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Home , Andy Thomas, Astronaut, Extravehicular activity, History of spaceflight, Human spaceflight, Mir

Contents Volume 23 • Number 1 2016 www.spacehistory101.com

FEATURES BOOK REVIEWS

3 The Next Frontier: The Origins of in 57 The Orbital Perspective: Lessons in Seeing the Big Picture from a Journey of 71 Million Miles Modern Book by Ron Garan By Ian Varga Review by Jennifer Levasseur

15 NASA’s Lessons Learned in Long-Duration 58 The Meaning of Beyond : The Shuttle— Program Edited by Charles S. Cockell By Zack Hester Review by Joanne Irene Gabrynowicz

59 Fifty Years of European Cooperation in Space: ORAL HISTORY Building on Its Past, ESA Shapes the Future Book by John Krige 23 Vance D. Brand: Review by Roger D. Launius Seeds of International Cooperation The Surveillance Imperative: Geosciences Interviewer: Rebecca Wright 60 During the and Beyond Edited by Simone Turchetti and Peder FROM THE ARCHIVES Review by Lisa Ruth Rand

39 The Beginnings of Research in Space at 62 NASA in the World: Fifty Years of International the Air Force Missile Development Center, Collaboration in Space Book by John Krige, Angelina Long Callahan, Holloman AFB, New Mexico, 1946-1952 and Ashok Maharaj By David Bushnell Review by John M. Logsdon Introduction by Jordan Bimm 63 Space Careers 50 Project World Series Book by Leonard David and Scott Sacknoff Review by Roger D. Launius

64 Go, ! The Unsung Heroes of Mission FRONT COVER CAPTION Control, 1965-1992 An artist's concept depicting the American and Soviet Book by Rick and Milt Heflin docked in Earth during the July 1975 - Test Project mis- sion. The Apollo Command/ is on the left, the Docking Review by Margaret A. Weitekamp Module is in the center, and the Soyuz spacecraft is on the right. The first docking of spacecraft from two different nations took place on 17 July 1975. The painting is by artist Paul Fjeld. Credit: NASA

ISSN 1065-7738 Subscription Information The editorial office of Quest: The Quarterly (ISSN 1065-7738) is locat- Quest Magazine ed at the ISBC, 6615 Hillandale Road, Chevy Chase, MD 20815-6424. E-mail quest@space- P.O. Box 5752 history101.com for information regarding submission of articles or letters to the editor. Quest is published quarterly, four times per year by the International Space Business Bethesda, MD 20824-5752 Council LLC, 6615 Hillandale Road, Chevy Chase, MD 20815-6424 USA. Periodical postage 1-Year Subscription paid at Bethesda, Maryland, and additional offices. Phone: +1 703-524-2766 United States $29.95 [email protected] $34.95 Postmaster: Send all inquiries, letters, and changes of address to Quest: The History of Spaceflight Quarterly, P.O. Box 5752, Bethesda, MD 20824-5752 USA. www.spacehistory101.com Global $44.95 ©2016 International Space Business Council LLC, All Rights Reserved. Reproduction of whole or in part without permission is prohibited. Printed in the United States of America. F EATURE NASA’S LESSONS LEARNED IN LONG-DURATION SPACEFLIGHT: THE SHUTTLE-MIR PROGRAM

By Zack Hester

On 2 November 2000, two Russian Space Agency cosmonauts and one NASA arrived at the newly orbited International (ISS) and, thus, became the station’s first occupants.1 This event was a culmination of years of collaboration between multiple inter- national partners and established a platform for NASA to conduct multi- ple long-duration missions. However, this mission was not the first time that Russian cosmo- nauts and American had undertaken a joint long-duration mis- sion in low-Earth orbit. Russian and American astronauts had been work- Credit: NASA ing together in space for several was well experienced in space station . However, cost overruns and years prior to the ISS’s development development from its previous suc- numerous station redesigns stalled onboard a Russian space station cesses at deploying seven small sta- development and nearly resulted in called Mir. tions, Salyuts, between 1971 and cancellation by Congress of the pro- This historic collaboration in 1982. Russian psychologists were gram in 1991. However, by early the space resulted from the fall of the the first to require that all Russian 1990s, Presidents Bush and Clinton in 1991. After decades stations have “floors” and “ceilings” began to employ NASA as a diplo- of Cold War-rivalry, the United to provide cosmonauts a clear sense matic tool to maintain Russian States suddenly found itself in the of up-and-down.3 However, Mir was space’s infrastructure and position of trying to stabilize its for- a much larger and complex design talent following the Soviet Union’s mer superpower rival, as a new than any previous Soviet system. collapse. Out of such efforts the Russian state struggled to support its The station could connect multiple Shuttle-Mir program was born, massive government run infrastruc- modules and had multiple docks for which set the stage to bring ture. Included in that infrastructure Russian Soyuz’s to support larger into the part- was the crown jewel of the Russian expedition crews.4 This Russian nership, which was later renamed the space program, the Mir space station. knowledge and expertise International Space Station (ISS). The Russian word “Mir” trans- gained from the Mir would prove The only other time the United States lates roughly into “new world,” valuable the development of the ISS. and Russia had previously undertak- “peace,” or “community” depending In the early 1990s, NASA was en a joint mission in space was the on the context of its usage.2 Assembly of the Mir space station at work designing its own space sta- Apollo-Soyuz mission in 1975, when first began in 1986 with the launch of tion, Space Station Freedom. The an Apollo spacecraft docked with a the station’s core stage. By 1991, station was first approved in the mid- Russian Soyuz spacecraft in low- Mir consisted of four pressurized and was pitched as internation- Earth orbit to symbolize stronger al endeavor given the involvement of relations between the two superpow- modules with a regular rotation of 5 cosmonaut crews. The Soviet Union international partners in and ers.

Q U E S T 23:1 2016 15 www.spacehistory101.com This new era of collaboration began with what In 1995, Norm Thagard became the first American astronaut to NASA called the Phase One program, also known as the train in Russia, launch into space on a Russian Soyuz, and the first to complete a residency aboard Mir, setting an American -Mir program. The program would send astro- endurance record of 115 days in orbit. Credit: NASA nauts to live and work on Mir by utilizing the Space Shuttle to ferry astronauts. This would mark NASA’s return to long-duration human spaceflight since the end of the program, an American space station that was would not have survived through the 1990s, which in turn 7 operated in the mid-to-late . During the Shuttle-Mir would have crippled Russia’s space program. From the program, eleven Shuttle were made to the Mir first mission with astronaut in 1995 to space station. Additionally, seven US astronauts lived seventh and final mission with in 1998, and worked onboard the Mir station for months at a time NASA gained value experience as an institution in long- between 1995 and 1998.6 duration human spaceflight that is applicable to its current Beyond the political benefits, the Shuttle-Mir pro- mission onboard the ISS and its future deep space ambi- gram also provided NASA experience in long-duration tions. human spaceflight before the development of ISS. Some at NASA, especially in the astronaut corps, would come The First NASA Astronaut on Mir—Norman Thagard to see the Shuttle-Mir program as a waste of NASA On 14 March 1995, after months of extensive train- resources for little scientific payoff, while placing ing in Russia, Norman Thagard became the first American American astronauts in unnecessary danger on the aging to ride a Russian and the first of eventually seven Mir station. However, without NASA’s $400 million astronauts to visit Mir for long-duration spaceflight mis- pledge to Shuttle-Mir program, it is very likely that Mir sions. Naturally, NASA wanted to use this first mission to study the effects of long-duration spaceflight on the

Q U E S T 23:1 2016 16 www.spacehistory101.com human body. However, a series of setbacks derailed the scientific objectives of the mission. It started with Thagard’s freezer for storing blood, saliva, and urine samples. The European-built freezer malfunc- tioned early in the mission. As NASA had no understanding of the freezer and was unable to figure out how to repair it, Thagard’s samples soon spoiled.8 With few experi- ments left to occupy his time and the refusal of his Russian crewmates to allow him to participate in station maintenance or operations, Thagard spent most of his 115-day mission floating around the station, reading, and watching the Earth out a station On 24 February 1997, a routine ignition of an -generating canister caused a , which window. All Thagard could do was suddenly went out of control. Crew wore gas masks and eventually managed to extinguish the basic metabolic tests and measure- fire. Smoke filled part of the Mir space station, along with a Soyuz spacecraft, their only way ments for medical events such as to go home. Credit: NASA loss. However, these tests soon became tainted as ground controllers came to realize that Thagard had lost back and neck to allow astronauts to body to react to the effects of gravi- over seventeen pounds, including perform knee bends. However, one ty. Finally, before Thagard’s post- lean body , just a few weeks of the cables slipped off Thagard’s flight medical examination, NASA into the mission.9 This had been the foot during an exercise and struck Administrator Dan Goldin took result of the strict diet NASA had set him in his right eye causing severe Thagard to a press conference where for Thagard in which only bar-coded pain and sensitivity in that eye. Goldin presented Thagard with an that was properly recorded When he told one of his Russian cream sundae and a hot dog to could be eaten for the sake of med- crewmates what had happened, the welcome the astronaut home. Much ical research. without bar cosmonaut simply replied, “Oh, yes. to the chagrin of the NASA medical codes included secondary rations Those things are dangerous. That’s staff, this meal skewed Thagard’s like snacks, which required more why I don’t use them.”10 Russian glucose levels before the post-mis- paperwork to log. Ultimately, doctors later diagnosed the as sion medical tests. Ultimately, the Thagard was more inclined to skip a possible corneal abrasion and pre- mission clearly demonstrated that meals than deal with the paperwork scribed him and steroid NASA as an institution was rusty at and failed to notice his rapid weight drops. Eventually, Thagard’s eye executing long-duration human loss. began to heal as a result of the med- spaceflight missions. Thagard’s also ication. was the first time in decades that a The failure of Thagard’s mis- (EVA) on Mir NASA astronaut had an sion in terms of medical research During the Shuttle-Mir pro- to exercise in microgravity to count- was capped off with his return to gram, a total of 25 EVAs were con- er bone and muscle loss during a Earth, where upon he walked ducted. Most consisted of installa- long-duration spaceflight mission. out of the Shuttle rather than be car- tion and maintenance of station hard- Here too Thagard and NASA stum- ried off in a stretcher.11 This show ware. Unlike the Space Shuttle, bled out the gate. Shortly after his of astronaut bravado denied NASA which could be taken back to Earth arrival, Thagard attempted to exer- medical personal the opportunity to for repairs and regular maintenance, cise with a set of Russian isometric study and conduct tests on Thagard’s Mir demonstrated the challenges of cables that were onboard Mir. The body before the act of standing, maintenance and repair in space, cables are looped around one’s feet which initiates changes in the human which have to be conducted through for a hold and stretched over the

Q U E S T 23:1 2016 17 www.spacehistory101.com Norm Thagard zips a sleep restraint in his sleep station in the Core Module of Russia's Mir Space Station. Credit: NASA

extensive EVAs. Crewmembers who because of overwhelming disorienta- between the ground and the station went outside the station to work on tion.13 Additionally, Linenger crew. Some days the crew would Mir often reported skin such found it challenging to navigate have only 42 minutes of communica- as friction-induced sores, eroded fin- around the massive solar panels on tion time with the ground in a 24- gernails, and friction abrasions on the Mir space station. Many NASA hour period.15 At this time, NASA the ribcage after the completion of an astronauts that lived aboard Mir had yet to establish the network of EVA.12 However, these injuries noted that the patched-up Mir panels that could supple- were consistent with those encoun- and modules bore sharp edges and ment Russian ground stations and tered in NASA’s EVA trainings in snap points which made any EVA provide station crews near continu- Houston and ointments were readily work precarious for first-time space ous communications access with the available on Mir to treat the injuries. walkers.14 ground. This would later cause However, the simulations could not major issues for ground controllers replicate the challenges of establish- Technical Challenges and Failures during times of crisis onboard Mir ing one’s orientation in microgravity By the time Norm Thagard where the crew would be out of during an EVA. One NASA astro- arrived to Mir in 1995, the nearly range for hours on end trying to han- naut, Jerry Linenger, suffered from ten-year-old station was already dle an emergency without support. extreme disorientation during his showing signs of aging. One such emergency occurred Mir EVA. There were a few times Additionally, there were constants during a scheduled crew rotation in when he could not even move gaps in signals 1997 when a fire broke out onboard

Q U E S T 23:1 2016 18 www.spacehistory101.com Mir. The cause of the fire was the Additionally, during a manual chologist in the human spaceflight use of solid-fuel oxygen generator docking test of a Russian resupply program, as NASA sought to avoid that cosmonauts had employed to , known as , the cosmo- American astronauts falling under generate extra oxygen onboard the nauts and Russian ground controllers Russian psychological observation station during times of excess crew lost sight of the Progress ship on its and evaluation. capacity. These canisters burned approach to Mir. The result was that Dysfunction in station opera- cassettes containing perchlo- the supply ship actually struck the tions constantly arose as daily chal- rate (LiClO4), which then produced station and damaged Mir’s solar lenges with the Mir’s aging systems, breathable oxygen.16 It was one of arrays and punctured a small hole in a series of emergencies, and general these canisters that malfunctioned a station module, , which led fatigue from sleep deprivation led and generated a fire. Soon three-foot to a slow .18 The Mir Mir cosmonauts and astronauts to flames were erupting from the canis- crew eventually sealed off the dam- develop an “us” versus “them” men- ters melting nearby metal as smoke aged module. However, with the sta- tality with the controllers on the began to engulf the entire module. tion suddenly in free drift from the ground. For cosmonauts, there was a While the fire was soon contained, collision, the solar arrays could no strong belief that Russian ground NASA was not informed of the fire longer track the and generate controllers would never abandon Mir until 12 hours after the emergency. power that led to crash of the Mir even at the risk of the cosmonauts’ Moreover, the incident revealed central computer. This crisis took lives in order sustain Russia’s eco- some disturbing issues to NASA.17 weeks to resolve and almost led the nomic and national prestige interests During the fire, some oxygen masks to cancel the in maintaining the station. did not properly inflate and some of entire program. Conversely, NASA astronauts often the fire extinguishers malfunctioned. believed that the motives of the The fire also cut off the crew from Psychological Stresses and Challenges entire Shuttle-Mir program were one of the two Soyuz One area within NASA’s purely political and that their scien- docked to the station. This meant human spaceflight organization that tific missions were a mere farce. that if the crew had been forced to was greatly expanded as a result of Indeed, NASA struggled to find evacuate, only half of the six-person the Shuttle-Mir program was the rise enough astronaut volunteers to par- crew could have safely escaped. of the role of psychologists. For ticipate in the Shuttle-Mir program Furthermore, there was no air analy- decades, psychologists were loathed because many in the astronaut corps sis equipment onboard Mir, which by astronauts who did not like the did not see how the program would made it difficult for ground con- idea of someone denying them the advance their careers. Often issues trollers to clear the crew to take off opportunity to fly because of per- would arise when ground controllers their masks following the fire. ceived psychological issues. drafted schedules for the astronauts. Not too long after the fire, a Additionally, since Shuttle flights NASA’s approach to astronaut coolant leak was discovered. This were typically only two weeks in schedules was very rigid with tasks issue led to long nights and endless duration, issues such as personality allocated down to the minute. hours of stress and work placed on conflicts and depression were often However, astronauts often struggled crew to find and seal considered a moot point. The think- to keep up with the schedule as a the leak and lasted for nearly three ing at NASA was that anyone could result of Mir’s maintenance prob- months. At one point cosmonaut endure dysfunctional group dynam- lems and the problems of finding Vasily Tsibilyev actually flew into a ics for two weeks and that such a equipment in the station’s cluttered basketball-sized blob of ethylene timespan was too short for any onset modules. At one point, NASA astro- glycol floating in one of the modules of depression or mental fatigue to naut Jerry Linenger became so frus- while working on the leak. The toxic materialize. However, onboard Mir, trated with NASA ground controllers contact poisoned Tsibilyev’s stom- NASA astronauts had to deal with over the NASA schedule and techni- ach to the point where he could not months of mental stress and pres- cal problems on Mir that he only eat for three days. The leak was sures that the ground operators had communicated with them through finally found and sealed but not after to address. Furthermore, Russia had email for a few days before returning the crew had to fight and avoid the a well-established team of psycholo- to communications. NASA toxic contamination for months on gists in place for their cosmonauts.19 had also struggled with this issue of end while not fully understanding This fact partly contributed to ground controllers and astronaut the toxin’s effect on their bodies. NASA’s expansion of the role of psy- relations over schedule conflicts dur-

Q U E S T 23:1 2016 19 www.spacehistory101.com ing the Skylab station program in the seventh and final astronaut abroad mer NASA astronaut and Phase One 1970s. During the Skylab IV mis- Mir, arrived in 1998, he and NASA manager, stated, “Many of our les- sion, NASA astronauts became so were much more well prepared in sons are repeats that were forgotten frustrated with NASA ground con- comparison to Norman Thagard’s from Apollo-Soyuz.”27 The seven trollers over schedule disagreements mission in 1995. With the knowl- astronauts who lived and worked that the astronauts actually shut off edge of the setbacks and emergen- onboard Mir deepened NASA’s radio communications with the cies encountered by his predecessors understanding of the challenges of ground for an entire day.20 fresh in his mind, Andy Thomas had long-duration spaceflight to a new Furthermore, the third astro- one of the more successful missions generation of NASA ground con- naut to live abroad Mir, John Blaha, onboard Mir. Communications trollers and astronauts. These mis- would later admit that after a few between the ground and crew and sions brought to light the importance weeks aboard Mir, he suffered from between NASA and the Russian of having procedures in place to help deep depression after the Shuttle that Space Agency had vastly improved astronauts cope with psychological transported him to the Mir had left. by 1998 and would prove invaluable and physiological issues as they He felt a great sense of disconnec- for the United States and Russia on arise. Not all the problems onboard tion from Earth. He would later tell the development of the ISS.22 Mir were inherently the result of the media, “I realized that I was However, Mir continued to have Russian technology or cultural con- clinging to Earth, so to speak. I psy- technical problems including one flicts. Many are problems that are chologically cut the cords, if you small fire and issues maintaining the simply inherent to long-duration will, with all those things that were station’s orientation.23 spaceflight. Therefore, the Shuttle- on the that I couldn’t have.”21 Despite the aging station’s Mir program should serve as a case Unlike Shuttle flights, long-duration problems, Andy Thomas was able to study for what future long-duration require astronauts to complete a string of scientific exper- missions might entail, especially as work and operate in space, long after iments in Earth science, microgravi- NASA seeks to embark on new long- the novelty of living space wears off. ty research, life sciences, and radia- duration spaceflight missions Finally, there were also person- tion research.24 Thomas did report beyond low-Earth orbit. Deep ality conflicts between astronauts having some issues adapting psycho- spaceflight missions to , the and cosmonauts during the four-year logically to the isolation and con- , and Mars will certainly entail collaboration. Some of this was in finement of the station as well as challenges of technological failure, part to cultural differences that were handling the rigorous schedule set on psychological stresses, and negative exacerbated by language barriers. his time by NASA.25 Thus, he faced physiological effects of microgravi- Other points of conflict included a common problem that most long- ty. All of which will have to be Russian trainings and station proce- duration astronauts face, finding addressed far away from the con- dures that were vastly different from time to complete all assigned scien- fines of low-Earth orbit. NASA that of the Shuttle program. All tific work while also achieving the should use the Shuttle-Mir program seven of the NASA astronauts in the recommended amount of exercise to as a reminder that it takes time along Shuttle-Mir program had to undergo counter the effects of microgravity. with some trial and error for an large training at Russia’s cosmonaut facil- However, these issues appeared and complex institution like NASA ity and undergo Russian medical much less severe to Thomas than to properly prepare and execute new examinations because Mir remained those encountered by Thagard, mission profiles. fully owned and operated by the Blaha, and Linenger. Russian Space Agency. Russian About the Author Zack Hester is a graduate student at medical procedures were a particular Conclusion the George Washington University point of contention between astro- After more than 86,000 total Institute. nauts and Russian ground controllers around the Earth, Mir was as it put the decision of whether or deorbited and destroyed on 23 not an astronaut could fly into the March 2001 just a few months after Notes hands of Russia, not NASA. the first crew arrived at the newly 1 Garcia, Mark. "International Space developed ISS.26 The development Station." NASA. 2015. Accessed 14 April 2015. http://www.nasa.gov/mission_ Andy Thomas—The Final Astronaut to and operation of the ISS relied on the Mir pages/station/expeditions/expedition01/i lessons learned from the Shuttle-Mir ndex.html. By the time Andy Thomas, the program. As Frank Culbertson, for- 2 David M. Harland, The Story of Space

Q U E S T 23:1 2016 20 www.spacehistory101.com Mir-25 crewmember Andrew Thomas takes a Microbial Collection Device (MCD) sample for Water Kit VI using a syringe pump. Credit: NASA

Station Mir (Berlin: Springer; 2005), 141. Aviation, Space, and Environmental His 4-Month Visit to the Russian Space 73: 1219 (2002), 693. Station,” Los Angeles Times (30 March 3 Harland, 145. 1997). 13 Burrough, 224. 4 Bryan Burrough, : NASA and 22 “NASA-7 Andy Thomas: Smoother the Crisis aboard Mir (New York, NY: 14 Burrough, 227. Sailing” (NASA History), accessed 17 April HarperCollins Publishers, 1998), 81. 15 “NASA-1 Norm Thagard.” 2015 from http://history.nasa.gov/SP- 5 Sarah Loff, "Apollo-Soyuz Test Project" 16 “Trial by Fire: Space Station Mir On- 4225/nasa7/nasa7.htm (NASA: 2015), accessed 14 April 2015 board Fire” (NASA, 2011), accessed 22 23 “NASA-7 Andy Thomas: Smoother from http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages April 2015 from https://sma.nasa.gov/ Sailing.” /apollo-soyuz/index.html docs/default-source/safety- 24 “Andy Thomas’s Mission on Mir,” 6 Brian Dunbar, “Shuttle-Mir” (NASA, messages/safetymessage-2011-11-07- Scientific American Frontiers (1998), October 19, 2007), accessed April 17, spacestationmironboardfire- accessed 13 April 2015 from 2015 from http://www.nasa.gov/mis- vits.pdf?sfvrsn=4 http://www.pbs.org/safarchive/5_cool/5_ sion_pages/shuttle-mir/ 17 Burrough, 130. mir/mir2.html 7 Burrough, 81. 18 Burrough, 391. 25 “NASA-7 Andy Thomas: Smoother 8 Burrough, 314. 19 Jerry Linenger, Off the Planet: Surviving Sailing.” 9 John Holliman, "Report: Conditions on Five Perilous Month Aboard the Space 26 “Mir Space Station” (NASA History), Mir Much Worse than Thought" (CNN, Station Mir. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2000) accessed 10 April 2015 from http://histo- 1997), accessed 15 April 2015 from 129. ry.nasa.gov/SP-4225/mir/mir.htm http://www.cnn.com/TECH/9709 /12/mir 20 Vaughan Bell, “Isolation and 27 Frank Culbertson, “What's in a Name?” 10 “NASA-1 Norm Thagard” (NASA-1: Norm Hallucinations: The Mental Health (NASA History, 3 October 1996), accessed Thagard), accessed 17 April 2015 from Challenges Faced by Astronauts,” The 22 April 2015 from http://history.nasa.gov/SP- Guardian (5 October 2014), accessed 21 http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/docu- 4225/nasa1/nasa1.htm April 2015 from http:// mentation/mirmeanings/meanings.htm www.theguardian.com/science/2014/oct/ 11 Burrough, 324. 05/hallucinations-isolation-astronauts- 12 I.B., Gontcharov, I.V. Kovachevich, A.L. mental-health-space-missions Navinkov, and M.R. Barratt, “Medical Care 21 Marcia Dunn, “Blaha Got the Blahs on System for NASA-Mir Spaceflights,”

Q U E S T 23:1 2016 21 www.spacehistory101.com www.spacehistory101.com

Volume 20, Number 2 2013 www.spacehistory101.com

THE HISTORY OF SPACEFLIGHT QUARTERLY

ON WINGS OF FIRE; SEEKING INDEPENDENCE JOHN F. K ENNEDY SPACE SUPPORT TO HOMER BOUSHEY AND THE IN SPACE: AND THE OPERATION FIRST ROCKET-POWERED 6287+ .25($·6 63$&( “RIGHT STUFF” ENDURING FREEDOM FLIGHTS PROGRAM (1958-2010)

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