The Journal of Ethnobiology and Traditional Medicine. 130 (2019) 1510-1515 https://sites.google.com/site/photonfoundationorganization/home/the-journal-of-ethnobiology-and-traditional-medicine Original Research Article. ISJN: 6642-3194: Impact Index: 6.38

The Journal of Ethnobiology and Traditional Medicine Ph ton

Mind-altering In Maharashtra (India): Biodiversity And Origin

Dinkarrao Patil

Post-Graduate Department of Botany, S.S.V.P.Sanstha’s L.K. Dr.P.R.Ghogrey Science College, Dhule-424005 (M.S.) India

Article history: Corresponding Author: Received: 29 November. 2017 Dr. Dinkarrao Patil Accepted: 12 December. 2017 Former Professor & Principal Available online: 05 October, 2019 Email; dapatil_10aug ( at ) yahoo (dot) com

Keywords: Psychoactive plants, Hallucinogens, Biodiversity, Maharashtra

Abstract The kingdom is a thesaurus of biodynamic chemical constituents. One such group of plant species yielding biodynamic constituents is psychoactive (mind-altering) plants. “Poor representation of this group of plant from the Old World” is an opinion expressed by LaBare (1970). This made the present author to inventories in the state of Maharashtra (India). Ancient Indian literature and also recent ones are replete with references to mind-altering vis- à-vis psychoactive plants. The information on this line was needed collating in an inventory. This inventory revealed total 210 psychoactive plant species belonging to angiosperms and few pteridophytes and gymnosperms, of which 59 species are exotic. This part of India has fairly a rich heritage of psychoactive plants. There is still much to be learned from primitive Indian societies and ancient records.

Citation: Dinkarrao Patil, 2019. Mind-altering Plants In Maharashtra (India): Biodiversity And Origin. The Journal of Ethnobiology and Traditional Medicine. Photon 130, 1510-1515

All Rights Reserved with Photon. Photon Ignitor: ISJN66423194D880505102019

1. Introduction

1. Introduction: 1.1 Man plant relationship inter se Man (Homo sapiens) since his appearance fruits, etc. or some plant products altering on the sylvan Blue Planet started his search his mind to remain aloof from his heavy for healthcare and beautycare, besides food worldly affairs, stress or even incurable and shelter. Eventually, he also became diseases. He also endeavoured to use plants conscious about his mind and attempted at for his amusement. He exerted more ‘mindcare’. He employed leaves, flowers, pressure on local biodiversity, modified his

Ph ton 1510 study and observations on biodiversity (1990, 1995), Kshirsagar and Patil (2002), which resulted into ‘cultural biodiversity’. Geeta and Waleed (2007), Maheshwari (1979), etc. Occurrence of plant species in 1.2 Reason for undertaking research this region have been verified by consulting regional (Cooke, 1958; Naik, He intensified his method of ‘trial and 1988), state (Sharma et al., 1996; Singh errors’ to search new sources or and Karthikeyan, 2000), district (Patil, biodynamic chemicals. In recent times, he 2003; Kshirsagar and Patil, 2008) floras is emphasizing value-addition of the and the published floras by Botanical products in hand for his welfare. After Sciences of India. food, medicine was his next priority to sustain life in primitive societies. 3. Results and Discussion Naturally, his study and research laid emphasis more on food and medicine in 3.1 Classification and Terminology comparison to mind-altering bioresources. Plants altering or affecting mind are Even the modern man also paid more variously classified and termed. Probably, attention on the former rather that the Lewin (1931) was the first to divide the latter. These trends have perforce led in narcotic and stimulant drugs into five partial negligence of research for categories viz., (i) Inebrianta (causing psychoactive plants in his ambience. The primarily cerebral excitation followed by a present author, therefore, extended efforts deprecation state e.g. alcohol), (ii) to prepare an inventory of the mind- Excitantia (mental stimulants, mainly altering vis-à-vis psychoactive plants in the caffeine-containing plants), (iii) state of Maharashtra. Euphorbica (sedatives of mental activity, e.g. cocaine, opium), (iv) Hypnotica 2. Methodology (sleep-producing plants e.g. kava-kava) and (v) Phantastica (Hallucination- 2.1 Literary survey inducing plants). In general, he called all The literary research was done using these agents or substances by a German various treatises by: (i) Jain (1975, 1981, term viz., ‘Genussmittel’ (means of 1991), Watt (1889-1895), Anonymous enjoyment). In European and American (1948-1976), Patil and Patil (2013), countries, various terms are employed e.g. Ambasta (1986), Dastur (1970), psychotic, psychogens, psychodisleptics, Bhattacharjee (2004), Nadkarni (1954), psychotomimetics, schizogens, eideties, Kirtikar and Bose (1984), Pullaiah (2002), entheogen, etc. However, all these terms Rastogi and Mahrotra (1990, 1991), Joshi have limited meanings and do not express (1995), Trivedi (2006), and some recent different properties, in toto, of such drugs publications as cited under references. The or plants. Schultes and Hofman (1987) vegetable sources are arranged although preferred the term ‘hallucinogen’ alphabetically under the families and the for such plants (drugs), it is also deficient families are also arranged similarly (Table- in exhibiting their all properties. Of late, a I). Family names are followed those of term for such plants is being employed and Benthum and Hooker (1862-1883) with it is ‘phychoactive plants’ which mean that some accepted splitting and new names of ‘plants that alter the state of mind’. They families. All taxa are analysed statistically. stimulate the mind to exceptional thoughts, visions and perceptions. The present 2.2 Decipherment of exotic nature author subscribe this term in this Exotic nature of species included are communication. pointed out using accounts by Reddy (2008), Sharma and Pandey (1984), Patil

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Table-I: Systematic Enumeration Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 1. Alangium salvifolium (L.f.) Wang T W -- Alangiaceae 2. Achyranthes sapera L. H W -- Amaranthaceae 3. Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br.ex DC. H W Tropical Amaranthaceae America 4. Amaranthus blitum L. H CG -- Amaranthaceae 5. Amaran thus hybridus L. H CG Africa Amaranthaceae 6. Amaranthus spinosus L. H W Tropical Amaranthaceae America 7. Buchanania lanzan Spr. T W, CG -- Anacardiaceae 8. Lannea coromandelica (Houttl.) Merr. T W -- Anacardiaceae 9. Semecarpus anacardium Lf. T CG -- Anacardiaceae 10. Annona muricata L. T CG Tropical Annonaceae America 11. Apium graveolens L. H CG -- Apiaceae 12. Centella asiatica (L.) Urban H W -- Apiaceae 13. Coriandrum sativum L. H CG South Europe Apiaceae 14. Daucus carota L. H CG Europe & Apiaceae Temperate Asia 15. Foeniculum vulgare Mill H CG Europe Apiaceae 16. Heracleum grande (Dalz. & Gibs.) Mukh. H W -- Apiaceae 17. Alstonia scholaris (L.) R.Br. T CG -- Apocynaceae 18. Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lipp. T CG Tropical Apocynaceae America 19. Catharanthus roseus (L.) Don S CG West Indies & Apocynaceae Madagascar 20. Ervatamia dichotoma (Roxb.) Blatter S CG -- Apocynaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 21. Holarrhena pubescens (Syn.H.antidysenterica T W -- Wall.) Apocynaceae 22. Rauvolfia serpentine (L.) Benth. ex Kurz. S W -- Apocynaceae 23. Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. S CG West Indies Apocynaceae 24. Acorus calamus L. H CG -- Araceae 25. Borassus flabellifer L. T W, CG Tropical Africa Arecaceae 26. Caryota urens L. T W -- Arecaceae 27. Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. T W -- Arecaceae 28. Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br. S W Tropical Africa Asclepiadaceae 29. Calotropis procera R.Br. S W Tropical Africa Asclepiadaceae 30. Leptadenia reticulata (Retz.)Wt. & Arn. C W -- Asclepiadaceae 31. Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt. C W -- Asclepiadaceae 32. Tylophora indica (Burm.f.) Merr. C W -- Asclepiadaceae 33. Carthamus tinctorius L. H CG South-West Asteraceae Asia 34. Cithorium intybus L. H W -- Asteraceae 35. Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. H W Tropical Asteraceae America 36. Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. H W Tropical, South Asteraceae America 37. Sonchus oleraceous L. H W Europe, Eurasia Asteraceae 38. Sphaeranthus indicus L. H W -- Asteraceae 39. Xanthium indicum Koen. (Syn.X.strumarium H W Tropical L.) America Asteraceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 40. Basella alba L. var. rubra (L.) Stew C CG -- Basellaceae 41. Oroxylum indicum (L.) Vent. T W -- Bignoniaceae 42. Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. H CG Tibet Brassicaceae 43. Brassica rapa L. subsp. campestris (L.) H CG Europe Clapham Brassicaceae 44. Boswellia serrata Colebr. T W -- Burseraceae 45. Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston C W -- Caesalpiniaceae 46. Cass ia fistula L. T W, CG -- Caesalpiniaceae 47. Cassia obtusifolia L. H W Tropical Caesalpiniaceae America 48. Cassia tora L. H W Tropical and Caesalpiniaceae South America 49. Parkinsonia aculeata L. T W South America Caesalpiniaceae 50. Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde T W, CG -- Caesalpiniaceae 51. Tamarindus indica L. T W, CG Tropical Africa Caesalpiniaceae 52. Capparis zeylanica L. C W -- Capparaceae 53. Crataeva tapia Linn. S W -- [Syn.Crataeva magna (Lour.) DC.] Capparaceae 54. Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze T W -- Celastraceae 55. Celastrus paniculatus Willd. C W -- Celastraceae 56. Mesua nagassarium (Burm.f.) Kosterm. T W -- Clusiaceae 57. Anogeissus latifolia Bedd. T W -- Combretaceae 58. Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wt. & Arn. T W -- Combretaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 59. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. T W -- Combretaceae 60. Terminalia chebula Retz. T W -- Combretaceae 61. Cuscuta chinensis Lam. C W Mediterranean Convolvulaceae Region 62. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. C W -- Convolvulaceae 63. Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. C CG America Convolvulaceae 64. Ipom oea carnea subsp. fistula (Mart.ex C CG Tropical Choisy) austin America Convolvulaceae 65. Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq. C W -- Convolvulaceae 66. Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth C W North America Convolvulaceae 67. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth C W -- Convolvulaceae 68. Ipomoe a turbinata Lag. C W -- Convolvulaceae 69. Merremia tuberosa (L.) Rendle C CG Tropical Convolvulaceae America 70. Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schr. C W -- Cucurbitaceae 71. Cucurbita pepo DC. C CG -- Cucurbitaceae 72. Thuja orientalis L. T CG -- Cupressaceae 73. Cyca s circinalis L. T CG -- Cycadaceae 74. Cyperus rotundus L. H W -- Cyperaceae 75. Dioscorea bulbifera L. C W, CG -- Dioscoreaceae 76. Dioscorea hispida Dennst. C W -- Dioscoreaceae 77. Bridelia squamosa (Lamk.) Gaertn. T W -- Euphorbiaceae 78. Cleistanthus collinus (Roxb.) Benth. & Hook. f. T W -- Euphorbiaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 79. Euphorbia hirta L. H W Tropical, South Euphorbiaceae America 80. Euphorbia ligularia Roxb. S W -- Euphorbiaceae 81. Phyllanthus emblica L. T CG -- Euphorbiaceae 82. Ricinus communis L. T CG Africa Euphorbiaceae 83. B utea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. T W -- Fabaceae 84. Butea superba Roxb. C W -- Fabaceae 85. Canavalia virosa (Roxb.) Wt. & Arn. C W, CG -- Fabaceae 86. Cicer arietinum L. H CG South Europe Fabaceae 87. Crotalaria juncea L. H CG -- Fabaceae 88. Crotalaria mysorensis Roth H W -- Fabaceae 89. Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC. H W -- Fabaceae 90. Desmodium heterocarpon (L.) DC. H W -- Fabaceae 91. Erythrina stricta Roxb. T W -- Fabaceae 92. Erythrina suberosa Roxb. T W -- Fabaceae 93. Erythrina variegata L. T CG -- Fabaceae 94. Flemingia strobilifera (L.) Ait. C W -- Fabaceae 95. Lablab purpureus (L.) Sw. C CG -- Fabaceae 96. Lathyrus aphaca L. H W Europe Fabaceae 97. Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. C W -- Fabaceae 98. Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre T W, CG -- Fabaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 99. Pueraria tuberosa (Willd.) DC. C W -- Fabaceae 100. Uraria picta (Jacq.) Desv. H W -- Fabaceae 101. Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maerchal C CG -- Fabaceae 102. Vigna radiata (L.) Wilc. C CG -- Fabaceae 103. Vigna trilibata (L.) Verd. C W -- Fabaceae 104. Zornia gibbosa Span. H W -- Fabaceae 105. Fumaria indica (Haussk.) Pugs. H W North Fumariaceae Temperate Region 106. Canscora diffusa (Vahl) Br. H W -- Gentianaceae 107. Coleus amboinicus Lour. H CG -- Lamiaceae 108. Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spr. H W -- Lamiaceae 109. Leucas zeylanica R.Br. H W -- Lamiaceae 110. Ocimum basilicum L. S CG -- Lamiaceae 111. Ocimum gratissimum L. S W -- Lamiaceae 112. Ocimum sanctum L. S CG -- Lamiaceae 113. Allium cepa L. G CG Western Asia Liliaceae & Persia 114. Allium sativum L. G CG Western Liliaceae Temperate Asia & Europe 115. Asparagus officinalis L. C CG Europe, North Liliaceae Africa 116. Aspargus racemosus Willd. C W -- Liliaceae 117. Gloriosa superba L. C W -- Liliaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 118. Hemerocallis fulva L. G CG -- Liliaceae 119. Lobelia nicotianaefolia Roth ex Roem. & S W -- Schult. Lobeliaceae 120. Strychnos nux-vomica L. T W -- Loganiaceae 121. Strychnos potatorum L. T W -- Loganiaceae 122. Viscum nepalense Spreng. S W -- Loranthaceae 123. Lygodium japonica (Thunb.) Sw. C W -- Lygodiaceae 124. Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. T CG -- Lythraceae 125. Lawsonia inermis L. S CG North America Lythraceae & Australia 126. Abutilon indicum (L.) Sweet S W -- Malvaceae 127. Sida acuta Burm.f. H W Tropical Malvaceae America 128. Marsilea minuta L. H W -- Marsileaceae 129. Dysoxylum binectariferum (Roxb.) Hook. f. ex T W -- Bedd. Meliaceae 130. Melia azedarach L. T CG Myanmar Meliaceae 131. Cissampelos pareira L. var.hirsuta (Buch.- C W South America Ham. ex DC.) Forman. Menispermaceae 132. Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels. C W -- Menispermaceae 133. Tinospora cordifolia (L.) Merr. C W -- Menispermaceae 134. Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. T W -- Mimosaceae 135. Acacia nilotica (L.) Del.subsp. indica (Benth.) T W North Africa Brenan. Mimosaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 136. Albizia lebbeck (L.) Willd. T CG North Mimosaceae Australia, Tropical Asia 137. Ficus religiosa L. T W, CG -- Moraceae 138. Streblus asper Lour. T W -- Moraceae 139. Moringa oleifera Lam. T CG -- Moringaceae 140. Myristica fragrans Houtt. T CG -- Myristicaceae 141. Ardisia solanacea Roxb. T W -- Myrsinaceae 142. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. S W, CG -- Nelumbonaceae 143. Boerhaavia diffusa L. H W -- Nyctaginaceae 144. Ny mphaea alba L. S CG -- Nyphaeaceae 145. Nymphaea nouchalli Burm. f. S W -- Nyphaeaceae 146. Nymphaea pubescens Willd. S W -- Nyphaeaceae 147. Jasminum grandiflorum L. C CG -- Oleaceae 148. Jasminum sambac (L.) Ait. C CG -- Oleaceae 149. Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Hk.f. ex Don. S W -- Orchidaceae 150. Biophytum sansitivum (L.) DC. H W -- Oxalidaceae 151. Pandanus fascicularis Lamk. T W, CG -- Pandanaceae 152. Argemone mexicana L. H W Tropical, Papaveraceae Central and South America 153. Passiflora edulis Sims L.(Syn.P.incarnata L.) C CG Brazil Passifloraceae (America) 154. Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R.Br. C W -- Periplocaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 155. Piper betle L. C CG -- Piperaceae 156. Piper nigrum L. C CG -- Piperaceae 157. Pittosporum floribundum Wt.&Arn. T W -- Pittosporaceae 158. Plumbago zeylanica L. S W -- Plumbaginaceae 159. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. T W -- Poaceae 160. Coix lacryma-jobi L. H W -- Poaceae 161. Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf. H CG Malaysia, Poaceae Ceylon (Srilanka) 162. Cymbopogon martini (Roxb.) Wats. H W -- Poaceae 163. Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. H W -- Poaceae 164. Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raeus. H W Tropical Poaceae America 165. Paspalum scrobiculatum L. H W, CG -- Poaceae 166. Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. H CG Africa Poaceae 167. Pteridium aqulinum (L.) Kuhn. H W -- Polypodiaceae 168. Portulaca quadrifida L. H W Tropical Portulacaceae America 169. Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. T CG -- Rhamnaceae 170. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk.) Rich. ex T CG -- Walp. 171. Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tiruv. S W -- Rubiaceae 172. Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb. H W -- Rubiaceae 173. laxiflora Robins. T W -- Rubiaceae

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 174. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. T W, CG -- Rutaceae 175. Citrus aurantifolia (Chr.) Sw. T CG -- Rutaceae 176. Citrus aurantium L. T CG -- Rutaceae 177. Citrus grandis Osb. T CG Malaysia & Rutaceae Polynesia 178. Citrus reticulata Blanco T CG -- Rutaceae 179. Limonia elephantum (Corr.) Panigrahi T CG -- Rutaceae 180. Santalum album L. T W -- Santalaceae 181. Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) MacBr. T W, CG -- Sapotaceae 182. Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub. T CG Tropical Sapotaceae America 183. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Penn. H W -- Scrophulariaceae 184. Digitalis purpurea L. H CG -- Scrophulariaceae 185. Verbascum chinense (L.) Sant. H W -- Scrophulariaceae 186. Verbascum thapsus L. H W -- Scrophulariaceae 187. Capsicum annuum L. H CG Chile, South Solanaceae America 188. Capsicum frutescens L. H CG Central & Solanaceae South America 189. Datura innoxia Mill. H W Tropical Solanaceae America 190. Datura metel L. H W Tropical Solanaceae America 191. Datura stamonium L. H W Tropical Solanaceae America 192. Nicotiana tabacum L. H CG America Solanaceae 193. Physalis minima L. H W Tropical Solanaceae America

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Sr. Plant Name & Family Habit Wild/ Nativity, if No. Cultigen exotic 194. Solanum melongena L. S CG -- Solanaceae 195. Solanum nigrum L. H W Tropical Solanaceae America 196. Solanum virginianum L. (Syn.S.surattense H W -- Burm.f.) Solanaceae 197. Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal S W -- Solanaceae 198. Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br. T W -- Sterculiaceae 199. Helicteres isora L. S W -- Sterculiaceae 200. Corchorus depressus (L.) Vicary H W -- Tiliaceae 201. Grewia asiatica L. S W -- Tiliaceae 202. Holoptelia integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. T W -- Ulmaceae 203. Clerodendrum phlomidis L.f. S W -- Verbenaeae 204. Clerodendrum serratum (L.) Moon S W -- Verbenaeae 205. Gmelina arborea Roxb. T CG -- Verbenaeae 206. Vitex negundo L. S W -- Verbenaeae 207. Vitex trifolia L.f. S W -- Verbenaeae 208. Curcuma longa L. G CG -- Zingiberaceae 209. Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton G CG -- Zingiberaceae 210. Zingiber officinale Rosc. G CG -- Zingiberaceae *Abbreviations: (1) Habit: Herb (H), (S), (T), Climber (C), Geophyte (G) (2) Wild (W), Cultigen (CG)

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3.2 Earlier attempts parenthesis stand for number of species. LaBarre (1970) made a statistical analysis The arborescent taxa viz., and few of narcotics of both New and Old Worlds climbers and are perennial sources and opined that the former has several and available throughout a year. A fair psychoactive plants, whereas the later has segment of exotic species (59 species) is only very few species of the said nature. represented from different geographical However, he appears unaware about regions or countries as: America (31 ancient Indian scriptures such as Vedas, species), Africa (08 species), Europe (06 Manusmruti, Nighantus, etc. His statement species), Western Asia and Persia (02 can be easily disproved if one studies species), Tibet, Myanmar, West Indies, introspective reviews by Padhy et al. and Madagascar, Mediterranean region, (2001) and Trivedi (2006). His opinion in North Temperate Region, Malaysia and this regard should be conceived, at least, as Polynesia (one species each). It is to be an alert for Indian research workers to noted that the largest number of exotic hail have national and regional inventories as from American continent, followed by of the present account. Such inventories Europe. may lead to accounts presenting a state of art of bioresources with respect to 3.4 Origin pychoactive plants and may also suffice Out of total 210 psychoactive species in the needy ones, the users as well as the state of Maharashtra, a major segment researchers. The works in the New World (231 species) is indigenous. Total 59 are duly revised by Schultes (1973) and species have invaded or introduced Tayade, Dhale and Patil (2013). Although intentionally in the region. These have the applications of psychoactive drugs of been also deeply rooted and integrated plant-origin have been generally with Indian culture to date. The Indians associated with rites, rituals, ceremonies, appear to have appropriated them in worships especially in primitive societies, different times. Exotic species invaded or these authors sought attention towards purposely introduced from America need a ‘out-to-the-box thinking’ for well-being of special mention as far as India is mankind. concerned. Their presence in India has been proved in pre-Columbian period. 3.3 Diversity This fact can be corroborated by various This inventory reveals total 210 plant evidences. For example, (i) Seeds of species belonging to 165 genera and 72 Allium cepa are recovered from families. Majority of these are represented archaeobotanical remains in Middle by the dicotyledons (181 species, 138 Gangetic Plains-Waina, Ballia and Raja- genera, 58 families) and the Nala-Ka-Tila in Uttar Pradesh during 800- monocotyledons (24 species, 22 genera, 09 1600 BC. (Saraswat, 2005; Singh and families). Other groups of plants viz., Nigam, 2017). Its medicinal uses are gymnosperms (02 species, 02 genera, 02 mentioned by Emperor Ashok (ca. 268- families) and pteridophytes (03 species, 03 232 BC.) in Divyavadan (Vaidya, 1959). genera, 03 families) share little. Of these, (iii) Allium sativum: Carbonized cloves are 127 species are exclusively wild sources found at Harappa site Balu in Haryana and, 69 species exclusively cultigens. State (Saraswat and Pokharia, 2002) dating Fourteen species are found both as about 300 BC. (iii) Carthamus tinctorius: cultigens and in wild in Maharashtra state. Its grains are recorded from Savalda as far The psychoactive plants in the region back as 2300-2000 BC. in Western belong to different habital group viz., trees Maharashtra State (Saraswat et al., 1994). (63), shrubs (27), herbs (63), climbers (iv) Ricinus communis: It is noticed (41) and geophytes (06). Figures in between 1800-1300 BC. in Harappan site

Ph ton 1512 of Hulas (Saraswat, 1993). (v) Datura Geeta, R. and G.Waleed 2007. Historical species: These are also reported from pre- evidence for a pre-Columbian presence of Columbian period by Geeta and Waleed Datura in the Old World and implications (2007). These are reported so after critical for a first millennium transfer from the assessment by the present author (Patil, New World. J.Biosci.32:1227-1244. 2017). These cases obviously suggested their occurrence in India in very ancient Jain, S.K. 1975. Medicinal Plants. times. They are evidences of ancient National Book Trust, New Delhi, India. human (Indian) contacts in different parts of the world including New World. A Jain, S.K. 1981. Glimpses of Indian similar line of research for other species is, Ethnobotany. Oxford & IBH Publishing however, desired. The statement made by Co., New Delhi, India. LaBarre (1970) can be now easily negated. Information and careful scrutiny from Jain, S.K. 1991. Dictionary of Indian Folk other regions and states of India will add Medicine And Ethnobotany. Deep more psychoactive taxa. Publications, New Delhi, India.

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Trivedi, P.C. 2006. Vedic Plant ‘Soma’: A botanical enigma. In: Herbal Medicine- Traditional Practices (Ed.P.C.Trivedi) Aavishkar Publishers, Distributors, Jaipur, For publications/ Enquiries/ India. Submissions / License: Email: [email protected]

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