the owners, especially children, will for emotional reasons, treat any kind of intestinal disorders as a very big problem. With this type of approach to the rabbits expenses incurred to maintain the animals in good physical condition are not usually significant. Another version of breeding rabbits is breeding in rural areas, in allotment gardens or even in urban areas, in adjacent buildings in built-up areas. Such husbandry can on one hand be oriented towards the acquisition of valuable meat for one’s own needs or as an amateur, hobby farm designed to achieve the purpose of improvement of breeds and obtaining outstanding individuals with outstanding racial characteristics, highly assessed at exhibitions. In such farms, with 10 to 20 females of livestock, the cost of animal nutrition also becomes less important and it is more important to satisfy the needs of the breeder, whether culinary or ambitious. One pays more attention to the cost of animal nutrition in husbandry oriented, on the one hand, towards self-maintenance and on the other hand towards obtaining of additional cash income, supplementing the family budget. In such husbandry one has to reckon with expenses incurred for nutrition and select such doses of food rations and fodder components so as to make the expenses as low as possible. The last types of husbandry are commercial farms conducting breeding based on high-performance breeds or breeding lines of rabbits. On farms with 100 to 1 000 and more females nutrition costs of approximately 80% of the total expenditure for the maintenance of the production process must be carefully monitored and recorded. This type of breeding and production must be based on a detailed economic calculation carried out in accordance with the rules of accounting.

In this study we present the problem of rabbit nutrition regardless of the scale and type of farming. It is not important whether we keep one rabbit or a few thousand of them- all must have access to appropriate fodder in adequate quantities. It is a common belief that a small number of rabbits can be fed with farm, or traditional, fodders and commercial farms should be based solely on industrial, granular fodders. This view is essentially correct, but from the point of view of rabbit physiology it is not very important. We must always ensure adequate nutrition to an individual, no matter if it is a rabbit kept as a pet or a member of a herd of several thousand. For economic reasons, resulting from labour costs, costs related to the organization of the fodder base and organizational reasons, the larger is the scale of breeding, the greater amount of granulated fodder is used. But there are no contra-indications, from the point of view of animal physiology, to the use of traditional fodders in commercial farms.

Therefore, there will be discussed below fodders used in nutrition of rabbits, as well as the need for essential nutrients, but concerning a single animal, regardless of the size of the herd in which it lives and without regard to the size and purpose of the husbandry. The same rules will apply to the nutrition of one rabbit as well as to many thousands of them. The applied model of nutrition, of course consistent with the recommendations presented, will depend on the adopted technology of production and its scale. 62

8. Basic terms, types of nutrients and plant fodders applied in rabbit nutrition.

Rabbit consumes fodder about 70 - 80 times a day for a period of 1 - 2 minutes. A one- time amount of food taken is 2 - 8 grams and depends on the age and physiological condition of the animal. When using granular fodder during the period of rapid growth rabbits consume daily amount of fodder equal to 5% of their body weight plus water in an amount of 10% of their body weight. The ratio of weight gain in that period to the quantity of consumed fodder equals 1: 3. The process of digestion of provided food and the so-called coefficient of digestibility depends on many factors. The most important are the type and texture of the food provided, the condition of gastrointestinal tract (including the saturation of the blood and lymph with nutrients and associated with it permeability of intestinal epithelial cell membranes), physiological state of the animal and prevailing zoo hygienic conditions. Provided food is to ensure satisfying of the basic energy needs and is to serve as a building block for the organism. Knowing the digestibility of the ration of the individual components we can calculate (using the appropriate multiplier) the value of digestible dose, which is the sum of digestible nutrients expressed in per cents or grams per one kilogram of fodder.

All the food supplied to rabbits consists of dry matter and water. This concept should be understood in two ways. On the one hand it is a solid food supplied to a pet together with drinking water and on the other hand, the laboratory determined amount of the dry matter content in the ration provided and water included in it. In this study whenever there will be mentioned the content of water and dry matter it will concern the laboratory determining of their amount in a food ration. Water demand, referring to drinking water, will be discussed separately. After these preliminary explanations, we can proceed to discuss the particular components of the ration.

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As has been said before, food consists of dry matter and water (but not the drinking water): Food= dry matter + water

The dry matter content in Fodder ranges from 80 - 95% for cereals, plant fascine and cereal middlings by a value of 20 - 25% for roots and 15% for green forage. The dry matter consists of organic and mineral substances:

Dry matter =of organic substances + mineral substances (mineral salts)

Organic substances are composed of nitrogen compounds and nitrogen-free compounds:

Organic substance = nitrogen compounds + nitrogen-free compounds

The nitrogen compounds include proteins, amides (non-protein compounds), and vitamins and biocatalysts: Nitrogen compounds = proteins + amides + vitamins + biocatalysts

Nitrogen-free compounds are composed of carbohydrates and fats constituting reserve compounds of plants and their structural elements: Nitrogen-free compounds= carbohydrates +fats Carbohydrates constitute a mixture of sugars and starch (reserve compounds of plants, in laboratory tests denominated as soluble compounds) and fibres (the structural elements of plants, referred to as insoluble): Carbohydrates = sugars + starch + fibre

Starch and sugars (nitrogen-free extractives - the term used in laboratory tests) are digested and broken down in the gastrointestinal tract of rabbits and the fibber is only partially broken down and digested, depending on the composition: Fibre =cellulose + hemicellulose + lignin

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8.1 Need for nutrients and energy in different physiological states.

Providing the right amount and variety of food for rabbits is related to the necessity of knowledge of their needs. The demand for specific nutrients and energy is variable and depends on the age and weight of the animal, its physiological state, intensity and way of usage as well as the created zoohygienic conditions. In the following discussion we will deal with energy and nutrients demand of rabbits without focusing on zoohygienic conditions assuming that they are satisfactory and meet the requirements for this type of farming.

8.2 Rabbit need for energy.

Crude energy is the sum of the energy value of protein, fat, fibber and nitrogen-free extractives provided to a rabbit in a food ration. Part of this energy is excreted in the faeces and lost forever, while the energy remaining in the body is called the metabolic energy (also known as digestible or alternate). The energy value of fodder is expressed either in joules (J) or calories (cal) using the following values of these units: 1 MJ (megajoule) = 1 000 kJ (kilojoules) = 240 kcal (kilocalories) For individual nutrients we calculate the value of crude energy by multiplying their amount (in crude values) by the appropriate multiplication factors: The energy value of fat (kJ / g) = the amount of fat in the raw dose (g) x 39.8 kJ, The energy value of protein (kJ / g) = the amount of crude protein (g) x 23.9 kJ, The energy value of the fibbers (kJ / g) = the amount of crude fibre (g) x 17.6 kJ, The energy value of nitrogen-free extractives - carbohydrates without fibre (kJ / g) = the number of nitrogen-free extractives (g) x 17.6 kJ. In nutrition standards for rabbits the need is usually given in values of metabolic energy, as in the tables containing the data concerning the value of nutrients of particular fodders.

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Metabolic energy demand is dependent on the age and weight of the animal. For adult rabbits (regardless of breed) remaining in sexual rest and not growing up anymore the following amounts of existential metabolic energy are indispensable:

Weight of an Necessary amount of existential metabolic adult rabbit in energy per 1 head daily grams Kcal kJ 2 000 236 987 2 500 260 1 088 3 000 286 1 188 3 500 315 1 330 4 000 350 1 515 4 500 382 1 674 5 000 415 1 841

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Please note that this is the existential energy value and can be expressed as 100%. Depending on the intensity of the physiological and reproductive utility the amount of this energy must be increased: - Males intensively used sexually - 125%; - Females in the first half of gravidity - 125% - Females in the second half of gravidity - 150% - Females in the period of rearing young - 200% - Females in the period of rearing the young and pregnancy - 400%

To provide animals with a sufficient amount of energy per day you should use Fodder containing the necessary amounts of energy in one kilogram: - For males and females in a sexual rest - 2 120 kcal / 1 kg of fodder, - For pregnant females - 2 400 kcal / 1 kg of fodder, - For pregnant females and females rearing the young - 2 600 kcal / 1 kg of fodder, - Young rabbits during the fattening period from 30 to 90 days - 2 400 kcal / 1 kg of fodder.

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Needs of young rabbits during the fattening period are related to their age and the amount of energy required is provided by increasing the food ration of appropriate (2 400 kcal/1kg) energy content:

Age in weeks Daily number of grams of fodder Necessary amount of calories 4 70 168 5 80 192 6 90 216 7 100 240 8 110 264 9 120 288 10 130 312 11 140 336 12 150 360 13 160 384

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8.3 Rabbit need for protein.

Regardless of their age and physiological state rabbits need a constant supply of protein in a food ration. In adult rabbits it is necessary to renew tissues and hair for proper hormonal balance and the production of enzymes, for the production of milk and semen and the proper functioning of the digestive processes. Young animals need it for almost all of these processes, and in particular for the construction of new tissue during growth. The need for protein is fulfilled by providing the plant proteins that are part of the raw materials, and by providing synthetic amino acids. At the moment, the feed law prohibits the use of bone meal and other animal products (except milk and egg powder) in fodder compounds. This causes some difficulty in balancing the demand for individual amino acids. Of the 21 amino acids necessary for a rabbit 10 exogenous amino acids (not produced by the body) are necessary and should be provided in the fodder. The content of essential amino acids in the ration should be as follows: Valine - Threonine 0.70% - 0.55% Leucine - Tryptophan 1.05% - 0.18% Isoleucine - Arginine 0.60% - 0.80% Methionine - Histidine 0.60% - 0.35% Lysine - 0.65% Phenylalanine + Tyrosine - 1.20%

Other amino acids are: relatively exogenous (synthesized in the body from amino acids) - cystine, cysteine, tyrosine, Endogenous ( their absence in the fodder has no effect on physiology of a rabbit or protein- energy ) - glycine, alanine, serine, proline, hydyearsyproline, citrulline and aspartic acid.

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The limiting amino acid in rabbits is methionine and if there is a sufficient amount of it in the provided the need for providing cystine and cysteine synthesized from it diminishes. These are amino acids containing sulphur and taking an active part in the creation and exchange of coat. Note, however, that both deficiency and excess of protein in the ration is harmful for rabbits.

Rabbits need daily supply of about 2 to 3 grams of digestible protein per kilogram of body weight. In the period of sexual rest animal adults should daily receive from 12 to 14% digestible protein in the food ration and the animals intensively exploited during the reproduction period and fattening - 16 - 18%.

8.4 Rabbit need for fat.

Vegetable oils contained in the fodder are digested in the duodenum by emulsifying action of bile acids. Lipase type enzymes decompose it into fat acids then decomposed to quinic acids and glycerol, soluble in water, passing then through the intestinal epithelium. Metabolism of the above mentioned products of digestion of fat acids takes place in the liver where there is a production of phosphatides and the rest is again synthesized to fat and gets to spare tissues and other tissues as fat tissue. However, most of the fat tissue in rabbits comes from metabolism of carbohydrates. Fat contained in the fodder is the most condensed power source (one gram of fat provides from 38 to 39 kJ of energy), and a solvent for vitamins A, D, E and K. Rabbits in a period of sexual rest need about 2.5 to 3.5% of digestible fat, which is approximately 3 - 5% crude fat and rabbits during the period of breeding and fattening need 3.5 to 4.5% digestible fat or 4 - 8% of the crude.

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8.5 Rabbit need for fibre.

As previously said, fibre constitutes the least digestible part of the food ration. Decomposition of the fibre occurs in the caecum with the participation of and protozoa. Physiology of gastrointestinal tract of rabbits predisposes them to the use of fibres contained in fodders, in spite of the fact that its increased amount decreases the amount of other ingredients. However, it is necessary for the proper functioning of the gastrointestinal tract and its deficiency can lead to disturbances in the functioning of the whole organism. Feeding rabbits with a fodder with reduced fibre content usually leads to diarrhoea and as a consequence to inhibition of growth, emaciation of the body and, consequently, the death of the animal. Fibre providing the necessary ballast stimulates the secretion of digestive juices improves the structure of the ration and is the basis for the development of the necessary bacteria inhabiting the caecum and appendix. Because of that, crude fibre content in a food ration should not be less than 12%. Rabbits at the age of 5 to 9 weeks need it least, i.e. only about 13%, whereas during fattening period rabbits should receive between 14 and 15%, similarly to adult rabbits during sexual rest, and intensively exploited reproductive rabbits should receive between 12 and 14%.

8.6 Rabbit need for carbohydrates.

Carbohydrates are nitrogen-free extractive compounds and some fibre fractions. They are the monosaccharides, disaccharides, gums, cellulose (fibre), starch and small amounts of other similar substances. The most important of them is, of course, the starch, which is a reservoir of energy and at the same substance, which is easily digestible. Carbohydrates in the body are used primarily to satisfy its energy needs and the excess is converted into fat tissue and deposited in the liver as glycogen. Digestibility of carbohydrates, which are building blocks and spare parts of plants, ranges from 70 to over 90%. In standardizing rabbit fodders the protein-energy ratio is calculated with maintaining an appropriate level of fibre and therefore it is impossible to clearly determine the optimal dose of carbohydrates content. Because they are delivered mostly in the form of starch contained in grains, they constitute the basic mass of food ration.

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8.7 Rabbit need for minerals and vitamins.

Minerals. Minerals supplied in the food ration, or more precisely the specific elements always appear in the form of chemical compounds and are a necessary part of the dose. Carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as the structural elements of living matter are not the problem here, the problem being the determination of their necessary quantities. Other elements can be conventionally divided into two groups – macro-elements, which are present in substantial amounts, such as , sodium, potassium, , chlorine, sulphur and phosphorus and microelements appearing in trace amounts like: iron, cobalt, copper, manganese, zinc, iodine, fluorine, molybdenum and selenium. Since the processes of life are constantly ongoing processes and the metabolism of compounds containing these elements is a non-stop process, it is necessary to continuously supply them with the fodder or drinking water, naturally in the form absorbed by animals. In an intensive production of rabbits one should supplement natural plant fodders, served to rabbits, with vitamin and mineral supplements. The role, demand for and metabolism of individual elements will be discussed below. Macro-elements. Ca - calcium. This element constitutes about 1.5% of total body weight of a rabbit and compared to other minerals it is more than 40%. In the form of a variety of chemical compounds, 90% are the building blocks of bones and teeth and 10% is a component of tissues and body fluids. Depending on the physiological state the demand for calcium is different and is: - Adult rabbits during period of sexual rest - 0.4% - Females at litter - 0.8% - Females nursing - 1.1% - Young during fattening period - 0.5% The metabolism and absorption of calcium in the body are influenced by the presence of vitamins D the so-called calcium – phosphorus ratio. For the proper metabolism a double amount of calcium with relation to phosphorus is required. Increasing the dose of phosphorus in relation to calcium causes the imbalance of proper calcium – phosphorus distribution. Lack of adequate amount of calcium causes bones and teeth lesions, deterioration of the composition of milk and weakening of the speed of growth and of resilience of newborns. Lack of calcium is also responsible for the pathology of nervous system and causes adverse changes in the composition of blood by lowering its clotting. P - phosphorus. This element is responsible, in the energy metabolism of a cell, for the presence of an appropriate level of adenosine phosphorane fats - ATP

72 and ADP. It also forms a part of hormones, enzymes and nucleic acids, is present in body fluids, soft tissue and 80% of its content in the body is stored in bones. It is metabolized to phosphates excreted in faeces and urine and hormones regulate the level. Depending on the physiological state need for phosphorus is different and is: - Adult rabbits during period of sexual rest - 0.3% - Females at litter - 0.5% - Females nursing - 0.7% - Young during fattening period - 0.3% Phosphorus deficiency, as well as deficiency of calcium, causes bone hypoplasia in young rabbits during the fattening period and may increase the percentage of females who experience . Mg - magnesium. Like the previous elements 70% is stored in the bones from which, in states of deficiency, it can be released into the body. Its main task is to participate in the production and activation of enzymes and participation in the conductivity on nervous and muscle level. Deficiency affects the heart and can cause muscle cramps. Depending on the physiological state need for magnesium is different and is: - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 0.04% - Females at litter - 0.04% - Females nursing - 0.04% - Young during fattening period - 0.03% Na - Sodium. Sodium in the first place constitutes a part of the body fluids and in particular blood where it is responsible for the appropriate pH. Similarly to the following element, potassium, it is responsible for osmotic pressure in the cell, for water distribution and for synaptic conductivity. Kidneys regulate its level in the body and metabolism, in the end, is to create chlorine or phosphates excreted in the urine. Sodium deficiency is manifested by reduced fertility and growth inhibition. The main source of sodium in the fodder is the addition of kitchen salt because the plant materials contain very little of it. Regardless of the physiological state, for all groups of animals, the need for sodium is fixed at 0.3% in a food ration. K - Potassium. In contrast to sodium, potassium appearing in plants in large amounts does not require additional administration. Its operation is similar to the action of sodium and usually participates in the regulation of water, both inside and outside cells. Its deficiencies are rarely observed, they can be detected only by laboratory testing and cause weakening of cardiac and skeleton muscles. Adult rabbits, regardless of the intensity of use, require 0.9% of potassium in a food ration, whereas for the rabbits during the fattening period a dose of 0.6% is sufficient. 73

Cl - Chlorine. Chlorine being a part of composition of hydrochloric acid (HCl) is actively involved in the activation of digestive enzymes involved in the metabolism of red blood cells and maintains the ion balance. In connection with its role in the body, chlorine deficiency disorders are manifested in disorders of digestion and breathing. The source of chlorine is kitchen salt supplied together with fodder. Regardless of the physiological state, for all groups of animals, the demand for chlorine is fixed at 0.3% of a food ration.

S - Sulphur. Sulphur is part of the so-called sulphur amino acids - methionine, cystine and cysteine, which are components of the keratin proteins, building coat. It is also an important component of enzymes and hormones, appearing inter alia in the insulin and thiamine. Sulphur deficiency is manifested by reduced reproductive capacity, combined with a significant deterioration of the coat. Regardless of the physiological state, for all groups of animals, the demand for sulphur is fixed at 0.04% of a food ration. In the Angora (woolly) rabbits the demand is higher and amounts to 0.05%. Microelements. Fe - iron. Iron is a component of hemoglobin and myoglobin - proteins required for proper functioning of higher organisms, it is also a part of many enzymes. It is stored in liver, kidneys and spleen. Iron deficiency causes anaemia, respiratory malfunction and general weakness of the body. It is necessary to supplement iron ration, especially in young animals during the fattening period. Depending on the physiological state the need for iron is different and is: - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Females at litter -50 mg / 1 kg of feed - Females feeding - 100 mg / 1 kg of feed - Young during fattening period - 100 mg / 1 kg of feed Zn - Zinc. Zinc is an element included in the hormones and enzymes responsible for the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates, especially those occurring in skin and hair. Deficiency causes slow wound healing, susceptibility to diseases of the skin and affects the deterioration of the coat. Zinc deficiency can also cause blurred vision and weakness of reproductive males. Excess of zinc can be toxic for rabbits. Regardless of the physiological condition, for all groups of animals, the need for zinc is fixed at 70 mg per one kilogram of daily food ration.

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Cu - Copper. Copper participates in the metabolism of iron and calcium in the process of formation of hemoglobin and bone structure, it also has its share in the creation and activation of many enzymes. Copper deficiencies occur in areas where the soil is poor in this element and where it is present in plants only in small quantities. Copper deficiency can be recognized by discoloration of hair, in rabbits with pigmentation, anaemia and weakening of growth may also occur. Regardless of the physiological state, for all groups of animals, the demand for copper is fixed at 5 mg per kilogram of daily food rations. Copper is most commonly administered in the fodder in the form of copper sulphate, being cautious not to overdose.

J - Iodine. Iodine is a component of thyroid hormones and directly affects the metabolism of energy and matter. Its deficiencies cause dwarfism of newborn rabbits and in adult rabbits swelling of thyroid gland and a goiter. However, one should distinguish thyroid goiters from goiters which occur physiologically in some breeds of rabbits, especially in older females. Deficiencies are filled by the administration of, as well as in humans, iodized salt. Irrespective of the physiological condition, for all groups of animals, the need for iodine is fixed at 0.2 mg per kilogram of daily food ration. Mn - Manganese. Manganese is a catalyst of intracellular respiratory cycle and constitutes a part of arginase responsible for the metabolism of amino acids. In the body, it can be found in all tissues and the largest quantities are found in short bones. Deficiencies cause bone hypoplasia, inhibition of growth and of the rate of sexual maturation and for this reason rabbits during growth should receive three times more of manganese in a dose of food than do adult rabbits. The demand is: - Adult rabbits during period of sexual rest - 2.5 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Females at litter -2.5 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Females feeding - 2.5 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young during fattening period - 8.5 mg / 1 kg of feed Co - Cobalt. As a chemical element, cobalt is a component of vitamins B12 and as a catalyst it controls the synthesis of heme (haem) - an important component of hemoglobin. Cobalt also has an impact on the growth and maturation of the coat as well as on the process of digestion. Deficiency leads to anaemia, loss of appetite and emaciation of the body. Irrespective of the physiological condition, for all groups of animals, the demand for cobalt is fixed at 0.1 mg per kilogram of daily food ration. F - Fluoride. 75

In rabbits, as in other mammals, fluoride is responsible for the quality of the teeth, which, given the ever-growing incisors, is very important. Deficiency may cause the brittleness of the teeth and difficulties with their grating which leads to disabling a normal food intake for the animal. Irrespective of the physiological condition, for all groups of animals, the demand for fluorine is fixed at 0.5 mg per kilogram of a daily food ration. Other trace elements such as molybdenum (Mo), silicon (Si) and selenium (Se) are needed in small amounts for normal growth of rabbits, nevertheless they play a very important role and their deficiencies cause disorders of metabolism. Mo - Molybdenum. This element is a component of enzymes responsible for the metabolism and in the largest quantities is detected in the liver and intestines. States of deficiency are rarely observed in rabbits whereas their excess can cause diarrhoea and displacement of copper from the body. Si - Silicon. This element is involved in the metabolism of proteins, the building blocks of hair and skin; it also has its share in the process of blood clotting and influences the state of blood vessels. Se - Selenium. Just like the previous elements it is involved in metabolic processes and muscle development. Selenium deficiency often causes degeneration and weakness of the heart muscles. Vitamins. Vitamin deficiency (avitaminosis) just like vitamin excess (hypervitaminosis) may lead to very serious disorders of all important vital functions of rabbits. Vitamins - role and occurrence. A – Axerophthol Role in the body – determines the condition of skin and epitheliums, retina, proper growth; it enhances immunity to septic Symptoms of vitamin deficiency – nocturnal amblyopia (also known as night blindness); mucosal disease, sweat-gland and lacrimal gland disease, growth inhibition, foetus dying, , agenesis Occurrence – dried , dried clover, dried meadow grass, red carrot Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 6 000 IU / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -12 000 IU / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 12 000 IU / 1 kg of fodder 76

- Young in fattening period - 6 000 IU / 1 kg of fodder

D – Calciferol Role in the body – proper bone development, calcium absorption Symptoms of vitamin deficiency - growth retardation, rickets, easy bone fractures Occurrence - milk, cod-liver oil, animal pro-vitamins in fodder Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 900 IU / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -900 IU / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 900 IU / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 900 IU / 1 kg of fodder

E – Tocopherol Role in the body - correct reproduction processes and pregnancy Vitamin deficiency symptoms - loss of libido, mummification and fetal resorption, miscarriage, birth of weak entities, muscle dystrophy Occurrence - wheat germ, lettuce, milk Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -50 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing Females - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder

K – Phytonadione Role in the body - coagulation, biological oxidation Symptoms of vitamin deficiency - lack of appetite, prolonged coagulation time, blood in the stool Occurrence - alfalfa, cabbage, spinach 77

Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 0 mg - Pregnant females -2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 0 mg

C – Ascorbic acid Role in the body - Activator of many enzymes, enhances immune system, present in biological oxidation processes Symptoms of vitamin deficiency - scurvy (rot), difficult wound healing, decreased immunity Occurrence – parsley leaves, lettuce, synthesized in the rabbit’s body Demand – constantly supplemented by the body

H – Biotin (belongs to group B) Role in the body - a component of some enzymes, affects the skin and hair Symptoms of vitamin deficiency - dermatitis, hair loss Occurrence - milk, carrots, raspberries, yeast Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 0.2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -0.2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 0.2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young fattening period - 0.2 mg / 1 kg of feed

PP – niacin (belongs to group B) Role in the body - regulates biological oxidation processes Symptoms of vitamin deficiency – skin, gastrointestinal tract and nervous diseases Occurrence - bran, yeast, bean and peas seeds

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Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing Females - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 50 mg / 1 kg of fodder

B1 – thiamine Role in the body - carbohydrates and fat transformations, biological oxidation, proper state of nervous system Symptoms of vitamin deficiency – inhibited growth and development of young rabbits, nerves , seizures, muscle spasms, paralysis Occurrence - cereal grains, green forage, yeast, carrots, apples, milk Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 2 mg / 1 kg of fodder

B2 – riboflavin Role in the body - breathing enzymes component, enhances the overall body immunity Symptoms of vitamin deficiency - developmental disorders and growth inhibition of young rabbits Occurrence - yeast, milk, wheat germ, green forage Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 4 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -6 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 6 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 6 mg / 1 kg of fodder

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B6 – pyriodixine Role in the body - component of enzymes, regulates the metabolism of amino-acids, present in hematopoietic process Symptoms of vitamin deficiency – very rare cases of deficiency, similarly to the majority of vitamins in this group, synthesized in gastrointestinal tract of rabbits Occurrence - grains, yeast, milk Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 2 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 2 mg / 1 kg of fodder

B12 – Cobalamin Role in the body - determines the development and maturation of erythrocytes, nucleic acids synthesis Symptoms of vitamin deficiency - anaemia, general weakness Occurrence - synthesized in the gastrointestinal tract of a rabbit Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 0.01 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females - 0.01 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing females - 0.01 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 0.01 mg / 1 kg of fodder The rest - synthesized in the gastrointestinal tract.

Folic Acid Role in the body - a component of enzymes, accommodation of so called active formic acid Symptoms of vitamin deficiency - lack of erythropoiesis (formation of blood cells) 80

Occurrence - synthesized in the gastrointestinal tract of a rabbit Demand - - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 5 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Pregnant females -5 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Nursing Females - 5 mg / 1 kg of fodder - Young in fattening period - 5 mg / 1 kg of fodder The rest - synthesized in the gastrointestinal tract.

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8.8 Rabbit need for water.

Rabbit's body, in about 70%, consists of water. Limit access to it, raises more serious consequences for the animal than the starvation. by half does not lead to death directly; however the loss of one-tenth of the water causes death of . Regardless of nutrition, race and age, rabbits should be provided with permanent access to drinking water with sanitary parameters the same as drinking water for human consumption. In addition to participation in all physiological processes, water is an important body-temperature-regulating factor. In theory, a rabbit needs about 0.1 l of water per day for every kilogramme of its body. The minimum amount of water that is necessary for proper functioning of a rabbit: - Adult rabbits during the period of sexual rest - 0.5 l / day - Pregnant females -1.5 l / day - Nursing females - 4.0 l / day - Young in fattening period -0.5 l / day It is best, however, to follow the principle of sustainable access to water without limiting its amount.

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9. Fodder used in rabbit’s nutrition. The preparation and storage rules, industrial fodder. Fodder used in the nutrition of rabbits (except granulated fodder products) can be divided into the following categories: - Cereals and pellet - Hay and straw - Green forage - Roots - Forage additives.

Cereals and pellet The optimal solution in small-scale rabbits breeding is the use of cereals from the farm’s own resources. It is to be given to rabbits in the form of whole grains, pelleted, mashed or extradited. The use of farm’s own grain allows avoiding giving to rabbit’s grain that is contaminated with plant protection products, seeds from polluted areas as well as grain that due to many other reasons cannot be used as a fodder. The form of fodder preparation has been listed in reverse order to ease assimilation of all of the nutrients contained in the fodder given to rabbit. Least digestible form of grain a rabbit can digest is the whole grain which not only often is not completely eaten ("half bitten, half dropped"), but also in case of incomplete fragmentation of the grain in the chewing process, the grain goes largely intact through gastrointestinal tract. The use of such a solution is convenient, yet it needs to be preceded by a thorough calculation justifying such action. The objective of such cost calculation of grain preparation and the rate of weight gain of rabbits is to choose the solution that will ensure maximum growth rate at lowest cost. Theoretically speaking, expenses incurred on, for example, grain extradition may turn with interest due to the use of smaller quantities of grain, while maintaining the pace of growth. This is an extreme example, concerning the most absorbable form of grain, but also the most expensive to prepare. Grain digestibility can be improved just by pelleting, crushing if possible, in kneader. All grains and other fodder pellets should always be administered moist, prepared immediately before feeding.

Hay and straw. Hay and straw are dry roughage and just like grain, are best when coming from the farms own resources. While the straw is used in rabbits breeding not as a fodder but as padding in cages and nesting boxes, however rabbits having access to it are going to eat it anyway. Both, hay and straw need to comply with the certain conditions to be administered with animals. They cannot be damp, mouldy or dusty. They cannot contain any foreign elements such as pieces of wood, string, or metal. They cannot contain any plants that are considered to be toxic to rabbits or containing anti-nutritive components. These cases will be described in the following sections. Before loading the hay or straw in the cage or box 83 they need to be carefully shaken off the dust and in case of hay it is required to know how much an administered dose weights. All of these steps are necessary to balance each dose properly. As far as storing of hay and straw is concerned, particular attention needs to be paid to its protection against dampness and moulding. Fodders stored in the open air in stacks are not to be administered to rabbits. Hay and straw contaminated by rodents and can neither be used.

Green forage. Green forage rabbits are fed with are to be harvested dry, not dewy or after the rain. It is to be administered immediately after collecting. It is unacceptable to feed animals with infused, sour or mouldy green forage. As in the case of hay, the green forage cannot contain toxic plants, soil, sand and foreign substances. If the fields, or the areas in their immediate vicinity have been sprayed with plant protection products, green forage harvested before the end of grace period cannot be used for green fodder production; at the same time grass or alfalfa from such areas cannot be used for hay or dehydrated forage production.

Roots. Rabbits fed with tubers or tap-roots should always be well cleaned off soil residues and devoid of rotten parts. Rabbits should not be administered raw potatoes or potato peels as they contain toxic ingredient – solanine. Potatoes and potato peels are to be steamed or boiled before being given to rabbits.

Forage additives. Forage additives of all types, whether vitamin and mineral supplements or concentrated forages should be stored and used in accordance with their intended purpose. It is unacceptable to use additives intended for other species or in other than recommended doses.

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10. Industrial fodder Production of rabbit’s livestock is governed by slightly different rules than the commonly understood rabbits breeding. The main difference, apart from the scale of production, is the need for possibly most intensive reproduction. The basis of success is obtaining 90 to 100 kg of sold rabbits from one female (a litter's pan) a year. Large biological potential of this species does not mean significant number of rabbits from one female (in farm breeding). The number of rabbits born and weaned from the female depends on many factors, among other things: race, season of the year, age of female’s first mating, various mating periods after pregnancy, length of reproduction ability, used reproduction methods and production technology as well as nutrition. As already mentioned, granulated fodder is usually used in husbandry aiming at intensive production of rabbit livestock. This does not mean resignation from granulated fodder in case of other rabbits. Both, for rabbits kept for social purposes as well as rabbits bred for meat, the use of granulated fodder is a very convenient solution. On the one hand, it provides animals with proper amount of nutrients, on the other; it is a little cumbersome to use and to store. The growing interest in this very species of animals along with technological advances in fodder production made many fodder mixing plants place granulated fodder for rabbits in their offer. At present, all types of granulated fodders available on the market, regardless of the brand, are of similar quality and are to satisfy all the needs of rabbits. Depending on the type, granulated fodder satisfies rabbits’ needs in all physiological conditions. Granulated fodders are produced from natural raw materials, the same materials that are used in traditional nutrition. The only difference is the use of grinded straw, that is dehydrated forage and, for obvious reasons, withdrawal of green forage and root crops. The use of industrial forage in the forage production requires adherence to certain rules. In order to produce one kilogram of rabbit livestock at possibly lowest cost both granulated fodder manufacturer and its parameters should be selected thoroughly. Granulated fodder dose should be measured carefully so as not to exceed the stated dose while providing rabbits with its proper amount. Periodical weighing of selected rabbits during the fattening period should be carried out. They allow determining the rate of weight gain. Excessive forage doses should not be administered, as they are not able to use all forage and the remaining amounts will be wasted. Waste of forage may result from digging the forage out of the feeders or by excessive eating. In case of rabbits, peristaltic movements and the movement of food through gastrointestinal tract are mechanical. The calculations show that for the whole fattening period, which lasts 60 days after weaning, a rabbit should be used from 7.0 to 7.5 kg of granulated fodder and obtain 2.5 - 2.6 kg body weight.

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11. Anti-nutritive components in fodder The rabbit nutrition products should exclude products causing poisoning, both in green forage and hay. The most harmful include: thornapple, dog parsley, ivy, cornflower, yew, purgatory, cyclamen, wisteria, cockle, yellow marsh marigold, lily of the valley, black henbane, foxglove, nasturtium, deadly nightshade, black nightshade, climbing nightshade, pulsatilla vulgaris, water hemlock, broom, poison hemlock, aconite, daphne, windflower and aburnum, spotted hemlock, monkshood, daphne, anemone and autumncrocus. There are also plants that should be administered in limited quantities, preferably with other plants. Otherwise, they may lead to various disorders, if eaten by rabbits in too large quantities. Such plants include: meadow geranium, false hellebore, St. Johnswort, celandine, starwort, cursed buttercup, butterbur dock, red poppy, Anthyllis vulneraria, radish, horsetail, sorrel, poinsettia and sweetclover. Rabbits should not be administered twigs of drupaceous fruit trees and branches of shrubs such as thuja, juniper, boxwood and privet. They should not be fed with rye, both in the form of grain and straw. The same applies to triticale. Rabbits should not eat excessive amounts of alfalfa in the form of green forage, as it may have adverse effect on females of rabbit used for intensive reproduction.

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12. Nutrition techniques and hygiene Growth rate of rabbits on industrial and farm fodder is almost the same, provided that rabbits are provided a well-balanced food dose consisting of available forage. Granulated fodders for rabbits, produced by large mixing plants, do not differ from those that farms can produce themselves, enriched with vitamin and mineral preparations. According to professional literature, using farm fodder with proper amount of protein in relation to fibres, allows to obtain high weight of animals at optimum time, without any special difficulties. It is, of course, connected with ensuring proper living conditions for rabbits. The method of feeding rabbits with farm fodders, however, is not to be used on larger farms, with several hundred females, and focused on intensive production of high-quality rabbit livestock. Very often, farm fodder decreases slaughter performance and does not ensure satisfactory quality of meat, within estimated technologically time. In order to produce high-quality livestock so as to obtain satisfactory financial results, industrial granulated fodder, produced by expert mixing plants are to be used. Rabbits have well-developed gastrointestinal tract, which makes it easier to digest rich in fibre fodder. In case of farm breeding where filling fodder is used, cereal grains (except wheat) - whole or kibbled grains, corn and bran are most commonly used. In nutrition of rabbits, leguminous plants, such as: peas, broad bean, field beans, field peas and sweet lupine can also be used, however in limited amounts. The second basic and necessary type of fodder is bulk dry and watery fodder. Bulk watery fodder includes green forage and roots. Vegetable remains as well as kitchen wastes, especially stale (but not mouldy) bread are also to be given to rabbits. Fresh green forage is not only dietary but also tasty and is a great source of protein, vitamins and minerals. Bulk dry fodder covers hay and dehydrated forage placed in cages or on special ladder frame inside the boxes. Hay derived from leguminous plants is most valuable. The value of hay depends not only on the species of plants, but also on the time of harvesting as well as proper storage. Straw from grain, used as bedding is partially eaten by rabbits; hence its quality needs to be good. Steamed potatoes are especially valuable and are to be used especially during winter.

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13. Daily food doses in various physiological states

13.1 Traditional nutrition. Exemplary daily food doses for young rabbits (In grams per head) Rabbit’ Filling fodder Potatoes Watery fodder* Hay s age in Summe Winter Summe Winter Summe Winter Summe Winter days r r r r 30 – 60 30 40 30 40 300 150 20 50 60 – 90 40 50 50 60 500 250 30 120 90 – 50 60 70 80 650 250 30 150 120 120 - 60 70 70 80 700 250 30 150 150

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Exemplary daily food doses for adult rabbits (In grams per head)

Adult Filling fodder Potatoes Watery fodder* Hay rabbits Summe Winter Summe Winter Summe Winter Summe Winter r r r r Reproducti 70 120 60 100 1 200 500 80 200 on State of 40 50 20 70 800 200 50 150 rest *In summer - green forage, in winter – roots

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Exemplary forage set for basic herd in winter (In grams per head). Set I Carrot and fodder beets 300 Hay 70 Barley 40 Stale bread 20 Polfamix KF 1,5

Set II Oats 30 White beets 800

Set III Steamed potatoes 100 Wheat bran 20 Oats 30 Corn pellets 20 Vegetable remains 20 Hay 60 Polfamix KF 1,5

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Set IV Oats 30 Hay 50 White beets 600

Set V Carrot and fodder beets 150 Barley 40 Steamed potatoes 80 Hay 60 Wheat bran 20 Polfamix KF 1,5

Set VI Oats 30 Hay 100 Fodder beets 400 The above fodder sets are to be used interchangeably; it is not advised to administer one set for a long period of time. It is best to spread the sets over the following days of the week, so that the sets containing Polfamix are used interchangeably with the sets without vitamins. All mash granulated fodder mixtures are most comfortable to use in factory farming as they contain all the necessary for animals’ nutrients.

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If we feed rabbits with soft fodders it is necessary to place small pieces of twigs inside the cages so that the rabbits could wear down their constantly growing teeth. It is advised to use the twigs and leaves of the following trees: as acacia, birch, poplar, willow and linden. There are also trees whose twigs as well as leaves should be avoided, namely drupaceous fruit trees. The plants harmful to rabbits are as follows: yew, juniper, boxwood, privet, thuja, ivy, lily of the valley and others. Very good food for rabbits, although not very popular one, is silage. It is made just like sauerkraut. For such a purpose it is best to use corn chaff, grass or leguminous plants. Regardless of the type of used fodder, it needs to be born in mind to provide rabbits with constant access to fresh water.

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13.2 Nutrition with granulated fodders Granulated fodder dose administered to rabbits should be carefully measured so as not to exceed the stated dose while providing the rabbits with its necessary amount. Rational distribution of the fodder is a crucial element when the objective is the economy of the project. Rabbits are to be provided necessary amount of granulated fodder and constant access to water in order to ensure their right weight gain during the fattening period covering the nutritional needs of the rabbits in various physiological states of adult rabbits. The amount of fodder administered to adult rabbits differs significantly ranging from about 120 g dose for non-reproductive adult males and females to a dose of 600 g for females in rearing time in multiple litters. Considering the behaviour of males, often marking their territory marking cages and their surroundings with urine, special attention needs to be paid to feeders’ cleanness. Dirty or wet food is then dug or not eaten at all, which results in food wasting. Feeding females depends on their physiological state. Females that are not pregnant as well as those in the first stage of pregnancy should receive 120 to 150 g of granulated fodder daily, divided into two equal doses administered every 12 hours. Periodical females weighing allows determining the state of females. Slight weight gains resulting from pregnancy are justified while weight gain being the consequence of fattening is unacceptable. Females with the fattening tendencies have lower reproductive capabilities; therefore ¼ of their daily food dose can be replaced with ¼ of hay, of course, in the proportions by weight and not by volume. Feeding females in rearing time being at litter require increased doses of nutrients (300 grams per day or more). If newly-born rabbits are underfed, as evidenced by the low rate of growth and wrinkled skin, in addition to increased dose of granulated fodder, females may also be fed with clean, not rotten carrots to supplement their daily doses. The amounts of carrots administered to females should not be larger than the volume of an adult thumb. However, this is a last resort, as the quality of used granulated fodder should satisfy female’s body needs as far as necessary nutrients are concerned. Granulated fodder should come from a reliable source, it should be proven and of high quality. What is more, there should always be an option of checking its quality. Taking samples, in a professional manner, in order to assert any possible claims for losses resulting from fodder’s quality, should follow each consecutive delivery of the fodder to breeder. It is unacceptable to use stale or mouldy fodder or coming from unreliable source. Daily weighing of granulated fodder is not necessary. It is enough to know the weight of the fodder fitting the vessel used for fodder administration. Periodical weighing of selected animals should be carried out during the fattening period in order to determine the rate of weight gain. Feeding the animals during fattening period twice a day a daily dose divided into two doses gives very good results. Animals are to be fed in 12-hour intervals. The amount of granulated fodder administered per head depends on the age of rabbits as well as thermal conditions in the husbandry room. Humidity increased by organism cooling also affects the amount of food administered to animals. Technological assumptions of rabbit livestock production, based on biology and race specifics, assume an average daily dose of fodder per head at the level of 120 g. This amount is smaller at the beginning of fattening period (about 100 g), when the animals at the age of about 35 days weigh, on average, 600 g. Later, this amount increases to 150 g per head or more, when rabbits weigh 2 500 g at the age of 90 days. In order to determine the rate of growth of rabbits in the fattening period, diligent

93 administration of food needs to be accompanied by running records of its use and periodical weighing of the animals. 30 g per head is the average daily weight gain of rabbits. Fodder should be administered in a way allowing obtaining intended weight gains. However, rabbits should not be given too large doses as they are not able to eat all the food, and as a result it will be wasted. Fodder may be dug out of the feeders or eaten in too large amounts by animals – both leading to food losses. Rabbits’ intestines do not produce any peristaltic movements; therefore the fodder eaten moves gastric content mechanically. Frequently eaten granulated fodder may cause its faster moving though gastrointestinal tract. That movement may be too fast for the food to be fragmented and absorbed by the organism. The calculations show that during the whole fattening period, which lasts 60 days after weaning, a rabbit should use up to 7.5 kg of granulated fodder in order to obtain 2.5 - 2.6 kg body weight.

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14. Disposal of rabbit waste (vermicompost production - Red Californian Earth Worm farming) The increasing demand for animal products in the world caused not only the need of production intensification but also the necessity to adjust to the new requirements and regulations referring to animal keeping with reference to ecological aspects. Animal congestion causes many problems. One of the most important is disposal of manure, however, it exceeds the production process itself (However, it is an issue not in the scope of the production process, one of the most important is the waste management). At the farm system of maintenance there are produced liquid and dry manure in significant amounts that are the threat for natural environment and difficult substance for utilisation. Manure is one of the sources for fields run to weeds and causing the spread of animal diseases. Proper disposal of manure from farm animals both the commercial farms and the backyard farms has great significance for the natural environment. On one hand the droppings are the burdens for eco-systems but on the other hand they are used as natural fertilizers increasing the plant production capacity. One of such fertilizers is rabbit manure made in husbandries of various production scales. There are no univocal data on the scale of its use and utilization manner. Problem with bringing into use the rabbit manure, comparing with the manure of the other farm animals, is not a mass problem. On the national level it is annually about millions tonnes obtained from 20 million rabbits. An adult rabbit excretes up to 120 g feces and 400 ml urine per day and a young rabbit aged 40 at the same time 40 g feces and 180 ml urine. The use of rabbit dry manure in field cultivation is a logical alternative for mineral fertilisers and as a dose of 20 q/ha is suitable for the gardens. Storage (storing) of dry manure doesn’t cause any important changes in its content. It is observed only slight growth of general protein. It is connected with the fact that during storage complex biochemical and chemical processes take place and they lead to generation of volatile compounds and water-soluble compounds. Rabbit manure makes also the bedding and the only food for Californian earth worm breeding. The name Californian earth worm origins the most likely from the fact that in the 50’s in laboratories in California one bred an earth worm, which had all properties allowing for its industrial production. Carlo Feruuzzi passes as a breeding forerunner, who brought it to Italy in shortly before the USA introduced an embargo for export of both the earth worms and their product, coprolith vermicompost. Numbers of authors consider that the name Californian earth worm is only a marketing trick, and the real name of these breeding earth worms is Eisenia fetida called compost-maker. Vermicompost production of rabbit manure allows levelling of the effects of heavy metal compounds in the environment because the earth worms during their metabolism progress catch them and store. So, to the environment formed as a fertilizer gets product of significantly lowered content of heavy metals that as an easily absorbed by plants, can be a threat for animals and humans.

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The use of rabbit manure as a fertilizer in a form vermicompost reduces considerably the risk of closing life cycle of parasitic protozoans – coccidia (Eimeria magna, E.perforans, E.stidae). These protozoans parasitize on rabbit liver and intestines and can be the reason of big losses in the breeding. Vermicompost appears as a result of living activity of the earthworms. The organic matter processed by these animals is not only richer in nutrients easily absorbed by plants but also contains loads of beneficial soil microflore. Vermicompost causes soil pH stability within the scope close to 7. It keeps soil lumpy structure and increases ventilation of soil, improves hydrographic conditions and facilitates the growth of roots. The plants grown at the bedding of vermicompost or with its addition are riper, more disease resistant, crop better and store better. It is worth to emphasize the fact that vermicompost includes vitamins from group B, the and enzymes that digest protein and cellulose (protease and cellulase). The bacteria in it are able to fixate atmospheric nitrogen. It is tempting perspective for people who are aware of present environmental to produce a biodynamical fertilizer of decreased content of heavy metal compounds and to use it in the cultivation of plants for consumption.

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15. Rabbit diseases Considering the causative agent, the diseases are divided into: the infectious – viral, bacterial and the invasive, non-infectious – caused by a physical factor e.g. fractures, bites or intoxications.

15.1 Viral diseases

Myxomatosis One of the most dangerous rabbit diseases attacking all rabbit breeds regardless an animal age is . is through contact of the healthy animals with the sick, through infected equipment and the most often after being bitten by the that transfer this disease. The first symptoms of disease appear in 2 – 5 days after infection. The disease starts with conjunctivitis manifesting with ocular haemorrhages and swollen . Swelling gradually covers ears, head, limbs, underbelly and external genital organs. There can occur tumours in subcutaneous tissue that when bursting infect the surroundings. Myxomatosis is one of the diseases that is fought against ex officio and as such should be reported obligatory. If you have any suspicions based on the symptoms that in your breeding there may be myxomatosis, you should report it immediately to a . Until the doctor arrival nobody can leave the farm, slughter and sale of the animals is not allowed. The sick rabbits are not treated.

Viral haemorrhagic disease of rabbits (RHD) Nowadays the most dangerous disease is the plague. It caused huge losses in the rabbit husbandries in Asia and Europe. Also the breeders in Poland were affected grievously by this disease. First signals of the plague occurrence in Poland are dated in 1987. It is a viral disease, which has an extremely serious course and even acute. Mostly within 48 hours since infection, and in some documented cases even in 18 hours, occurs the fatal demise of all rabbits in the herd. 2-3 hours before drop it is observed asthenia and dyspnoea, exudation from the nose, taking the form of bloody foam. Convulsions may be seen as well just before death. Post-mortem examinations demonstrate splenomegaly and degeneration of the kidney and the liver. The sick rabbits are not treated. This disease was a huge threat until production of the efficient . Presently, veterinary service has at its disposal the efficient vaccine that should be strictly applied for all rabbits. Usually we vaccinate the bunnies at the moment of weaning from the females. And then, in the intervals of 6 – 9 months.

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15.2 Bacterial diseases

Pasteurellosis. Bacteria causing this disease (Pasterella multocida) live in respiratory tract of each healthy rabbit not doing any harm to it. It gets active only as a result of weakness of an organism caused by e.g. bad breeding conditions. Pasteurellosis starts with the nasal and ocular discharge, which, as the disease progresses, becomes supportive. The rabbits and cough. They have problems with breathing and the death is caused by suffocation. If the bacteria occur under skin, they cause formation of abscesses, which by bursting create infection source for the healthy animals. A course of disease can be acute or chronic. In the acute form results in high mortality in a herd, whereas in the chronic form leads to emaciation and miscarriages in the females. Prevension consists of running the breeding in accordance with the requirements and removal of all factors activating the bacteria (high concentration of ammonia, inadequate temperature, and bad nutrition). Treatment consists of application of the antibiotics, sulphonamides or serums.

15.3 Parasitic diseases

Coccidiosis This disease caused by protozoa of genus Eimeria and it may have intestial or hepatic form. Infection occurs through the gastrointestinal tract. Usually it is the young rabbits, just after the weaning that get sick. The sick rabbits are sleepy and apathetic. They don’t eat, they have bristly and matt fur. They suffer from persistent diarrhoea leading quickly to body dehydration and death. In the hepatic form there is additional swelling of the liver, yellowing of the mucous membranes and often urination. Treatment consists of application of the recommended by a veterinary service medicine.

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Scabies. Scabies is a skin disease caused by parasitic mites. Infection source lies in the sick animals as well as in the infected surroundings. Bad breeding conditions result in disease worsening. Usually the parasites live in the external acoustic meatus. There gathers dense, yellow-brown malodour fluid. In the ear are formed layered crusts causing itching. When rabbit scratches the ear, it spreads the parasites around. Treatment consists of careful cleaning of the acoustic meatus with cotton buds saturated with medicine. (Bidylon, Novoscabin, 20% Biowal solution). The used cotton buds should be burnt. This treatment should be done 2-3 times in the intervals of 8 – 10 days. Fighting scabies should be connected with the improvement of the sanitary conditions.

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Mycoses. This disease occurs usually in the large herd husbandries and it is a result of fungal infection of fungi species trychophyton. Prevention consists of maintaining cleanliness of the rooms and periodical disinfections with iodine preparations (Pollena JK, Rapicid) and fungicidal preparations (Clinafarm, Enizol). At the mass occurrence you should carry out preventive and treatment with vaccine Alopevac in doses determined by a veterinarian. In some animals it is observed teeth overgrowth that eliminates them from orther breeding because it is hereditary feature transferred to the offspring. The animals with overgrown teeth undergo the treatment of their cutting (by means of wire cutters) until they reach the slaughter weight.

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Callouses In the older animals and rabbits living on a damp bedding it may occur formation of the callouses on the hocks. It is the result of fur felting on the leg and lack of proper shock absorption while moving. As a consequence appears suppurative crusts, the animal suffers, is not willing to move and as a result it looses weight and dies. The males with callouses don’t show proper sexual behaviour, are not interested in the females out in their cages and don’t comply with their basic role. Biting and mechanical trauma Some of rabbits bite (among) each other. Sometimes they get harmed because of bad construction of a cage. The bites, if they are not too big, can be cured without further consequences after disinfection and the rabbit’s separation from the herd. The neglected and bigger bites can cause subcutaneous abscesses, which disqualify the carcass as meat for consumption.

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The most common indispositions (ailments) among rabbits are gastrointestinal tract disorders. These diseases are the cause of the biggest losses in an through their nuisance and persistence in occurring. Regardless the amount of bred animals every now and then we find a dead rabbit. Usually there is no rule of what kind of animal dies, a big or a small. The drops concern both the young and the adult. Taking into account usually higher stock of the young, it seems to us that they die more often. However, it is worth recording the amount of dead rabbits not in the absolute numbers but in the percentage of the total number of the young or adult animals. It will let to determine more precisely the causes of the occurred drops.

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Carrying out accurate records referring to the events at the farm including the amounts of drops and the current animal stock we can compare if the occurring drops are at the same level or they increased. This is essential mostly in the particular times of the year. If, for example, it will turn out that always in may we had the drops of the young rabbits, let’s say at the level of 5 % in the first week after weaning and this year the value increased up to 20 % with the unchanged breeding parameters except for the paint used to refresh the walls, so it will be possible to state with a great deal of probability that is was the paint that did harm to the rabbits. Of course it is only an example though it is based on very similar real case. It would be impossible to determine what has caused the increase in drops just at that age if the records were not carried out. . Bad functioning of gastrointestinal tract can manifest with diarrhoeas, flatulencies, lack of appetite and general body weakness. Rabbits are often dejected; keep their head down and grind their teeth. In some publications teeth grinding (bruxism) is showed as a pain symptom. I am not entirely convinced about such an interpretation of this phenomenon. Working in a multi-herd husbandry, sometimes I had the dubious pleasure to observe the rabbits with serious mechanical traumas and the rabbit, which suffered extremely, never grinded its teeth. A cause of diarrhoeas can be both unsuitable quality of fodder and water. Using the fodder of checked content and from reliable source we minimalize the risk of intoxication as well as the possibility of unbalanced food dose. In the rabbits, very important part in digestion is played by bacteria living in gastrointestinal tract, especially caecum. The bacteria are responsible for the proper course of digestive processes in the intestines, and their condition and species composition is an individual feature of each rabbit and results from the living conditions formed by a breeder. Stability of bacterial flora composition is related to both gastrointestinal tract acidity (its pH) and the correlation of protein, fibre and energy included in the provided food dose. Occurrence of diarrhoea should not be seen as the result of a pathogen. First we should exclude the causes of nutritional and environmental nature (e.g. lack of sufficient hygiene, possibility of extraintestinal poisoning etc.) as well as excessive of the animals. After exclusion of possible changes in the fodder composition or water and exclusion of the other factors, we can start to consider the possibility of bacterial infection (the most often bacillus coli), parasite invasion (coccidiosis) or very unlikely viral infection (rotaviruses). In my experience referring to the most often causes of drop accompanied by diarrhoeas, except for nutritional mistakes, is actually coccidiosis. If the rabbits are fed only with granulated fodders we should observe the preventive programme that is recommended and developed by the fodder manufacturer. If we provide mixed nutrition consisting of both farm-made fodders and granulates, the used granulate should always have in its content a coccidiostat. There is no need to use. coccidiostat through all life of the animals. It is even prohibited by veterinarian regulations to use it at the final stage of the fattening period. Coccidiostat use should be a conscious choice made on the basis of animal observation. If we notice that in the cages or on the bedding there are droppings of gelatinous consistency or during the slaughter we spot hyperemia of small intestines and that it is filled with gases or if we see small white on the liver, it is the right time to use coccidiostat. The breeder should know the amount of drops occurring „normally” in the breeding. There is no option to breed rabbits without drops. This results from the simple statistics and breeding practice. However, the drops should be minimalized in every possible way (if it is economically 103 justified). In a case of drop increase that relates to gastrointestinal disorders we should consult a veterinarian, who is the specialist in this species of animals. It is always the best to determine the cause of diarrhoeas as soon as possible. Ad hoc we should provide the animals with access to water of the best parameters (drinking water, not boiled) and immediately discontinue all bulky wet food such as green forage, silage and roots. If we have a possibility it is good to feed rabbits with only granulate including coccidiostat. It is a balanced fodder and should not cause further dysregulation of gastrointestinal tract. If the rabbits has been provided with granulated fodder all this time and even though they have diarrhoeas we should immediately stop feeding them with this granulate and replace it with a granulate made by other company. As the last resort we can give wheat or barley middlings and hay of very good quality. We can start to use the recommended medicine under supervision of a doctor. We should remember though that we have to always determine the cause of diarrhoeas. We do not allow the treatment in a haphazard way for longer time. For sure the preparations we will apply as the first will prevent symptoms but all following medicines have to eliminate the result. In accordance with the foregoing we should always introduce in rabbit nutrition food and granulates very slowly and in small amounts. Newly purchased granulate, even from the same company as always, should be given to small amount of animals. As soon as we learn that the animals eat is eagerly and there are no distressing symptoms, we can provide the whole herd with it. Of course this rule applies to all kind of fodder, not only granulates, but also hay, grains and all others. The cases can happen that even farm-made but stored in different conditions hay becomes in time toxicant for animals due to mycotoxin content. So how do you properly diagnose the cause of diarrhoeas and flatulencies, and as the consequence, death? Firstly, for any kind of examination we assign the animals, which have just died and that are still warm and without rigor mortis. It would be the most optimal if a veterinarian specialising in the rabbits would carry out the post-mortem examination. However, we not always have the possibility to inform a doctor and even so, this doctor may not be a rabbit specialist. But if we conduct this examination properly, write down all observations and refer them to the doctor, it will be easier to find the cause of the drop. We always start with placing a rabbit on its saddle. We spread apart its four limbs. Then we try to cut the biggest possible skin lob from the belly, chest, neck and jowl. It is very good to operate with sharp scissors of slightly bent blades. After exposure of the subcutaneous muscle tissue we check if there are any mechanical injuries of body shell, bloody petechiae and lividities. After cutting the muscle layer we will see the intestines and after cutting the chest, oesophagus and mouth area – the remaining organs. We try very gently to take out all these organs and place them next to the rabbit. It is good to use any of a textbook about rabbits, which includes internal organ drawings, to determine exactly „what is what. Firstly, we check, starting from the top, if there are any mechanical damages of the mouth, or if there is any foreign matter stuck inside the cheeks, tongue or palate or if the teeth are overgrown. Within oesophagus we should look for possible foreign matter that is stuck there, if there are any bloody petechiae or cracks of the oesophagus walls. We search for possible cracks also within the stomach and all intestines. After cutting the stomach we should check what its contents is and how internal surface of its walls looks. This surface should be rigid and it should be impossible to exfoliate it. It should have no bloody petechiae. The pulp filling the stomach should be like soggy feed and 104 shouldn’t include any liquids mixed with blood. There is the spleen attached to the top part of the stomach and roughly speaking it should have colour alike the liver colour and the dimensions within the borders of 5 – 6 cm of length, 0,5 to 1,0 cm of width and only 3 to 5 mm of thickness. Any enlargement of about 100 % spleen size may indicate a serious illness (occurring among others in the plague). It is important to check if in the small intestines are any bloody petechiae, if there is any bloody fluid and mostly if they are not full of gases. On the basis of book drawings it is worth to find caecum and also check if it is filled with anything and if it is not enlarged. Caecum ends with vermiform appendix that should comprise of yellow-grey pulp that is easily kneaded. This pulp is made mostly of bacteria responsible for digestion, mostly for fibre digestion. All changes in this organ are the cause of serious disorders of whole digestive system. The final segment of the intestines, the large intestine, also requires a bit of attention. We should check if it is not filled with too dense black mass and if just before anus there are formed typical for rabbit’s fecal pellets. All observations should be written down and presented to a veterinarian. Good solution is to dictate the observations to an accompanying person because thanks to it we don’t have to wash and dry the hands to often while performing the post-mortem examination that needs to be done in the shortest possible time. It is impossible in such a short time and in only few words to provide a clear solution how to avoid diarrhoeas and the other gastrointestinal tract disorders. In different conditions, at different farm the causes of drops and diarrhoeas may be caused by different factors giving the same symptoms. In one case the administration of Sulfatif in the first day after the weaning is sufficient, in the other it is necessary to provide the gastroprotective antibiotics (e.g. Tiamutin). In each case though it should be done in accordance with the rules of the veterinary art and based on solid diagnostic. Unfortunatelly, it happens often that due to the lack of the solid knowledge comes to experimentations, less or more successful attempts to rescue animals after the obvious negligence in breeding. The breeder acts in good faith usually and wants to help his animals and apply the pharmaceuticals including the antibiotics just „in case“. Absolutelydo not use such practices!

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15.4 New disease entities in rabbits It happens more and more often, that the rabbits, just after the weaning, start to get sick and there are mass drops. The initial symptoms are lack of appetite and lethargy. Then a rabbit suffers from flatulences. You can hear overflowing fluids in it. There is black or gelatinous sharp- smelling diarrhea. Common symptom is the teeth grinding. During post-mortem examination proves that the stomach and the small intestines are filled with fluid, mucus and gas. Caecum is hard and full of dense black or brown-black pulp. There are no formed fecal pellets in the final segment of the large intestines. Laboratory tests bring the negative result for the presence of pathogenic anaerobes with a kind of Clostridium. There are individual colonies of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus sp. (coagulase -). In the intestine homogenisators demonstrated the presence of genetic material of rotavirus. Carried out tests exclude also coccidiosis as the cause of the drops. Undertaken attempts to treat this disease with the preparations used to fight with coccidiosis give no positive results. A certain hint is while diagnosing this disease, that the specific, sharp smell of diarrhoeas is identical in canine coronavarius (CCV). At the moment it will be very important to take up the special tests aiming at valid diagnosis of disease, learning about it etiology and finding an efficient cure. The breeders, who suffer from such a problem, it is worth to advice that the good results can be reach with the use of Tiamutin 12,5%. This should be given to the weaned rabbits (the best since the 5th day after the weaning) in the amount of 20 ml per 30 litres of water. The preparation we treat as the preventive treatment until the time when the animals obtain 2 kg of body mass. We don’t really know how Tiamutin works but it brings satisfying results. This disease has been known in Europe for few years but by far the detailed studies have not been performed.

The discussed diseases are not the only one that harasses the rabbits. There are a number of diseases, not named herein, which can be encountered by a breeder. When you introduce the new animals to the herd there is the general rule that they should be observed for 3-4 weeks and in a case of any doubts referring to the herd health-being you should seek the advice of a veterinarian immediately. Recapitulating, the programme of the rabbits should look as the following scheme. Each farm, both amateur and production, should be under current supervision of a veterinarian, who will work on both the vaccination programme and other preventive treatment programme. The basic and the most dangerous diseases for rabbits are myxomatosis and the plague (RHD). In order to limit the possibilities of getting sick to minimum there are carried out subcutaneous preventive vaccinations.

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Adult rabbit The rabbits from the basic herd, the adult ones should be vaccinated once a year the best in spring with the dose of 1 ml Myxovac in order to make them resistant to myxomatosis and with 1 ml Cunivac against the rabbit plague. The vaccinations take place in the 14-day intervals with preservation of hygiene principles.

Young rabbit We vaccinate the young rabbits against myxomatosis with the dose of 1 ml of Myxovac during the weaning from the females (at minimum age of 4 weeks) and then after 10-14 days we give additional vaccine, 0,5 ml of Cunivac, in order to make them resistant to the plague. In a period when there are no suspicions of occurrence, we can eliminate vaccination of the young against this disease. If, however, the rabbit’s age indicates that they will be still alive during the time of risk, they should be vaccinated.

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16. Farm monitoring You should keep records of both the breeding documents and the documents related with the particular activities that take place at a farm. Accordingly to the size of a herd, this documentation can be more or less expanded. The aim of the proposed monitoring is to record particular events at the farm both the good and the bad. Loads of events and breeding processes are interconnected by seemingly non-significant elements. After some time it can turn out that for example a change of the type of applied granulate or different fodder will have influence on reproduction results or well-being of the herd. Seemingly unimportant events taking place at the farm as the time passes may appear as important for the whole husbandry. Kept record of the events can be helpful also to value production capability of the herd and its health. It will be possible to connect all kinds of disorder with some factor in the past. Existence of any monitoring system at the farm let us assess efficiency of our work in the next years. Templates of document are intended for monitoring in big production farms. It doesn’t mean that it is necessary to use it in the same unchanged / unmodified form at smaller farms. However, we should remember that the more notes we write down the easier will be asset the farm condition. Documentation can be used for both your own purposes and for comparison with different farms and efficiency of applied there organisational solutions. I hope that you will find within the proposed templates these elements, which application will be useful in your husbandries.

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FARM INDEX CARD

PART A – General data It. Specification Data 1 Number of females 2 Number of males 3 Type of Boxes with Dimensions Length...... Width...... Height...... cages for bedding females Wooden cages Length...... Width...... Height...... Mesh cages Length...... Width...... Height...... 4 Type of Wooden Dimensions Length...... Width...... Height...... pans Plastic Length...... Width...... Height...... Other Length...... Width...... Height...... None - 5 Cages for Boxes with Dimensions Length...... Width...... Height...... the bedding fattening Wooden cages Length...... Width...... Height...... Mesh cages Length...... Width...... Height...... 6 Number of fattened heads in one cage 7 Amount of people in maintenance 8 Type of heating 9 Disinfection frequency and type 10 Other essential conditions referring to this farm running e.g. type of buildings, type of lighting, general description etc.

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PART B – Reproduction results Date ......

It. Specification Days of the week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday 1 Number of mated females 2 Amount of confirmed pregnancies 3 Number of females after litter 4 Number Live of Dead newborn 5 Number of died adults 6 Number of died bunnies staying with their mothers 7 Number of bunnies introduced to a herd 8 Number of Females the weaned Males young 9 Amount of distributed fodder (kg) 10 Temperature 11 Amount of hours worked

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12 Other important remarks concerning the adult rabbit

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PART C – fattening result card

Starting date of fattening period ...... cages from No ...... to No......

The amount of heads starting the fattening period......

It. Specification Following weeks of fattening period after weaning (always the same day of the week) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 Amount of distributed fodder (kg) 2 Number of dead rabbits 3 Number of Diarrhoea sick Sneezing

Scabies

Other

4 Control A - 4 weight of 4 females rabbits, B – 4 always in the females same cages C – 4 (A, B, C, D): males D – 4 S males 5 Other important remarks regarding the fattening period

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How to fill in part A? 1. Give number of females from the basic herd that are used for reproduction. 2. Give number of males used for reproduction. 3. Mark one type of cages and write down the dimensions. 4. Mark one type of pans and write down the dimensions. 5. Mark one type of cages and write down the dimensions. 6. Give amount of heads kept in one cage during fattening period. 7. Give amount of people employed at farm. If there is one person employed on full-time position and the second works only sometimes, please write down e.g. 1,5 people. 8. If there is a heating, please indicate its source. 9. Give data about disinfection: frequency and type

How to fill in part B The card should be filled at the end of each working day with the number data according to specification. A new card should be issued always on Monday by writing down the date into a field marked with an arrow. If some occurrence didn’t take place during a day (e.g. weaning, mating or loss) mark it with a line. In point 9 (amount of distributed fodder) please write only the amount of granulate given to the adult rabbit herd (granulate given to the fattened rabbits should be recorded in C). How to fill in part C For each weaned group of animals you should name the starting date of fattening period, numbers of cages taken by these animals and amount of weaned heads. Each group of fattened animals, which were weaned on the same day, should have a separate cage. If the weaning takes place more often than once a week it is possible to start one card for all of them. If there is possibility to weight all animals together before placing in the cages, you can write next to the number of rabbits starting the fattening period also their joint weight. The card should be filled in always on the same day of the week on the basis of the notes written down during the whole week. Particular attention should be paid to control weight of animals, to weight the same animals on the same day of the week. 1. Give the amount of a fodder distributed in the week to this group of fattened animals. 2. Write down the sum of deceased rabbits from the whole week. 3. Write down the amount of confirmed sick cases during the week with detailed symptoms. 113

4. Control weighting should be carried out once a week, starting form the first day of fattening period and next every 7 days. Weight the animals (4 the same heads) from the same cages using the given markings (A, B, C, D). 5. You can write down other observations important for fattening process e.g. change of fodder, sudden cooling etc.

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17. How prevent animals from prompt relatedness within the herd Each rabbit herd is a subject of continual changes related to diversification of specimen set by the removal of some animals and their replacement by the others. Constant renewal of animals in a herd is called a renovation or rotation of a herd. The most often cause of a certain rabbit removal of the herd (except for drops) is the decrease of its production capability. If the incurred expenditures to keep a particular rabbit are higher than income gained on sale of its offspring, there is a need to exchange it for the other, the better. In the herds where the amount of animals is adjusted to production capability of this farm, the percentage of exchanged animals is all the time the same and it is possible to plan how many new specimens will be needed during a year. This amount will result from the average time of usability of the particular rabbits. In well-run production farm the average time of usability of one female is between one year and one year and three months. Necessary annual exchange of animals is an ideal occasion to improve the value of bred animals. To gain it a breeder should remember about necessity to replace the eliminated specimens with more efficient ones. At our disposal we have two sources of animal acquisition for the need of the herd’s renovation: first it is our own reared young from our herd and the second it is the purchase of animals from some other herd. The second source should be treated as the last resort because it is connected with expenses and a purchase cost is higher than cost to rear up a rabbit in your own herd. It should be taken into account that the farms selling rabbits don’t dispose of the best heads, but only these, which stay as a surplus after doing renovation of their own herd. Purchase of a rabbit is excused only if there is a need to introduce “new blood” to a herd in the situation when all our animals have been related to each other already. Breeding activity heading towards continuous improvement of a herd should be based on its own material, where you choose the best heads that are intended for the parents of the future generation to be used for the herd renovation. This type of work at a farm is called selection and its main goal is to improve herd genetically and that means to increase the value of the interesting for us features in each next generation. Increase of value of a particular feature in an offspring generation in comparison with the parenting herd is called breeding progress. It should be remembered though that the improvement of one feature (e.g. an average amount of heads reared in a litter) doesn’t have to be done by selection method. Much faster method is improvement of environmental conditions and adaptation of technical conditions of rearing time for the biological needs of the animals. As it was said before, a selection goal within a rabbit’s herd is a raise (increase) of the average value interesting for a breeder feature in a generation of the children. If this pursuit will be carried out through many generations, a question arises: to what limits it is possible to increase value of a certain feature? The results of many selective experiments indicate that constantly performed selection aimed at a defined feature leads to gradual decrease of breeding process, gaining zero value finally. There is a practical method that allows postponing the necessary purchases and at the same time allows carrying out the breeding activity set on a selection of the features, which are considered as the most desired in our herd.

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Our whole production herd we divide into family groups consisting of 3 – 6 females and one male. Number of females in a group depends on the total number of females in the herd and on amount of owned males. The more family groups we are able to form the better. Number of males in the herd shall thus correspond with the amount of formed family groups. If all animals come from purchase and we just start the breeding, the choice is made at random. For each male we add suitable amount of females, giving the latter the numbers. The number is also given to a male and this number applies to the whole group. It is accepted in breeding activity to use even numbers for females and even numbers for males. So group numbers will be the odd numbers. The same procedure of animal numbering we run while choosing animals from our own herd for further breeding leaving the same way the animals coming from the parents having required by us features. In a case of females we talk here about good maternity instinct, manifesting in nest construction at each following litter, good milking of the young (at age of 30 days they should weight on average 600g), high number of young ones in a litter. We don’t keep for further breeding the young that come from the females, which gravidity is irregular and amount of kittens in a litter is small. The best is to keep the animals from the females that are good mothers, littering regularly in the amount of more than six heads. The general rule while selecting animals for a production herd among your own offspring is to keep the little females from the best mothers and the little males from the best fathers, which give the highest percentage of insemination. Having formed the family groups according to the mentioned above rules and giving them the numbers, while selecting the animals for the herd we additionally follow the rule of not keeping in the group the animals that come from it. Little females originating from some family group should put only and exclusively into a group that has number one number in the front, e.g. the females from the group No. 3 replace the females only from the next group that is group No.4 whereas, paternal material is moved towards the opposite direction and that means that the little males replace the males from the group that is one number back. In the quoted example the males from group No 3 will replace the males only in group No 1 (the little males from group No 1 replace the males form the group of the highest number). To sum up, female material is move only only one number to the front and male material only one number back.

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18. Disinfection of breeding rooms and cages Only cleaning is not sufficient to prevent the occurrence of lesions in animals. The formed surrounding has to be not only clean but also properly disinfected. Vircon mixture, as indicated in its name, is set to degradate and its bactericidal function may be not efficient. In rabbit livestock production and also in the small backyard breedings there is no need to struggle with viruses that are possibly in the surrounding. Winds and insects will bring viruses dangerous for rabbits, inducing myxomatsosis and plague, at a farm anyway. To avoid falling sick with these diseases we apply the vaccination obligatorily and there is no need to degradate viruses extra corporeally. The biggest threats for rabbits from the environment side are bacteria, parasites and fungi. The procedure for dealing with the cages after emptying them of the rabbits is as follows. After mechanical cleaning of the cages and food pans of the manure and fodder remains, you should thoroughly kiln all by means of gas burner supplied with a gas-bottle. It causes burning out of all organic remains and all left on the cages pieces of fur. It facilitates the later careful wash of the whole with strong stream of cold water from a pressure washer. Thanks to burning out the mesh it doesn’t get sticky with the fur remains that are not removable with only water even at the very high pressure. Pressure washing is carried out after getting wet the whole at about 24 hours ahead of planned pressure washing. Making it wet earlier facilitates pressure washing thanks to making wet all dirt. The carefully washed cages and food pans are next left for 24 hours to drain but not to get totally dry. This time depends on temperature and in summer is shortened to few hours. The damp cages are then sprinkled with the use of a standard garden sprinkler filled with solution of Rapicid applying its concentration of 25 ml of mixture to 10 litres of water. 117

This solution is based on active iodine and has good disinfecting properties both against bacteria and fungi. The cages prepared in such way can wait for getting populated with the young, just weaned from the females, bunnies. If this waiting period is not more than 7 to 10 days the animals can be let in directly. After this period to let animals in you have to sprinkle the cage again with Rapicid solution of the same solution. If we have at our disposal automatic water system we should drain the system of all water and clean compensation tank carefully. The whole installation should be washed inside with strong stream of water. The hose with water should be attached to the installation in such a way that water would flow in opposite direction to its standard flow. After mechanical flush we plug the end opening, fill the compensation tank and pipes with water with added optional chloric preparation that can be used in a household and we seal the possible leakages. The system filled in such a way should be left for 24 hours. After this time water should be drained of the whole installation and we should again flush it with clean water carefully and long also attaching the supply to the final end of the installation. Refilling of installation with clear water should take place just before we let animals onto the cages. Let’s try not to keep water inside the installation if it is not used. Such a way of proceeding we apply for the empty cages without animals, whereas the cages with animals we treat differently. The food pans hanged in the cages should be periodically taken out once every 7-10 days and after emptying them of dust, washed with warm water with addition of any of the cleaners used commonly in a household. It will allow elimination of risk caused by mites and insects, which can find habitat in dust of granulate left in a food pan. Having food pans with the holes at the bottom doesn’t excuse us from this duty because despite smaller amount of dust, also there the mentioned before pests can infest. Their droppings are harmful for animals even in small amounts. Depending on the needs, in the situation when there are some bits of fur on the cages, you should burn them out with gas burner. Burining out should be carried out very carefully not to expose animals to burns. After burning out the cages we continue with sprinkling with Rapicid solution of given above concentration until the rabbits remained in the cages become slightly bit yellow.

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19. Production costs calculation The condition of running a rabbit’s breeding is to achieve the satisfactory economic results excluding the cases when it is the farm itself that has to meet the ambitions of an owner and is a source of satisfaction and relaxation. If, however, we run a farm, no matter its size, with a goal to obtain incomes, we have to record all incurred expenses referring to its maintenance. It will include expenses connected with purchase or other form of obtaining fodders, expenses for veterinary care, costs of heating and lighting, cost of current repairs. Here shouldn’t be calculated the investment costs incurred to start-up the farm. They should be also well known to breeder and should be gradually reduced by the earnings gained from sales until total return of the value of incurred costs. Knowing all expenses we will be able to compare them in some time with the incomes from the sales.

19.1 Fodder cost. As it was mentioned before, the use of granulate in rabbit‘s nutrition should be connected with thorough cost analysis (of costs). It also refers to all other fodder components, vitamin additives and pre-mixes. Costs incurred for animal food are the biggest part of them. The cost of used granulate is only seemingly direct result of its price. To calculate the real costs of its use you should purchase different types of granulate, from different producer and thus in a different price. To determine the real cost of producing one kilogram of rabbit’s livestock you should calculate it. If in rabbit’s nutrition we apply only granulate the way of calculating is simplified. The choice of producer from whom we will purchase granulate for the whole herd should be predated by analysis of a granulate usefulness in condition of our farm. As it is known weaning of the young from the females we carry out at the age of 35 days and in this time we choose a group of 5 to 10 animals and we measure them carefully, recording the weight results and date. We form as many groups as many kinds of purchased granulate we have bought for a certain price. Then, applying to each group one kind of granulates, we write down how much of it we put into the food pans for a period of e.g. 10 days. After this period we weight the animals again and from the difference of weight we calculate the growth of the animals in the group. Knowing the price of granulate, amount of it given to the animals and body mass growth we can easily calculate how much it cost us to produce one kilogram of livestock in the given period. Don‘t, however, be limited to sample 10-days nutrition period. Observations should be carried out until the end of fattening period, what means until the animals are 90 days old. This procedure will allow us to choose granulate, which enables us to produce one kilogram of rabbit’s livestock at the lowest costs in the assumed fattening period. Necessity to carry out the control weight through the whole fattening period results from the fact that at the different stage of the animal growth the animals can put on weight differently and only the final calculation gives us full picture of the incurred costs. It may prove that the granulate at the lower price will turn out to be more

119 expensive through its bigger use and slower growth of the animals in comparison with the granulate that is more expensive but gives quick growth. In the combined nutrition the way of cost calculation is identical when using a granulate and the farm-made fodders However, you should take into consideration the costs per acquisition of such farm-made fodders, that is the expenditure incurred on the cultivation of the fields, costs of transportation and energy connected with processing (e.g. screwing). In this rabbit nutrition system we have to include also the cost of one kilogram of livestock production during the whole period of carried out fattening. The fattening period of the presumed slaughter weight of e.g. 2,5 kg in such nutrition can be longer and therefore we should definitely take into account the amount of nutritional days.

19.2 Veterinary care costs. It should be taken into consideration all expenses incurred on vaccination purchase, a veterinarian services and the cost of used medicines. These costs may include the value of disinfectants as well as the cost of telephone, transportations etc. The incurred costs to a large extent will depend on the living conditions formed at the farm for the animals. While vaccination cost remains basically beyond the possibilities of adjustment by a breeder, the cost of medical treatment of the animals results directly from the maintenance conditions. The better conditions we will be able to form and supply with the proper care during the daily activities, the smaller will be the costs medical treatment. When keeping records you should always note the dates of the incurred costs to determine at what time of the year it is required to make different purchases. After few years of running the farm we will be able to minimize the costs by avoiding the expenses related to the seasonal changes.

19.3 Heat and power cost. Here should be written down all expenses for lighting and heating. For the electric devices it is the best to note the power of the energy receivers installed directly at a farm (light bulbs, ventilators, heaters, pumps) as well as their worktime. To calculate the cost of the energy used at the farm we need the price of one kilowatt and the amount of the used electricity. We proceed in the same way when calculating the costs of the energy carrier used for heating. Depending on the expenses incurred on heating we have to choose what kind of energy management we will run in wintertime. If we have at our disposal the heating devices absorbing much of energy, which efficiency is low, it may prove that more profitable is to increase the fodder consumption (room self-heating by the animals) and prolongation of the fattening period then incurrence of excessive costs resulting from the energy-consuming heating devices.

19.4 Costs of current repairs. You should also record all expenses incurred on the current repairs of the cages, water supply system, litter pans and farm building. These expenses should be covered alike the previous ones with the sale incomes.

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19.5 Sales revenue. It is necessary to keep account of all incomes related to the rabbit sales. They will include the values of the sale of rabbit livestock, the sale of the rabbits for further breeding and the value of the rabbit meat consumed in the household. Carrying out the slaughters for your own needs (for family and friends) you should take the meat value that is analogical to the value of meat you are to replace with the rabbits meat while preparing the particular meal.

20. Assumptions for calculations of costs and incomes in rabbit livestock production.

Basic herd counting 200 females and 40 males. In livestock production the female basic herd means the amount of litter stations (the amount of cages equipped with litter nests) Physical number of females is bigger by about 20% what is so-called breeding reserve. In the herd of 200 females it is necessary to keep additionally 40 young females at reproductive age and already mated in the sector with the cages intended for the fattening. In a case if any female from the basic herd won’t get pregnant, will miscarry or waste the litter, she is replaced with the female already pregnant, which comes from the breeding reserve. The female removed from the basic herd is sent for slaughter or mated again in the breeding reserve herd. For calculation sake we count a female as an litter place and in such a meaning from 200 litter stations we should obtain minimum 36 heads per year that are sold at the average weight of 2,5 kg. Production size we calculate as follows:

200 (litter stations) x 36 (heads) = 7 200 heads/year

Cost of used granulates: Average daily food dose for adult rabbits– 0,25 kg Amount of nutrition days for adult rabbits– 365 days Average daily food dose for rabbits during fattening period– 0,12 kg. Amount of nutrition days for rabbits during fattening period– 60 days (weaning the young from the females at age of 30 –35 days) Nowadays the prices of granulate range from 0,80 PLN to 1.20 PLN, depending on a producer and a region of the country. After some practice with monitoring the pace of body mass growth during the fattening period and after you have mastered the skills to asset health condition of the whole herd it is possible to replace part of the granulate with suitable grain mix.

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Examples of counting the costs / Examples of how to count the costs COST CALCULATION FOR HERD 200 FEMALES AND 40 MALES (At different price of granulate and different price of buying-in of livestock)

Version A Granulate cost: 0,85 PLN/ 1 kg 36 heads sold of one litter during all year (from 200 females) Type of Amount Amount of Daily food Total Price 1 Value animals of heads nutrition days dose (kg) amoun kg t of granul ate (kg) Adult 240 365 0,25 21 900 0,85 18 615.- Young 7 200 60 0,12 51 840 0,85 44 064.- Total value of granulate: 62 679.- Vaccination cost: Disease Amount of animals Dose Price per Value dose Estimated cost of energy carriers: 2 000.00 Plague Adult – 240 + 200 (herd 1 1.- 440.- TOTAL COSTS:73 959.00 renovation) Young 7 200 0,5 1.- 3 600.- Production value: 7 000 heads Myxomatosi Adult – 240 + 200 (herd 1 1.- 440.- (200 heads at herd renovation) x 2,5 kg x 5,0 PLN s renovation) = 87 500.00 Young 4 800 (2/3 of herd –in 1 1.- 4 800.- INCOME: 87 500.00 - 73 959.00 = 13 541.00 summer ) Total value of vaccinations: 9 280.-

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Version B Granulate cost: 0,95 PLN/ 1 kg 36 heads sold of one litter per year (from 200 females) Type of Amount Amount of Daily food Total Price 1 Value animals of heads nutrition days dose (kg) amoun kg t of granul ate (kg) Adult 240 365 0,25 21 900 0,95 20 805.- Young 7 200 60 0,12 51 840 0,95 49 248.- Total value of granulate: 70 053.-

Vaccination cost: Disease Amount of animals Dose Price per Value Estimated cost of energy carrier: 2 000.00 dose Plague Adult – 240 + 200 (herd 1 1.- 440.- TOTAL COSTS:81 333.00 renovation) Young 7 200 0,5 1.- 3 600.- Production value: 7 000 heads Myxomatosi Adult – 240 + 200 (herd 1 1.- 440.- (200 heads at herd renovation) x 2,5 kg x 6,5 PLN = s renovation) 113 750.00 Young 4 800 (2/3 of herd – in 1 1.- 4 800.- INCOME: 113 750.00 - 81 333.00 = 32 417.00 summer) Total value of vaccinations: 9 280.-

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Version C Granulate cost: 1,00 PLN/ 1 kg 36 heads sold of 1 litter station during a year (from 200 females) Type of Amount Amount of Daily food Total Price per Value animals of heads nutrition days dose (kg) amoun 1 kg t of granul ate (kg) Adult 240 365 0,25 21 900 1,00 21 900.- Young 7 200 60 0,12 51 840 1,00 51 800.- Total value of granulate: 73 740.- Vaccination cost: Disease Amount of animals Dose Price per Value Estimated cost of energy carrier: 2 000.00 dose TOTAL COSTS:85 020.00 Plague Adult – 240 + 200 (herd 1 1.- 440.- renovation) Production value: 7 000 heads Young 7 200 0,5 1.- 3 600.- (200 heads for herd renovation) x 2,5 kg x 6,0 PLN = Myxomatosi Adult – 240 + 200 (herd 1 1.- 440.- 105 000,00 s renovation) Young 4 800 (2/3 of herd – in 1 1.- 4 800.- INCOME: 105 000.00 - 85 020.00 = 19 980.00 summer) Total value of vaccinations: 9 280.-

The given examples of cost calculation are only a simulation and they can’t be treated as the calculation of production profitability. Each time at starting up a farm, using the given scheme, you should substitute the valid prices of fodder and valid prices of livestock buy-in and make the calculations on your own.

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21. The way to improve profitability of the rabbit farms (and not only the rabbit ones…) At a significant fragmentation of a breeding, at relatively numbers of the herds, the direct form of sale could improve significantly the production economy and change market systems. If we want to carry out direct sale we have to meet all requirements that are placed before us of course. Firstly, we have to have a registered farm. The farm has to have a veterinary inventory number and has to be under veterinarian supervision. Apart from it there are the requirements arising from the regulation governing the direct sale of animal products. We have to find few friendly shops nearby and sell through them the rabbit meat to a direct customer. Detailed information shall be provided by Poviat Veterinary Inspectorate. Trading in this way allows obtaining the price, in terms of rabbit livestock, at the level of 6 to 7 PLN. Unmeasurable profit from these dealings is gradual accustomation of bigger and bigger amount of people to rabbit meat consumption. It will entail the increase of demand and in this way there will be created self-driven market mechanism. It is estimated that nowadays consumption of rabbit meat in Poland oscillates around value of 0, 5 kg per person per year and in countries this consumption amounts to 5, 0 kg.

22. The ways of boosting rabbit performance in a husbandry. Commercial farms are intended for obtaining the maximum profits from livestock production while minimalizing the expenses. There are many ways to achieve this aim. Starting from rationalisation of food management and selection of suitable granulates ensuring obtainment of weight growth and reproduction effects on the maximum level, through the improvement of surrounding conditions and ending on selection of good animals for a herd.

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23. Farm preparation to springtime When springtime comes we should remember to carry out some works at the farm, which can have the significance during the whole year of breeding. The necessary operations to perform in this period can be conventionally divided into activities referring to the farm technical supply base, activities concerning the animals and activities resulting from the necessity to keep the breeding records. Within the renovation works we should pay particular attention to the quality of our cages and their technical condition, we should plan, if there is a need, to put new cages to increase the production and size of the herd. We should carry out all necessary renovations and small repairs. The scope of these works will result from the experience gained in the previous year. Especially with reference to the food pans and litter pans construction. After analysing the results of reproduction in the previous year, particularly the amount of the young rabbit drops in the period just immediately after birth; we can draw the conclusions if the litter pans are constructed well. If, for example, turned out that the loss of the young rabbits was caused by their hypothermia and falling out of the litter pans, we should raise the entrance opening to the pan and take into consideration possibility to use the litter pans covered at the top to improve the nest microclimate. It is only the example showing how to apply the observations for our farm condition improvement. The ventilation system and its operability should be also checked. Based on the previous years observations we should carry out all possible modifications and repairs in order to provide the animals with suitable microclimate even at the time of the biggest heat. After disposal of manure from wintertime, what I consider as an obvious thing, we are supposed to clean carefully all equipment, cages, food pans and litter pans. The equipment and the cages after cleaning should be disinfected (the best with preparations based on active iodine): to disinfect floors and walls should be used a solution of 2 % caustic soda. (Warning – corrosive substance) remembering that soda can destroy metal elements. In the end, the farm should be whitewashed, the windows should be cleaned and the shortages in insect mesh should be filled. Please do remember about equipping the farm with disinfecting mats, which protect from carrying on the shoes into the building some disease agents. The mats should be kept all the time soaked with disinfectants indicated by a veterinary. Not without significance will be also inspection of lighting system – light exposure of females and subsequent increase of the length of day light that affects animals’ fertility. If we have mounted automatic water system to supply animals with water, it should be washed carefully under pressure if there is no possibility to dismantle it. If it is possible to dismantle it into pieces, wash carefully each piece inside using different types of pipe cleaners. After re-assembly check the installation tightness carefully. All performed works should aim at maintenance of the farm in maximum cleanness and ensuring the animal’s well-being. At the bigger production farms we should remember about necessity to install the radio, playing some sound tape during a day and allowing the females to adjust to some noises. The females with the young kept in complete silence react extremely strong on all unexpected sounds. And while jumping back to the litter pans, they can hurt the young. The use of such a tape levels the treat. In March all females at the farm have to be mated and this needs to be followed by a plan of mating for the whole year. If not, we should proceed to the herd completion. Firstly, we have to inspect the health conditions of the animals. It is good to check each adult head or the ones 126 that are assigned for the basic herd. We should check if there are no symptoms of scabies, if the nose and the eyes are clean. We should cut the overgrown claws and check by stroking the fur its springiness and skin condition. The occurrence of any kind of scabs or lumps should be diagnosed and their cause should be determined. It is worth to inspect thoroughly the reproductive organs, paying special attention to any and ulcerations, inspect the hocks for the presence of callouses. For further reproduction we should choose the best animals (helping ourselves with breeding records), separately for production of the rabbits intended for further herd renovation or expansion of the herd, and separately for production of rabbits intended for a slaughter. We form the basic herd by making the family groups, assigning to each male a certain group of females according to their origin and usability. During springtime we should also carry out necessary vaccinations. The best is to vaccinate the whole basic herd first against the plague (dose: 1 ml Cunivac per head), and after two weeks perform the vaccinations against myxomatosis (dose of 1 ml Myxovac). With vaccinations against myxomatosis we have to be on time before the first arrival of mosquito and other stinging insects. If the animals at the farm keep sneezing and there is a probability of pasteurellosis we should carry out the vaccinations with Cunipastivak after two-week time. If our farm is under inspection of National Centre of Animal Husbandry we start the procedure of licensed assessment of the animals, complete the breeding documents and select the animals that are to be assessed. A good thing is to plan the amount of production in the whole year and make the cost preliminary estimate. It will allow us to report the amount of production with given dates of delivery to a slaughter plant and what follows it will enable us to negotiate higher prices for buy-in. Such a planning of production on the other hand will indicate on our demand for fodder in the particular periods of the year and also it can become the basis for negotiations of granulate prices. Year after year we should remember about the necessity to improve and develop the farm. On the basis of the previous year observations, notes, that I highly recommend, let's try to improve at least one thing in the particular department of the breeding – technology, the used equipment, way of nutrition or reproduction system. Such proceedings will allow improvement of production methods and achieving better and better results.

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24. Rabbit reproduction Rabbit embryonic development Let’s follow step by step the processes that take place in an embryo and foetus of a rabbit after successful insemination. First day. Insemination occurs in oviduct’s bubble and surrounding the egg cell follicle cells fall out. The surface of the egg cell covers with protein layer thick about 100 microns. Second day. The embryo development in oviduct ends with asynchronous cleavage. Days: third and fourth. After the third day, inseminated egg cell having diameter of approx.90 micrometres gets into uterus and this is followed by subsequent development cycles. Blastocyst is formed consisting of embryoblast and trophoblast. During the next four days it doesn’t connect with endometrium but expands blastodermial vesicle up to diameter of 280 micrometres. This expansion is the result of liquid that gathers in the vesicle. The cells of trophobalst get flat and embryoblast gets shape of a lens. Fifth day. There are primary germ layers formed and vesicle dimensions reach about 1,5 mm. Embryoblast gets divided into two layers of cells – the cells with big core, the outer layer, the basis for future ectoderm and the thin layer of flat cells, which will become endoderm. Sixth day. Dimension of vesicle is about 4 mm and blastodisc - 0,75 mm. Ectoderm gets thicker. The cells of endoderm take 1/3 of surface of blastodermic vesicle. Seventh day. Blastodermic vesicle gets shape of an oval sac containing liquid. At the end of embryonic field is formed a protrusion of ectoderm being so-called primitive streak. This streak at the end of the seventh day takes already 2/3 of axis on embryonic field. The look and construction of rabbit at the seventh day of pregnancy is very alike a chicken embryo at the 16h hour of brooding. Eight day. In ectoderm, in the front part of primitive streak appears neural fold Neural plate develops. Occurs the differentiation of coelomic mesoderm into somites and lateral plates. Ninth day. Lateral plate closes into neural tube. Embryo separates from embryonic vesicle by means of cephalic, caudal and lateral folds. Amnion and allantois set. Appears vitelline placenta that functions next to allantois. Two big embryonic veins get set and the embryo looks like a hen embryo after 27 hours of brooding. Appear the first beginnings of gastrointestial tract. Tenth day. Vitelline veins blend into an odd heart similar to the hen’s heart in the 40th hour of incubation. Allantois grows and appears chorioallantoic placenta. A pair of brachial intestines outgrowths is developed as well as brachial sac. Oesophagus divides into proper oesophagus and larynx. Liver appears as an outgrowth of the intestine’s wall. Eleventh day. Chorioallantoic placenta fuses with uterus’ wall. Period of intense rabbit’s development starts. Liver ducts develop as well as liver parenchyma. There are also limb buds.

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Twelfth day. There are the beginnings of tongue and stomach. Pancreas is shaped. It is followed by increased growth of head and there are the first symptoms of limb segmentation. Thirteenth day. Visibly separated tongue and stomach. There are the beginnings of gallbladder. Appear humps on allantoic placenta. Auditory meatus marks. Fourteenth day. There are finger rudiments at the forelegs and hindlegs. Splanchnocranium shapes appear earlobe buds. Fifteenth day. There are visibly shaped earlobes and the beginnings of whiskers. In the limbs the fingers are separated. Clearly distinguished midbrain. Appear the rudiments of even mammary glands. Sixteenth day. The fingers in forelegs are already separated. The hump in midbrain area grows. You can observe the biggest in comparison with the rest of the body, eyes. Seventeenth day. Visibly separated part of the muzzle, you can see the eyelid rudiments. The amount of whiskers grows. Hindleg fingers get separated. Eighteenth day. The hump in midbrain area disappears and head takes round shape. The limbs get longer and the fingers take their final shape both in forelegs and hindlegs. Nineteenth day. From this day the embryologists stop using the term „embryo” and start using the word „foetus”. It is related with the visible extension of the dimensions. Eyes are closed with eyelids and head straightens up. Twentieth day. The head continuous to straighten up and limbs are shaped clearly. Twenty-first. Extension of the neck and further head straitening. Days: twenty-second, third and fourth. There are no visible changes in body building. The growth of dimensions and weight continues. Starting from the twenty-fifth day the body size keeps growing, appear claws and fur. Earlobes grow intensely.

Reproduction technique. The ability to manage rabbit’s reproduction is one of the determinants of running a profitable and satisfying husbandry. Adult rabbits should be kept in the separate cages or hutches so that they won’t have a direct contact with each other. It prevents from an accidental mating or biting. The separation’s aim concerns also limitation the spread of pathogens. For copulation time we put a female to a male’s cage and leave in it under constant supervision until mating. Rabbits intended for reproduction have to be at least 4 months old, healthy and well fed. After letting the female in, we should pay attention if any of the rabbits doesn’t show any aggressive behaviour. If it happens we should take the female out immediately. A proper mating determining female’s gravidity can occur only in the situation when the female doesn’t defend herself from the male. If the female, which is trying to avoid getting in touch with the male, is forced to mate by being hold down to prevent her from running away, there is high probability that she won’t get pregnant. However, this practice is performed at the bigger farms with quite good result. If

129 there are no clear symptoms why the female doesn’t want to be mated, mating can be carried out few hours later or the next day. The very moment of mating can be treated as correct if the male after a few very fast copulative movements will fall on side squeaking and wheezing. The falling aside is accompanied by strong throw of hindlegs forward. If you will notice this kind of behaviour you can move the female back to her cage. To be sure the mating can be repeated after few hours. After 14 days since mating date it is possible, if you have some proficiency, to determine with high probability if the female is pregnant. You examine the female by touching the belly. It should be done very gently, not to cause a miscarriage. To examine the female you need to hold her by ears with you left hand and your right hand should embrace the belly at the level of lumbar vertebrae. While squeezing the content of

abdominal cavity between your thumb and the remaining fingers you can feel the foetuses of the size of a bean. If you confirm the female’s gravidity, you should pay attention to her nutrition, not forgetting about the permanent access to fresh water. The female should be kept in peace and should not be moved. About 29-32 days later after mating the litter occurs. Few days ahead of the planned date of litter you should place in the cage a litter pan bedded with hay or straw, where the female will make the nest. If the breeding takes place in the hutches with deep bedding it is enough to add some clean straw or hay to the hutches before the litter date. The female will use this bedding to make the nest on her own and there is no need to place any litter pans inside. Females of well-developed maternity instinct pick some fur from the belly area and bed with it the nest before littering. If we observe that the female didn’t pick 130 any fur before littering to make the nest softer, we can pick the fur ourselves. We pick some fur from her nipple area (very gently) and bed the nest with it. In this way we also facilitate the new-born the access to the nipples. Quite bad preparation of the nest happens to the females, which were giving birth for the first time. Just after litter we should carefully without any needless disturbance of the females with our sudden movements, check the whole litter in the nest, count the new-born and remove the stillborn or dead just after birth. The litter size fluctuates between 6 to 10 heads, however, there are the litters counting 1 head as well as 20 heads. Body mass of one new-born is 40 to 70 grams, on average 60g in medium breeds. A female in good shape can feed 12 younglings. If that was the first litter for the female, we should leave her maximum 8 heads. The remaining young should be moved to another female, which has fewer bunnies at the same age. When we carry out this procedure we should remember that the smell of the strange bunnies usually disturbs the female and she can bite them to death. To avoid it before we add the bunnies to a strange nest, we should rub them with fluff taken from this nest. While „placing” the young, the female should be taken out of the nest for about 1 hour. Just alike during pregnancy, after littering the females should have permanent access to water because even short-term unmet thirst can lead to a miscarriage or biting the young to death. Access to water allows also keeping their lactation at the suitable level that ensures the right development and growth of the bunnies. Female rabbit in good shape and fed rightly produces daily about 30 g of milk per 1 kg of its own weight. The peak period of lactation is on 22 – 24 day after littering and in this period the bunnies drink about 250 g of milk per day from a female that weights 4 kg. Rabbit milk is very rich in nutrients and by taking 2 g of milk a bunny grows 1 gram. The young rabbits eat only mother milk to the age of 16 – 18 days, and then start to eat fodder gradually. At the age of 28 days the bunnies are fully grown and can be weaned from the females.

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In breeding practice at the farms of medium intensification of reproduction, the weaning takes place at the age of 35 days. If there is the intense reproduction system we mate a female in 7 to 10 days after the litter, at the medium intense – when the bunnies are 14-17 days old and the young stay with the mothers until they are 35 days old. Running less intense reproduction system, a female is mated after weaning the young. If we breed rabbits in the cages, we remove the litter pan when the litter is 21 days old. As long as bunnies stay with their mother, a breeder’s care can be reduced to daily inspection of the herd and provision of good quality fodder and water. If we run breed on deep bedding we have to remember to keep it clean. It always should be dry and springy, what can be achieved by adding new layer of the bedding and removal of the old damp one. The rabbits weaned from the females are put in the cages in groups where there should be 0,15 m2 of surface per head, what gives 6 – 7 heads per 1 square meter. During weaning the young we should divide the animals into the males and the females. They stay in the common cages until the end of the fattening period that is until they are 3 months old. At the end of the fattening period, when the animals gain weight more than 2,5 kg, they should be supplied with more space in the cage or the hutch by another division. At this age is presumed a set of 4 – 5 heads per 1m2. Depending on the intensity of carried out reproduction it is possible to get 4 to 6 litters from one female in one year. The different degree of reproduction intensity is obtained with different terms of mating the females after the litter. At the age of 14 days young rabbits gradually start to leave the nest and interest in the environment. For the last few days their eyes have been opened and sensitive to light. At the age of 21 days young rabbits are very active. It is the peak of lactation, resulting in the rapid growth of young. At the age of 35 days young rabbits are taken from females and after separation according to their sex put to the fattening sector, where they remained for the next 60 days, until the age of 90 days. 132

During the fattening (rapid growth) animals grow at an average weight of 30 grams per day. At the age of 35 days, at the start of fattening they were about 600 grams, at the age of 90 days the weight should be about 2.5 kg. Rabbit in the slaughter weight of 2.5 kg is sold to a slaughterhouse, or slaughtered in the farm. After stunning and bleeding, the skin is taken off. The next step is to open the body cavity and remove the entrails.

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25. Insemination One of the reproduction methods used at the commercial farms is insemination. Due to economic reasons rabbit insemination makes sense for the herds counting more than 200 reproductive females. Insemination effectiveness should not be far from natural mating effectiveness. During insemination we have to give the hormones additionally, though. In natural mating we don’t have to use them and therefore the cost of this way of reproduction is smaller. In a few animals, including rabbits, there is provoked ovulation. In the natural conditions, while mated naturally, the egg cells are released because of neuro-hormonal stimulation resulting from the very fact of mating. Copulation act starts in female a row of cause-result chain that ends with ovulation. Nerve impulses that are formed during copulation and come from the area of female genitals affect hypothalamus and cause the secretion of inducing hormones. These influence in turn the ovaries that generate secretion of releasing hormones responsible for the direct growth and release of the egg cells. The insemination process can be divided into two independent processes. The first it is semen collection from a male and the second it is a female insemination. Semen is collected from the male by means of an artificial vagina, what is subjected to extremely strict hygiene rules and with taking care of the sterility of used equipment. The construction of the artificial vagina doesn’t have a significant impact on the quality of the obtained ejaculates and can be shaped differently. There are the artificial vaginas made of glass only. Some have latex lining. In the vaginas with latex before collecting the semen we need to use a lubricant– the best paraffin oil or Vaseline. For the glass vaginas there is no need to use any of the lubricants. But a glass vagina can be used only for the males, which are used to give semen. Both the glass vaginas and with latex are flushed with water in temperature of about 38 oC. Depending on the vagina’s construction at a suitable place is installed a calibrated collector, which is heated up to the physiological temperature of rabbit body (39,5oC). The artificial vagina together with collector should be hold in a hand in such a way that both the vagina and collector should be inside hand (palm side). After putting a female into a male’s cage we should immediately slide our hand with the vagina between the animals in place where the erected penis is expected to be. It is not important if the animals have heads towards the same direction or not. Skilfully carried out manoeuvre lets us cheat the male and he will give the semen into the substituted artificial vagina. The collected semen undergoes macroscopic and microscopic examination. Macroscopically we assess and record the ejaculates volume and colour. The ejaculates, which have visibly yellow colour and much of volume more than 3 ml, can include urine and are not suitable for further processing and use. The males, which regularly give semen with urine, should be eliminated from the breeding as the reproductores of poor quality. In microscopic evaluation done by means of a microscope equipped with a device for phase contrast we assess first of all the amount and motility of spermatozoon and also the amount of them with progressive motility. After making ink preparations as the part of the male assessment based on its semen we can additionally introduce the evaluation of the amount of spermatozoon with cytoplasmic drop attached to filament. Spermatozoons with cytoplasmic drop are the immature sperm and the same as the sperm with detached acrosome are not capable to inseminate. High percentage of such spermatozoons, confirmed in the next ejaculations collected in weekly periods, eliminates the male from 135 further breeding. The ejaculat, after receiving positive evaluation as the result of the mentioned above observations, should be diluted according to the recommendations of the diluter producer. Depending on the obtained estimated amount of spermatozoons per dose it can have volume of 0,5 to 1,5 ml. With a syringe and insemination tube this portion \9\dose) is deposited deep in a female vagina, even at the depth of about 15 cm. The female under insemination treatment should be prepared with hormones in accordance with hormone producer’s recommendations. Amount and kind of given hormones as well as the decision if there will be two or just one hormone at the moment of insemination, should be consulted with a specialist in rabbit insemination field. The rules and methods that apply to different animals are not applicable in the rabbits.

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26. Nutritional values of rabbit meat. In our culinary customs there is number of dishes and products that don’t enjoy much popularity despite that in the other countries they are displayed on tables. Lack of broader interest in goat, mutton and rabbit meat can be found in our customs and likes. For many people a goat or a rabbit are still a sign of poverty and meat of these animals is treated as low-valued. There are also some prejudices of sanitary and hygienically nature, what of course has no substantial reason. Let’s have a look at rabbit meat. There is a crowd of declared fans of this meat and they buy it in the shops or obtain it from own backyard breedings. . To make rabbit meat more popular among the consumers there are the remarks included in this chapter that refer to nutritional value of rabbit meat and compare it with other, more popular meat (table 1). Rabbit meat ranks among the white meat: easily digested, juicy and tender. Its consistency is fine-grained. Rabbits provide highly valuable meat of high content of protein - more than 20%, and low content of fat (3-5%). Besides it is meat rich in minerals (iron salts, calcium and phosphorus), vitamins (mostly from group B) and trace elements (copper, cobalt and zinc). Additional important advantage of rabbit meat is the high absorption of its proteins by human body – about 90%, whereas only 60% of beef, for example. Fat is white and soft, deposited mostly around the kidneys, the stomach and also behind the blades. Chemical content of this fat allow treating it as light-digested and highly nutritional. The low content of cholesterol in rabbit meat is also worth mentioning. According to polish and American researches this value is lower than in popular with us light-red meat and even chicken-meat. That is why it is recommended for people with risk of circulatory system diseases.

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Below you will find the comparison of rabbit meat with beef, mutton, half-fat pork, veal and chicken according to the content of nutrients in the particular kinds of meat (table 1). Table 1. Comparison of nutrient content in rabbit meat And in meat of the other species of animals

Kind of Water Protei Fat (%) Minerals Energy value Cholesterol meat (%) n (%) (%) 100 g meat (KJ) content in 100 g meat (mg) Beef 6 1 4, 0,85 584,7 37-48 8,5 5,0 5 Mutton 5 1 11 0,90 655,1 78 5,1 2,1 ,5 Half-fat 5 1 13 0,75 784,9 66-72 Pork 1,1 5,3 ,9 Veal 7 2 1, 1,20 382,4 38-83 7,8 0,0 0 Chicken 7 1 1, 1,37 415,9 75-108 6,2 9,7 4 Rabbit 6 2 4, 1,39 638,8 35 meat 9,3 0,4 0

Rabbit meat is characterised by the biggest contents of protein (20,4%) and the biggest contents of minerals (1,39%). Human body as mentioned before, easily digests protein – in 90 per cent. In this respect rabbit meat looks very favourably when you compare it with beef, which contains 15% of protein that are absorbed only 60 %. . This comparison indicated also that it has the lowest cholesterol content, on what is put some big stress nowadays. General conclusion is that regarding nutrient contents rabbit meat is comparable with veal and hen’s meat (chicken). Beef, mutton and half-fat pork make the second group similar to each other in reference to its nutrient contents. Those are the red meat when rabbit meat and hens is ranked as white meat except for veal, which is classified as red meat. This specification doesn’t include fish. There is no need to use not always true but catching mottos when advertising rabbit meat. This meat is really tasty and healthy.

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27. Vade mecum of rabbit livestock production (F.A.Q.)

Production of rabbit livestock is ruled by slightly bit different laws than commonly seen rabbit breeding (husbandry). The main difference, except the scale of production, is the necessity to carry out maximally intense reproduction. The base of success is gaining from 90 to 100 kg of sold rabbits from one female (one litter pan) per year. 1. When prepare mating of females? Mating of the females should be carried out the latest in 10 up to 10 days after the previous litter. First mating of the females after the litter we can conduct, with the standardised litters, since the seventh day and then we continue the mating until the fourteenth day. Intensity of mating depends on the amount of males we have. After first mating on the seventh day the next one should take place on the day tenth and fourteenth. To be sure about the results of mating we repeat them with the same male after the period of 12 to 24 hours. Intensity of male exploitation depends on its mating efficiency, possible to be assessed on the basis of breeding documentation, the male’s physical shape and its will to mate. It is presumed that good male can mate twice a day for 4 days and then it needs one-day rest. 2. What should be the dose of granulate? Granulate dose should be measured carefully not to exceed the set doses and at the same time to supply rabbits with its necessary amount. Non-pregnant females and those in the first half of gravidity should get about 120 to 150 g granulate daily, divided into two even doses distributed every 12 hours. Periodical check-ups of female weight allow describing the condition they are in. Slight growth of weight related to pregnancy is justified, whereas the body mass increase related to fattening is not acceptable. The females having tendency to getting fat have lower results in reproduction and in this situation it is allowed to replace ¼ of food with hay, of course in weight proportions not the capacity. Feeding females, in rearing time with the young and pregnant at the same time need bigger food doses (1 000 g daily and more). 3. How often weight animals? You should carry out periodical weight check-ups of the chosen animals during their fattening period in order to determine the pace of gaining body mass. Technological assumptions of rabbit livestock production, based on biology and breed specifics, presume the average daily dose of food per one rabbit at the level of 120 g. This amount is smaller at the beginning of the fattening period (about 100 g), it is when the animal aged 35 days weight on average 600 g, and then grow up to the value of 150 g per head and more with the rabbit body mass 2 500 g at the age of 90 days. Thorough distribution of feed has to be supplemented with recording its usage and periodical weight check-ups of fattened rabbits in order to define the pace of their growth. Average daily growth of body mass for the rabbits should reach 30 g per head and that is how the fodder should 139 be distributed to obtain this growth. It is not advised to use the exceeded food doses because rabbits are not able to use of distributed fodder and they will waste it. Fodder wastes can be incurred by its scavenging from the food pans or by excessive eating. Rabbit doesn’t have peristaltic movement of the intestine and movement of intestine contents in gastrointestinal tract is done mechanically by the feed intake. From the calculation results that for the whole fattening period lasting form the weaning 60 days, a rabbit should use up to 7 kg of granulate and gain body mass of 2,5 – 2,6 kg. 4. Wnich breed to choose? To produce livestock you need to use suitable breeds and keep the breeding records. For production of rabbit livestock in Polish conditions the most predisposed breed is New Zealand White. Considering its usability indicators and relatively large number of head-count that enables to carry out periodical herd completion with non-related specimens. Very good results, even better than with New Zealand White, in production can be obtained with production based on Blanc de Termond rabbits. This breed is less popular, causes faster relatedness of animals in the herd, it can be used an ennobling element for the herd of New Zealand. All animals in the herd should have cards on the cages they inhabit. The cards should include the basic data referring to their reproduction, origin and inspected weights. The kept documentations allow monitoring both the used feed and determining of the pace of rabbit body mass growth during the fattening period. The documentation is necessary to select the best animals for the herd. The females, which are about to replace their predecessors in the herd should be characterised by good pace of growth and they should come from the females that regularly and on time were having numerous litters. The males assigned for the herd renovation have to come from the males, which have the highest percentage of pregnant females and giving numerous litters. 5. Are vaccinations necessary? It is necessary to conduct protective vaccinations and to get the animals to be inspected by a veterinarian. . Each production farm should be under current supervision of a veterinarian, who will prepare both protective vaccination programme and other preventive treatments. The basic and most dangerous for rabbit’s diseases are myxomatosis and plague. In order to reduce the possibility of the vaccinations are made. Rabbits of the basic herd, the adult should be vaccinated once a year, the best in springtime, with the use of 1 ml Myxovac in order to get immunized to myxomatosis and 1 ml Cunivac immunizing against rabbit plague. The vaccinations take place in the intervals of 14 days with hygiene rules kept. The young rabbits we vaccinate against myxomatosis with the dose of 1 ml Myxovac during the weaning for the females at age of 4 weeks and then after 10-14 days we add 0,5 ml Cunivac in order to immunize against plague.

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6. What conditions are necessary for rabbits? Rabbit livestock production should be carried out in suitable environmental conditions and with sufficient technical equipment. Rabbits are very sensitive to draughts, what has to be taken into account when building the cages (tight matching walls) and when equipping bigger rooms where the cages are placed in. We should remember about installing insect mesh on the windows in the summer months to protect rabbits from flies and mosquitoes that transfer lot of diseases including the worst one – myxomatosis.

Zoo-hygienic conditions 1. Temperature – minimal - 12oC; optimal – 18oC – 22oC; maximal – 26oC 2. The speed of air flow– 0,25 m/sec 3. Air exchange – winter 0,8m3/h/kg; summer –4m3/h/kg 4. Maximal humidity – 75% 5. Lighting– productive herd – 70 luces; fattening area – 50 luces

Nutrition 1. Amount of nutrition days - Adult – 365 days - Youngsters – 60 days 2. Average daily doses of granulate per one head in kilograms - Adult males – 0,15 - Adult females (not pregnant and in the first half of gravidity)– 0,2 - Adult females (pregnant and with the young) – 0,6 - Youngsters in the fattening period –0,12 3. Demand for water during a day (permanent access) - Adult rabbit – 0,5 – 1,5 litre - Young rabbit – 0,2 – 0,5 litre

Livestock production 1. Females to males relation 8 : 1 2. Herd culling 100%

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3. Average amount of litters per year for one female (one litter pan) – 6 4. Average amount of rabbits sold from one female (one litter pan) per year – 36

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28. Husbandry humanisation. The economic conditions force to have the farms of more and more numerous staff, where the animals are treated as objects, as one of the elements of more and more automatic production process. That is the change comparing with the previous years when a breeder having small amount of animals was able to treat them individually, knew their customs and needs. In mass-production and with attitude to achieve maximum profit with minimising and rationalisation of expenditure, such a „humanitarian” approach seems to be irrational and without logical explanation. Rabbits, kept in cages and then killed for their precious meat are deprived of being treated as the animals that can think and feel in the same way as do dogs and . In their short lives, mostly young lives, we should all the more to provide them with decent living conditions taking into account their mental (psychological) needs. Nobody reasonable will demand and propose to tame all animals at the farm or to make the staff to familiarize with every single rabbit. That is not the aim of carried out works or the animals don’t need it. It is enough, however, to ensure them with such an equipment of the cages that they would have no time for boredom, that they could fulfil their in-born need of playing, exploration and observation of the area and solving problems posed to them. Without husbandry humanisation there is no possibility of any changes in ecological organisation attitude towards breeding the fur-bearing animals. There is also a big question mark over the problem of implementation of results of research of animal welfare. Introduction of the changes in a husbandry should refer not only to animals but also to people. To change breeders’ mentality through awareness of the need of different treatment of the fur-bearing animals than other farm animals remains the task as an important as the increase of quality of material and production capability.

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29. Selection of animals for the herd, introduction of the new animals, farm populating. At our disposal we have few options of purchase of female and male for our productive herd: A – animal purchase from an accidental trader involved in buy-in, B – animal purchase from the breeding farms that are under supervision of National Centre of Animal Husbandry, C – animal purchase from productive farms that carry out livestock, D – purchase of hybrid rabbits E – other solutions. A. If somebody thinks seriously about starting livestock production or about expansion of the existing herd the first solution I find not acceptable. Of course it is the cheapest method but the threats related with such a purchase could in short time destroy the whole project. We receive the animals from unknown source, bred in unknown conditions and of unspecified health. While buying the rabbits may be pretty and mobile but after few days the medical problems will start, the animals will get diarrhoea, start sneezing and drop on a mass scale. Life expectancy of such a herd is usually about 30 per cent and what is left of the herd it is also unknown and there will be no guarantee to gain proper parameters of reproduction, rearing time and fattening period. We should rather avid this kind of purchase. The only acceptable option is the will to rear rabbits to kill them for meat of your own needs. But also in such a case you must be aware of many drops. The rabbits coming from such a cheap buy are not suitable to further breeding and we can’t plan to build on them our basic herd. It doesn’t matter here also if we buy multi-breed rabbits, or we purchase white broiler rabbits. With the latter that are more sensitive to environmental changes we can have even more troubles. Grey rabbits, non-breed adjusts to new conditions easier and can adapt to them. B. Animal purchase from so-called recognised farms (under supervision of National Centre of Animal Breeding) doesn’t involve risk of introduction of weak or sick animals to a herd. Of course on condition that a seller is a responsible person and won’t try to cheat us. Nowadays such dishonest breeders are out of the market and are no threat for newly established farms. However, if you would like to start livestock production in bigger amount of animals (about 50 heads) there can be some problems with acquisition of the whole herd from one breeder. The well-known farms have usually not many females and number of animals from such a farm can be related to each other. Good, although not without shortcomings, solution is to purchase a basic herd form few breeders form different parts of the country. It will allow us to complete the herd of the animals that are for sure not related. The biggest disadvantage of this solution is the matter of the herd’s state of the health. The rabbits that are healthy at one of the farms can turn out not immune to some bacteria and parasite strain not harmful in the other herds. Another issue related to livestock production based on the rabbits from the well-known farms is widely understood production capacity. Breeding farms are set on animal selection directed at animal exterior that is their breed features. Such breeder visit breeding exhibitions and get rewards for a rabbit’s appearance, for its external features. Ability to reproduce and fertility as well as the pace of growth are in the background and these are 144 not animals selected for commercial production. So we will then buy rabbits that are beautiful for sure, of appropriate proportions, specific for a certain breed but of unknown productive potential. A herd made of such animals requires at least two-year work to change it into full production. A certain barrier to widespread application of this model of establishing a farm is a price barrier of breeding material. The price of one kilogram of such rabbits fluctuates between 15 and 25 PLN. C. Optimal solution when establishing a farm is to purchase animals from a production farm. That can be even the animals, which were intended for a slaughter sale in the farm. Purchase of the females from one of the farms and the males from the other will level the threat of having animals that are related to each other. Purchase should be done by the best possible „industrial espionage”, if we want to buy from somebody we don’t know. We should check since the particular farm operates, how much livestock it delivers in relation to the declared amount go the females and if it is possible what is the state of rabbit’s health. Purchase should be done personally at the farm and we should learn from the farm owner about the nutrition method and applied vaccinations. This is the best method to form your own herd up to 300 females of the basic herd. If somebody depends on time and has enough money, it is possible to purchase the whole herd at once. It is suggested to buy smaller amount (about 20% of final amount) of females and then gradually reproduce the herd with regard to the principles of breeding works and selection directions. This solution is successfully applied at many arising production farms. D. Having plans about industrial farm with female group of more than 500 heads, it is worth considering over hybrid rabbits. Formation of conditions for rabbit livestock production on the basis of hybrid rabbits involves, however, significant expenditure. In such farms there is a need for more cages due to the applied system of „empty – full“. There should be kept higher temperature (recommended by a breeding company that produced the previous parental material) and suitable lighting programme needs to be used too. The animals have to be fed with proper granulates, usually enriched with growth stimulators and containing suitable prophylactic preparations. I don’t want to make it sound discouraging in relation to purchase of such animals. It is just higher degree of initiation and production scale. Rabbit hybrids were bred in Western countries mostly on the basis of the breeds: New Zealand White, Blanc de Termond, Californian and local breeds. The leaders here are the biotechnical breeding companies from France and Germany. To introduce one line, female or male, it used to take over a dozen of years. For example the works at rabbit hybrids from France from Grimou Brothers ‘company took more than thirty years. In exchange for the need to form suitable conditions, much better than for boiler rabbits, the hybrid rabbits will repay with high production. They are very reproductive, have much better pace of growth (they obtain slaughter mass of 2,5 kg in 70 days, not in 90 days like the basic breeds) and due to the application of artificial insemination all the work at the farm is smaller than at a farm with similar amount of females of purebred rabbits. When making a purchase of hybrid animals, however, we have to be sure that they come from a primogenitor’s herd, not from a productive herd. The rabbits from the productive herds are not suitable for further reproduction because in generation F2 occurs the fission of characteristics and we won’t gain the assumed production parameters despite the incurred expenses. E. Other solutions not used in our region. 145

An interesting solution is American solution aimed at selection of only male line named Altex. In year 1986, in Alabama, few commercial companies ordered the breeding of a male line based on New Zealand White and Californian crossbred with the local breeds. The rabbits were selected towards transmission to offspring the high body mass and high per cent of muscle mass in relation to the bones. It was assumed that in the generation F2 all positive parameters, all combination, can appear and all this effort will be preserved. There were crossbreeds of generation F1 of the initial breeds to produce composite (F2) for crossbreeding with mass-population of the females of New Zealand White and Californian. The young rabbits from generation F1 during the researches were weaned from the females at the age of 28 days and moved to the fattening period cages, where they stayed until the age of 70 days. They were fed with the same granulated mix. At the age of 71 to 73 days they were checked in relation to the amount of meat in a carcass and to the gained body mass. For further crossbreeding are intended the animals coming from the parents giving the offspring of appropriate parameters. To check the received results of the selection, the population F2 was divided in two genetic lines: selection and deficiency. Though five generations the rabbits from the selection line that had bigger body mass at the age of 70 days were treated as the renovation animals in the herd and there was 8,14% of mass gain in comparison with the rabbits from the deficiency, non-selection group. The growth of body mass of the selected rabbits was analogical to the growth of meat in the carcasses. Such parameters as fur colour, behaviour or external features were not taken into account during the selection works. Between the years 1988 and 1994 rabbit livestock producers from 12 states were using the females from New Zealand White or the crossbreed of New Zealand mixed with Californian to mate at the mass scale with a group of selected males bred at the University in Alabama. The producers claim that theses crossbreeds with theses females were reaching their commercial weight one week or earlier then the base breeds. To expand the gene bank in year 1994 doctor Lukefahr took the best rabbits from both male lines and transported them to Texas and after renewed crossbreeding he go a line of males called Altex. They are white with dark end of the ears and limbs. They are similar to Californian but more intense in black colour. The males of Altex are used within the USA to mate the females from the mass herds of New Zealand White and Californian in order to shorten the fattening period and to improve the dressing percentage. Alike in the European hybrid breeds, generation F1 is not capable for further mating and is only the slaughter material.

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30. Examples of rabbit farms. Both an amateur breeding and cuniculture have to be run in accordance with the legal regulations in force. Legislators usually determine the minimal size of cages and boxes for the particular breeds of rabbit and microclimate conditions. Regardless the size of breeding all regulations have to be strictly observed. It doesn’t matter if it is a small, hobby farm or a production farm, which activity is based on few thousands of does and a dozen thousand of kittens. The differences in running such farms boil down to the different scope of activities that have to be done during a day. I will present below the examples of a farm, which has diversified quantity of animals as well as the description of how to run such a farm. Amateur farm. A farm of thoroughbred rabbits kept for hobby reasons and to supply rabbit meat for self-provision. The farm controlled by Krajowe Centrum Hodowli Zwierząt (National Centre of Animal Husbandry). Location – the north part of Podkarpackie Voivodship (south-east part of Poland). Quantity of does in the basic herd– 30 heads. Staff – the farm owner (pensioner) and occasionally the family members. Multiple daily visits at the farm. Most of time dedicated to rabbits is used to obtain and prepare feed. Kept breeds – New Zealand White, New Zealand Red, Argente de Champagne (French Silver), and Californian. Way of nutrition – grains (barley, oat, wheat), hay, fodder beets, green forage and small amount of granulates given to the rabbits during rearing time. Permanent access to water. Maintenance conditions – woodshed with wooden three-floor hutches. Hutches without grids, covered with hay. There are stone feeders and water bowls. Water is supplied manually at least once a day. Natural lighting enters through small windows and artificial fluorescent light is used during the maintenance works. Disposal of manure takes place once a fortnight. Reproduction system – natural mating within one single breed (purity of the breed) In a year – maximum three litters from one doe. Reproduction is carried out from February to September. Weaning of the young from does at age of 45 to 60 days. Mating females after weaning and lapse of 2-3 weeks. The young reach slaughter weight of 2,6 kg in 110 days. Female reproduction lifespan is from 2 to 4 years. Lack of palpate examination of female gravidity. Prevention treatment – vaccinations against plague and myxomatosis in the adult herd once a year in springtime. The young ones - vaccinated while weaning. Care treatments include nail clipping and fur brushing. The hutches and equipment is cleaned once a day. Once a week disinfection agent is sprinkled. Aim of breeding – acquisition of rabbits with the maximum amount of points in a licence evaluation. Getting awards and distinctions during the rabbit’s exhibitions. Obtaining rabbit meat to provide the needs of the immediate family. Sale of small amount of breeding material. 147

Breeding economics – revenue from animals sold for further breeding doesn’t cover the maintenance costs. Sale of the breeding material jointly with the value of obtained and used meat amount to 80% of costs. Unmeasurable profit is the owner’s satisfaction and the rewards gained at the exhibitions.

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Small commercial family-run farm. A farm of thoroughbred rabbits kept for the needs of livestock and self-provision production. The farm is registered and supervised by Veterinary Services. Location – the south part of Silesia. Quantity of does in the basic herd – 45 heads. Staff – large family with delegated farm duties. In the morning - fodder giving away and maintenance jobs from 6: 00 to 7: 00. Between hours 10: 00 to 13: 00 examination of gravidity, mating and nest inspection. In the evening there is one hour dedicated to re-stocking of food dose, inspection of nests and mating. Once a week takes place the animals slaughter (approx. 20 heads), disposal of manure, small renovations and repairs as well as disinfecting sprinkle of the whole farm. Kept breeds – Blanc de Termonde, Hyla Rabbit (French mix) Way of nutrition – complete granules, bought in the bags used in accordance with technological groups. Farm fodders are not applied. Maintenance conditions – brick building with central heating system. Intake and exhaust mechanical ventilation. Natural lighting supplemented by fluorescent lighting used in autumn-winter time up to 16 hours of light per day. The rabbits from a parenting herd as well as the rabbits during fattening period are kept in three-floor cages. The cages are made of spot welded galvanised mesh with the mesh dimensions at the bottom 2 x 2 cm and on sides and top 2 x 4 cm. Central watering system with water bottles. Rabbit’s manure is removed manually twice a month. Reproduction system – a part of the herd (Hyla Rabbit) reproduces through insemination performed by an outsourced company as an ordered and paid service. Blanc de Termonde is mated naturally. Weaning of the young ones from the does is done at the age of 35 days and they are moved to the new cages in fives. Mating of females is between 14 and 21 day after littering. Period of fattening to gain body mass of 2,6 kg lasts 90 days since birth. In a year there are minimum 4 litters no matter the time of the year. Female reproduction lifespan of a one doe lasts on average from 1 to 1,5 year. Prevention treatment – vaccination of the adult herd is once a year in springtime and each time when there is a new animal introduced to the herd. The rabbits during fattening period are fed with fodder including coccidiostat agent. In period of the intestine disorders water in the water bottles is acidified and the antibiotics are given as medicine or as preventive measure (according to a veterinarian’s recommendation). The young rabbits while being weaned at age of 35 days are vaccinated against plague and myxomatosis. There is implemented disinfection and deratisation system. Aim of breeding – to obtain rabbit meat for profit. The farm runs its own economic activity on the basis of the regulations referring to direct sale. These regulations allow selling up to 100 items of carcass in one week. Sale can take place directly at the farm or in a shop to an end-consumer. It is not allowed selling carcasses through wholesale. The mandatory regulations indicate a requirement of a special place of slaughter that is approved by Poviat Veterinary. It is also required to implement food safety system of HACCP. 149

Breeding economics – obtained financial means from the sales of rabbit carcasses amount to, depending on a seasonal demand, 110 to 150 % of the herd maintenance costs. The cost of work of the family is not calculated as well as the value of rabbit meat used for their own consumption. Ratio of value of the revenue obtained from the livestock to the value of the used fodders is1, 84.

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Production farm – 500 does A farm of thoroughbred rabbits kept in purpose of livestock production. Breeding is the second activity of this farm business activity. Location – nearby Warsaw. Quantity of does in the basic herd – 500 heads. Staff – the farm’s owner and the members of family occasionally. In the morning they give fodder away for about 1 hour. Since 9: 00 to 13: 00 - all activities concerning reproduction. Natural mating of females, gravidity examination, inspection of nests, weaning and vaccination of the young rabbits aged 35 days. Hours between 16: 00 to 19: 00 are intended for disposing of manure, renovations and repairs, and also for repeated mating of females that were mated before the noon. Once a week there is thermal and chemical disinfection. Kept breeds – Blanc de Termonde rabbits. Way of nutrition – complete granules bought in the bags applied in accordance with technological groups. Maintenance conditions – professional tent, foil tunnel with suitable insulation layers, stretched out like archway on the frame. Top height is 4m, width 12m and length 80m. Two-floor cages made of spot-welded mesh above the dung ducts. Manure disposal system based on tilting scrapers and rope system allows disposing of manure from under the cages outside the farm. Intake and exhaust ventilation of efficiency controlled by microprocessor depends on inside temperature. The ventilation system is compressed with a cooler of intake air. Air is cooled by water in closed circulation. Fluorescent lighting ensures 16 hours per day. Blow heating performed by two oil heaters. Central watering system with water bottles. Reproduction system – natural mating within the family groups. Palpate examination of gravidity on the 14th day after mating. Weaning takes place after 35 days, and repeated mating of females occur on the 14th day after littering. Fattening period to reach body mass of 2,5 kg lasts until the 90th day of life. The young during fattening period are kept in fives divided according to sex. Prevention treatment – there are regular, one in ten days chemical disinfections by misting. The applied disinfection agents are interchangeble: bactericidal, fungicidal and virucidal. Protective vaccinations provided only for the basic herd. Antibiotics prevention treatment (in drinking water) under supervision of veterinary during two, three first weeks of fattening period. Aim of breeding – to obtain revenue from slaughter material sale. The rabbits are transported with their own transportation means to a slaughter plant three times per month in accordance with the signed contracts. Breeding economics – obtained financial means constitute 115 to 125% of production costs in the whole year. Ratio of value of the revenue obtained from livestock to the value of the used fodder is 1, 51

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Commercial farm of 500 does A farm of thoroughbred rabbits kept for livestock production. Breeding is one of a few activities of this farm. Location – the south part of Mazowieckie Voivodship. Quantity of does in the basic herd – 500 heads. Staff – a father of the farm‘s owner and one hired worker. In the morning – giving away of a fodder for about one hour. Since 9: 00 to 13: 00 – inspection of rabbit’s nests, weaning of the young at age of 35 days. Between 16: 00 and 18: 00 disposal of manure, renovations and repairs. Once a week there is thermal and chemical disinfection applied in following rooms at the farm. Kept breeds – Hyle Rabbit (French mix) Way of nutrition – complete granules purchased in bulk and kept in fodder silos. Maintenance conditions – adjusted rooms of the farm. The breeding animals are kept in the cages made of a spot-welded mesh. The biggest room is equipped with a system of mechanical disposal of manure. The manure from the remaining rooms are removed from under the cages manually. The installed central heating system enables to keep the same temperature in the breeding rooms at the level 16 – 18oC. The lighting is artificial, fluorescent only with 16-hour day of lighting. Mechanical and gravitational ventilation ensures the sufficient multiplicity of air exchanges. Reproduction system – artificial insemination in accordance with the technology elaborated for this particular breed of mixed rabbits. Insemination treatments and semen delivery is performed by an outsourced inseminator as a paid service. The rabbits are weaned from the does at age of 35 days, and insemination treatment is performed between the 10th and 14th day after littering. Female reproduction lifespan lasts from1 to 1,3 year. On average there are 5 to 6 turns of fattening period with the litter amounting 7 to 9 heads each. Prevention treatment – protective vaccinations against myxomatosis and plague for the does in a parenting and great-parenting herd. There are no vaccinations for the young rabbits during fattening period but there is intense preventive treatment against gastrointestinal duct diseases of the young rabbits. During the first two, three weeks of the fattening period there are applied antibiotics under veterinarian supervision. There are also used efficient micro-organisms, vitamins and water acidifiers. Thermal and chemical disinfection of the cages is performed regularly in accordance with the recommendations of production technology for mixed rabbit. The rabbits after the fattening period, on average between the 70th and 75th day of life and after obtaining the weight of 2,6 kg, are transported by the farm own transportation mean to a slaughter plant. Aim of breeding –to obtain revenue from sales. Breeding economics – obtained financial means constitute 120 % of production costs in the whole year. Ratio of value of revenue obtained from livestock to the value of the used fodder is 2,32.

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Production farm 1 200 does A farm of thoroughbred rabbits kept for livestock production. Breeding is one of a few activities of this farm. Location – central part of Greater Poland. Quantity of does in the basic herd – 1 200 heads. Staff – two hired workers, Kept breeds – Hyle Rabbit (French mix). Way of nutrition – fodder dosing automatic system. The fodder is taken from the fodder silos. There are different granules for different technological groups. There are two types of granules for the adult reproductory rabbits and three types for the rabbits during the fattening period. Maintenance conditions – four breeding houses of dimensions: 50 x 12 meters. Central heating enables maintenance of temperature at the level of 18oC for the reproductory does and 16oC for the rabbits during the fattening period. There is only artificial lighting compliant with the programme adjusted to production technology of this mix. Reproduction system – artificial insemination performed by one of the workers. The semen comes from the bucks from the great-parenting herd that are kept in separate, sterile breeding rooms. Weaning the young from the does in a manner „empty – full“ in 30 days after littering. Fattening period amounts to 42 days with the average weight of 2,7kg.. On average there are 6 turns of fattening period with the litter amounting 8 to 9 heads each litter. Female reproduction lifespan is from 0,8 to 1,0 year. Prevention treatment – automatic system of misting of the rooms with animals. Misting with the suitable disinfecants intended for the particular stage as assumed in a production technology. Vaccination of the basic herd against myxomatosis and plague. The young rabbits don’t get such a vaccination. Intense preventive antibiotic treatment during the first fattening period (three weeks). Aim of breeding – to obtain revenue from sales. Breeding economics – obtained financial means constitute 115-120 % of production costs in the whole year. Ratio of value of revenue obtained from livestock to the value of the used fodder is 2,73.

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31. Case study Rabbits - an effective solution to the problem of supplying fresh, natural food

The purpose of a case study: presentation of the problem of supplying in fresh and natural food while reducing the workload and utilization of the premises in which animals are kept together with the adjacent grassland.

Description of a farm: breeding is carried out within the organic farm at the experimental station of the National Research Institute of Animal Production in Chorzelow.

Problem: Within an ecological farm at the experimental station, there are kept two breeds of rabbits: Popielno White Rabbit and Termond White Rabbit. Due to the number of animals and the amount of effort needed for their maintenance, the daily food delivery is needed, while ensuring the high quality and meeting the specified breeding criteria. Exposure of rabbits on the grassy runway does not provide a sufficient amount of nutrients. It is required to supplement natural plants with multi-ingredient granulated fodder, containing additional, adequate amounts of nutrients, including vitamins and minerals. The assumption of the culture is that breeding animals can get food at any time, on its own, in a most natural way. Release of animals on pasture in the rotating system generates slight problems with the animals control and systematic advancement of the shared area animals.

To resolve these problem special cages for animals were developed, equipped with wheels, for easy and quick movement (despite the considerable weight). Thanks to the fact that the floor frames are made of not very densely spaced steel rods, the animals had free access to grass, within the area of cages. It means that rabbits can get food according to earlier assumptions.

This solution is suggested to breeders, as combining ease of use with low costs and high efficiency.

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