Doing Good, Public Good, and Public Value

WHY THE DIFFERENCES MATTER

Stuart C. Mendel,1 Jeﬀ rey L. Brudney2

1Cleveland State University, 2University of North Carolina Wilmington

In this article, using multiple illustrative case examples, we demonstrate that philanthropic institutions are in the business of creating public value. In framing the work of philanthropy more broadly to include the process of public value creation, philanthropic institutions and leaders are challenged to be more strategic not only in their mission-fulfillment grant-making with nonprofit organizations but also in the way they stimulate and encour- age collaboration, create the “third space” necessary to incubate ideas to transform society, and leverage resources to increase the return on their investments toward system-wide change. The implications for philanthropic actors and institutions suggest that the strategic contributions they make toward creation of public value are those that go beyond transactional performance measures, such as number of dollars spent or clients receiving services, to include ways that their investments are amplified by meaningful partnerships with nonprofit and other organizations, changed behaviors of institutions and individuals, and transformative public policies. Keywords: collaboration, partnership, philanthropy, foundations, public good, doing good, public value, Cleveland, Ohio, case examples

ASK ANY INDIVIDUAL involved in private philanthropy or leading a philanthropic institution, and he or she would likely agree that their organizations are engaged in eff ecting change in society (Anheier and Hammack 2010; Payton and Moody 2008; Whitman 2008, 2009). Most see their work as “doing good” or providing for the “public good” (Bremner 1980; Smith 2005). Most would also agree that in serving to fulfi ll their missions, among their highest aspirations are for the philanthropic investments they make to resonate throughout society well beyond a dollar-for-dollar return (Orosz 2007; Van Til 2008). But what they are really doing is creating “public value.” Mark Moore fi rst coined the term public value as a frame to guide the work of politically elected or appointed offi cials in executive branch agencies, along with the senior civil servants who aid them, in producing outcomes for the public good (1995, 1–3). Moore and other scholars of government argued that public value arises from the actions of these same public

Correspondence to: Stuart C. Mendel, Cleveland State University, Maxine Goodman Levin College of Urban Aﬀ airs, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44115. E-mail: [email protected]

Journal sponsored by the Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University.

Nonprofit Management & Leadership, vol. 25, no. 1, Fall 2014 © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/nml.21109 23 24 MENDEL, BRUDNEY

management authorities that contribute to the common good of a community and have elements of altruism; are sustainable environmentally and fi nancially; and motivate the public to perceive society’s public institutions as stable, dignifi ed, and trusted (Alford and Hughes 2007; Jorgensen and Bozeman 2007, 361–62; Stoker 2006). In this article we suggest that creating public value is a much broader concept that can be stimulated by the direct and indirect actions of private philanthropic institutions in policy- making, grant and contract work with nonprofi t organizations, and the development of public–private partnership. We also suggest that philanthropic actors and nonprofi t organization leaders and managers do not normally account for public value creation and outcomes in their grant making and program and project evaluation work, and that simply reporting on clients served and dollars spent may satisfy a donor’s intent to “do good” but are insuffi cient measures for advancing the public good or for generating the transformational change to which many philanthropic institutions aspire. In making these assertions regarding philanthropic institutions, we apply a frame for decision making by private grant makers that has not been addressed by Moore or others in the public management literature nor examined in the literature of the nonprofi t sector. From the standpoint of the charitable and good works traditions of philanthropy, public value as an outcome would reside less in the domain of government and more in the province of individuals exercising their moral and ethical judgments and sense of responsibility (Frumkin 2002, 96 and 104–14; Hammack 1989; Salamon 2002). From this perspective, public value is realized when individuals trust public policymakers and public institutions, have faith in the system of economy and justice, and enjoy (conceivably) a level playing fi eld to achieve a measure of economic security (Bozeman 2007; Hartz 1955; Mendel 2003; O’Connell 1983). Th e institutions of philanthropy also generate and nurture public value in specifi c ways through their directed giving or mutual benefi t programs and in general through their standing as institutions that perform checks and balances on the power of the public and private sectors (Payton and Moody 2008). Appreciating the public–private collaboration origins of public value is particularly important for philanthropic leaders who strive for the best ideas and strategies for implementing them (Hammack and Heydemann 2009, 7). Developing a framework for philanthropic leaders, nonprofi t organizations, and public managers to understand the essential but seldom recognized role that philanthropic institutions play in creating public value will serve several important purposes: (1) inform giving and grant making whose end results are public value outcomes; (2) off er guidance for philanthropy, civic and business leaders, nonprofi t organizations, and governments regarding the development of successful grant-funded endeavors such as public–private partnerships that provide an observable mechanism for public value creation; (3) inform public managers on the subtle ways that public policy can stimulate private, philanthropic investment leading to the creation of public value; and (4) generate for philanthropic and nonprofi t managers a broader framework to consider and measure the impact of their work beyond immediate transactional measures. Based on our examination of multiple public–private partnership case examples and the public value literature, including treatments by Moore (1995, 2000); Barry Bozeman (2002, 2007), John H. Benington (2011), and others, this article draws attention to the role philanthropy fulfills in public value creation. We argue that philanthropic-minded civic leaders as well as leaders of organized philanthropic institutions can create public value through their own stand-alone initiatives but also in and through partnerships with the

Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 25 public sector (Fleischman 2007, 19–25; Frumkin 1999, 2002). Th rough this frame of understanding, philanthropy plays an essential, catalytic but little recognized role in generating public value that has yet to be addressed in the public sector–centric literature dominant in this fi eld. To elaborate and support our arguments, we present an in-depth analysis of the early stage development of multiple public–private partnerships (PPPs) in Cleveland, Ohio. Public–private partnerships are distinctive relationships in which public, private, and philanthropic actors come together to generate readily observable outcomes through large-scale collaborative eff orts (Mendel and Brudney 2012a). PPPs off er a window through which we view how philanthropic leaders and their institutions were crucial in producing public value outcomes.

Philanthropy and the Creation of Public Value Philanthropic leaders contribute to the creation of public value in at least three important ways: fi rst, through mission fulfi llment and the resultant impact of philanthropic organizations in conjunction with the public and private sectors in society (Bryson 2011; Herman and Renz 1999; Prewitt 2009; Rojas 2000; Salamon, 2002); second, by serving as catalysts through philanthropic institutional involvement in public policy and social change; and third, as an outcome of the stewardship role philanthropic actors perform as they stimulate and provide the institutional space and constructive tension in which public–private partnerships—a special class of relationships that philanthropic and other nonprofi t organizations form with government, businesses, and other nonprofi ts (Mendel and Brudney 2012b; Squires 1989; Swanstrom 1985; Wettenhall 2003)—can incubate and thrive (Drucker 1990; Powell and Steinberg 2002; Stone and Ostrower 2007; Van Til 2000). We briefl y discuss these aspects following (for a fuller discussion see Mendel and Brudney 2012a).

Mission Fulfi llment In the context of nonprofit organizations, philanthropic grant makers, and civic leaders, public value arises as an outcome of the intermediary and facilitating processes that private nonprofi t organizations employ as they strive to achieve their organizational goals (Mendel 2003): public value results as mission-based organizations, such as private grant-making institutions and nonprofi ts, pursue and realize the attainment of their missions. In working toward mission fulfi llment, philanthropic leaders and institutions form and strengthen social networks, sustain social capital, build community, and nurture the bonds of trust that together with the actions of government and business make up the fabric of civil society (Boris 1999; Bozeman 2007; Frumkin 1999; Graddy and Morgan 2006; Mendel 2010, Sala- mon 1995, 200). In many respects, creating public value is a primary raison d’être for philanthropy in the United States (Smith 2005).

Third Space Philanthropic institutions may also generate public value by enabling public–private collaboration processes and contributing to the development of policy. Activities in this sphere include marshaling and coordinating nonproﬁ t organizations to accomplish their aims (Boris 1999; Frumkin 1999; Prewitt 2009; Scalet and Schmidtz 2002), using authority and power to inﬂ uence the public agenda (Frumkin 1999; Hammack 1999), and tracing their work as

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contributing to the public good (Bremner 1980; Powell and Clemens 1998; Smith 2005; Whitman 2008). Th is process is readily observable as large-scale civic undertakings arise and are often cast as public–private partnerships. In public–private partnerships, philanthropic leaders often provide the framing rationale, counsel, and funding for new initiatives, thus creating a nonprofi t-driven “third space” for meetings and administration of collaborative public–private partnership arrange- ments (Mendel and Brudney 2012a; Van Til 2000). Th rough their funding and support of nonprofi t organizations, philanthropic institutions can oversee the work of public– private partnerships in a manner that public bureaucracies cannot (Berry 2005; Graddy and Morgan 2006; Lecy and Van Slyke 2012). In this way, philanthropic actors enable government, nonprofi t, and businesses leaders to engage more freely in thinking, planning, and implementing collaborative endeavors, particularly during the delicate “incubation” period when ideas and approaches are formulated outside the public view (Benjamin 2010; Roelofs 2007).

Stewardship In the early stages of stewardship, philanthropic leaders take responsibility for the birth, development, vetting, and experimentation of policy in ways that advance public value and the public good (Mendel and Brudney 2012b; Orosz 2007). For example, philanthropic institutions contribute to the conditions and attainment of public value through their relationships with the public sector (Berry 2005; Roelofs 2007). In accepting that private philanthropic institutions are a class of nonprofi t organizations, scholars have noted that they operate independently as supplements to government, as complements to government in partnership relationships, and in adversarial relationships of mutual accountability with government (Young 2000). As a result of their involvement in relationships with government, philanthropic organizations are likely to bring about unanticipated public values and benefi ts, such as positive feelings of participants, improvements in the environment for collaboration, and redirected public dollars through advocacy (Benington 2011; Jorgensen and Bozeman 2007; Mendel 2010; Stoker 2006). In framing the work of philanthropy to consider their accomplishments by way of mission- fulfi llment grant making with nonprofi t organizations, the deliberate way they construct the third space necessary to incubate ideas to transform society and leverage resources, and by stewarding and nurturing collaborative procession, philanthropic decision makers can include public value creation as a desired outcome of their work. Th e implications for philanthropic actors and institutions are that the strategic contributions they make toward creation of public value are those that go beyond simple claims that they are “doing good.” Th e creation of public value is a larger-scale and more visionary accomplishment than transactional performance measures, such as number of dollars spent or clients receiving services, which most grant-making institutions use to demonstrate their contributions toward social change, transformation, and the “public good.”

Public Value, Public Good, and Doing Good Since the appearance of the term “public value” (Moore 1995) and its later reﬁ nement as “public values” (Bozeman 2002, 2007), scholars of public administration and related ﬁ elds have considered the concept primarily from the perspective of the public sector and its

Nonprofi t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 27 practitioners (Alford and Hughes 2007; Benington 2011; O’Flynn 2007; Williams and Shearer 2011). From this perspective, public value is advanced when government contributes tangibly to society by producing infrastructure and services that benefi t citizens, and intangibly when it acts beyond its traditional role as policymaker, taxing authority, arbiter, and the like to create desirable outcomes for the community (Bozeman 2007; Moore 1995; Stoker 2006). Public value may also align with the sensibilities of public administrators and managers through their aspirations, vision, and most important, their strategies to manage relationships with for-profi t and nonprofi t service providers to serve the public during unset- tled times (Moore 2000). An extensive literature review on the topic by the Warwick Busi- ness School’s Institute of Governance and Public Management (Williams and Shearer 2010, 2011) confi rms these observations.

Although not known speciﬁ cally by that name, the concept of public value will be familiar to those engaged in philanthropy. From the standpoint of the charitable and good works traditions of philanthropy, public value lies less in the domain of government and more in the province of individuals exercising their moral and ethical judgments and sense of responsibility (Frumkin 2002, 96 and 104–14; Hammack 1989; Salamon 2002). The private origins of these concepts are well known to historians, who have traced “public good” as “doing good” to the writings of John Winthrop, Cotton Mather, Benjamin Franklin, and others in the seventeenth- and early eighteenth-century American colonial period (Bremner 1988, 217; Hammack 1998). From these origins, “public good” and “doing good” underpin the eﬃ cacy of “charity” and the voluntary allocation of funds to people and for purposes that otherwise would not have them (Bremner 1988; Fleishman 1999; Kass 2008; Salamon and Anheier 1996; van Tassel and Grabowski 1996, 785–90; Whitman 2009).

Th e intellectual thread casting the purpose of philanthropy in America as a driver of social change promoting the welfare, happiness, and culture of its citizens still applies to philanthropy in the twenty-fi rst century (Bremner 1988, 3; Fleishman 2007, xiv; Smith 2005). Public value is realized when individuals trust public policymakers and public institutions, have faith in the system of economy and justice, and enjoy (conceivably) a level playing fi eld to achieve a measure of economic security (O’Connell 1983; Hartz 1955; Mendel 2003). The institutions of philanthropy also generate and nurture public value in specific ways through their directed giving or mutual benefi t programs and in general through their standing as institutions that perform checks-and-balances on the power of the public and private sectors (Payton and Moody 2008).

From the perspective of philanthropic actors and their organizations, public good and doing good arise through the collaboration of public and private civic leaders, business executives, and philanthropic institutions in endeavors that inform public policy, focus and leverage public resources, and resonate throughout the community (Baynes 2002, 124–27; Roelofs 2007). Much of the well-known scholarship on private power in cities documents the role civic leaders and other private interests play in policy development and the allocation of public resources by taking action through philanthropic institutions (Bremner 1996; Dahl 1989; Domhoff 2005; Judd and Swanstrom 2003). Scholars note that organized philanthropic institutions realize their missions by quietly stimulating and leading partnerships among public, private, and particularly nonproﬁ t actors (Miller 2002; Powell and Steinberg 2002; Prewitt 2006; Rich 2004; Scalet and Schmidtz 2002, 32–33). Frequently these actions occur and are most readily visible in public–private partnerships.

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In addition, “public good” is a concept that some scholars accept as measurable through market performance and the establishment of a setting that facilitates prosperity (Frumkin 2002, 65–68; Benington and Moore 2011; Weisbrod 1986, 21–44). Generally speaking, public good arises when the creation of a commodity may be due to the outcomes of public policy or private actions that create actual or potential beneﬁ ts shared by everyone (Bozeman 2007; Weisbrod 1986). But public good also arises within the moralistic, mission- or values- driven work of philanthropy and is expressed through the desired outcomes of philanthropic or other private actors for initiatives they foresee will amplify their investment in a particular project, partnership, or other endeavor (Scalet and Schmidtz 2002, 32–34). Table 1 elabo- rates the terms public value, public good, and doing good. Th e deﬁ nitions were crafted for purposes of clarity and analysis of the multiple public–private partnerships cases that follow.

Public–Private Partnership Case Examples Th e following case examples involving philanthropic individuals and institutions demonstrate how the role of philanthropy in the early stages of public–private partnerships (PPPs) contributes to the attainment of public value. Th e PPP cases provide insight and examples of private leaders and affi liated philanthropy working toward mission attainment, involvement in public–private partnership, and creating a third space. Th e notion of a third space refers to a sanctuary of time and place for public and private sector actors to participate in innovative work for the public good outside of their formal institutions, sustained by philanthropic mission, expertise, and fi nancial resources. Our use of PPPs helps us to identify one means by which public value is created by philanthropic actors. Although we have no way to evaluate the representativeness of these case examples, they allow scrutiny into the contributions philanthropic actors can and do make to the relationships among public, private, and nonprofi t organizations in creating public value. Our focus on PPPs should not preclude consideration that public value is created elsewhere by nonprofi t organizations (Mendel and Brudney 2012a). For example, a nonprofi t social service organization that works solo in meeting a need in the local community may also create public value alone. Or a community foundation that collaborates with a handful of local nonprofi ts in a small community may also create public value. Space limitations preclude a detailed examination of these possibilities here. Th e fi ve PPP case examples and the one trailing non–public value creation PPP case example described at the closing pages of this article illustrate the potential for creation of public value through philanthropic institutions. Table 2 briefl y summarizes the fi ve affi rmative public value creation and one negative public value creation case examples, including mission fulfi llment of the endeavor, the manner in which philanthropic actors fostered or served as stewards of a third space, and examples of public value created. Th e fi rst case example, Playhouse Square Foundation (PSF), arose in 1973 after the quiet work of forming a public–private partnership began in 1970. Th e original players included the Cleveland Foundation, the City of Cleveland, and the government of Cuyahoga County. In collaboration with a local preservation activist, the Cleveland Foundation’s professional leadership and its civic-minded, mission-guided board of directors nurtured the initiative to redevelop privately owned, highly visible entertainment district theater assets headed for the wrecking ball. With the help of the Cleveland Foundation staff skilled at drawing together leaders from City Hall, county government, and the private sector, the foundation

Nonproﬁ t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 29 Public sector contracts with private vendors requiring business and nonprofit behaviors such as participation of populations and partnership protected collaborations; community pride; improved better business climate; new environment; between individuals and their relationships institutions; public safety; and and attitudes. perceptions economy, strong clean air, water, Fresh international trade, interstate highways, Widebridges, the electrical grid, World social media, civil rights, the war on Web, charitable giving, a healthy civil poverty, society. institutions Corporations and philanthropic and individuals that perform civic leadership, engage in public–private space, a third partnerships, create Actions participation in philanthropy. include volunteering, performing and donating and charity, philanthropy time, goods, and other resources. Achieved through the action of federal government in U.S. Constitution Achieved through all citizens for their individual pursuits, endeavors, and that benefits and protects infrastruc- Government contributes tangibly to society by producing interests. and services that benefit citizens, intangibly when it acts beyond its ture and the like to create arbiter, taxing authority, as policymaker, traditional roles the best possible outcomes. May also align with sensibilities of philanthropic their aspirations, vision, and most institutions and private leaders through and nonprofit with for-profit important, their strategies to manage relationships the conditions for social or create to solve social problems service providers change. benefits or Due to the outcomes of public policy or private actions that create by everyone. Also arises within the moralistic, mission/ potential benefits shared the desired through and is expressed values-driven work of philanthropy, will or other private actors for initiatives they foresee outcomes of philanthropic partnership, or other endeavor. amplify their investment in a particular project, market performance and the establishment of a setting Measurable through of a commodity may be. the creation and arises where that facilitates prosperity Being altruistic is often seen as “good.” Individuals who want to make a that doing good. It is an aspect of philanthropy claim they are difference practitioners attribute to the scholars of civil society and philanthropic effective, charitable, moralistic underpinnings of mission-based and ideally, individuals that philanthropic-minded Doing good drives a process philanthropy. public value to benefit the citizenry. point to as a means for creating The predetermined, immediate, measurable, The predetermined, short-term, positive outcome or consequence of doing good. It is mission driven and directed of clients and/ group target at a predetermined or community. of individuals, organiza- An activity or process tions, and/or government. It is an altruistic, charitable, mission driven activity aimed at the lives of others. improving The holistic, full, positive, long-term conse- community. quence of doing good for a larger These consequences may be expected or to unintended, known or unknown, and hard Public value can occur as a measure. space of a third consequence of the creation to that allows people and organizations facilitate doing good in new ways (see our case examples). Public Good, and Doing Good Public Value, Public good Doing good Table 1. Table TermsPublic value DefinitionExamples Description Outcome

Nonproﬁ t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml 30 MENDEL, BRUDNEY Revitalized nonproductive space for the enjoyment of patrons space for the enjoyment of patrons Revitalized nonproductive and the general public, set conditions for concentrated and dense business development in a highly visible portion of downtown. Planned and coordinated neighborhood stabilization, housing Planned and coordinated and new construction by linking public, private, rehabilitation, scale. Improved on a large organizations and nonprofit values, opportunities for housing options and property Greater business endeavors serving residents. commercial choices for citizens of Cleveland. Ecological and environmental enhancement of urban transit Ecological and environmental the esthetics of a through corridors and vacant lots. Created pleasant commute for employees, better urban more safer, lower costs and tangibly through planning and public safety, of hiring employees for companies. Addressed the region’s declining economy, loss of jobs, and declining economy, the region’s Addressed to diverse Focused resources growth. lack of entrepreneurial of accelerated growth and the community, entrepreneurs companies, and early stage businesses and into venture-ready ultimately transformed northeast Ohio into a nationally and innovation. significant center of entrepreneurship Created public asset around which business activity returned which business activity returned public asset around Created to an underperforming and crime-filled physical space near downtown. the heart of city’s The typical urban renewal project required more than four more required project The typical urban renewal to execute. This discour- years to plan plus six nine more the poor public image of aged private developers and drove after the demolition stage. The many incomplete projects did not adequately provide displaced poor residents, projects and seemed dedicated to enhancing the for their relocation, wealth of the central cities by getting rid less affluent. Incubator for discussion and the initiative. Convened public funding to initiate the project. private participants. Provided to carry out the intermediary organization Funded the nonprofit long-term work of the initiative. Provided leadership in urban neighborhood stabilization, Provided and new development. Facilitated collaboration revitalization, among local community development corporations, philanthropy, lenders, and the public sector. Incubator for discussion and the initiative. Convened public funding to initiate the project. private participants. Provided to carry out the intermediary organization Funded the nonprofit long-term work of the initiative. Funded a start-up nonprofit to concentrate expertise, funding, Funded a start-up nonprofit and allocations to start-up businesses using public private financial and knowledge resources. Led to the formation of a quasi-public entity that owned and sports teams, issues public to the professional leased properties bonds, and serves as the fiscal custodian of public funds. Established by local business leaders to assist urban renewal and Established by local business leaders to assist urban renewal financial and planning It provided slum clearance efforts. in the 1950s and 1960s. Raised assistance for a number of projects membership subscriptions and the sale of ten-year, funds through seed money for urban development notes to provide 4 percent was to Its first major project projects. and redevelopment renewal districts. house people displaced by the clearing of urban renewal Mission Fulfillment Role Space” Stewardship “Third Created Public Value Enhance the lives of all Cleveland greater residents. Restore and maintain Restore the health and vitality Cleveland of greater as a catalyst for change. Conserve and improve Conserve and improve the physical of environment Cleveland. Transform northeast Transform Ohio into a nationally significant center of and entrepreneurship innovation. Provide and maintain a Provide safe, clean, and to friendly atmosphere the public at gateway sports complex. Finance and plan to eliminate projects slum conditions and urban promote redevelopment. of Public Value Leading to the Creation Space and Stewardship Mission Fulfillment, a Third Table 2. Table Inc./ Playhouse Square, Cleveland Foundation Public–Private Part- nership Name/Primary Catalyst Philanthropic Institution Neighborhood Progress, Inc./ Neighborhood Progress, Cleveland Foundation, Mandel Foundation, George Gund Foundation, and Cleveland Tomorrow Clean Land, Ohio/Premier Clean Land, Ohio/Premier Industrial Corporation (Mandel Foundation) Jumpstart, Inc./Cleveland Foundation, Cleveland W. the George Tomorrow, Codrington Foundation, State of Ohio Department Development Gateway Economic Development Corporation (sports) District/Cleveland Foundation and Cleveland Tomorrow Cleveland Development Foundation and Urban Renewal Phases I and II (Title I of the Housing Act 1949)

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contributed and inspired additional funding to acquire property and to engage in planning, leading to a public–private partnership managed by a newly created nonprofi t facilitating intermediary organization created for the purpose of harboring and developing the project. By 1977 the foundation and Playhouse Square, Inc., had obtained long-term leases for the three theaters, which were purchased by the Cuyahoga County commissioners. Funding secured from government, local foundations, and private corporations was committed to the project to carry out the restoration, operation, and management of the theaters. Th rough the Playhouse Square partnership, the Cleveland Foundation fulfi lled its mission to “enhance the lives of all residents of greater Cleveland” (http://www.clevelandfoundation.org/ About/Background.html, 2012). Th e philanthropic players created the conditions and drew together the actors for public–private partnership, then created the time, space, fi nancial, and intellectual resources for the initiative to succeed. Public value arose from tangible benefi ts to the larger community—reuse of derelict property and nonproductive historic buildings in a highly visible business district, increased property valuations, creation of an employment center, magnet for future urban real estate development, new arts programming, and intangible benefi ts of creating the teamwork and human capital necessary to accomplish the projects. Playhouse Square. Inc., established as steward of the mission, further amplifi ed the work of the philanthropic leaders and continues to off er return on the original investment of the public and private partners. Th e second case example, Neighborhood Progress, Inc. (NPI), was created in 1988 through the joint eff orts of Cleveland Tomorrow, the Cleveland Foundation, Mandel Family Foun- dation, and the George Gund Foundation. Acting as an operating foundation, Cleveland Tomorrow (CT) itself was a private nonprofi t civic organization composed of chief executive offi cers of the largest companies in Cleveland united for the purpose of improving the long- term economic health of the city. CT required the direct involvement of its members, including chief executives from the two largest philanthropic institutions, which included their time, treasure, and expertise to stimulate novel ideas and economic growth for the region. CT devised the creation of NPI, a nonprofi t agency designed to focus attention, dollars, and other resources on Cleveland’s neighborhood development projects, with an emphasis on housing. NPI worked closely with city and county governments and private local and national funders and businesses both to preserve existing housing and to redevelop older housing stock in urban communities (van Tassel and Grabowski 1996, 733). As in the Playhouse Square case example, the creation of NPI illustrates the intentional power of organized, mission-driven, and collaborative philanthropy to stimulate public policy development, convene public and private resources, and institutionalize the process of public value creation. Philanthropic players spearheaded the endeavor by funding a project feasibility study, convening national experts, and beginning an advocacy process to create city and county land-banks owned and operated under public authority. With the creation of NPI as the mission steward of the endeavor, public value arose through the initiative of home construction, renovation and rehabilitation programs, providing ways for residents to preserve and protect the value of their personal property. Th e third case example, Clean Land Ohio is a nonprofi t organization formed in 1977 as a public–private partnership organized by private philanthropy that included a prominent phi- lanthropist and affi liated civic leaders, the Ohio Department of Transportation and the City of Cleveland to remove trash and provide grounds-keeping along 32.6 miles of rapid transit right-of-way (van Tassel and Grabowski 1996, 194–95). Clean Land Ohio came about as

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local and state public offi cials, private business owners, and philanthropic foundations considered ways to improve ridership on light rail and to create a more inviting atmosphere for employees commuting to midtown Cleveland. Policymakers and grant makers believed that trash-fi lled vacant lots and right-of-way diminished the desire of workers to travel downtown, ultimately increasing the costs of doing business. Th e Clean Land case follows the pattern and process of philanthropic institutions driving the creation of public value using public private partnership as a mechanism to organize resources, plan, and then institutionalize the endeavor through the creation of a nonprofi t to serve as mission steward. Intangible benefi ts and public values were created through the aesthetics of a safer, more pleasant commute for employees, better urban planning and public safety, and tangibly through lower costs of hiring employees in the city.

Th e fourth case example, Jumpstart, Inc., was created in 2003 to address northeast Ohio’s declining economy, loss of jobs, and lack of entrepreneurial growth. Th e region’s civic, community, and philanthropic leaders explored these issues, and, as a result, NorTech and Case Western Reserve University began quiet discussions to launch a nonprofi t venture development corporation to incubate ideas and take advantage of strategic business development opportunities in the technology fields. Cleveland Tomorrow, the George W. Codrington Foundation, and the Ohio Department of Development provided founding grants and intellectual capital to JumpStart. Th is nonprofi t served to focus public and private resources on diverse entrepreneurs and the community, accelerating the growth of early stage businesses and ideas into venture-ready companies, and ultimately transforming northeast Ohio into a nationally signifi cant center of entrepreneurship and innovation (“Jumpstart” 2012). Jumpstart originated in a complicated public–private partnership arrangement involving philanthropic, business, and public sector actors. Th e participation of philanthropic leaders and application of their resources closely mirror the three prior examples. Th e Jumpstart organization was the institutional product of the collaboration, whose tangible benefits included the creation of successful new business enterprises and a spirit of entrepreneurialism that led to employment, tax revenues, and new business creation. Th e investments of philanthropy resonate well beyond the dollars invested in the early stage development of the initiative, with the result that public value was created. The fifth case example, the Gateway Economic Development Corporation, arose in the aftermath of the defeat by Cuyahoga County voters of a property tax increase that was to be used to build a domed stadium in downtown Cleveland. In the winter of 1984–85, business and civic leaders met to develop alternative plans for a new sports facility. Cleveland Tomor- row’s top executives from Cleveland’s fi fty largest companies created a development fund to help launch the new project, and acquisition of property began in December 1985. Privately owned sports teams agreed to design objectives in April 1986, and demolition at the site began in June 1987. In May 1990 county voters passed a fi fteen-year “sin tax” on alcohol and cigarettes to help fi nance the complex. Th e following month Cleveland Mayor Michael White and County Commissioner Tim Hagan created the nonprofit Gateway Economic Development Corporation to administer the project, marking it formally as a public–private partnership. In this fi fth case example, the development of the Gateway District, organized philanthropy, the business community, and city and county government planned and imple- mented large-scale public works. Th e culmination was a valuable public asset, around which business activity returned to an underperforming and crime-fi lled area near the heart of the city’s downtown.

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Discussion In each of the cases presented, philanthropic institutions and their leaders participated in early stage discussions, project conception and design, and capital investment in public–private partnership projects that achieved public value. Although we cannot determine whether each case example required all three of these elements for the creation of public value, we believe that public value outcomes are most readily observed when the three elements are present. For example, in the Playhouse Square, Clean Land, and Jumpstart case examples, philanthropic institutional mission achievement provided defensible rationale for the partners to stimulate positive change, provide a framework to form public–private partnerships to move the initiative forward and—few would dispute—promote the creation of tangible and intangible public value for the larger community. Th e work of the philanthropic organizations enabled the participation of actors who may otherwise have been passive or distant observers. We would like to provide more precise measurement of these outcomes. However, despite the manifest need for it, research on public value has not yet yielded appropriate operationalization. Even in the most prominent and well-cited examples, such as Moore (1995, 2000), Benington and Moore (2011), and Bozeman (2002, 2007), and entire conferences dedicated to this concept (for example, the “Creating Public Value Conference,” convened by the Center for Integrative Leadership at the University of Minnesota in September 2012), measurement of public value remains elusive, with little attention and some speculation. Based on our research, we can begin to advance this discussion, although a full schema awaits further inquiry. As illustrated by our analysis of the different case examples in which public value was created (Table 2), the attainment—and measurement—of public value will be specifi c to the particular project. To the extent that a philanthropic initiative achieves its immediate goals (for example, the construction of Playhouse Square) as well as brings about the behavioral changes sought (clients patronize Playhouse Square), we conclude that public value is created. We would press forward in our measurement, though, in two important ways. First, in our judgment public value can be observed in the desirable eff ects radiating out from a project beyond the immediate target group or clientele or area, that is, the positive externalities created. For example, Playhouse Square not only brought patrons to formerly unused property in downtown Cleveland but also generated other businesses, visitors to the downtown, tax revenues, new civic groups and associations (Friends of Cleveland Playhouse), and greater service opportunities (for example, on nonprofit boards of directors and in operational volunteering in the theater venues). Th ese results of the project developed over time and were not entirely expected, which leads us to propose as a second feature that any measurement of public value should incorporate a temporal dimension to capture its full eff ects. We would also propose a measurement scheme that valued those results that occur quickly more highly over those that take longer to develop (similar to a “social discount rate”), both because we have a preference for more public value created sooner, and eff ects over a longer time horizon are more diffi cult to attribute to the specifi c philanthropic project. In a multidimensional framework for the measurement of public value, other aspects of the eff ects experienced, such as amount of positive behavioral change realized, would also be taken into account. Th is preliminary measurement framework has implications for philanthropic agencies. It sug- gests that these agencies seek from those they fund information not only on the achievement

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of proposed project goals, as commonly collected at present, but also on project results achieved as a product of these goals. Project reporting should also extend to the positive externalities created (both anticipated and not) and encompass a temporal dimension to capture them over time. As we have mentioned, the lens of successful PPPs off ers illustration of simple, observable ways that public value is created by philanthropic actors and institutions. But PPPs involving philanthropic players also off er the opportunity to illustrate the inverse of public value creation. A prominent example of a PPP that did not lead to the creation of public value in Cleveland involved the well-documented and massive Urban Renewal project Phases I and II (Mendel 2005; Teaford 2000, 447–49). Beginning in the 1950s and still incomplete as of this writing nearly six decades later, the complex endeavor involved the Cleveland Development Foundation, city government, local business, and local philanthropic institutions. Designed to remove densely packed residential and commercial districts that would then be replaced by new construction in planned communities in three Cleveland communities, the PPP resulted in many unanticipated negative outcomes: dramatic population shifts within the city boundaries, accelerated resident movement out of the city, decline in housing values, fi nancial disinvestment in highly visible neighborhoods, a reduction of the property and income tax base, and a city with weakened services, bonding power, and overall affl uence (Squires 1989; Teaford 2000). Philanthropic institutions provided funding and agency to the PPP with the disappointing result of not fulfi lling lofty expectations and, few would argue, an absence of positive public value. Several aspects of public value are found consistently across the case examples. First, the mission-driven process of forming and carrying out the work of the initial endeavor stimulated the creation of new successful working collaborations. These associations led to the development of other nonprofi t organizations that served as mission stewards to the endeavor, which then carried out subsequent projects yielding public value without the intervention or involvement of the public sector. Second, philanthropic institutions drew together public and private actors to perform important functions that directly and indirectly benefi ted members of the larger community. Th is work included major activities unlikely to take place without the intervention or involvement of philanthropy, for purposes such as land use planning, public safety, economic development, and public works. Th ird, as tracked by the participants and promoted in the local press, the amplifi cation of resources informed and guided by the philanthropic institutions leveraged a return that far exceeded the initial investment (“Forty under Forty” 1995; Keating, Krumholz, and Metzger 1995; “Mayoral Administration of George V. Voinovich” 2012; Miller 2010; Miller and Bullard 2005; Ralser 2007, 59; Shatten 1995). Based on our analysis of the multiple case examples and the scholarship on public value, we conclude that philanthropic institutions may achieve their goals of doing good by contributing to the public good when they conceive of their roles as acting strategically to do the hard work of creating public value. An important strategy is working with other organizations— public, private, and nonprofi t—in meaningful partnerships. Th e critical process of forming partnerships requires that philanthropic institutions—and the nonprofi t organizations with which they work—investigate and devise conditions for partnership and help those collaborations to succeed. To this end, an important, yet little appreciated strategy is providing a third space in which philanthropic institutions serve as relationship stewards that off er the sanctuary of time, place, fi nancial support, and expertise for participants in the partnership to work out the issues leading to meaningful partnership (Mendel 2013) and public value.

Nonproﬁ t Management & Leadership DOI: 10.1002/nml DOING GOOD, PUBLIC GOOD, AND PUBLIC VALUE 35 Led to positive change of longtime trends toward urban toward Led to positive change of longtime trends underuti- disinvestment and decline. Generated wealth from assets to the benefit of lized and underperforming tax revenue a safe inviting space for the Created community. the entire dormant neighborhood. community to gather in a previously Stimulated public policy development, convened and of public and institutionalized the process private resources, and to preserve ways for all residents Provided value creation. the value of their personal property. protect Used public–private partnership as a mechanism to organize plan, and then institutionalize the endeavor through resources, to serve as permanent mission of a nonprofit the creation pleasant more aesthetics of a safer, Also created steward. commute for employees and lower costs of hiring in the neighborhood. for business employment, prospects regional Increased development, and stimulated the transformation of manufacturing industries into a “next-generation” old-growth economy. Established the framework for northeastern Ohio to take economy. action as an integrated regional status as a “big league” market Maintained the region’s worthy of investment and attention by global national markets and policymakers. was not accompanied by Did not work. Slum removal attractive to private investments and led initiatives that were disinvestment that dramatic population shifts and property accelerated the urban pathologies of decline. Created a tourist destination of concentrated performing Created values in the property arts; generated increased tax revenues and increased districts; restored surrounding spillover businesses such as parking, to the city in from advertisement, and services supporting the arts; increased employment. Encouraged and stimulated the conditions leading to and rehabilitation home construction, renovation, players spearheaded the endeavor Philanthropic programs. feasibility study and beginning an by funding a project city and county land-banks to create advocacy process owned and operated under public authority. the a safe, attractive space that improved Created for businesses to carry out their operations environment and form clusters of industry hubs business development. on diverse Served to focus public and private resources accelerating the growth and the community, entrepreneurs of early stage businesses and ideas into venture-ready companies, and ultimately transformed northeast Ohio into and a nationally significant center of entrepreneurship innovation. to view comfortable modern facilities for patrons Created sports endeavors. Preserved and participate in professional the city as a home to two major league sports franchises and the spillover business activities attributable to them. “old” to redevelop approach Planned and organized places in urban neighborhood settings of Cleveland that use. land and property include revitalized Enhanced the lives of all residents of Enhanced the lives of all residents Cleveland by preserving greater of privately owned, redevelopment highly visible entertainment district theater assets headed for the ball. wrecking existing housing to Preserved older housing stock in redevelop Cleveland and its urban communities. for inviting atmosphere a more create employees commuting to midtown Cleveland. loss of jobs, and lack economy, by incubating growth entrepreneurial ideas and taking advantage of strategic business development opportunities in the technology fields. Established a valuable public asset which business activity around to an underperforming and returned near the heart of crime-filled area downtown. city’s Eliminated slum conditions and urban redevelopment. promote the Cleveland PPP Cases from Specific Examples of Doing Good, Public Value Table 3. Table PPP Name Playhouse Square, Inc. Doing GoodNeighborhood Inc. Progress, Clean Land For the Public Good ridership on light rail to Improved Jumpstart, Inc. declining northeast Ohio’s Addressed Generated Public Value Gateway Economic Development Corporation Cleveland Development Foundation and Urban Renewal Phases I and II

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Philanthropic institutions may conceive of their obligations primarily with respect to mission fulﬁ llment, due diligence of grant applicants and transactional grantee accountability in the form of dollars spent, clients served, and resources leveraged. Although these components constitute an important part of the operational work of philanthropy, in this article we argue that philanthropic institutions realize transformational achievements to do good for the public good when their initiatives are designed to lead to the creation of public value. Table 3 illustrates the relationships among the concepts doing good, public good, and public value that emerge from the ﬁ ve case examples.

Conclusion In our view, the public sector focus of existing scholarship on public value largely overlooks the role of philanthropic institutions, civic leaders, and decision makers in the creation of public value. To the contrary, we argue here that philanthropy at its best is in the business of creating public value. Based upon the literature and case examples examined in this article, we believe that philanthropic institutions should consider not only transactional accountability but also how their grant making is transformative toward public value creation. Using the framework presented in Table 2, leaders of philanthropy can view their possible impact by tracing the amplifi cation of their work beyond transactional accountability, with which they typically evaluate grantee performance, to transformational results that benefi t the larger society. For example, in the Playhouse Square, NPI, and particularly the Jumpstart case examples, the process of creating public value through program delivery and quality of programs was more important to overall philanthropic impact than the number of individuals directly served by philanthropic dollars. Although precise measurement must await further inquiry, philanthropic institutions can further this development by off ering funding opportunities that contribute to public value creation and consider how their investment stimulates societal transformation. Th e role of philanthropy in creating public value holds important strategic and management implications for nonprofi t leaders and board members whose organizations’ health and well-being depend upon grants and charitable gifts. As we have shown, proposals to philanthropic institutions that align with nonprofi t missions can serve the public good and generate return on investment beyond the particular project when they can be linked to the creation of public value. Organized philanthropy should prioritize requests for grants and gifts that conceive the transactional work as part of a larger system of services, leading to eff ective, transformational change. Accordingly, nonprofi ts should articulate the public value outcomes as direct and indirect benefi ts of their involvement. From this larger perspective, grants and charitable gifts are more than opportunities for nonprofi t “work” but for the creation of public value as well

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STUART C. MENDEL is assistant dean and director at the Center for Nonprofit Policy and Practice at Cleveland State University.

JEFFREY L. BRUDNEY is the Betty and Dan Cameron Family Distinguished Professor of Innovation in the Nonprofit Sector at the Department of Public and International Affairs, University of North Carolina Wilmington.

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