Identities and Local Speech in Pittsburgh: a Study of Regional African American English
Total Page:16
File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb
IDENTITIES AND LOCAL SPEECH IN PITTSBURGH: A STUDY OF REGIONAL AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH by Maeve Eberhardt BA, University of Pittsburgh, 2000 MA, University of Pittsburgh, 2002 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Arts and Sciences in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2009 UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH ARTS AND SCIENCES This dissertation was presented by Maeve Eberhardt It was defended on March 27th, 2009 and approved by Carmen Fought, Associate Professor, Department of Linguistics, Pitzer College Laurence Glasco, Professor, Department of History, University of Pittsburgh Barbara Johnstone, Professor, Department of English, Carnegie Mellon University David Mortensen, Assistant Professor, Department of Linguistics, University of Pittsburgh Dissertation Advisor: Scott Kiesling, Associate Professor, Department of Linguistics, ii Copyright © by Maeve Eberhardt 2009 iii IDENTITIES AND LOCAL SPEECH IN PITTSBURGH: A STUDY OF REGIONAL AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH Maeve Eberhardt, PhD University of Pittsburgh, 2009 There has been a long-standing assumption in sociolinguistics that African American English (AAE) is a homogenous variety. Consequently, the phonetic and phonological characteristics of AAE have been, until recently, largely ignored. Current work in sociolinguistics, however, has begun to focus on regional variation in AAE, challenging this previously held belief. This dissertation adds to this body of literature, examining the vowel systems of African Americans in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. I begin with an overview of the sociolinguistic setting, with particular focus on the neighborhood of the Hill District. I move on to describe broad speech patterns of the Pittsburgh dialect, and discuss the vowel systems of a select number of speakers. I then examine two vocalic variables in detail that are characteristic of the Pittsburgh dialect. I first analyze the low back vowels /ɑ/ and /ɔ/, which have been merged in White Pittsburgh speech for decades. My analysis shows that African Americans exhibit alignment to the local phonological system with respect to this feature, also having merged these vowels. I propose that the sociohistorical conditions of African Americans early in the 20th century led to the spread of the merger from White to African American speech. The second variable analyzed is the monophthongal pronunciation of /aw/, a stereotype of Pittsburgh speech. While there is a great deal of variation in the length of glides produced iv by African Americans in Pittsburgh, I demonstrate that the monophthongal pronunciation is absent. I discuss this finding with respect to the feature’s salience and connection to a specific social identity—the White Pittsburgher—and how orientation to place helps to account for its absence in local African American speech. This work contributes to a burgeoning line of research that challenges the field to depart from a purely racially-based definition of AAE and move towards one founded on regional linguistic characteristics, thereby paralleling definitions of white English varieties. Additionally, it underscores the importance of the sociohistorical and cultural contexts in which African American communities are situated when approaching an explanation of patterns of speech, rather than assuming a binary choice of accommodation or resistance to local norms. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE ........................................................................................................................................XIII 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................ 1 1.1 AFRICAN AMERICAN ENGLISH ...................................................................... 2 1.1.1 Regional African American English ............................................................. 9 1.1.2 Convergence and Divergence ....................................................................... 19 1.2 LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL MEANING .......................................................... 24 1.2.1 Dialect Awareness .......................................................................................... 33 1.2.2 Place Identity ................................................................................................... 37 1.3 GOALS OF THE DISSERTATION .................................................................... 42 2.0 PITTSBURGH AND ITS SPEECH COMMUNITIES ............................................. 44 2.1 EARLY PITTSBURGH .......................................................................................... 45 2.2 AFRICAN AMERICANS IN PITTSBURGH .................................................... 46 2.2.1 Industrial Pittsburgh ...................................................................................... 46 2.2.2 Post‐Industrial Pittsburgh ............................................................................. 50 2.3 PITTSBURGH’S ETHNIC NEIGHBORHOODS ............................................ 53 2.3.1 The Hill District .............................................................................................. 53 vi 2.4 PITTSBURGH SPEECH ....................................................................................... 66 2.4.1 Lexical Items and Grammatical Constructions ......................................... 67 2.4.2 Phonological Features .................................................................................... 68 2.4.2.1 The Midland Dialect System ................................................................ 68 2.4.3 Pittsburgh Phonological Features ................................................................ 70 2.4.4 ‘Pittsburghese’ ................................................................................................. 76 3.0 DATA AND METHODS ............................................................................................... 78 3.1 STUDY DESIGN .................................................................................................... 79 3.1.1 Sampling Methods ......................................................................................... 79 3.1.2 Data Collection ................................................................................................ 80 3.1.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................... 81 3.2 METHODOLOGY OF THE PRESENT STUDY .............................................. 83 3.2.1 The Hill District Sample ............................................................................... 83 3.2.2 Methods of Acoustic Analysis...................................................................... 89 4.0 VOWEL SYSTEMS IN PITTSBURGH ....................................................................... 92 4.1.1 White Vowel Systems .................................................................................... 93 4.1.2 African American Vowel Systems ............................................................... 97 4.2 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 106 5.0 THE LOW‐BACK MERGER ....................................................................................... 108 5.1 VOWEL MERGERS ............................................................................................. 109 5.1.1 Mechanisms of Merger ................................................................................ 110 vii 5.1.2 The Low‐Back Merger .................................................................................. 112 5.1.3 Merger in Western Pennsylvania .............................................................. 114 5.1.4 The Low‐Back Merger in AAE ................................................................... 116 5.2 AUDITORY ANALYSIS OF MINIMAL PAIRS ............................................ 119 5.3 ACOUSTIC ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 125 5.3.1 Methods .......................................................................................................... 125 5.3.2 Identifying Merged and Non‐Merged Speakers .................................... 126 5.3.2.1 Significant Results: Distinct Vowel Classes? ................................. 129 5.3.3 Multivariate Analysis .................................................................................. 135 5.3.3.1 An Unmerged Speaker ........................................................................ 139 5.4 MERGER THROUGH CONTACT ................................................................... 141 5.4.1 African American and White contact in Pittsburgh ............................... 142 5.4.1.1 Earlier Contact ....................................................................................... 143 5.4.2 Expansion of the Merger ............................................................................. 146 5.5 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................... 150 6.0 AW/ .................................................................................................................................. 153 6.1 MONOPHTHONGAL /AW/ .............................................................................. 153 6.1.1 Characterization of /aw/ ............................................................................... 158 6.1.2 aw/ in Pittsburgh ..........................................................................................