Issue 4 November 2010

Issue 4 November 2010

£3 www.radicalanthropologygroup.org www.radicalanthropologygroup.org ISSN 1756-0896 (Print) /ISSN 1756-090X (Online) ISSN 1756-0896 (Print) /ISSN 1756-090X (Online) Editor Who we are and what we do Camilla Power Email: [email protected] Radical: about the inherent, fundamental roots of an issue. Anthropology: the study of what it means to be human. Editorial Board Kevin Brown, political activist. Radical Anthropology is the journal of the Radical Anthropology Group. Elena Fejdiova, social anthropologist. Anthropology asks one big question: what does it mean to be human? Chris Knight, anthropologist, activist. To answer this, we cannot rely on common sense or on philosophical Eleanor Leone, student at arguments. We must study how humans actually live – and the Goldsmiths College. many different ways in which they have lived. This means learning, Jerome Lewis, anthropologist for example, how people in non-capitalist societies live, how they at University College London. organise themselves and resolve conflict in the absence of a state, Ana Lopes, anthropologist. the different ways in which a ‘family’ can be run, and so on. Brian Morris, emeritus professor of anthropology at Goldsmiths Additionally, it means studying other species and other times. College,University of London. What might it mean to be almost – but not quite –human? Lionel Sims, anthropologist at How socially self-aware, for example, is a chimpanzee? the University of East London. Do nonhuman primates have a sense of morality? Do they have language? And what about distant times? Who were the On the cover: Australopithecines and why had they begun walking upright? Where did The journal’s logo represents the the Neanderthals come from and why did they become extinct? How, emergence of culture (dragons when and why did human art, religion, language and culture first evolve? feature in myths and legends from around the world) from nature (the The Radical Anthropology Group started in 1984 when Chris Knight’s DNA double-helix, or selfish gene). popular ‘Introduction to Anthropology’ course at Morley College, The dragon is a symbol of solidarity, London, was closed down, supposedly for budgetary reasons. Within especially the blood solidarity that a few weeks, the students got organised, electing a treasurer, secretary was a necessary precondition for the and other officers. They booked a library in Camden – and social revolution that made us human. invited Chris to continue teaching next year. In this way, the For more on this, see our website at Radical Anthropology Group was born. www.radicalanthropologygroup.org Later, Lionel Sims, who since the 1960s had been lecturing in The cover picture features Mayday sociology at the University of East London, came across Chris’s PhD 2010 frolics beneath Big Ben, which on human origins and – excited by the backing it provided for the inaugurated Democracy Village. anthropology of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, particularly on See Raga Woods’ article, page the subject of ‘primitive communism’ – invited Chris to help set up 42. Photo: Chris Knight. Anthropology at UEL. During the 1990s several other RAG members including Ian Watts, Camilla Power, Isabel Cardigos and Charles Back cover: Images courtesy of Whitehead completed PhDs at University College London and Kings Survival International, João Zilhão, College London, before going onto further research and teaching. Ian Watts, Ifi Amadiume, Felix Padel For almost two decades, Anthropology at UEL retained close RA is designed by Kypros ties with the Radical Anthropology Group, Chris becoming Kyprianou and Ana Lopes Professor of Anthropology in 2001. He was sacked by UEL’s corporate management in July 2009 for his role in organising and publicising demonstrations against the G20 in April.

While RAG has never defined itself as a political organization, the implications of some forms of science are intrinsically radical, and this applies in particular to the theory that humanity was born in a Anti-copyright: all material may be freely reproduced for non-commercial purposes, social revolution. Many RAG members choose to be active in Survival but please mention Radical Anthropology International and/or other indigenous rights movements to defend the land rights and cultural survival of hunter-gatherers. Additionally, some RAG members combine academic research with activist involvement in environmentalist, anti-capitalist and other campaigns.

For more, see www.radicalanthropologygroup.org

2 Radical Anthropology Contents

Editorial 3 To see ourselves as others see us Neanderthals are us: genes and culture 5 João Zilhão discusses the latest news from the Middle Palaeolithic Was there a human revolution? 16 Ian Watts responds to recent challenges in archaeology The Enigma of Noam Chomsky 22 Why the divorce between activism and science? asks Chris Knight Deconstructing War on Terror 31 Felix Padel investigates how the ‘War on Terror’ affects India’s indigenous groups Avatar: A call to save the future 35 Does Avatar deserve the criticism, or can it ‘open our eyes’? wonders Rupert Read Premenstrual stress and the human revolution 41 Viky Sousa-Mayer introduces her research blog on PMS An open confession from a member of Democracy Village 42 Raga Woods enters a ‘world turned upside down’ on Parliament Square Re-placing gender and the Goddess 44 Ifi Amadiume hears from Igbo voices what ‘development’ has done to the Goddess Direct Action, by David Graeber 54 Review by Simon Wells 55 Review by Davide Torri

To see ourselves as others see us

eanderthal-modern human differ. In trying to understand the early modern human fossils are interrelations dominate process of how we became human, generally distinguishable. But Radical Anthropology Neanderthals stand for the ultimate the flesh-and-blood beings whose thisN year, given developments ‘other’ – so close to us, yet not remnants they are could have met, within archaeology early in quite us. Now, we discover, those fallen in love, and had babies. And 2010. In our interview with top of us who descend from lineages did! palaeolithic archaeologist João which emigrated from Africa some Zilhão, he modestly disclaims 80-60,000 years ago may indeed Even more exciting for leading political relevance for studying have mixed it up with Eurasian pigment specialist Ian Watts is the Neanderthals. Neanderthals. People alive today evidence attesting to the symbolic carry smidgins of archaic DNA. trajectory of each lineage. Pigments, Radical Anthropology begs to 40,000-year-old Neanderthal and cosmetics, make-up compacts

3 Radical Anthropology with bone applicators… Zilhão’s wider impact. In a stylish essay, religion. This fascinating article Murcian excavations reveal beyond Rupert Read rebuffs the criticisms is of special interest to women serious doubt that Neanderthals and analyses why Avatar has who want to know what Goddess owned their traditions of self- inspired numerous indigenous and materially means when her decoration well before ‘modern’ civil rights actions, been denounced worship and celebration are humans arrived on the European by the Pope and banned by the inextricably entwined with women’s scene. Chinese state. Remarkably for a socioeconomic and cultural status. film which is about the experience In an era of Christian-missionised As ever in anthropology, we can seek of doing anthropology, it forces the village capitalist ‘development’, that out differences or analyse what’s issue: either you sneer at it, or you particular Goddess – Idemili – has strikingly similar. In this case, it’s can’t ignore the call – you have to come under savage attack, and with healthy to do both. This past decade, act. her, women in their marketplace. palaeolithic archaeology has found that in both Africa and Eurasia, In Radical Anthropology pigments followed by shell two issues ago, when asked jewellery long precede any if scientists should get other art. We have to restore themselves ‘collectively self- in imagination the dance and organised and consciously rituals such cosmetics would activist’, Noam Chomsky have adorned. Those rituals, of responded that if they did, both Neanderthals and African ‘they would probably devote moderns, were the revolutionary Felix Padel echoes Avatar’s call for themselves to service to state cutting edge of symbolic culture. ‘reverse anthropology’: learning and private power’. Why would how to see ourselves afresh by Chomsky, inspiration of anarchists The fundamental human quality understanding how those ‘others’ the world over, say such a thing? these cosmetics prove is the ability subject to our ‘science’ see us. The Chris Knight claims Chomsky- to ‘see ourselves as others see us’. latest export of faltering global the-activist’s target here is his With no mirrors, palaeolithic women capital has been its War on Terror own professional and institutional – European or African – fixed model, enabling state security forces milieu, as represented by Chomsky- each other’s make-up. Men might to label inconveniently situated the-linguist. Knight is clearing the have, too. The intimate bonding civilians – in this case, Adivasi way towards an anthropology of experiences of mutual grooming tribal groups – as ‘terrorists’ in the US military-industrial complex, and beautification lie at the root of order to eradicate them. So the path treating Chomsky as shaman language, art and religion. When is cleared to raw materials, thirsty spinning the tribal myth. Ian Watts writes about the social new industrial plant and a compliant strategies underlying the human workforce. But late capitalism is Chomsky’s agenda, says Knight, revolution engendering trust, he has riddled with contradictions: India’s has been to quarantine the natural this in mind. Only given such trust proudest export to the world has sciences from any ideological could we begin to share and explore been its history of civil rights contamination by social science, each other’s dreams. resistance. In the week after Padel’s and above all to denigrate human article was submitted, India’s origins narratives as mere fairytales. Human eyes are designed for mutual Environment Minister saved the If language is first and foremost mindreading: that is, letting each Dongria Kond’s sacred mountains; ‘inner speech’, as Chomsky insists, other see what we have in mind. The meanwhile, a hidden war of attrition the ability ‘to see ourselves as eyes evolved by all other monkeys against Adivasi peoples for land and others see us’ is beside the point. and apes are not so easy to read. We resources grinds on. can confidently predict Neanderthal We could not resist the cover design eyes were much like ours, elongated The Women’s Councils central to of the maypole which several with white background, making it the Igbo dual-sex political system RAG members helped to raise on easy to follow gaze. have a proud history of resistance Parliament Square: our version of to colonial exploitation, notably the Na’vi Home Tree. Raga Woods’ The motif of seeing into each at times of capitalist collapse, vignette of Democracy Village tells other’s eyes is the trademark of the as during the Women’s War of how this led to a quite astonishing megacapitalist Hollywood 3-D film 1929. Pre-eminent among African phenomenon of communitas – all Avatar. One thing capitalists do very anthropologists, Ifi Amadiume normal hierarchy of status was well is exploit our natural impulses listens to recent historic dialogues of suspended for over two months in order to line their pockets. Many Igbo elders trying to come to terms on a traffic island in the middle of activists will be cynical on Avatar’s with the destruction of indigenous Westminster.

4 Radical Anthropology João Zilhão Neanderthals are us: genes and culture Archaeologist João Zilhão has been challenging the orthodoxy of the Recent African Origins model for the past 15 years. He discusses fresh revelations on the Neanderthal genome and Middle Palaeolithic symbolic artefacts with Radical Anthropology.

Radical Anthropology: What revolution, and (2) views of both of us that neither acculturation first led you to contest the current the Neanderthals as somehow nor imitation were viable orthodoxy of the modern ‘human cognitively handicapped were explanations for the Châtelperronian revolution’ of the Upper Palaeolithic inconsistent with the empirical material: it was technologically sweeping in from Africa? evidence. and typologically distinct from its putative Aurignacian sources and, João Zilhão: Until the mid-1990s, Later that year, I had the I accepted that the orthodox Recent chance to discuss Hublin African Origin (RAO) model of et al.’s conclusions with modern human emergence best my colleague Francesco fitted the available archaeological, d’Errico, from the palaeontological and genetic University of Bordeaux. evidence. I began to have second He too had been struck by thoughts after reading a paper in this conundrum: Why did May 1996 by Hublin et al.1 showing the paper not even consider that the human remains from the the most parsimonious Châtelperronian levels of the Grotte interpretation of the du Renne, at Arcy-sur-Cure, France, results? Could it be that were of Neanderthals. From this paradigmatic biases were evidence, the authors concluded blinding researchers that the cultural advances typical of to accept the obvious? the Châtelperronian, such as use of Was there something personal ornaments, resulted from fundamentally wrong a ‘high degree of acculturation’ of with the RAO model that late Neanderthals by immigrating prevented us applying modern humans of the Aurignacian to the Neanderthals and culture. They rejected the only other the Middle-to-Upper hypothesis considered: that the Palaeolithic transition Grotte du Renne’s Châtelperronian interpretations that would ornaments represented ‘imitation be straightforward in Author (on right) helps with bear skull removal without understanding’. This was any other archaeological the view of Chris Stringer and context? Clive Gamble2 who argued that at the Grotte du Renne, there was Neanderthals lacked the cognitive We sent a comment to Nature, clear evidence of on-site production capacity for symbolic culture. but thanks to it being rejected, we (e.g., manufacture debris). So we decided to do the right thing: to teamed up with Michèle and two However, there was another examine the contentious artefacts other French colleagues, Dominique possible interpretation of Hublin et ourselves. We asked our colleague Baffier and Jacques Pelegrin, to al.’s results: given the continuity Michèle Julien, at the University of write a review of the Grotte du in lithic technology between the Paris I (Sorbonne), who at the time Renne and of the stratigraphy, Châtelperronian and the preceding curated and studied the ornaments chronology and material culture of Mousterian, establishing a and bone tools from the Grotte du the Châtelperronian. Neanderthal authorship for the Renne, to see the material in mid- Châtelperronian could imply that December 1996. In a special issue of Current (1) the Châtelperronian stood for Anthropology dedicated to all things an indigenous ‘Upper Palaeolithic’ This brief examination convinced Neanderthal, our review3 laid out

5 Radical Anthropology the case that Francesco and I have genetic lineages whose geographic 1-4% and significantly higher in been making for nearly fifteen distribution encompassed the entire Eurasians than in Africans. These years now: (1) stratigraphically Old World and, therefore, may have findings confirm that Neanderthals (and chronometrically4) the been ‘early modern’ as much as were not a separate biological species Châtelperronian precedes the ‘Neanderthal!’ and, in retrospect, make it clear that Aurignacian; (2) in these the last 150 years of controversies circumstances, ‘acculturation’ is an These problems are compounded surrounding their taxonomic status oxymoron (you cannot imitate or be by the fact that archaeologists, are a good example of the so-called influenced by something that does anthropologists and media people ‘species problem in palaeontology’: not even exist to begin with); (3) the (and even many geneticists) the apparent contradiction noted by association of diagnostic skeletal often mistakenly equate genetic the late Stephen Jay Gould between remains with the Châtelperronian ‘lineages’ (namely, mtDNA ones) Darwinian anagenetic evolution at two different sites implies with biological species. Take and the Linnaean concept of authorship, and a Neanderthal one the recent realisation that the species, which arose under a fixist at that, and (4) Neanderthals not mtDNA extracted from a human paradigm8. This is a problem in only had the capacity for symbolic phalange recovered in the cave palaeontology, where morphology, culture, they materialised it too (e.g., site of Denisova, Siberia, belonged not reproductive behaviour, in the production of the personal to a lineage that was even more underlies classification, but extant ornaments and the decorated bone distant from extant humans than mammals that have been considered tools of the Châtelperronian). the Neanderthals’5: this finding as different species, if not different was hailed as evidence for yet genera, including primates (e.g., RA: What is your view of the current another ‘species’ of human living baboons), are now known to freely evidence on genetic differences of some 40,000 years ago! However, interbreed in the wild, producing the two populations? the levels whence the Denisova fertile, viable offspring.

The 1-4% estimate Could it be that paradigmatic biases were blinding doesn’t look that much, but, if you consider the researchers to accept the obvious? environmentally driven imbalance in population Was there something fundamentally wrong with size that existed during the Ice Ages between the RAO model? low-latitude Africa, representing the core of JZ: Contamination is a major phalanx came are so disturbed6 that the human range, and high-latitude issue in palaeogenetics, and the chances of that phalanx being Eurasia, where the Neanderthals one that prevents us from fully 20,000 (or even 10,000) years old lived at low population densities understanding the genetic variation are as large as its being 40,000; until and in overall small numbers, that existed in the Old World during it is directly dated, we can’t tell. In it is in fact a lot. If, for the sake the critical period between 35,000 any case, the fossil simply goes of the argument, you assume, and 60,000 years ago. Another to show the extent to which past under a simple model of panmixia major problem with ancient human genetic variation was much and unstructured post-contact genomics is preservation. In tropical higher than at present, something populations, that, 50,000 years ago, and temperate Mediterranean for which many clues exist even there were 50,000 ‘Neanderthals’ in environments, DNA does not among the genes of extant humans. Eurasia and 500,000 ‘moderns’ in survive for the tens of millennia Africa, you would then not expect necessary for retrieval in early In a Science paper published last the Neanderthal contribution to modern human fossils of Africa and May, Green et al.7 released a those post-contact humans to be the Near East, the regions of earliest draft of the Neanderthal genome, greater than 10% anyway. If, on appearance of the corresponding based on nuclear DNA extracted top of this, you consider selection diagnostic anatomical traits, so from three bones recovered in and continued evolution since we do not and cannot have any the Croatian cave site of Vindija. 40,000 years ago, including the DNA from them. This fact has an Their study significantly clarified contingencies of population history, implication that is seldom, if at all the issues, as it found in the five it is amazing that as much as a 1-4% considered by palaeogeneticists: present-day humans with whom the contribution is still apparent today. that what we are calling Vindija sequence was compared ‘Neanderthal’ mtDNA may in fact solid evidence of a Neanderthal We also need to bear in mind correspond to a group of extinct contribution – estimated to be of that Green et al.’s estimate of

6 Radical Anthropology the percentage of Neanderthal is concerned, all that Green et al. behavioural modernity related not contribution applies to the genome said was that they were unable to to a speciation event but instead to of extant humans and that we detect the corresponding signal a process of uneven and combined cannot extrapolate from their in the samples, not that none development affecting structured results that such was also the occurred. I would only add that, if populations of humans — each Neanderthal contribution to the ‘Neanderthals’ and ‘moderns’ were perhaps worthy of subspecies genome of the Europeans of 40,000 not different biological species, status but, biologically, belonging years ago. The assumption of such then the null hypothesis for what to a single anagenetically evolving an extrapolation would be total population continuity, which is unwarranted. In The situation now is the exact reverse of what fact, most extant Europeans descend NOT from the mixed existed 20 years ago. Every single one of the Neanderthal/modern people of 40,000 years ago but sufficiently complete European modern human from the successive waves of migrants that came to our individuals dated to within 5,000 years of the continent over the last ten millennia, namely as part of time of contact feature anatomical archaisms the process whereby farming spread from the Near East. happened at the time of contact species of which Homo erectus, anywhere must be extensive (albeit Homo heidelbergensis and Homo The contingencies of demographic variable) interbreeding, as indeed sapiens would be but chrono- or history (namely, the demic shown by the fossils themselves. palaeo-taxa. underpinnings of the spread of Therefore, my prediction is: farming) also impact the issue of since the frequency of ‘archaic’ Eventually, I went on to argue the where and when interbreeding skeletal traits in European latter alternative as a result of my occurred. Green et al. argued that it early moderns is higher than in involvement in the excavation and was right after the African exodus, present-day Europeans, European publication of three important early some 50,000 years ago, and in the early moderns should exhibit a modern human fossils: in 1998-99, Near East, whence stem populations Neanderthal-derived percentage the child skeleton from the Lagar of ‘moderns-cum-Neanderthal’ of their genomes higher than Velho site, in Portugal; and, in genes would then have spread 1-4%; i.e., when compared to the 2003-05, the mandible and cranium into Europe and the rest of Asia to Neanderthals, they should come out from the Oase cave, in Romania. become the ancestors of all extant closer to them than do present-day The human palaeontological Eurasians. Their argument is based Papuans or Chinese. Unfortunately, study of these fossils, led by Erik on the fact that west Europeans come it would seem that we will have to Trinkaus9, from Washington out in the comparisons as no closer wait some time until the prediction University (St.-Louis), concluded to the Neanderthals than Papuans or can be tested because we still have that all three presented a series Chinese, and many commentators no genomes of immediately post- of genetically inherited, archaic, hastily inferred from this that no contact Europeans. if not diagnostically Neanderthal interbreeding after initial contact in anatomical features that implied the Near East, namely as moderns RA: Tell us about the fossil significant admixture at the time of spread deep into Eurasia, was one specimens you have been involved contact. of Green et al.’s findings. with which you think show evidence of interbreeding. This recognition coincided with In fact, however, these authors the realisation, as a result of direct did not exclude later interbreeding JZ: At the time of the 1998 radiocarbon dating, that all the other processes in western Europe Current Anthropology paper, our purported early moderns lacking in precisely because, as explicitly findings were consistent with two such features, and upon which rested acknowledged (p. 721), the pattern alternative non-RAO models for the notion that the Middle-to-Upper apparent in their study could be the emergence of symbolism: that it Palaeolithic transition in Europe explained by the subsequent history emerged among different lineages, featured total discontinuity in the of migrations connected to the even different species of humans, realm of physical anthropology, spread of agriculture obscuring as a result of convergent evolution; were in fact of recent Holocene age. gene-flow. or that Neanderthals had not been a That was the case, in particular, different species at all. In that case, of the supposedly Aurignacian- So, where interbreeding in Europe the emergence of anatomical and associated remains from the

7 Radical Anthropology south-west German cave site of RA: Genes apart, the most colleagues, were able to show that Vogelherd. interesting aspect of your work an early modern human-associated is the theory and supporting data tradition of personal ornamentation So, thanks to the Lagar Velho on cultural interaction between existed in South Africa, the and Oase finds, Erik’s subsequent the populations, with influences Maghreb and the Near East since the study of other long-forgotten travelling both ways. Can you give last interglacial, >70,000 years ago, Romanian fossils (from the caves us an overview of this evidence? perhaps as early as 100,000 years of Cioclovina and Muierii), and the ago11. This tradition consistently extensive analysis and monographic JZ: In theory, one could argue that it and exclusively manufactured publication by Maria Teschler- would have been precisely because composite beadworks made with Nicola et al.10, in 2006, of the early Neanderthals and moderns were perforated shells from the different modern human sample from Mladeč both fully human that interbreeding regional species of Nassarius, (Czech Republic), the situation now might have been impossible—not as a small marine gastropod, or of is the exact reverse of what existed a result of (non-existent) biological morphologically very similar 20 years ago. Every single one of barriers but because of cultural genera. Although no such evidence the currently known, sufficiently ones, e.g., prohibitions or taboos. is currently known for the complete European modern human But the archaeological record intervening period, by 45,000 years individuals (eleven in total) that patterns against such expectations. ago the tradition resurfaced again have been dated to within some in the Initial Upper Palaeolithic five millennia of the time of contact As I said, my involvement (IUP or Ehmiran) of the Near East, feature a similar, albeit variable with these issues began with an which is widely accepted as the mosaic of anatomical archaisms. argument on how acculturation did stem culture for the subsequent not work as an explanation for the Ahmarian and the related Proto- The robustness of the fossil pattern ornaments and decorated bone tools aurignacian of Europe.

It’s ironic that subsequent developments showed that acculturation in the reverse direction best explains the assemblages of personal ornaments of the earliest European modern human societies

Oase excavation, Romania, 2004

is such as to make it clear that of the Châtelperronian. It’s ironic This pattern is important because interbreeding between the latest that subsequent developments the Protoaurignacian is the earliest Eurasian Neanderthals and the first showed that acculturation (in the cultural manifestation reliably early modern humans who began sense of cultural influence) in the associated with the dispersal of to disperse into their territories reverse direction best explains the modern human groups into our around 42,000 calendar years composition of the assemblages of continent (its radiocarbon dating ago did occur. In short, the fossil personal ornaments of the earliest overlaps with that of the Oase evidence accumulated over the last European modern human societies. fossils). Given this, it can hardly decade indicated that no biological come as a surprise that small, basket- barrier to interbreeding between Between 2004 and 2006, Francesco shaped shell-beads similar to those Neanderthals and moderns ever d’Errico and his former student of the Ahmarian and the IUP feature existed, and that conclusion is now Marian Vanhaeren, together with prominently in Protoaurignacian corroborated by genetics. Chris Henshilwood and other ornament assemblages. These

8 Radical Anthropology assemblages, however, also significant for Neanderthals as the the perforated shells in personal include items that are unknown Blombos materials for moderns? ornamentation, probably as neck in its Near Eastern sister-culture pendants. For instance, that is (the Ahmarian), in the preceding JZ: The Spanish evidence12 exactly how Daniela Bar-Yosef IUP, or anywhere in Africa prior consists of four types of finds: et al.13 interpreted an assemblage to 40,000 years ago: namely, large, of perforated and ochre-stained perforated and grooved teeth, bones 1. perforated shells of large Glycymeris from the last or fossil shells that in all likelihood marine bivalves of the genera interglacial, early modern human- were used individually as pendants Acanthocardia, Glycymeris and associated site of Qafzeh, in the hanging around the neck, not as Pecten, some of which were Near East. To question a similar parts of composite beadworks. painted; interpretation for similar material in the Spanish case just because Where or who did the Proto-. 2. unperforated shells of the Neanderthals, not moderns, were aurignacians get the idea from? Mediterranean spiny oyster, involved, would therefore imply Given the long-term stability of Spondylus gaederopus. As all other tons of special pleading — so much the African/Near Eastern tradition, species of this genus, this features so that, in fact, to my knowledge, no and the fact that the novelties in upper valves with exuberant one has so far ventured down that its repertoire correspond to the sculpture and vivid red or violet avenue of argumentation. range of ornaments seen in the colour that inspired collection for Châtelperronian and the coeval, ritual purposes in a large number In the context of the Châtelperronian also Neanderthal-associated, so- of archaeological and ethnographic debate, this evidence is also called ‘transitional’ cultures of contexts worldwide. One specimen particularly relevant in that the Europe (Lincombian/Ranisian, was used as a container for the material from Cueva de los Aviones Szeletian, Bachokirian, etc.), the storage or preparation of a complex dates to 50,000 years ago, thus parsimonious explanation is that cosmetic recipe where shiny bits of predating by ten millennia the they got it from the locals — i.e., freshly ground haematite and pyrite Oase fossils, the earliest European from the Neanderthals. Put another (black) were added to a base of modern humans currently known. way, that they interacted with them, lepidocrocite (red); The implication is inescapable: no and, in such a scenario, one can matter what you or I or anybody else hardly see how any putative sex 3. lumps of iron pigments of may think of the Châtelperronian, prohibition could have been 100% different mineral species (haematite, there can be no doubt that, in the

In any other archaeological context, the straightforward interpretation of this material would be that the pigments were used in bodily, most likely facial decoration, and the perforated shells in personal ornamentation, probably as neck pendants effective 100% of the time. So, goethite, siderite), but mostly of Spanish case, neither imitation nor both the cultural and the physical yellow natrojarosite (whose only acculturation explains the observed anthropological evidence agree that known use is in cosmetics); facts. encounter situations resulted in the transmission to immigrating modern 4. and a kind of stiletto made of an In light of the Qafzeh finds, the human groups of both Neanderthal unmodified pointed bone bearing Spanish evidence also raises an memes and Neanderthal genes. pigment residues on the broken tip, intriguing possibility, one that suggesting use in the preparation or neither my colleagues nor I have RA: Tell us about the latest application of colorants. formally presented in writing yet, evidence from Cueva Antón and for consistency, I will advance it Cueva de los Aviones in S.E. Spain, In any other archaeological context, here. The presence, in the Near dating back to 50,000 years ago, the straightforward interpretation East of last interglacial times, of the and spell out the implications of this of this material would be that the African tradition of Nassarius beads material for Neanderthal cognition pigments were used in bodily, so far rests on a single find from and symbolic behaviour. Is it as most likely facial decoration, and Skhul. Marian Vanhaeren14 and

9 Radical Anthropology her colleagues made a good case culture of the Maghreb; another this, I believe that language is for that bead to come from the level in Mediterranean Europe and the too complex to be anything but that contained the burials of early Near East and associated with both evolutionarily ancient. To my modern humans. However, the true modern humans and Neanderthals mind, the chain of neurological, age of these remains is controversial — the perforated bivalve tradition physiological, cognitive and (for instance, uranium series dates of the Tabun C-type Mousterian of palaeontological arguments obtained on animal teeth suggest Qafzeh and the Middle Palaeolithic supporting this notion that Terence that an important component of of Iberia. Deacon15 put together in his 1997 that level dates to only 40,000- book, The Symbolic Species, is 45,000 years ago). People like Chris RA: How does the Spanish data and extremely convincing. Stringer and Milford Wolpoff have a multispecies/population origin argued that two chronologically of symbolic behaviour impact on On the other hand, considering distinct populations, how metabolically one anatomically expensive the brain less ‘modern’ than is16, why, if not the other, could well to use it, would a be represented in the particular lineage of Skhul sample. great apes need to have a significantly The possibility exists, expanded brain, therefore, that the with that expansion Skhul Nassarius principally affecting bead relates to a later the prefrontal cortex, period of occupation, the area that is i.e., that it relates to involved in most the modern humans advanced cognition who returned to the tasks? Although on Near East after 45,000 average smaller until years ago (those of 0.5 million years the IUP), not to those ago, Homo brain who lived there some sizes overlap with 90,000 years ago. If the modern range of so, then the presence variation since at least of painted/perforated João Zilhão one million years ago; Glycymeris shells Perforated scallop shell from Cueva Antón, natural colouring on therefore, I would in both Qafzeh and inside (left half), orangey pigment applied to outside (right). expect the key hardware Aviones, coupled with developments concerning the absence of Nassarius in either a Noam Chomsky/Richard Klein language and cognition to have Qafzeh or Skhul prior to 50,000 position on major genetic mutation occurred at that time, not with the BP, would allow the formulation of as the trigger of modern behaviour? advent of anatomical modernity. the following hypothesis: that the Aviones shells represent the survival JZ: I don’t think that multispecies In my view, therefore, the right in Europe, among Neanderthal views of human evolution are valid question to ask is why material societies, of traditions of personal to begin with. However, if we accept manifestations of symbolism do not ornamentation going back to the them for the sake of the argument, appear in the archaeological record last interglacial, at which time they the implication of the Neanderthal until much later than one million would have been spread around the evidence is that a genetic ‘flick- years ago. Perhaps the problem shores of at least the whole of the of-the-switch’, triggering the lies in the operational definitions of north Mediterranean sea, regardless emergence of symbolic behaviour, symbolic material culture currently of (real or perceived) biological would have to have occurred agreed upon by archaeologists and boundaries. Put another way, the independently, more than once, in palaeoanthropologists; or perhaps possibility exists that, some 90,000 different times and places, which is no need existed for such material years ago, two different ornament hardly consistent with parsimony. symbols until certain demographic traditions were already in existence: Therefore, a corollary of our and social thresholds were crossed. one in Africa and modern human- findings is that the genetic mutation If that crossing eventually occurred associated — the Nassarius beads position can now be sustained only around 100,000 years ago and tradition of the Still Bay culture from within single-species models not before, then that may well be of South Africa and the Aterian of human evolution. Having said the reason why we first see the

10 Radical Anthropology decoration of persons and objects at ‘humanity’ is defined. but also a diverse range of cultures that time too. and adaptations, ones whose intra- Depending on different perceptions, ‘Neanderthal’ and intra-‘modern RA: Comparing the overall records going back to the eighteenth human’ variability along latitudinal of possible early symbolic materials and nineteenth centuries, of the and longitudinal clines encompassed in Eurasia (Neanderthal ancestry) fundamental basis for the triumph almost the entire gamut of vs. Africa (modern ancestry), of civilised society and industrial ethnographically documented do you think there are still capitalism, so (1) do Neanderthals settlement-subsistence strategies. grounds for arguing for strategic, tend to be represented as lacking In the realm of subsistence, for behavioural differences between the in the corresponding behavioural instance, Neanderthals were populations? feature and (2) do early moderns tend logistically organized hunters to be portrayed as benefiting from 50,000 years ago at Salzgitter- JZ: One of the aspects of the a ‘selective advantage’ consisting Lebenstedt, in northern Germany, ‘Human Revolution’ paradigm in its possession. To give but a where they exploited reindeer in that most hindered the last 20 few examples, the Enlightenment exactly the same manner as the years of research into Neanderthals emphasised the power of reason, Ahrensbourgians who recolonised and early modern humans was Adam Smith stressed the importance the area 40,000 years later. In the the notion that, in line with of the division of labour, and David Levant, however, they had a broad- textbook definitions, each of these Ricardo highlighted the role of spectrum economy, including two ‘species’ would have been international trade and comparative significant exploitation of small characterised by its own ‘species- advantage. Not surprisingly, mammals and plant foods. And, in specific’ behaviour. However, all explanations for the demise of the areas of Iberia where the present- attempts at defining a specifically Neanderthals have correspondingly day coastline is close to theirs, late ‘modern human’ behaviour postulated competitive inferiority Neanderthals left sites featuring as opposed to a specifically caused by their lacking in symbolic shell-midden accumulations that ‘Neanderthal’ behaviour have met a cognition, in labour specialisation differ from Upper Palaeolithic and similar failure: When applied to the by sex and age class, in long- Mesolithic ones only in that their archaeological and the ethnographic distance circulation of raw materials, artefact component is Mousterian. records, such definitions always or in logistical organisation of end up with some modern humans the subsistence base… And, not Where the social and sexual division being behaviourally Neanderthal surprisingly either, if Neanderthals of labour is concerned, Kuhn and and some Neanderthals being are found to conform to the opposite Stiner have argued17 that nowhere behaviourally modern! To question a similar interpretation for similar In the 1860s, when William King gave birth to Homo neanderthalensis, human fossils material in the Spanish case just because were used as ancillary evidence in mainstream ethnological Neanderthals, not moderns, were involved, would views of the racial ladder, to which they added time depth. therefore imply tons of special pleading Today, ranking human ‘races’ in terms of cognition is no longer of these expectations, then the in the Neanderthal record do we see acceptable but, in western culture, argument is turned upside down! any evidence that, as in all known the philosophical or religious need Recent formulations, for instance, ethnographic hunter-gatherer to place ‘us’ at the top of the ladder have been that it was their extreme societies living in cold-temperate of life (or, for some, of creation) focus on large mammal hunting or subarctic environments, females still prevails, and explains the that allowed modern humans, with had taken on the role of technology continued search for images of greater behavioural flexibility specialists. They pointed out that what ‘we’ are not (or not anymore) and a broader subsistence base, to bone needles and awls, the types of that, by contrast, enhance the basics outcompete them. artefacts commonly used to make of what ‘we’ are. Such is the place tailored, weather-resistant clothing occupied by Neanderthals in the In truth, the archaeological record and well-insulated artificial shelters, Human Revolution paradigm, and shows that, on the ground, the which are female-associated that is how, explicitly or implicitly, Middle-to-Upper Palaeolithic tasks in most subarctic hunter- species-specific perspectives of their transition in Eurasia was about gatherer societies, do not appear behaviour treat them — the out- people featuring not only somewhat until the Upper Palaeolithic. This group against which ‘modernity’ or different arrays of anatomical traits is undisputedly true, but the early

11 Radical Anthropology Upper Palaeolithic culture where analysis showed it to be an extract structure in most if not all known such evidence does appear for the first of oak bark macerated in water, of African MSA sites as the modern time is… the Neanderthal-associated a kind used until recent historical standard! Châtelperronian! Functional analysis times in the tanning of hides for and experimental replication by the manufacture of water-proof More importantly, any such Francesco d’Errico and colleagues clothing and shoe wear. Danish comparisons need to be put showed that the awls from the environmental researcher Bent into historical perspective: the Grotte du Renne had been subjected Sørensen18 argues that even during average campsite of the late to an intensive use — a minimum the interglacial, Neanderthals Upper Palaeolithic is indeed more of 20,000 perforations on 2.5 mm faced a considerable heat-loss complex than the average campsite

In my view, therefore, the right question to ask is why material manifestations of symbolism do not appear in the archaeological record until much later than one million years ago

thick leather, with many, given their problem, and tailored clothes of the Middle Palaeolithic. Does fineness, having probably been used would have been necessary for this relate primarily to the anatomy on lesser resistant materials, such as survival. So, even considering the of the human populations involved furs, bird hides or intestines. One can differences in body mass and other or to intensification over time, i.e., hardly think of what such intensive anatomical details, for a human to the higher levels of knowledge use might have been for if not the – Neanderthal or modern – the of and control over the environment making of tailored clothes; thus, simple fact of successful settlement acquired across the tens of of cold-temperate and subarctic millennia involved, as generation environments implies technologies after generation people innovated, and modes of social organisation experimented, failed, tried again without which survival would and passed on the learning so have been impossible. In Ice Age accumulated to their descendants? Europe, therefore, the difference This would bring about an increase between the Middle and the Upper in numbers as a side effect of Palaeolithic archaeological records adaptive success and trigger a is primarily one of visibility, not feedback mechanism promoting one of cognition or biologically further intensification as hitherto based behaviour. untapped niches had to be exploited and the technologies to do that had A further problem with the to be invented. Since no one tries to ‘biologisation’ of the variation explain the Industrial Revolution observed in the culture of Upper in terms of biologically based Pleistocene humans is that it is behavioural variables, why should Team on excavation in Murcia frequently framed by anachronistic we think the approach is valid for comparisons. For instance, the the Upper Palaeolithic Revolution? if, in subarctic environments, such argument that ‘Neanderthal’ camp tasks are primarily female ones, sites are ‘less elaborated and This does not mean that important then the earliest real evidence for structured’ than ‘modern’ ones is biological factors were not at work the existence of an institutionalised predicated on the use of European throughout. Erik Trinkaus, in sexual division of labour is in fact Upper Palaeolithic camp sites as the particular, has suggested that many found among Neanderthal, not standard for a modern camp site and anatomical changes observed at this modern human societies. of European Middle Palaeolithic time, namely the trend to overall camp sites for a Neanderthal camp skeletal and dental gracilisation, were In actual fact, tailoring and site. But the conclusion would have probably triggered by technological shoemaking are also intimated by to be reversed if the habitation developments. The point is, such results from the analysis of the features apparent in the Grotte du changes are observed among both residue found on a flint flake from Renne’s Châtelperronian level moderns and Neanderthals (as the German site of Neumark-Nord, X were used as the Neanderthal in, e.g., the post-crania of Saint- dated to >100,000 years ago. The standard and the lack of any Césaire). Understanding them

12 Radical Anthropology therefore requires units of analysis ‘us’ versus ‘them’ confrontation. mix, the smaller population (in our that go way beyond the simplistic Instead, the problem is: Why is case, the Eurasian Neanderthals) opposition between Neanderthals it that the anatomical gestalt that will always be absorbed by the larger on one hand and modern humans prevailed in the mixed populations (in our case, the African moderns). on the other. In my opinion, these resulting from the process of Of course, the other things never all examples show that the problem interbreeding was the ‘modern’ and remain equal, so we also have to lies in the Human Revolution not the ‘Neanderthal’ straitjacket. From within such one? a frame of mind, scholars are inevitably led to treat Neanderthal- As with all complex modern human interaction as an problems, it is vain to abstract, totally ahistorical game look for single-cause played between two reified entities explanations for the with little (if any) relation to observed outcome. actual empirical realities, as if a People often overlook Neanderthal of 100,000 years ago that explaining historical was the same thing as a Neanderthal processes implies looking of 50,000 years ago, and as if a at different scales, in modern human of today or of 20,000 both time and space, and years ago was the same thing as a that general explanations modern human of 200,000 years valid in the long-term ago. or on a transcontinental scale may well be So, to me, the way forward is to treat irrelevant to explain what what happened in the late Middle happened in the short- and early Upper Pleistocene from term or on a regional the perspective of (palaeo-)history scale. In short, framing and (palaeo-)ethnography. We the issue of the fate of the will never understand this critical Neanderthals in terms period of our past if we reduce the of simple dichotomies biological and cultural variation (us versus them, smart that existed at the time to the two versus stupid, adaptive Measuring ESR, Oase excavation, Romania anatomically defined categories of versus maladaptive, ‘Neanderthals’ and ‘modern humans’. The problem is not one of who won the ‘us’ versus RA: If we now all agree ‘them’ confrontation. Instead, the problem is: that Neanderthals were not stupid, and showed similar if culturally distinctive abilities, Why is it that the anatomical gestalt that prevailed what then is your view on the fate of the Neanderthals? in the mixed populations was the ‘modern’ Why are we here and not them? and not the ‘Neanderthal’ one?

JZ: Although it is unquestionably etc.) is easy, convenient and include issues of selection (natural, true that, as a population/subspecies readily understandable; it is also sexual or cultural) and contingency displaying a consistent set of fundamentally wrong. in the equation. anatomical traits, Neanderthals disappeared some time between To me, the starting point is the Perhaps facial gracility was 35,000 and 40,000 years ago, general biogeographical law that, all somehow selectively advantageous that does not mean that they went other things remaining equal, if the in the environment of accelerated extinct without descent. Given barriers (environmental, climatic, technological innovation that the fossil and genetic evidence for geographical, behavioural or other) characterises the period of contact interbreeding at the time of contact, between two populations that in Europe. And catastrophic events, I think the question that you ask evolved in isolation for a significant such as the major volcanic explosion should in fact be rephrased. The amount of time disappear and the that occurred near Naples 39,000 problem is not one of who won the two genetic reservoirs effectively years ago (which probably wiped

13 Radical Anthropology out the mixed populations of south- the Châtelperronian was one of your work? Or do you think such eastern Europe soon after contact), individually worn ornaments, then sharp and polarised controversy is may also have contributed to dilute quantity cannot be automatically part of the process of science when the strength of the Neanderthal translated into quality, as it may cherished myths are challenged? At genetic signal. Or possibly social well have taken 20, 50 or 100 shell what point does politics interfere and economic practices and beads to produce the functional with science? strategies gave rise to a differential equivalent of a single perforated in fertility favouring the peoples of carnivore tooth. JZ: Of course the palaeo- the Protoaurignacian. anthropological community hasn’t Finally, the last major problem with responded dispassionately! And I The problem is that, so far, no the ‘us-versus-them’ approach is wouldn’t have expected it to in the evidence has been found that that it frames the actual historical first place, because scientists are the Protoaurignacian was indeed process in terms of competition also human beings; although trained characterised by greater extractive only, and one that confronted to be much more open-minded than efficiency and cultural complexity. two monolithic, reified entities. the average street man, scientists are Its possession of figurative art is ‘Modern’ and ‘Neanderthal’ are nonetheless influenced by widely often advanced as proof, but the 19th-21st century AD categories, shared cultural values, by academic widespread notion that Europe’s to my mind very useful in some environments, and by personal earliest modern humans were scientific contexts and very useless interests. Also, science is in many ‘astonishingly precocious’ artists in others. But can we realistically ways inherently conservative, and misrepresents the facts. The earliest assume that, at the time of contact will resist paradigm change until such art anywhere in the world are anywhere in Europe, a ‘modern and unless it cannot be avoided; and the ivory sculptures of the German human’ would have known that he/ for good reason, as it too follows she was ... a ‘modern human’ the old common sense principle (and ditto for Neanderthals)? that ‘if it isn’t broken, don’t fix Although it simplifies things it!’ Until about five years ago to talk about the spread my Neanderthal/modern human of ‘modern humans’ into papers submitted for publication Europe, what the record systematically faced more than actually shows is a spread of 50% hostile (often very hostile) the Protoaurignacian culture. reviews. Still, in my experience, There is good reason to think journal editors were more often that the modern human gestalt than not inclined to listen to my hitchhiked the spread of the rebuttals, and as a result the papers Protoaurignacian, but this eventually all got published, read does not have to have been as and discussed. a result of the ‘victory’ of a monolithic biocultural entity. So, I have no complaints: the In fact, it is much easier to scientific process worked. It was not explain the process as a result easy, but then again it never is, and of the widespread adoption that’s how it should be: science can Author on excavation in Murcia of cultural innovations via live with harsh and unfair criticism, contact, exchange, co-operation but not with complacency. Aurignacian and the Chauvet cave and interbreeding. As is always the paintings. But, in good agreement case in such situations, competition I don’t think ‘politics’ are with the nature of the associated and conflict inevitably must have involved in these controversies, stone tools, the range of dates entered the equation, but reducing although they are often permeated, obtained for these manifestations the process to a confrontation especially in the media, by ‘political falls entirely within the Aurignacian between two peoples/armies correctness’ issues. For instance, II, i.e., they postdate by some five battling for living space is what I the notion was promoted that, by millennia the time of contact in would call the videogame view of showing that we all shared a very Europe. At that time, the only the Transition: fine for Hollywood, recent common ancestry, RAO and archaeologically visible difference not so for palaeoanthropology. the Mitochondrial Eve hypothesis is that the Protoaurignacian provided a scientific weapon features a lot more objects of RA: Do you feel the archaeo- against racism. I always found this personal ornamentation. But, if logical and palaeoanthropological to be a very dangerous argument, the Protoaurignacian was a culture community has responded in a spirit as it implied that perhaps racism of composite beadworks whereas of dispassionate enquiry towards would be scientifically justified if

14 Radical Anthropology the opposite ‘candelabra’ model political attitudes and choices Also, as Svante Pääbo rightly of a very distant common ancestor should be dictated by the ethical and pointed out in the initial stages of and largely separate evolutionary social issues of the present, to which the Neanderthal genome project, trajectories in Africa, Asia and knowing what exactly happened we may even eventually learn from Europe were to have been shown to the Neanderthals 40,000 years the Neanderthals things about our correct. ago is not, I’m afraid, of much genes that will have medical and relevance. Finding it out helps us therapeutical applications. This is Awareness of the influence of in understanding ourselves as a good enough for me as ‘political’ politics, culture and intellectual biological species, and in learning justification for doing ‘Neanderthal’ traditions in interpretations of more about our place in the natural science (read the adjective as you human evolution is needed. But world and about cultural process. wish!).

João Zilhão is professor of Palaeolithic Archaeology at the University of Bristol, Dept of Archaeology and Anthropology. In 1998, he directed the salvage excavation of the Early Upper Paleolithic child burial of Lagar Velho (Portugal) and, in 2004-2005, the archaeological excavations at the Peştera cu Oase (Romania), site of Europe’s earliest modern humans. Ongoing projects include the Middle Palaeolithic sequence of Cueva Antón (Spain).

Notes

1. Hublin, J-J., F. Spoor , M. Braun, Slatkin, R. Nielsen, J. Kelso, M. Lachmann, Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 16-40. F. Zonneveld and S. Condemi 1996. A D. Reich and S. Pääbo 2010. A Draft 12. Zilhão, J., D. Angelucci, E. Badal- late Neanderthal associated with Upper Sequence of the Neandertal Genome. García, F. d’Errico, F. Daniel, L. Dayet; K. Palaeolithic artefacts. Nature 381: 224–226. Science 328: 710-722. Douka, T. F. G. Higham, M. J. Martínez- 2. Stringer, C., and C. Gamble 1993. In 8. Gould , S. J. 2002 The structure of Sánchez, R. Montes-Bernárdez, S. Murcia- Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the puzzle evolutionary theory. Cambridge (MA): The Mascarós, C. Pérez-Sirvent, C. Roldán- of human origins. London: Thames & Hudson Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. García, M. Vanhaeren, V. Villaverde, R. 3. D’Errico, F., J. Zilhão, D. Baffier, M. 9. Trinkaus, E. and J. Zilhão 2002. Wood, J. Zapata 2010. Symbolic use of Julien, J. Pelegrin 1998. Neanderthal Phylogenetic implications. In J. Zilhão and marine shells and mineral pigments by acculturation in Western Europe? A critical E. Trinkaus (eds), Portrait of the Artist as Iberian Neandertals. Proceedings of the review of the evidence and Its interpretation. a Child. The Gravettian Human Skeleton National Academy of Sciences USA 107: 1023-1028. Current Anthropology 39: S1-S44. from the Abrigo do Lagar Velho and its 13. Bar-Yosef Mayer, D. E., B. 4. Zilhão, J. and F. d’Errico 1999. The Archeological Context, Lisboa: Instituto Vandermeersch and O. Bar-Yosef 2009. chronology and taphonomy of the earliest Português de Arqueologia, pp. 497–518; Shells and ochre in Middle Paleolithic Aurignacian and its implications for the Trinkaus, E., S. Milota, R. Rodrigo, M. Qafzeh Cave, Israel: indications for modern understanding of Neanderthal extinction. Gherase and O. Moldovan 2003. Early behavior. Journal of Human Evolution 56: 307-314. 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Wheeler 1995. perspective on the origins of behavioural Academy of Sciences USA 100: 11231–11236. The expensive tissue hypothesis: the brain ‘modernity’. Journal of Archaeological 10. Teschler-Nicola, M. (ed.) 2006 Early and the digestive system in human and Research, 15: 1-54. modern humans at the Moravian gates: primate evolution. Current Anthropology 36: 199-221; Aiello, L. C., and C. Key, 7. Green, R. E., J. Krause, A. W. Briggs, Mladec Caves and their remains. Wien: Springer-Verlag. 2002. Energetic Consequences of Being a T. Maricic, U. Stenzel, M. Kircher, N. Homo erectus Female. American Journal of Patterson, H. Li, W. Zhai, M. H. Fritz, N. 11. d’Errico, F., C. Henshilwood, M. Human Biology 14: 551-565; Barrickman, F. Hansen, E. Y. Durand, A. Malaspinas, Vanhaeren and K. van Niekerk 2005 N. L., M. L. Bastian, K. Isler and C. P. van J. D. Jensen, T. Marques-Bonet, C. Alkan, Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from Schaik. 2008. Life history costs and benefits K. Prüfer, M. 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15 Radical Anthropology Ian Watts Was there a human revolution?

Ian Watts, longtime member of the Radical Anthropology Group and one of the world’s leading specialists on early symbolic materials, defends the ‘human revolution’.

sometime between 80-60,000 years ago. Most significant about these burials was that two were clearly symbolically elaborated: a middle-aged man clasping a boar’s mandible, and a youth clasping a deer’s antler. Prior to this re-dating, most archaeologists agreed that there was no compelling evidence for symbolic behaviours older than about 40,000 years old. It seemed clear to me that the Skhul and Qafzeh burials implied not only that symbolic culture was older than previously thought, but that it had evolved first in Africa among early Homo sapiens. It was to take another 15 years before the archaeological community at large Ian Watts Ian would come to share this view.

The bizarre thing about this date of 40,000 for symbolism was World’s oldest engraving, 100,000 year-old ochre from Blombos, found by the author that in introductory anthropology textbooks of the 1980s it was still he debate between the ‘African Eve’ hypothesis, and common to find the claim that an marxists and feminists was to become the consensus in the essentially ‘human’ way of life, over the roots of 1990s. Previously, it had widely been hunting and gathering, a home-base women’s oppression thought that regional populations arrangement, a sexual division of brought me to of modern humans evolved largely labour, and even language, all went anthropology and archaeology independently of each other over back about 1.5 to 2 million years. Tin the late 1980s. This was an immense periods. This extreme gradualism had been exceptionally exciting time in premised on two assumptions: human origins research, all the Also in the late 1980s, new dating first, that the association of stone more so for me as I assimilated the techniques were applied to two cave tools with bones of large animals latest developments through the lens sites in Palestine, containing burials in Africa implied hunting; second, of Chris Knight’s ‘sex-strike’ model of early Homo sapiens. Previously that the reduction in sexual of the origins of symbolic culture, thought to be in the order of dimorphism seen with Homo submitted as a Ph.D. thesis in 1987. 40,000 years old, they turned out erectus implied reduced levels of to be closer to 100,000 years old, inter-male competition and hence A 1987 genetics paper had argued representing an early migration stable pair-bonding. 1980s research that everyone on earth was of our species out of Africa. This had shown that scavenging was descended from a single African population is now thought to have a better explanation for the early woman (technically a single mtDNA become extinct, with all non- bone/stone tool associations, while lineage) living around 200,000 African people today descended effective hunting of medium to years ago. This became known as from a migration that occurred large game could only be inferred

16 Radical Anthropology from about half a million years ago. for the earliest African beads – to explore the communicative The reduction in sexual dimorphism associated with an industry thought implications. turned out to be evidence of to represent the earliest Later Stone females getting bigger, and was Age. For most archaeologists, the On the other hand, the field more informative about changes in Middle and Later Stone Ages of requiring explanation – symbolic life-history variables than levels of sub-Saharan Africa stood in the culture – appears to defy the inter-male competition. same relationship to each other as ‘selfish-gene’ logic of modern the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic Darwinism2. Chomsky’s legacy The final refuge of those defending in Eurasia (although lone voices of excluding social context from extreme gradualism has been the in South African archaeology had language origins debates is observation that some late Asian been challenging this view in the discussed by Knight in this issue. To Homo erectus crania had capacities 1980s). Overall, 40,000 appeared make matters worse, the discipline falling within the modern human to be a date of global significance. best equipped to discuss symbolic range. Did this mean the cognitive But the change in phrase from culture – social anthropology – hardware for symbolic reference ‘symbolic explosion’ to ‘human had spent most of the twentieth and language evolved shortly after revolution’ acknowledged the huge century refusing to engage with 2 million years ago? But the overall discrepancy between the timing evolutionary theory. Consequently, trend in the brain-size story is of of our speciation (c.200,000 years social anthropologists didn’t even two periods of significant increase, ago) and the earliest compelling recognise the significance of our the first with early Homo, around 2 evidence for symbolism. If ‘we’ recent African origin. Here, at last mya, the second occurring within (Europeans) hadn’t morphed from was an origins story that could make the last half million years, when Neanderthals, and we (Homo sense of the symbolic universals H.erectus had given rise to H. sapiens) weren’t a symbolic species identified by a succession of heidelbergensis in western Eurasia from the outset, then what else other anthropologists, from Lewis Henry and Africa. than a revolution could explain such Morgan, through Tylor, Frazer, a major change? Durkheim, and Lévi-Strauss. Few palaeoanthropologists or archaeologists directly confronted Neither ‘the symbolic explosion’ Twenty years on, ‘the human the sharp contradiction between nor ‘the human revolution’ actually revolution’ has almost dropped this gradualist perspective and explained anything: They simply out of archaeological and wider the absence of generally agreed flagged a dramatic change in the palaeoanthropological discussion of evidence for symbolic behaviours archaeological record. Despite a human evolution. This can largely prior to 40,000 years ago. The few brave attempts,1 archaeologists be attributed to archaeological developments in the late 1980s weren’t equipped to explain this findings resulting from the new forced a If we weren’t a symbolic species from the outset, then what else other than a revolution could explain such a major change? reevaluation. A second catchphrase phenomenon. Indeed, I don’t research agenda posed by the – ‘the human revolution’ – joined think any single discipline was so discrepancy in dates between ‘African Eve’. In a sense this equipped. our speciation and evidence for was simply relabelling what had symbolism. A succession of papers previously been referred to as ‘the On the one hand, any explanation from 2002 onwards demonstrated symbolic explosion’ associated with had to start from Darwinian African traditions of geometric the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic premises. More specifically, engraving and bead manufacture transition in Europe and western I’d argue, it has to start from a between 80-60,000 years ago, Asia, around 40,000 years ago. This behavioural ecology perspective, a date recently pushed back to transition marked the beginning of focussing on conflicts and trade- c.100,000 years ago3. This means the replacement of Neanderthals by offs between male and female there was no revolution at 40,000 Homo sapiens. reproductive strategies, seasonality, years: Symbolic culture was in place environment and demography. in Africa prior to any migration Forty thousand was also the Into this already complex mix, beyond the continent. It now then current estimate of initial one needs to incorporate sexual looks as if some late Neanderthal occupation of Australia, and selection models of signal evolution populations (prior to contact with

17 Radical Anthropology Homo sapiens) also had symbolic which our model made predictions. pick and choose between females. culture (see João Zilhão, this issue). By far the most detailed, unlikely, Conversely, it reduced costs to those Are we to suppose that two distinct and therefore, refutable predictions males prepared to invest. populations underwent separate concerned an underlying syntax to cognitive revolutions? Isn’t it more the mobilisation of ritual power, While tied to the presence of parsimonious to assume symbolic testable against ethnographic data. real menstrual blood, the initial and linguistic capacities evolved However, with social anthropology ritualised performances were earlier in the shared heritage of the disengaged from evolutionary dubbed ‘sham menstruation’. For two populations? approaches and from ‘grand theory’ such a strategy to be effective in of any kind, response to the paper sending men off on collective big- While the answers to questions came largely from archaeologists, game hunts, then the painting-up of who, when, and where, become who were understandably more song-and-dance would have to be

The change in phrase from ‘symbolic explosion’ to ‘human revolution’ acknowledged the huge discrepancy between the timing of our speciation (c.200,000 years ago) and the earliest compelling evidence for symbolism

clearer, of itself this brings us no interested in claims about the performed regularly, regardless of closer to understanding why and pigment record than in the intricate whether any individual member was how symbolic culture arose. Unless details of rituals and myths. bleeding. This meant a ‘sex strike’, that is, the answers to the ‘who?’, with women declaring themselves ‘when?’, and ‘where?’ questions The model’s point of departure was taboo until men returned with match the predictions of a pre- to address how evolving hominin the meat. If their taboo status was existing hypothesis or model of the females met the unprecedented marked by ‘blood’, then, extended to origins of symbolic culture. Then maternal energy costs of bearing the blood of game animals, raw meat ears should prick up. This is exactly larger-brained offspring given that likewise became taboo, prohibiting the case with the archaeological brain size increased exponentially hunters from consuming their record of earth pigment use. between c. 500-150,000 years ago. kills out in the bush – a ‘hunter’s The hypothesis was that coalitions own-kill’ rule.6 So hunters had Fifteen years ago, I co-authored of females used sexual signals to surrender their kills to women a paper with Chris Knight and to influence male behaviour, who, as custodians of cooking fire, Camilla Power presenting an ultimately securing regular male could transform the raw into the updated version of Knight’s original provisioning in the form of animal cooked. In establishing the identity thesis on the origins of symbolic fats. More specifically, female of bleeding women and animals, culture.4 We predicted: i) that coalitions used male interest humans created the first collective the earliest pigment use should in menstruation as a signal of deception – a shared fantasy that is not predate c.500,000 years ago; impending fertility. Compared to the essence of symbolic culture. The ii) an initial and prevailing focus pregnant and lactating females, a model specified a lunar cosmology, on blood reds; iii) that initial use menstrual female is a good bet to with performances tied to the dark would be irregular, but that before be fertile soon. The problem for moon, with the return of the hunt modern brain sizes were achieved, the burdened pregnant and breast- and lifting of blood taboos at full there should be a shift to regular feeding females is that males will moon. use. A further prediction was be all too inclined to focus their that where appropriate pigments efforts on the menstrual females. Archaeologists had long known that weren’t available, people should To counteract this, coalitions of earth pigment use, either red ochre incur considerable costs to procure females appropriated the blood and or black manganese, significantly them5. This was just one subset took control of the dangerous signal, predated 40,000 years, with the of archaeological predictions, and by using cosmetic substitutes such earliest ochre occurrences dating archaeology was just one among as red ochre. This drove up costs at least 250,000 years old. They several disciplinary fields across to philanderer males who tried to had rightly been wary of inferring

18 Radical Anthropology symbolic culture on this basis alone. probably then. As it turns out, this that Blombos inhabitants went to Moreover, in the absence of detailed was an over-interpretation of the greater lengths to get these pigments studies, it was generally thought that data, due to inadequate dating of in the later stages of occupation than there was little difference between one key sequence (Border Cave), in earlier stages due to changes in the European and African records. and inadequate sampling of the local environment. Curtis Marean The topic was thought unlikely to ochre at another (Klasies River). invited me to join the team working be informative about differences between Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens (and their respective immediate ancestors).

When we wrote the 1995 paper, I had recently returned from South Africa, examining Middle Stone Age (MSA) pigment assemblages held in various universities and museums. Pigments were absent or rare in the earliest MSA sequences, but were regular (within sequences) and virtually ubiquitous (between shelter sites) by the early Late Pleistocene. From a few sites in the Northern Cape and the East African tropics, pigments were reported from earlier but undated contexts. The overwhelming majority of material, especially in early contexts, was red ochre. These preliminary results seemed Chris Knight to accord with the predictions of Climbing up to Blombos Cave entrance our model.

While ochre use of itself cannot be used to infer symbolic culture, habitual and widespread use, with consistent colour selection, can

However, archaeologists had raised My post-doctoral research has at nearby Pinnacle Point. There the a number of objections to the involved working on two excavation sequence goes back to c.164,000 common-sense inference that red projects along the southern Cape years; the same selective criteria ochre was primarily the residue of coast. Chris Henshilwood and Judy among utilised pigments apply.12 ritual body-painting. The ‘ochre’ Sealy invited me to join the Blombos might be fire-reddened deposit, Cave excavation project. This While ochre use of itself cannot or a tanning agent, or sun-block, site provided the first compelling be used to infer symbolic culture, or insect repellent, etc.. My Ph.D symbolic evidence in the MSA, habitual and widespread use, thesis addressed these issues, by initially with a couple of geometric with consistent colour selection, investigating temporal patterning engravings on pieces of ochre,8 and can. In this scenario, the beads of and colour selection in more detail. then with marine-shell beads – c.80-75,000 years ago are telling My key conclusion was that there some bearing traces of ochre.9 Both us something about historical was evidence for symbolic culture came from layers dated to c.75,000 developments, not about the initial in southern Africa from at least years. My own contribution was conditions and form of symbolic c.110,000 years ago.7 My data in finding additional geometric culture. also indicated that there was an engravings on ochre, taking the explosion in ochre use at around tradition back 100,000 years.10 My current understanding of the this time, which led me to a more I also found that MSA people picture is that use of red ochre contentious conclusion: that if there chose to use and modify the most in Africa probably extends back was a ‘human revolution’, it was saturated reds11. It also appeared between 500-400,000 years ago.

19 Radical Anthropology Between 300-200,000 years ago, the early history of our species, symbolic culture evolved. Power14 immediately prior to our speciation, isolating small sub-populations in has suggested that Neanderthals a couple of sites within the tropics refuge environments during the and their European ancestors, living demonstrate that such use was arid conditions of the penultimate in a more seasonal environment regular. In South Africa, however, it glacial. The implications and issues (encouraging birth synchrony), appears that ochre use only became are nicely summarised in a recent would have had more stable pair- regular and ubiquitous during the paper by Marean.13 bonds than evolving Homo sapiens. penultimate glacial cycle (the end Especially during Ice Ages, of the Middle Pleistocene, between In Europe and India, there are a Eurasian females would be under 190-130,000 years ago), remaining handful of ochre finds between less pressure to engage in costly so thereafter. This rests on the 300-200,000 years ago. This ritual display to mobilise male absence of pigments in the few implies that selection pressures labour. Under milder (less seasonal) very early (but currently undated) pushing ritual performance were conditions, such as interglacials, MSA cave assemblages, together common across the whole grade this might break down, which would with its regular occurrence in of H. heidelbergensis lineages. lead to the patchy sporadic nature overlying MSA assemblages at the However, there then follows a of the Eurasian record. Testing same sites. Key here is the Border Eurasian find-gap lasting at least this hypothesis offers a direction Cave (Kwa-Zulu Natal) sequence: 100,000 years, and there is very for future work. In Africa, I think pigment is rare in the two earliest little Neanderthal use until after that regular use of red ochre – an excavation units where deposition c.60,000 years ago. When it does index of habitual collective ritual of the younger unit is now thought pick up, in France at least, it’s as – is implicated in our speciation. to have begun around 200,000 likely to be black manganese as red The behavioural changes involved years ago; by contrast, pigment ochre. Around this time, we have promoted the subtle morphological occurs regularly throughout the the compelling Spanish evidence changes by which our speciation is overlying sequence, the oldest layer for symbolism discussed by Zilhão. identified. of which has provided age estimates However, Neanderthal pigment use between c.170-150,000 years ago never seems to become ubiquitous, Such a process is entirely consistent – the middle of the penultimate but remains fairly localised. This with Darwinism, but it was also glacial. might reflect geological constraints, revolutionary, not just in its

Habitual use of red ochre seems to be a hallmark of the spread of modern humans across the world

As previously noted, there are but I doubt it. It seems to accord consequences, but in principle, as it earlier pigments in South Africa, with Zilhão’s suggestion that involved the overthrow of primate associated with an industry, the locally contingent ecological and male dominance as a viable Fauresmith, generally considered demographic factors played an strategy. This created sufficient transitional between the Early and important role. Widespread and levels of within-group trust for cheap, Middle Stone Ages. The Fauresmith regular use of red ochre is restricted linguistic forms of communication was long suspected to be more to incoming Homo sapiens and to get off the ground, in the context than 250,000 years old, but recent those last Neanderthals who were of rules of distribution governing dating of one sequence indicates it the authors of the Châtelperronian kinship, marriage and economics. It extends back at least 464 ±47,000 industry, living in the shadow of the was from these rules that all other years. We know very little about newcomers. Indeed, habitual use of ‘institutional facts’ flowed. While these pigment assemblages, whether red ochre seems to be a hallmark there can be little doubt that there use was regular, or how far back of the spread of modern humans were significant developments in any regularity extends. However, across the world. the cognitive and communicative we cannot speak of a continuous abilities of earlier hominins, if by tradition, directly linking this There are, therefore, very ‘language’ we mean anything like material with that from c.160,000 pronounced differences between our own linguistic abilities, then I’m years ago. I think it’s important to the pigment records of the two of the view that you either can or bear in mind that palaeogeneticists lineages, and I think these speak can’t enter into a domain of shared infer a major population crash in to the questions of why and how fantasies, of which language is just

20 Radical Anthropology one aspect. It makes little sense to eventually succeeded, but only after markers in regions of the highest suggest that this evolved gradually what appears to have been one or population density. over two million years, leaving no more false starts. Its initial success trace until 250,000, 100,000 or may have been restricted to a tiny None of this is fundamentally at 40,000 years ago. Complexity may population living in a specific area odds with Zilhão’s position on require both a gradualist history – all within the African tropics. Neanderthal symbolism, although kinds of conditions may need to be obviously I don’t share his gradualist met beforehand – and a revolution. As to the question of why perspective on why this has to be A leap to a new level of complexity pigment use is the characteristic taken back over a million years. In can follow the resolution of some archaeological feature of this the Neanderthal case, the evolution previously insuperable problem. hypothesised revolution for the of symbolic culture didn’t result in first hundred thousand years of change to their archaic morphology, The history of the Russian revolution our species’ history, and why but it may have been none the less may provide a heuristically migration beyond Africa was so revolutionary, and probably sprung useful way of approaching late, I suggest that the maxim ‘if from similar selection pressures – the discontinuity between the it ain’t broke, don’t fix it’ probably enabling females to provide for their Fauresmith and Middle Stone Age applies. While population densities large-brained offspring. As Zilhão pigment records. The Bolshevik were low, the initial human hunter- observes, why should revolution revolution of October 1917 was gatherer economy – monthly big- necessarily be tied into biological preceded by the respectively game hunts, mobilised through change? A critical difference for us failed and partial revolutions of collective ritual – was sufficient. as researchers, however, is that in the 1905 and February 1917. The In the early Late Pleistocene, under Homo sapiens case, we can investigate October revolution didn’t catalyse milder, less seasonal conditions, predictions concerning the form of a global communist revolution regional African populations grew symbolic culture not only against the because it failed to link up with the rapidly. While this may not have archaeological record, but also against revolutionary moments in Europe significantly undermined the basis ethnographic data. Alas, we don’t have between 1918-1921, critically in of the original economy, it probably Neanderthal myths against which to Germany. The human revolution did require elaboration of social test our theories today!

Ian Watts gained his Ph.D. at University College London in 1998 joining the Blombos project in 1999, and the Pinnacle Point project in 2005. Alongside his main focus on the archaeology of early symbolic behaviours, he has published on African hunter-gatherer initiation ritual, lunar cosmology and hunting practice. [email protected]

Notes

1. Stringer, C., and C. Gamble 1993. In 4. Knight, C., C. Power, and I. Watts Blombos Cave: Evidence for symbolic Search of the Neanderthals: Solving the 1995. The Human Symbolic Revolution: behaviour in the Middle Stone Age. puzzle of human origins. London: Thames A Darwinian account’. Cambridge Journal of Human Evolution, 48: 3–24. & Hudson; Mithen, S. 1996. The prehistory Archaeological Journal 5: 75-114. 10. Henshilwood et al. 2009. of the mind: the cognitive origins of art, 5. Power, C. 2009. Sexual selection 11. Watts, I. 2009. Red ochre, body religion and science. London: Thames & models for the emergence of symbolic Hudson. painting and language: Interpreting the communication: Why they should be Blombos ochre, in R. Botha and C. Knight 2.See Knight, C., R. Dunbar and C. Power reversed, in R. Botha and C. Knight (eds.) (eds.) The Cradle of Language, pp. 62–92. 1999. An evolutionary approach to human The Cradle of Language, Oxford: Oxford culture, in R. Dunbar, C. Knight and C. University Press, p. 273, Table 14.2. 12. Marean, C, M. Bar-Matthews, J. Power (eds.) The Evolution of Culture, Bernatchez, E. Fisher, P. Goldberg, A. 6. Knight, C. 1991. Blood Relations: I. R. Herries, Z. Jacobs, A. Jerardino, P. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Menstruation and the Origins of Culture. pp.1-11. Karkanas, T. Minichillo, P. J. Nilssen, E. New Haven and London: Yale University Thompson, I. Watts and H. M. Williams 3. Henshilwood, C. S., F. d’Errico, R. Press. 2007. Early human use of marine resources Yates, Z. Jacobs, C. Tribolo, G. Duller, 7. Watts, I. 1999. The origin of symbolic and pigment in South Africa during the N. Mercier, J. Sealy, H. Valladas, I. Watts culture, in R. Dunbar, C. Knight and C. Middle Pleistocene. Nature 449: 905–908; and A. Wintle 2002. Emergence of modern Power (eds.) The Evolution of Culture, Watts, I. (in press). The pigments from human behaviour: Middle Stone Age Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, Pinnacle Point. Journal of Human engravings from South Africa, Science, pp. 113–146. Evolution. 295: 1278–1280; Henshilwood, C. S., F. d’Errico and I. Watts 2009. Engraved 8. Henshilwood et al. 2002. 13. Marean, C. 2010. When the sea saved ochres from Middle Stone Age levels at humanity. Scientific American, August, pp. 9. d’Errico, F., C. Henshilwood, M. 41-47. Blombos Cave, South Africa, Journal of Vanhaeren and K. van Niekerk 2005. Human Evolution, 57: 27–47. Nassarius kraussianus shell beads from 14. Power 2009.

21 Radical Anthropology Chris Knight The Enigma of Noam Chomsky Responding to Chomsky’s interview in Radical Anthropology in Issue 2, Chris Knight explores the paradoxical relationship between his activism and his science.

Radical Anthropology: Chomsky is as a computational device.4 It’s He uses language precisely to a celebrated intellectual figurehead almost as if Chomsky the activist communicate – to denounce his own on the left. In your articles,1 you wasn’t responsible for the science. state, his own government, his own always seem negative about his That comes from a different region employers, his own institutional overall contribution. Why is that? of his brain. milieu. Short of denouncing his own science, Chomsky Chris Knight: I’m not negative at RA: Our readers might find this hard opposes just about everything he all. Whenever I read Chomsky on, to believe. What does he actually say? embodies in his alternative role. say, US policy in the Middle East, I’m always in wholehearted support. CK: ‘The one talent that I have RA: Are you saying he’s two- Who else tells the truth so bluntly which I know many other friends faced – telling one audience one and so fearlessly? don’t seem to have’, Chomsky thing and another something else? explains, ‘is I’ve got some quirk in RA: So why the criticism? Some my brain which makes it work like CK: The struggle to survive articles – in the Weekly Worker, for separate buffers in a computer.’5 under capitalism forces us all into instance2 – have been pretty savage. One component produces something like double-dealing for science for a definite intellectual much of the time. We’re forced CK: That’s a different Chomsky. constituency while the rest of him into collusion. We compete to find In those articles I’m talking about produces political stuff for a quite jobs, to survive as wage-slaves, the scientist. Distinguishing different audience. As a scientist, to establish at least a modicum of between this person and the he’s anxious to avoid slipping over economic security for ourselves. activist, an interviewer once asked into politics; as an activist, he Yet equally we need to hold our him: ‘What do they say to each strives to avoid anything to do with heads high, to maintain our self- other when they meet?’. Chomsky science.6 Each separate role comes esteem. It’s not always easy to replied: ‘There is no connection, with its own appropriate conceptual reconcile such conflicting priorities. apart from some very tenuous approach and corresponding It’s just that Chomsky exemplifies I prefer to think of him as the conscience of America. Once you view him in that light, the mysteries begin to clear

relations at an abstract level…’ 3 language, resistant to translation this more sharply than most. across the divide. ‘Now exactly So ‘two-faced’ would be unfair. RA: So Chomsky’s really two how one can maintain that sort of I prefer to think of him as the people? schizophrenic existence I am not conscience of America. Once you sure’, Chomsky admitted on another view him in that light, the mysteries CK: In the 1960s he was so occasion, ‘it is very difficult’.7 begin to clear. ‘What is important’, active people thought there must as he explains, ‘is to expose the be six Chomskys! But, yes, two In his scientific capacity, Chomsky crimes of my own state, which at least. When he speaks or views language as a biological are often hidden from view by writes politically, his passions are ‘organ’ or ‘device’. As such, it’s the propaganda institutions’.8 His engaged and he takes full personal devoid of humour, metaphor, political writings are directed first responsibility. In his scientific role, emotion, communicative intent, and foremost against the military- something quite different seems to social meaning or anything else industrial elite employing him. be happening. According to his own people normally think of as When he began working at MIT, account, one modular component language. Meanwhile, the other in his own words, ‘funding was of his brain – ‘the science-forming Chomsky continues to speak and almost entirely the Pentagon. About capacity’ – functions autonomously write much like the rest of us. half the Institute’s budget was

22 Radical Anthropology coming from two major military which he moved. In May 1995, John scientific elite. How could anyone laboratories that they administered, Deutch was sworn in as Director cope – without a modular mind? and of the rest, the academic side, of the Central Intelligence Agency it could have been something like following a unanimous vote in We can surely understand the very 90% or so from the Pentagon. the Senate, making him head of personal horror, almost personal Something like that. Very high. So the intelligence community – in responsibility, Chomsky must have it was a Pentagon-based university. charge of all foreign intelligence felt while working as a respected And I was at a military-funded lab.’9 agencies of the United States. scientist in the belly of the beast. Shortly afterwards, Chomsky was Denouncing other people’s crimes, Chomsky was conducting his interviewed about how well he’d as he puts it, is all too easy. One researches within what had known Deutch as a professional must expose one’s own crimes – the originally been part of the MIT colleague at MIT. ‘We were crimes of one’s own government, Radiation Laboratory, in which radar actually friends’, replied Chomsky, one’s own institutional milieu had been developed during World ‘and got along fine, although we – to retain one’s self-esteem, to War II. Now that Soviet Russia had disagreed on about as many things be able to ‘look at oneself in the replaced Nazi Germany as the main as two human beings can disagree mirror without too much shame’.13 enemy, the military were interested about. I liked him. We got along Chomsky could reconcile his in developing electronic systems for very well together. He’s very honest, conscience with the job he loved

We’re all supposed to keep political activism locked up in a separate box, insulated by a firewall from science. Mindless activism on the one hand; tongue-tied science on the other – that’s been the tragic result purposes of surveillance, weapons very direct. You know where only by publicly lashing out. He ‘command-and-control’ and so you stand with him.’ 11 Chomsky had to denounce the Pentagon – forth.10 Chomsky wasn’t going actively supported Deutch’s the military-industrial complex to roll up his sleeves and build candicacy for the President of sponsoring his own research. anything which actually worked. MIT, much to the surprise of his Insofar as that complex possessed a On the other hand, he had been colleagues. In the event, that bid conscience, Chomsky was it. He has inspired to take up linguistics failed owing to faculty opposition. retained that unique status to this thanks largely to his activist day. That’s why people come from friend Zellig Harris, one of whose It’s important to grasp what’s far and wide to listen to him. It’s not interests was machine translation. happening here. How many left- just his politics and it’s not just his The project to develop automatic wing academics or activists science. What attracts people – what translation by equipping a machine maintain friendships of that kind? carries conviction– is the painfully with something like ‘universal I’m not saying it’s necessarily evident tension between the two. grammar’ was officially part of wrong. Once you’ve committed Chomsky’s first job. Although he yourself to your chosen profession, RA: Yet you are implacably had other ideas, Chomsky evidently you may have little choice. opposed to his science? felt at home analysing language in But Chomsky’s ‘schizophrenic terms of postulated ‘mechanisms’, existence’ surely starts here, among CK: Chomsky resists the ‘devices’, ‘circuits’, ‘switches’, such intense social and professional behaviour of the military- ‘inputs’, ‘outputs’ and so forth. So contradictions. According to his industrial elite while endorsing it’s not that Pentagon pressure to own account, ‘the CIA does what and embodying its philosophy – its develop their ‘language machine’ it wants’, conducting assassinations, utterly bourgeois notion of ‘science’. distorted Chomsky’s thinking about bombings, invasions, mass murder Let me put it this way. Imagine the how to revolutionise linguistics. of civilians and various other crimes most reactionary possible ideology. It’s not that he took the money and against humanity.12 While aware of Imagine bourgeois individualism sold his soul. In purely intellectual the criminality of his institutional carried to its absolute logical terms, he was already there. milieu, Chomsky rubs shoulders extreme. Imagine a philosopher with these people, works for them, who took René Descartes’ dictum ‘I Now let’s consider the circles in is part of the same professional and think, therefore I am!’ as his point

23 Radical Anthropology of departure. Imagine going further is that I think they are relatively because it’s already there, being even than Descartes in insisting unimportant… Learning language present in every child thanks to its that language exists only in the is something like undergoing DNA. The child just has to find out individual head, not to enable social puberty. You don’t learn to do it; which locally conventional sound communication but merely to enable you don’t do it because you see to attach to the carburetor-concept thought. According to this ideology, other people doing it; you are just already in its brain. Asked whether no one else is required. You don’t designed to do it at a certain time’.14 Homo sapiens possessed the need language to share with anyone According to Chomsky, the concept of a carburetor thousands of else, listen to anyone else, learn underlying principles of grammar years ago, long before the invention

The brain-equals-digital-computer theory marginalises anthropology. Computers don’t have a sense of humour, don’t understand irony or metaphor, don’t try to cheat or lie, don’t have sex, don’t pursue political agendas

of motor cars, Chomsky insists that we must assume no less. As he explains: ‘However surprising the conclusion may be that nature has provided us with an innate stock of concepts, and that the child’s task it to discover their labels, the empirical facts appear to leave open few other possibilities.’ 15

So culture is irrelevant: nothing needs to be learned. Now add to this that you needn’t bother about history: the language organ doesn’t change, it doesn’t undergo significant variation, it doesn’t reflect social or political upheavals, it doesn’t evolve. Imagine someone who claimed that ©ScienceCartoonsPlus.com language was conferred on the first human being in ‘perfect’ or ‘near- perfect’ form as if by ‘a divine architect’.16 Imagine all that and you’re getting close to the scientific worldview of Noam Chomsky. I’m against it not only because it’s nonsense but also because it’s reactionary to the nth degree.

from anyone at all. You know it all are internal features of your RA: Does Chomsky really deny already thanks to your genes. As innate ‘language organ’, installed language’s communicative function? Chomsky explained following a somewhere in your brain. Even lecture about language acquisition: the meanings of words are fixed CK: Language, he insists, ‘is not ‘I emphasized biological facts, and I internal features of this organ, so properly regarded as a system of didn’t say anything about historical not even these need be learned. Take communication… It can of course and social facts. And I am going to the word ‘carburetor’, for example. be used for communication, as say nothing about these elements in According to Chomsky, no child can anything people do – manner language acquisition. The reason needs to learn this lexical concept of walking or style of clothes or

24 Radical Anthropology hair, for example. But in any useful person suddenly got the language a very rare person, almost to the sense of the term, communication faculty, that person would have point of non-existence, who can is not the function of language, great advantages; the person could tolerate what’s called “cognitive and may even be of no unique think, could articulate to itself its dissonance” – saying one thing significance for understanding the thoughts, could plan, could sharpen, and believing another. You start functions and nature of language.’17 and develop thinking as we do saying certain things because it’s in inner speech, which has a big necessary to say them and pretty It’s easy to see why Chomsky must effect on our lives. Inner speech soon you believe them because say such things. To communicate, is most of speech. Almost all the you just have to’.20 Chomsky’s you need someone else. If use of language is to oneself....’19 achievement in this respect – his language were to be regarded as success in splitting himself in two communicative – hence social – I’ve dwelt on all this not to convince – then became in subtle ways a then its study would amount to some you that it’s complete nonsense. model for the rest of us. To this day, kind of social science. Linguistics Of course it’s complete nonsense! we’re all supposed to keep political might then have to retain some That’s not my point. The job of activism locked up in a separate connection with the social science an anthropologist is to conduct an box, insulated by a firewall from tradition, influenced as that is by analysis, something like decoding science. Mindless activism on the Marx. To make matters worse, a myth. Chomsky himself uses the one hand; tongue-tied science on the it might have to connect up with term ‘fairy story’, so we can agree it’s other – that’s been the tragic result. Darwinism, hence with problems pure myth. But why this particular of conflict and competition – again myth? Why those narrative details RA: But isn’t this just an arcane matters of social dynamics, social and not others? And why Chomsky? dispute over what language is and relationships. Why did that particular figure how it might have evolved? Why during that historical conjuncture does it matter so much? How far can

The scientific community needs to defend itself against political interference, no matter how cleverly it is concealed. If science is to come first, we don’t have a choice as to whether to become politically active. If you’re inactive, you’re colluding in someone else’s politics

Anticipating where all this might have to invent that curious myth? you attack Chomsky the linguist lead, Chomsky takes pre-emptive without attacking his politics as well? action. Language, he legislates, is Rather than resort to psychological unconnected with anything else in guesswork, let’s keep to things we CK: Chomsky has certainly the known universe, whether natural know about – to the institutional set things up to make it seem or cultural. It doesn’t have a history; constraints. For Chomsky to manage politically difficult. Yes, the it didn’t evolve. ‘To tell a fairy story his bifurcated life, linguistics at MIT dangers are real. I would perhaps about it, it is almost as if there was had to be perceived as non-political. hold back except for one thing – some higher primate wandering The Pentagon weren’t going to fund the revolution needs to be won. around a long time ago and some an anarchist in his anarchist role. random mutation took place, maybe His officially sponsored science RA: Winning the revolution means after some strange cosmic ray was one thing, his conscience quite overthrowing Chomsky? shower, and it reorganized the brain, another. His entire position – at the implanting a language organ in an best of times a delicate balancing CK: Winning the revolution means otherwise primate brain’.18 Why act – required constant vigilance in overthrowing that elitist philosophy, would such a miracle benefit an maintaining a firewall between the that politics, that class. It means isolated mutant, utterly alone in the two. To prevent leakage either way, putting science first, over and universe – with no one to talk to? the divide had to be categorical: above the needs of big business or Again, the objection is anticipated eliminate every trace of political the military. It means informing and legislated away: ‘Actually, you or even social content from the our practice with what’s best in can use language even if you are science, eliminate every trace of modern science, while at the same the only person in the universe with scientific content from the politics. time liberating science from its language, and in fact it would even How does all this get internalised? current institutional fragmentation have adaptive advantage. If one Chomsky tellingly observes: ‘It’s and political marginalisation. More

25 Radical Anthropology specifically from an anthropological science? scientific, unlike social science. point of view, winning the Language enters into everything revolution means gaining a proper CK: Chomsky’s linguistics is humans do, so whoever conquered understanding of what it means to supposedly non-political. In reality, linguistics, subordinating it to be human. The idea of a mutation though, it’s about as political as the methods of natural science, suddenly installing language is you can get. Prior to Chomsky’s might well hope to conquer the a complete distraction – in my intervention, no one defined rest. And so it turned out. In the view a deliberate one. Whether language as biology and nothing eyes of his supporters, Chomsky language emerged gradually or else. While everyone agreed that was the figure who ‘stormed the suddenly, we need to understand language must have biological Winter Palace’, acting as the most the precursors, the constraints and underpinnings, it was equally prominent standard-bearer for the above all the social dynamics. If the understood to be social, cultural, so-called ‘cognitive revolution’ process was sudden – as Chomsky institutional to the core. It took which quickly came to dominate claims – that implies a social Chomsky to re-invent linguistics as much of linguistics, psychology, revolution. Either way, we need to a rigorously ‘Cartesian’ discipline cognitive science and philosophy. learn as much as we can about that – one confined within the borders He didn’t have to engage directly

The thread connecting Khlebnikov via Jakobson to Lévi-Strauss and Chomsky was a certain conception of freedom — a yearning for necessity imposed not externally but from within

momentous process, that event. of supposedly ‘natural’ science. with anthropology: the revolution was powerful enough to produce More effectively than any During the late 1950s and 1960s, ripples almost everywhere. The intellectual before or since, Chomsky received massive agenda was to discredit Marxism Chomsky has made it seem institutional support for his and replace it with a ‘naturalised’ illegitimate to base revolutionary intervention, which promised to psychology – psychology politics on science. Activists, he turn the tide against the continuing conceptualised as natural science. says, should keep science at arm’s intellectual influence of Marx. Cultural and social phenomena length. You couldn’t get further To finally discredit Marx, there would from now on be explained by away from Marx! Here’s an example seemed to be no choice but to go invoking this or that module, this of how he justifies that stance: ‘The the whole way – the entire western or that fixed property of the brain idea that deep scientific analysis intellectual tradition of social conceived as a digital computer. tells you something about problems science had to go. Could the clock of human beings and our lives and be turned right back to Descartes Central to the ‘cognitive revolution’ our inter-relations with one another or even to Plato? Chomsky offered was this bizarre idea: the human and so on is mostly pretence in my nothing less. No other intellectual brain is a digital computer. It’s opinion – self-serving pretence was in a position to deliver on that a theory which marginalises which is itself a technique of extraordinary promise. No one else evolutionary biology, anthropology, domination and exploitation and had the necessary moral authority sociology and the humanities should be avoided’.21 Marxist or ambition. And as it turned in general – intentionally so. intellectuals, says Chomsky, out, it was a hugely successful Computers don’t have a sense always try to manipulate the attack, whose ramifications of humour, don’t understand masses by invoking the authority are still very much with us. irony or metaphor, don’t try to of science. His own view is that cheat or lie, don’t have sex, don’t activists don’t need science at all: You have to remember that pursue political agendas. Look at everything people need to know linguistics, in the immediate Chomsky’s language organ: it’s as about political matters is present post-war period, was effectively disembodied and lifeless as that. on the surface for all to see. ‘the crown jewels’. It was that There’s apparently no connection discipline within the humanities with the rest of the brain, and no RA: But maybe Chomsky is right which seemed closest to natural connection either with the rest of on that score? Surely it would be science. Mathematics and natural or social life. Provoked by disastrous to mix up politics with physics were viewed as genuinely Chomsky as he relentlessly pursued

26 Radical Anthropology his ‘revolutionary’ agenda, the psychology’, it has only ever been and astral projection’ module.24 ‘linguistics wars’ of the 1960s and applied to just one species – our And so it goes on. Anthropologist 1970s were a disaster for everyone own. Have you ever heard of Pascal Boyer views religious ideas – an intellectual defeat from ‘the evolutionary psychology of as wholly ‘natural’: the modular which we still haven’t recovered. elephants’? Or ‘the evolutionary brain determines which notions psychology of social insects’? Such floating around are likely to get The outcome is that our current things don’t exist because no self- discarded and which passed on.25 state of knowledge resembles a respecting biologist would ever Pioneers in establishing this broken mirror, each fragment consider going down that road. You Alice-in-Wonderland approach telling its own story. We need to put can’t study animals by extrapolating are psychologists John Tooby together the big picture, fighting for from supposed computational and Leda Cosmides. Not satisfied conceptual unification regardless mechanisms inside their brains. with modules in single digits, of the political consequences. You Animals think, they are intelligent, they need vast armies to solve can’t get away from politics – from they are conscious in various ways. every conceivable problem. ‘On power differences, conflicts of But to understand what’s happening, this view’, as they explain, ‘our interest and so forth. In principle, scientists set out from what they do. cognitive architecture resembles

Have you ever heard of ‘the evolutionary psychology of elephants’? Or ‘the evolutionary psychology of social insects’? Such things don’t exist

however, scientific research involves So-called ‘evolutionary psychology’ a confederation of hundreds of accountability and collaboration on is restricted to humans because thousands of functionally dedicated a level transcending such things. our minds alone are imagined computers (often called modules) The scientific community needs to be digital computers whose designed to solve adaptive problems to defend itself against political internal features can be studied endemic to our hunter-gatherer interference, no matter how cleverly independently of what we actually ancestors. Each of these devices it is concealed. If science is to do. has its own agenda and imposes come first, we don’t have a choice its own exotic organization as to whether to become politically A person, according to evolutionary on different fragments of the active. If you’re inactive, you’re psychologist Steven Pinker, is a world’.26 Invent enough modules colluding in someone else’s politics. ‘digital mind in an analog world’.22 and you can ‘naturalistically’ The mind/brain is a digital explain what you like. RA: Can you explain the impact computer, so it doesn’t matter on Darwinism of that ‘cognitive what the physical brain is actually RA: And the effect on revolution’? made of – digital ‘software’ (mind) anthropology? carries identical information CK: A completely new version regardless of the ‘hardware’ (brain) CK: In anthropology, the results of Darwinism emerged, based on which it runs. So let’s ignore have been far-reaching and on the idea that humans alter matter: mind comes first. In similar overwhelmingly reactionary. Take, their behaviour according to how spirit, archaeologist Steven Mithen say, the study of cargo cults in corresponding ‘modules’ evolve pictures Homo sapiens evolving Melanesia. When these were first inside their heads. Nobody ever with a mind divided up into (a) studied, anthropologists treated thought of explaining animal social, (b) natural history and (c) them as indigenous responses behaviour in this way, but then technological intelligence – three to colonial and post-colonial no one ever thought of animal computational modules in all.23 exploitation. The natives apparently brains as digital computers – But what about, say, shamanism? suffered from a strange delusion. In they’re evidently nothing of the What’s the modular explanation for the light of their own tribal values, kind. So we had this new kind of that? The answer duly appeared in a they imagined there must be justice Darwinism, utterly different from scholarly journal: shamanism is the somewhere in the world. When anything Darwin himself could distinctive output of a previously forced to concede that this wasn’t remotely have envisaged. Described unsuspected ‘soul flight, soul so – the rule of the white man was by its supporters as ‘evolutionary journey, out-of-body experience manifestly unjust – they refused

27 Radical Anthropology to give up. Instead, they shifted scientific theory? Is there some The Russian poet who soared responsibility from the living to dialectical process starting highest with such ideas was Velimir the dead. On the day when the dead from a revolutionary tradition? Khlebnikov – the ‘King of Time’ returned to life and established celebrated for predicting the date of their own rule, justice would at last CK: During revolutionary periods, the 1917 revolution back in 1912.29 be done and seen to be done. The those struggling for freedom Khlebnikov’s extraordinary theories white man’s cargo planes and ships invariably resist the prevailing about mathematics, historical time destined for distant lands would deterministic logic – the deadening and language – about the power miraculously reverse direction, belief in iron laws beyond anyone’s of the imagination and the magic bringing untold riches to those who power to defy or overthrow. If of words – heavily influenced had created all that wealth in the revolution is imminent, why not the young linguist and literary first place.27 The new ‘modular’ seize the moment? Why not defy critic Roman Jakobson. Why does approach, however, is to explain the law and, while you’re about it, Jakobson matter? Well, in the 1920s such phenomena psychologically. why not take on nature’s laws as he co-founded the Prague school of Exploitation and oppression well? linguistics. He later became Claude conveniently disappear. The natives’ Lévi-Strauss’ close friend and puzzling behaviour is instead During and immediately following source of theoretical inspiration. traced back to ‘micro-processes the Russian revolution, artists, poets, One final point: in the 1950s, at the psychological level’.28 The musicians and other revolutionary from his office in MIT, Jakobson mind is a mass of computational intellectuals became seized with helped Chomsky to get his first job. modules, and sometimes glitches such hopes and dreams, letting arise. The effect, needless to say, is their imaginations run wild. This RA: So there’s a thread linking to exonerate western capitalism and was the period of cubo-futurism Khlebnikov to Chomsky? colonialism. You can guess who’ll and constructivism – libertarian be funding this kind of anthropology communist/anarchist movements CK: I’ve no evidence Chomsky ever and whose interests are served! heard of Khlebnikov. But Jakobson was a huge influence on twentieth RA: Would you bracket Darwin century linguistics, hence inevitably and Marx together as victims on Chomsky. Jakobson when only a of the cognitive revolution? teenager mingled intimately with It seems an unlikely alliance. Khlebnikov, Mayakovsky and the other ‘futurists’ or ‘cubo-futurists’, CK: Darwin and Marx differed as they called themselves.30 These on many things, but they shared a iconoclasts instinctively embraced belief in the value of conflict, of the October revolution, becoming internal social struggle, of ‘civil in many ways its principal artistic war’ as engines of change. All expression. Khlebnikov explored history is the history of life-and- word roots in his native Russian death struggle for survival, whether convinced that he could unearth between organisms (Darwin) or a ‘transrational’ language of pure classes (Marx). Neither Darwin sounds common to humanity. While nor Marx saw the individual Agitrop poster by Vladimir Mayakovsky perhaps not very scientific, his work mind, whether animal or human, inspired Jakobson, who helped as capable of explaining anything. based on the idea that art was for found a school of linguistics which Both were materialists in that changing reality, not just passively eventually produced ‘distinctive they looked to the body and its reflecting it. Form takes priority over features’ theory. If anything about material interactions – the struggle content. You dream, you play, you linguistics was truly ‘scientific’, to find food, to reproduce and so fantasize – and you fight to realize this was widely tipped to be it. The on – to explain whatever might those dreams. In this spirit, Darwin approach reaches beneath cultural be happening in anyone’s mind. and Marx are turned on their heads. variation to the bedrock of human Those stereotypically grey-bearded, nature – to genetically determined RA: Presumably Chomsky is grim thinkers’ rigidly deterministic, biology and psychology. The not some malevolent scheming spiritually imprisoning ‘laws of pharynx, tongue, lips and so mastermind in the pay of the history’ – whether natural or human forth function as digital switches, Pentagon? What is the intellectual – are cheerfully defied and turned offering no intermediate states ancestry here? How does someone upside-down. Revolution transports between lips ‘open’ and lips ‘closed’, of left-wing anarchist inclination you from the realm of necessity to voicing ‘off’ and voicing ‘on’. end up generating reactionary that of freedom. By combining selected ‘features’

28 Radical Anthropology of this categorical kind, you can working at MIT in the first place? he went quiet on hearing the generate any vowel or consonant in Why did it seem politically terrible news about Hiroshima and any of the world’s languages. So it’s acceptable for an anarchist to rub Nagasaki. Yet the idea of science a kind of universal language rooted shoulders like that with the US against the Nazis was central to in a natural digital apparatus – a scientific and military elite? Let’s the political ethos of the time, universal alphabet of pure sounds. remember how all this started. Go especially if – like Chomsky – you back to the 1930s and to Hitler’s were left-wing and Jewish. And that Is language in its entirety a digital system? And if so, is that a reflection of the innate digital architecture of the distinctively human mind? Under the influence of Jakobson, Lévi- Strauss invented ‘structural anthropology’ on the basis of just that idea. A decade later, Chomsky was gravitating around the same body of theory. Might it be possible, he wondered, to extend distinctive features theory from phonetics through syntax all the way to meaning – to the possibility of some kind of ‘generative semantics’? The idea seemed thrilling since it offered the Kazimir Malevich, ‘The Knife-Grinder’. 1912 Velimir Khlebnikov: ‘the King of Time’ prospect of explaining language in all its aspects in purely biological, rise in Germany. Across Europe political culture didn’t just die at the purely naturalistic terms. What you had a generation of young end of the war. It lived on. When happened next is a long story. scientists, many of them Jewish Chomsky took up linguistics before Suffice it to say that from the anti-fascists and sympathisers with getting his job at MIT, it was with moment it was seriously attempted, the revolutionary cause. When the encouragement of Zellig Harris, Chomsky realised the idea wouldn’t war broke out, it was mathematics Roman Jakobson and a network of work. Intractable problems led to against the Nazis, nuclear physics radicalised scientists and scholars bitter disputes culminating in the against the Nazis, digital computers in positions of influence, many infamous ‘linguistics wars’. Despite against the Nazis. In Britain, Alan of them refugees fortunate to this, Chomsky has never let go of Turing – theoretical genius behind have escaped the gas chambers the basic idea. He continues to view the digital computer – helped semantic meanings as somehow crack the Enigma Code used by ‘internal’ – as genetically fixed the Germans to encrypt military features of the digital mind. The communications. In the United thread connecting Khlebnikov States, of course, scientists via Jakobson to Lévi-Strauss were working feverishly on and ultimately Chomsky is a the Manhattan Project – the certain conception of freedom – a project to develop the first yearning for necessity imposed nuclear bomb. If you wanted not externally but from within. an Allied victory, why not work for their war machine, for the RA: So a school of linguistics military-industrial complex, for originating among Russian your own side’s secret agents revolutionary anarchists ends up and spies? Wasn’t it all part being sponsored by the US military- of the same anti-fascist fight? industrial establishment? A teenager during those years, CK: Yes. And to understand that Chomsky was too much of an trajectory is to decode a good anarchist to feel comfortable chunk of the twentieth century. about collusion with the state. Why, for example, was Chomsky His instincts verged on pacifism: Inputs and outputs: the Enigma machine

29 Radical Anthropology in Europe. Chomsky’s approach all evil, the new totalitarian threat. of the intelligence and power we appealed to them because it seemed In place of science against the already have. We’ve invented almost mathematical, promising Nazis, you could now have science the internet – the necessary understanding beyond mere politics against Marxism – natural science communications technology – but or ideology. Could Chomsky be against oppressive and fraudulent its potential has yet to be realised. the Galileo of our age, destined to so-called ‘social science’. That For that, we need a revolution revolutionize the known world? His was the political thrust behind embracing life, politics and science. friends gave him the benefit of the Chomsky’s ‘cognitive revolution’. We need to bring together the social doubt, ensuring his meteoric rise Having defeated its enemy on the and natural sciences and help solve to ascendancy over linguistics and right, US imperialism needed to the mystery of human origins. much else. Revolutionaries usually target the left. Whatever the details, the process have to fight their way up. In of becoming human was social. Chomsky’s case, the gods seemed RA: What’s the relevance of My commitment is to the human to be hoisting him aloft. all this to our present situation? revolution: the most successful social revolution in history! We By the 1950s, of course, the official CK: There’s no point waiting did it once; we can do it again. enemy was no longer Germany – it around for a genetic mutation. was the Soviet Union. But it wasn’t Becoming human didn’t depend on RA: So when is the revolution? Any difficult for the US propaganda that when language first emerged forecasts? machine to depict Stalin as the new and it certainly doesn’t depend on Hitler, Moscow as the new centre of it now. We need to become aware CK: 2017 could be a good year!

Chris Knight is Professor of Anthropology at Comenius University, Bratislava, having been sacked by University of East London’s corporate management for his role in organising the G20 demonstrations in April 2009. [email protected] Neil Jackson

Notes

1. Chris Knight 2004. Decoding Chomsky. Chicago Press, pp. 84-87. 22. Steven Pinker 1999. Words and Rules. European Review Vol. 12, No. 4, 581-603. 11. Interview with David Barsamian, p. 101. The ingredients of language. London: http://www.radicalanthropologygroup.org/ Weidenfeld & Nicolson, pp. 269-287. old/class_text_070.pdf 12. Noam Chomsky 1988. The ‘right turn’ in U.S. policy (22 October 1986). In 23. Steven Mithen 1996. A Prehistory of the 2. Chris Knight 2007. The Chomsky Language and Politics, p. 649. Mind. London: Thames & Hudson. Enigma. Weekly Worker, 655 (January 11). 24. Michael Winkelman 2002. Shamanism US Establishment Anarchist. Weekly Worker 13. Interview with James Peck. In Noam Chomsky 1988. The Chomsky Reader. and cognitive evolution. Cambridge 656 (January 18). Chomsky’s Parallel Lives. Archaeological Journal, 12:1: 71-101. Weekly Worker 657 (January 25). Edited by James Peck. London: Serpent’s Tail, p. 55. 25. Pascal Boyer, 1994. The Naturalness of 3. The treachery of the intelligentsia: A 14. Chomsky 1988. Language and Problems Religious Ideas. Berkeley & Los Angeles: French travesty. Interview dated 26 October University of California Press. 1981. In Noam Chomsky 1988, Language of Knowledge, pp. 173-4. and Politics. Edited by Carlos Otero. 15. Noam Chomsky 2000. New Horizons in 26. John Tooby and Leda Cosmides Montreal: Black Rose Books, p. 318. the Study of Language and Mind. Cambridge: 1995. Foreword. Simon Baron-Cohen, 4. Noam Chomsky 1988. Language and Cambridge University Press, pp. 65-6. Mindblindness. An essay on autism and Problems of Knowledge. Cambridge, MA: theory of mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT 16. Noam Chomsky 1997. Powers and Press, pp. xi-xviii. MIT Press, p. 156. Prospects. Reflections on human nature and 5. Interview with David Barsamian. In the social order. London: Pluto Press, pp. 29-30. 27. Peter Worsley 1968. The Trumpet Shall Sound. London: MacGibbon & Kee. Noam Chomsky 1996, Class Warfare. 17. Noam Chomsky 2002. On Nature London: Pluto Press, p. 15. and Language. Cambridge: Cambridge 28. Robert McCauley and E. Thomas 6. Noam Chomsky 2000. The Architecture of University Press, p. 76. Lawson 2002. Bringing Ritual to Mind. Language. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 18. Chomsky 2000. The Architecture of p. 180. 7. Interview with Carlos Otero. In Noam Language, p. 4. 29. Velimir Khlebnikov, 1990. The King Chomsky 1988, Language and Politics, p. 19. Chomsky 2002. On Nature and 98. of Time. Selected Writings of the Russian Language, p. 148. Futurian. Edited by Charlotte Douglas and 8. The treachery of the intelligentsia, p. 319. 20. Chomsky 1988. The ‘right turn’ in U.S. translated by Paul Schmidt. Cambridge, 9. Interview with David Barsamian, p. 102. policy, pp. 653-4. MA: Harvard University Press. 10. Frederick Newmeyer 1986. The Politics 21. Chomsky 2000. The Architecture of 30. Jakobson, R. 1997. My Futurist Years. of Linguistics. Chicago: University of Language, p. 2. New York: Marsilio.

30 Radical Anthropology Felix Padel Deconstructing War on Terror Watching from the frontline of the Indian ‘civil war’, Felix Padel urges anthropology to wake us up to the reality of ‘terror’.

hen I first studied Elected politicians depend on funds widespread attacks on villages in anthropology, one from corporations and banks that the war against Maoists in tribal of the books that set an agenda towards short-term areas of central India. Arguably, excited me most profit for the controlling elite, whose this is one of the worst wars there Wwas Rodney Needham’s Right complex social structure of divided has ever been in India, though and Left (1973). If dual symbolic labour, involving accountancy poorly comprehended by the media classification is intrinsic to most and law firms, hedge funds and or travellers to the country. tribal societies, it assumes a more commodity analysts, calls out for extreme form in modern mainstream clear anthropological analysis. India’s Adivasi (indigenous or tribal) culture, from Left and Right in areas are presently witnessing a politics, to winners and losers in a Critically, social anthropology has ‘Highland Clearances’ comparable game of football, sanctifying the the expertise to make a radical to the genocidal removal of principle of competition. contribution to defusing the insane indigenous societies all over ‘war on terror’ presently engulfing America and Australia. Adivasi An American traveler I met visited our world. Beneath terror as a land and resources are being taken a remote tribal community in weapon of war, being waged by over on precisely the same rationale Brazil. Missionaries had taught the governments and armies through as Scottish clansmen were cleared boys to play football. The American high-tech weapons systems and by from their crofts during the 19th loved this game, and when he joined ‘terrorists’ on behalf of marginalized, century: for being ‘uneconomic’. in, the temperature rose until two oppressed populations, lurks another Cartel-style control of prices of boys fell down, locked in a fight. At terror – repeatedly played on – food grains as well as metal ores, this, one of the men appeared with which anthropologists are in the and the devaluation of long-term a spear, and speared the football perfect position to assuage: fear of sustainability in relation to short- through its middle. The American ‘the other’. term profit, spell death for millions Adivasi land and resources are being taken over on precisely the same rationale as Scottish clansmen were cleared from their crofts during the 19th century: for being ‘uneconomic’ was utterly shocked. ‘The football The war on terror emerges from an of small-scale farmers in India and was sacred to me, and I asked the ideology that believes in a ‘clash other ‘developing countries’. The kids, why did he do that?’ He saw of civilisations’ – in other words, very term ‘developing countries’ the men collecting in a semicircle from a long history of intolerance implies a hierarchy, in which rich facing the forest, each speaking as and misunderstanding between western countries are ‘ahead’ and the spirit moved him, and asked the different kinds of society. As set the model. Surely, enforced kids ‘what are they saying?’ One experts in ‘other cultures’, and in industrialisation displacing of the boys said, ‘Our parents don’t reflective understanding of our sustainable farming has reached its like this game. They think it divides own, mainstream society from the limits and needs reversing? us.’ ‘Stars went off in my head when perspective of other cultures, isn’t it I heard that,’ the American told me. a responsibility for anthropologists Conflicts over land and resources to play a more proactive role? The enveloping hundreds of areas What anthropology offers is ways invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan threaten to transform India from of seeing ourselves afresh, through set a new model of war. This a land of villages to a situation other people’s eyes. Perhaps the has already had an influence on where most of the countryside is core area, where we have failed to escalating wars in other countries, being farmed more ‘economically’ develop at all, is in the problem of to horrific effect in Sri Lanka, by the bio-tech companies and power. ‘Democracy’ is often a sham. and provided the example for their associates (according to top

31 Radical Anthropology economist Jeff Sachs and India’s arguably, is at the centre of the network (1982). Home Minister P. Chidambaram). world’s economy, little discussed in Vast mineral deposits are being relation to the financial crisis, just Generating the linguistic distortion, ‘utilised’ – extraction of non- as the metals industry that feeds it is the basic error is an assumption that renewable mineral and water wealth little discussed in relation to global ‘others’ are the ones using terror transforming large fertile areas heating, even though it is among the as a tactic, rather than ‘us’. Yet it into industrial wastelands. Scores main agents. is obvious that both sides in every of people’s movements against the war use terror as a tactic, and ‘shock takeover of land and resources face What is new is encapsulated in and awe’ tactics used in the invasion harsh repression, hardly reported in the name: ‘War on Terror’. Before of Iraq set a model of extreme use the world’s media. One example is we can conceive of ways to bring of terror against civilians as well peace to so many inflamed as enemy soldiers. The Wikileaks situations, perhaps we – and our release of over 90,000 documents on leaders – have to go deeper into the Afghan war (July 2010) reveals understanding the contradictions what anyone who has followed the inherent in a ‘war on terror’. war closely already knew well: To do this, anthropology is that thousands of civilian deaths crucial. Many people turn to have been caused by ‘allied forces’ anthropology from a deep interest as well as Taliban. Many of these in what makes human beings deaths are, in effect, war crimes, tick, and what could solve the and have been covered up by those world’s problems. Too often they pursuing the war. are disappointed by jargonistic models, that still subordinate If the two sides in the war on terror analysing mainstream social both use terror as a tactic, and structures to studying marginal often show themselves as ruthlessly groups, including the world’s uncaring about loss of life and last remaining tribal societies. suffering they cause, they differ Tribal societies have a vast in one main respect. ‘Terrorists’ amount still to teach us – but use low-tech tactics: guerilla this can only happen by learning warfare, suicide bombings, videoed from them how to see ourselves beheadings... This is war waged by Author on the bauxite-capped summit of a mountain afresh, rather than by continuing ‘the wretched of the earth’, fuelled threatened with mining near Karlapat in Orissa to treat them as ‘objects of study’. by outrage at the double standards We need ‘reverse anthropology’, that treat the deaths of civilians in the state violence brought against that draws on other cultures’ ways the world’s top cities as far worse villagers resisting Tata’s new steel of understanding us as well as than civilian deaths in faraway plant being built on tribal land at them. If anthropology has value, countries ‘where we can’t even say Kalinganagar in Orissa.1 what analysis and insights can we the name’.3 offer that carry an authoritative The vicious repression and lack perspective on how to end the war Yet both sides use not just extreme of justice faced by people in these on terror? violence and intimidation by terror movements adds to the appeal of (of civilians as well as fighters), Maoist armed struggle. But as soon Contradictions in the idea of ‘war they also use the concept of as a movement can be shown to on terror’ operate on several levels. ‘sacrifice’. UK and US politicians be taken over by alleged Maoists, Confusion in the concept acts as behave exactly like Al Qaeda and the armed police are sent in, and a smokescreen, dispersing clear Taliban in speaking of our own village land is forcibly taken over thinking. For one, linguistically, men’s deaths in terms of sacrifice. with impunity. The highest-paying the phrase does not make sense: Neither side speaks of sacrificing market for steel and aluminium how can war be waged on an civilian lives by their own actions, is the arms industry, burgeoning abstract noun? Contradictions in the whether ‘collateral damage’ from in India, and at the heart of the concept go back to the ‘terrorist’ aerial attacks or suicide bombings. economy of all the ‘developed label applied to Armenians in ‘Our brave boys’ are heroes whose countries’ – a ‘double death’, since Turkey during the first world war, sacrifice makes us proud, just as this civil war in India’s tribal used to justify genocide. They are we know that every ‘terrorist’ or heartland is promoted, consciously well analysed in relation to US insurgent group refers to deaths of or unconsciously, in pursuit of interventions in Latin America in their fighters in terms of sacrifice metals for war.2 The arms industry, Edward Herman’s The real terror and martyrdom. This concept of

32 Radical Anthropology sacrifice fuels the conflict. population is one of the world’s camps, where men and youths worst-reported conflicts. An are forced to join the militia. In a sense, the model of a justified estimated 6,000 Kurdish Since some part of most villages war is premised on this idea: villages have been destroyed and escaped to the Maoist side, civil Casualties of civilians as well as depopulated, producing a stream war aptly describes the situation, fighters are justified by noble ends. of refugees and an ongoing cultural and the attempt by many villagers This is a concept of human sacrifice genocide, since the 1980s. PKK not to take sides becomes next to on a scale that eclipses all the resistance has been noted for impossible. Both sides use terror prehistoric models known to history its maintenance of ‘honourable’ tactics, and while Maoist atrocities and anthropology. standards – such as observing the are well-publicised in the media, Geneva Conventions, whereas PKK human rights reports suggest that In discussions of the Wikileaks that fighters are regularly tortured. atrocities by Salwa Judum and now admit allied soldiers have killed Labelling the PKK as terrorists, security forces are much more many civilians in Afghanistan (as as happened in Britain in 2000, common. A recent interview by a in Iraq), this is still hedged with ‘of has been strongly questioned senior Director of Police lists large- course, far fewer than the Taliban by a range of campaigners, and scale abuse by armed police, and have killed’. But is this true? With arguably is only maintained the failure to bring perpetrators to statistics, everything depends what because Turkey is seen as a key justice, as a principal fuel stoking one is counting. There have been ally of the West.6 Anna Politskaya’s tribal recruitment to the Maoist few let-ups in killings of Afghan reporting on Chechniya documents armed struggle.8 Repeal of the civilians since the time of Soviet another extreme example of brutal Armed Forces Special Powers Act intervention and western funding of anti-Soviet jihadists, till now. When ‘the allies’ decided to attack UK and US politicians behave Afghanistan in the wake of 9/11, they set in motion an escalation exactly like Al Qaeda and Taliban in in violence that has not ceased. Whether allied soldiers or Talib speaking of our own men’s deaths in have killed more civilians could be debated forever. But the pattern terms of sacrifice of violence, arrests and torture by allied soldiers has led to at least 100,000 deaths in Afghanistan. occupation and invasion of a remote (which guarantees impunity for Women’s groups in Afghanistan population, who lost any recourse to offenders in uniform) could go a have been as outspoken as anyone justice,7 a situation tacitly condoned long way to bringing peace. about excesses by occupying by Western powers. soldiers, and their alliance with Adivasi culture has an ingrained Afghan warlords who have acted The slow escalation towards civil regard for truth and law. Niyam as repressively towards women as war in India’s tribal areas gathered Raja, ‘King of Law’, is a supreme the Taliban. An estimate by the pace in mid-2005, when many deity for Dongria Konds, the tribe Afghan women’s group RAWA put shady deals were signed between resisting the takeover of their the number of civilians killed by US state governments and mining sacred mountain for bauxite mining jets in October-December 2001 at companies. Deals signed for more by Vedanta Resources, registered over 3,000 – already exceeding the iron ore mines and steel plants in in London. One Kond elder, who civilians killed in the 9/11 attack.4 South Chhattisgarh immediately had come to demonstrate outside preceded the formation of Salwa India’s Supreme Court at the legal Many other governments and Judum, a tribal militia that was process which in effect sold this security forces have followed the claimed to be a ‘spontaneous tribal mountain in exchange for huge example set by these ‘legitimate’ uprising against the Maoists’, but sums the company would have wars. Escalation of the Palestine- was actually a police-armed outfit, to pay for ‘tribal development’, Israeli conflict, Turkey’s war against under non-tribal leadership, that ‘forestation programs’ and ‘wildlife the PKK and Kurds, Russia’s has burnt over 600 tribal villages management’, described a particular Chechen wars, and ‘Operation in Dantewara district alone. The judge’s role with the words: Taro Tribal Hunt’ in central India5 are pattern that has emerged is of Salwa karma, amoro dharma - his the similar in their devastating effects Judum attacking tribal villages, karma/action/sin, ours the dharma/ on civilian populations. killing and raping selected victims, duty/law. burning the houses, and forcing The plight of Turkey’s Kurdish captives into roadside refugee An ecological awareness permeates

33 Radical Anthropology meaning that in a traditional tribal village, people share what they have, with no one much richer or poorer than others, and no waste. Could we relearn the joys of sharing? Could we start by enforcing caps on salaries and a ceiling on wealth, to ensure that food and other resources can be shared in the interests of everyone? What about long-term protection of the environment alongside the community rights of those who have lived sustainably with their environment?

Anthropology has a major role to play in opening people’s minds.

Editor’s Note:

On August 24, 2010, From Amarendra & Samarendra Das’ documentary, ‘Earth worm, Company man’, 2005 documentary, Amarendra & Samarendra Das’ From shortly after this article Dongria woman was written, India’s Environment Minister Jairam Ramesh blocked ‘Where are the saints in your society? Vedanta Resources’ controversial plan to mine Here we’re all saints’ bauxite on the Dongria Kond tribe’s sacred hills. tribal spirituality: a sense of laws Mountains where bauxite has been Ramesh cited ‘shocking upholding a balance of life. The mined lose their water-holding and blatant disregard’ 4,000-foot summits are sacred to capacity: the monsoon water runs by Vedanta for protected Niyam Raja, with a taboo on cutting straight off, perennial stream dry tribal groups. In this trees that has left a covering of up, and farmland below loses its test case, the Indian primary forest in his honour, with a fecundity. government has set an clear understanding that this helps ‘Where are the saints in your example to the world. nourish the mountain’s fertile, society? Here we’re all saints’ are Some things are sacred. mineral-rich perennial streams. words of another Kond elder, his

Felix Padel is an independent anthropologist, currently a senior visiting fellow at the Institute of Rural Managament at Anand in Gujarat [IRMA] and an honorary fellow at Durham University. His first book Sacrificing People: Invasions of a Tribal Landscape (Orient BlackSwan 2010) has been republished while his second Out of this Earth: East India Adivasis and the Aluminium Cartel (Orient BlackSwan 2010) is coauthored with Samarendra Das.

Notes

1. Javed Iqbal: ‘The Unending war of 4.Seumas Milne: ‘The innocent dead in a the Kurdish Workers’ Party as a terrorist Kalinga’, in The New Indian Express, coward’s war: Estimates suggest US bombs organisation’, 14.4.2010. 17.4.2010, http://expressbuzz.com/ have killed at least 3,767 civilians’, 20.12.2001, 7.A Small Corner of Hell, 2003. searchresult/javed-iqbal at http://www.rawa.org/civilian.htm 8.Shoma Chaudhury: ‘Bringing on 2. Padel: ‘Mining as a fuel for war’, in The 5.Javed Iqbal: ‘Operation tribal hunt’, in the army against the naxals will be a broken rifle, no.77, February 2008, on War TNIE, 15.11.2009, http://expressbuzz.com/ disaster’, in Tehelka, 12 June 2010, at Resisters International website, http://www. searchresult/javed-iqbal http://www.tehelka.com/story_main45. wri-irg.org/br75-en.htm 6.‘Memorandum for the information of asp?filename=Ne120610 3. A line in a song by Jackson Brown. the Home Secretary of the UK: Listing of bringing_on.asp

34 Radical Anthropology Rupert Read Avatar: A call to save the future Rupert Read reviews the criticisms levelled at the film Avatar and sees it as a call to action.

“The universe is a communion of from their/our world – they are just reply in the negative. For Pandora subjects, not a collection of objects.” as if dreaming. They are merely is a world much more naturally Thomas Berry dreaming, as opposed perhaps to hostile than ours — there are no deeply or great-heartedly dreaming. fluffy bunnies here. The Pandoran They need to wake up — and find jungle is a morass of menace. vatar begins with a dream. that the dream is real. As Jake Our hero in the film is repeatedly, A dream of flying: over himself puts it: ‘Everything is contemptuously described by his a beautiful place with backwards now. Like out there love (before she loves him) as an intact ecosystem. We [on the living surface of Pandora] ‘like a baby’: he has no clue how Amight call it: a dream of Earth. A is the true world, and in here [in to survive in this natural, hostile dream of what Earth has been, and the artificial atmosphere of the world. He doesn’t know what to do. could be again, if we restore its Earthlings’ colonial outpost] is the Similarly, we are at sea, so many of ecosystems. Avatar quickly follows dream…’. us, now, in nature; and this will be this with a long sleep and an absence a serious problem, if we are ever of dreaming. The protagonist, forced back to relying the narrator, an everyman, on it again…as we will our avatar in the film, tells us be. This is why we tend that if you are cryogenically to deny and fear nature, suspended, “You don’t dream and cling to hope of at all.” techno-fixes as solutions to our environmental, The film invites us, by economic, and even our contrast, to dream. It suggests spiritual malaise. But to us that to dream is to live; Avatar suggests various that to live without dreaming kinds of limits to such is not really to live at all. fixes. In particular, it That if we live like that, then suggests that the techno- we might as well already be fix mentality involves in cryo. In other words: the at its core an evasion “You” in the above quotation and a loss: evasion of is you. The film suggests to our true nature; loss of us also that we need to wake the sense of beauty and up, that we need to open our connectedness that it eyes, to become enlightened.1 can yield up for us. The film opens with the

protagonist’s eyes closed. © Survival International Of course, being ‘like Perhaps it isn’t surprising a baby’ can have its then that it ends with a shot of Two Na’vi protested outside Vedanta’s AGM upsides too, if one needs a pair of eyes – the same eyes, to see things genuinely and yet not the same, as at the start I want to invite you, the reader, to afresh, to wake up… to be reborn… of the film – opening. join the dream. I shall proceed by This is just what happens to the identifying the obstacles to doing protagonist in Avatar in two ways. The Na’vi call the avatars so – the key objections that have ‘dreamwalkers’. This seems a been made against Avatar – and First, this is why he becomes a desperately apposite term. So dispensing with them, one by one. student of the Na’vi, in an obvious long as the avatars stay aloof from instance of ‘reverse anthropology’ the lived socio-ecological reality The ‘sentimentalisation’ from the moment when he says to of the world in which they find objection Neytiri, ‘If I’m like a child, then themselves – so long as humans To the charge that Avatar maybe you should teach me.’ She fantasise themselves as separate sentimentalises its world,2 we can replies, ‘Some people cannot learn,

35 Radical Anthropology you do not see.’ She is right. He are implicitly questioned in the despoiled even more systematically seems to know this, responding, poignant closing section of the film. than it has yet been in our time. ‘Then teach me how to see.’ She Pandora may be as yet a relatively In such a world, the predominant replies, with feeling, ‘No one can unspoilt world, but it is a world attitude toward nature will be one teach you how to see.’ And this where humans have to face the of fear and disgust – the attitude too is true – unless the ‘teaching’ consequence of an atmosphere that is impressed upon the new is of another kind from what we that spells destruction for them Marine arrivals on Pandora. The are typically taught to think of as (and that means: for us)… Does way in which the humans in this ‘teaching’. The kind that can come this remind you of anything? The film are treating Pandora, merely from immersion – immersion hothouse atmosphere of Pandora as a massive new mine for ‘natural 4 in another life; or, failing that, has very high levels of CO2. It is resources’, and not as a possible immersion in another world through unbreatheable for us. While Earth new home, expresses profoundly He is on the final stage of his journey to completely going native. To going from being merely an American, to being a Native American. This is the kind of journey, the film intimates to us, that we all need to go on, if we are to save ourselves.

the world-making properties of art in the dystopian future imagined the alienation from nature that is a (especially, of 3-D film). here has been utterly ravaged by central topic of the film – and from humans, the utopia of Pandora which the film aims to midwife a Secondly, this is part of the carries with it a subtle but grim birth. significance of the remarkable reminder of the most pressing scene toward the close of the film current form of this destruction The ‘prejudiced against the in which Neytiri cradles Jake in his – namely, the awful damage that disabled’ objection disabled human form, after she has we are doing to our atmosphere. Does Avatar romanticise saved his life, and says ‘I see you’. Will our atmosphere always be embodiment but yet attack/fear the She sees him, as human, awakening, breathable? Will it support human power our bodies can have over us? as deeply loveable. The human Jake life, human civilisation? Will Some have complained that Avatar will later experience full rebirth – as it, rather, roast us to death? This is prejudiced against the disabled.5 one of the Na’vi. He is on the final awesome question angsts us, at the Our hero is wheelchair-bound; he stage of his journey to completely back of our minds, constantly, and wants to be able to walk, to run, going native. To going from being rightly so. Avatar doesn’t let us (to fly!), again. Well, so of course merely an American, to being a forget it. If we destroyed the Earth’s do most disabled people. But it Native American. This is the kind ecosystems, through catastrophic is a complete misunderstanding of journey, the film intimates to us, climate change occurring as a result of the film to find any prejudice that we all need to go on, if we are of changes we were responsible whatsoever here against the to save ourselves. for, it would make a kind of grim disabled, for three reasons. sense if we couldn’t even breathe Does Avatar romanticise ‘the the atmosphere of the world that we First, this disabled Marine is a natives’? Well, it accurately reflects tried to escape to. feisty fighter, with strong arms, the genuinely ecological sensibility able to take care of himself to a of some (not, of course, all) native We should note that the Earthlings remarkable degree, despite the peoples/native Americans, etc.3 in the film don’t literally attempt prejudice he encounters for being Take for instance the requirement to to escape to Pandora – they are not disabled. That prejudice is social, take no decision which shall harm the in the customary sense of the word contingent – the film endorses the interests of the seventh generation, ‘settlers’. Pandora is not really being ‘social model’ of disability, in that laid down by the Iroquois, and settled, and nor is it being treated it makes clear that Jake is deprived still inspiring political thought as a tourist destination. Why is of the operation that could enable today. The Na’vi are not depicted this? The impression we have him to walk again simply because as saintly, not as homogenous, nor of the future-Earth in this film is he lacks enough money to pay for as entirely peace-loving. Crucially, of a planet where human beings it, and in that it is the prejudice of their tendency to righteous anger are systematically alienated from his fellow humans and their failure and their willingness to go to war nature, and where nature has been to make an environment that works

36 Radical Anthropology for him as a wheelchair-bound atmosphere of Pandora due to the Anti-american and leftist person which restricts him. attack by his former commander objections on the building in which he is lying The film draws you into its world, Secondly, and more importantly there ‘dreamwalking’, is in any Pandora, and the native people still: not being able to walk is case a pretty devastating refutation there, the Na’vi. It’s Cowboys and trivial, compared with not having of the ‘Avatar is prejudiced against Indians all over again – only this a clue how to survive, and indeed the disabled’ line. It is a deeply time, you’re on the Indians’ side.6 not being able to breathe. All moving scene. She cries out, “Jake! For the invasion of this new frontier human beings – all these ‘babies’, My Jake!” when she finds his comes – as one watches the film and one might say – are placed in the threatened human body, caught up learns from the Na’vi and joins Jake subject-position of the disabled, in the general human incapacity to in his progressive transformation on Pandora. Thus a disabled exist in the greenhouse atmosphere into one of them – increasingly to human serves as a prototypical of Pandora. Far from Neytiri being seem an appalling thing. Incipient representative of the entire appalled when she finally sees disaster triumphant. But it is a human race. Jake’s (contingent, Jake’s real body, she is moved, and total misunderstanding of the simultaneously physical-and- loving. If we have been harbouring film to dub it, as many right-wing social) disability stands in for discriminatory thoughts toward commentators have done, ‘anti- our (contingent, simultaneously Jake as a disabled person, she American’. This is for a number of physical-and-social) disability shames us, flushing them into reasons, of which I will focus on in relation the natural world – to the open. She says, ‘I see you’, two. nature that we see as Other, to a the ultimate epistemological greenhouse atmosphere we can’t compliment. She sees that this is This charge is merely the flipside survive in. We see ourselves in not just a broken body; this is a of a charge that has been made by a disabled person because we person who she loves. This is the left-wing critics of the film, that are all disabled by Pandora In psychical and corporeal home, in a it is tacitly racist or imperialist in other words: we all risk being way obviously the true form, of the putting an American up front as disabled by nature until we can man she loves. She pulls us up short the central character, and seeing find ourselves at home in it again. from any remaining tendencies we the whole thing ‘through his eyes’. The film radically turns around may have had to think that Jake will That charge is wrong. Jake Sully our social norm, of thinking of be well-shot of his disabled human goes native. And takes us with him.

All human beings are placed in the subject-position of the disabled, on Pandora. Thus a disabled human serves as a prototypical representative of the entire human race the disabled as a perhaps-pitiable form as soon as possible, if possible. The film sets out, makes available lesser version of ourselves, and There is nothing special about being to experience, exactly the kind of forces us to find ourselves in big and blue; there is no prejudice change that needs to occur in our them. Far from being prejudiced against the disabled and in favour of world if we are to save ourselves. against the disabled, the film the able-bodied. There is instead a Indigenous peoples are not in a finds them as icons for humanity, love and a deeply-nurtured capacity position to save our common future and requires us all to really for understanding and empathy, that by themselves. We need to learn think disability, to think-feel the film facilitates. from them actively; we need as it what it means. To experience were to convert to them. As Jake it vicariously, to be able to It is in fact the soldiers who see Jake puts it: ‘There’s nothing we have empathise with the disabled and arriving in Pandora and Quarritch that they want.’ Avatar is onto know what life may be like for and the other military folk like him the gross falsification involved them, perhaps for the first time. who are prejudiced against Jake on in the very idea of ‘sustainable The film does the very opposite the grounds of his legs not working. development’ – the absurd notion of disparaging the disabled. It is Quarritch who says to him, ‘I’ll that we are developed and that they see to it that you’ll get your legs need to become more like us. This Thirdly, as mentioned above, the back. Your real legs.’ – and makes idea needs to be stood on its head, scene in which Neytiri saves Jake, this ‘gift’ conditional on an act of and the film helps us to do that. as he starts to have to breathe the treachery and genocide. We need to do what Avatar shows.

37 Radical Anthropology But the reason for the ‘left-wing’ armed struggle against the Marines. objectifying them. As we learn charge against Avatar refutes the Grace in particular plays a critical about the Na’vi’s rituals, their accusation of ‘anti-Americanism’; role in laying the groundwork ecology, their eating-habits, their it is precisely Americans who play for the psychical transition that connectedness with the creatures a crucial role in joining with Tsu’tey Jake goes through, and that we go and with their Earth, we come to and others in literally leading the through with him. It needs more understand, appreciate and start to charge against the Marine attackers, than a soldier, to make the change. share in their wisdom. This cannot especially Jake, and Trudy Charon It needs thinking people open to be done if one remains aloof, and the rebel helicopter pilot. The truly learning from the other, to be ‘superior’. One has to learn with and truth is of course between – or the change. from them. One has, to some extent, rather, orthogonal to – the crude to become one of them.10 charges of racism on the one hand How does this happen? What or anti-Americanism on the other; matters is what these academics This might be (and has been) termed

Indigenous peoples are not in a position to save our common future by themselves. We need to learn from them actively; we need as it were to convert to them.

Oren Ziv/ Activestills.org Oren Ziv/ As Jake puts it: There’s nothing we have that they want Na’vi protest against the apartheid wall, Bilin, Palestine

for the film does not generalise are. They are not mineralogists nor ‘reverse anthropology’. As I say, about Americans. It picks out a physicists nor even lettrists; they this is anthropology/ethnography few – including crucially an iconic are biologists and anthropologists. as it ought to be done, as it would everyman, our protagonist-narrator, They are seeking to learn about be done escaping from cultural Jake – as somehow more open to ‘the natives’. But these are not imperialism and from misplaced the transformation that needs to classical anthropologists going scientism. happen, becoming closer to the to find out all about the strange, kind of life that the Na’vi enjoy. It’s wacky ways of ‘the Other’.8 Under As the Tsahik, Mo’at, says: the not racist to try to save humankind the striking leadership of Grace Na’vi will try to teach Jake, to teach by targeting your efforts directly on Augustine (Sigourney Weaver), the anthropologists (: to teach us): transformation of the consciousness they are genuinely seeking to learn ‘Then we will see if your insanity and practices of those currently from the other(s).9 They do not can be cured.’ doing most of the destroying… It’s regard those others’ knowledge as common-sense.7 merely superstition; they regard it And as Grace puts it, as she as genuine candidate-knowledge. learns: ‘The wealth of this world Also absolutely crucial are the film’s These anthropologists have isn’t in the ground, it’s all around ‘scientists’: who are at heart overcome the central prejudice of us’. Unobtainium (the name given anthropologists. Again, Americans, social science, that this is about ‘us’ by them to what the Earthlings to a woman and man. …Perhaps it is ‘scientifically’ understanding ‘them’. are mining on Pandora) is a all too easy for me to like this latter Rather, what true anthropology blind, a macguffin: in this case, to aspect of the film: For, admittedly, ought to be about is about us finding marvellous Brechtian effect. The there is something unduly attractive out about ourselves through finding very name makes clear that this film to an academic about a film in which out about them; about us finding out is to be taken as about our world, as it is, most unusually, academics about the world through finding out a symbolical and healing psychical who save the world. Without Grace about them; and about finding out journey for us (for you), not as an and Norm, there would be no about them through genuinely being escapist fantasy. It is quite pathetic opportunity for Jake to help lead the with them, seeing them, rather than that so few critics of the film have

38 Radical Anthropology been able to see this, and have, in film teaches. The struggle against is what ought to happen. The very some cases, altogether laughably all odds to fight back against the planetary ecosystem, Gaia, the taken the name ‘Unobtainium’ Marines with military means does creatures of our world ought to to reflect a simple failure of not succeed. Its failure is captured rise up in fury about what is being imagination on the part of the film’s in the magnificently sad music – done to them. But Gaia will not creators. Why go to the trouble to including tremendous solo wails strike back. The end of Avatar has create a whole new Na’Vi language, of pain, expressing our innermost to be unbelievable; so that we can and fall at the first hurdle of coming despair about what is happening to become clear to ourselves about the up with a believable name for the this good Earth – that accompanies difference between this fairy tale mineral that the Earthlings are the military defeat of the attack on and our actual historical situation. hunting on Pandora? Obviously, the Marines, echoing the earlier Only with such clarity can we go on because the name is a clue to the destruction of Home Tree; and also to start to do what is necessary to (deliberately symbolical) nature of in the terrible image of one of the prevent us from killing our mother the work, an invitation to reflect Pandoran horses ablaze. Earth. Jake tells us: ‘See, the world upon that – and, specifically, to we come from, there’s no green facilitate reflection upon what the Against the crucial charge that there. They killed their mother. And Earthlings miss about Pandora. Avatar glamourises violence, they’re gonna do the same here.’ Those critics who pan the name romanticises the anti-colonial ‘unobtainium’ are failing to see struggle in an apolitical way, and The call of Avatar is to become the film in just the way that most offers a silly fairytale ending, then, an eco-warrior who can win. This of the Earthlings in the film fail we can reply in the negative. Yes, will require bold but carefully to see Pandora! The real wealth Ai’wa comes to the rescue. But we judged political strategy, not of the world is in its networks of know that Gaia won’t. The rebellion outright attack. It will require the consciousness and communication of the Na’vi against the colonising winning of the climate war, but and energy. And that is uncapturable Marines fails. It is a glorious also a more sustained addressing – unobtainable – by even the most sophisticated mining equipment... The real wealth of Pandora can only what true anthropology ought to be about be ‘obtained’ (the very word seems wrong) by one willing to get down is about us finding out about ourselves and dirty in the world, to become part of it and of its people. It can’t through finding out about them really be obtained at all, but only understood, participated in. By one example of the heroic virtues, but it of the generalised ecological willing to participate in and become does not succeed. We so desperately crisis of which manmade climate part of its wealth. (even to our own surprise) want change is just the most short-term the American forces to be killed pressing phenomenon, the canary You have to be ‘like a baby’, ready by the rebels and the Na’vi; we so in the coalmine that tells us that to let the Earth, nature, the creatures desperately want the Na’vi to win. our way of living needs to change. around you, and works of art such But they don’t. Only the deus ex It will require the kind of eco- as this one reshape and educate machina of Ai’wa yields victory. psychological transformation that you. As one of Grace’s team puts And this cannot be hoped for. We Avatar aims to present to us and to it: ‘We’ve got to get in the habit of have to do it ourselves. We have midwife in us. documenting everything, you know, to embody this deity; we have to what we see, what we feel, it’s all become and be Ai’wa, collectively. The call is to open your eyes and part of the science.’ Think about act, before it is too late, to save that statement. This is in fact a To the ultimate objection that is this beautiful creation. We have to radical reconceptualisation of what made against Avatar, that its ending learn to think for the future, to think (human) ‘science’ is. is unbelievable, and is thereby an collectively, in fact to think as an unacceptable romanticisation of ecosystem.11 The ‘glorification of violence’ hope, we can then accept what and ‘unrealistic ending’ factually motivates the objection, Conclusion objections but refuse the claim that it is an This film has been found by so Avatar issues to us a call. But the objection. The unbelievability of many millions to be emotionally call is not a simple call to arms. the end of Avatar is in the end a compelling because of the journey For it is crucial to understand the great strength, not a weakness! This it takes them on, because of the poignant lesson that the battle grand narrative ‘deficiency’ is in assumptions it puts into question, which ends the main action of the fact the cleverest of twists. For it because it speaks to our condition

39 Radical Anthropology as alienated from our planetary have just pointed out, one simply ‘take-away’, we see from the point home and from each other. This is has to see the scene in the context of view of the central female Na’vi why Avatar was in effect banned of their developing relationship, a character. This is subtle, as easy in China;12 why it has inspired complicated one, because of who to miss as the fact that we die as colourful protests against the they are and because of Jake’s Quarritch (we experience his death apartheid wall in Palestine;13 witting and unwitting role in the – the needful death of the Quarritch why it is inspiring the activist betrayal of the Na’vi people, leading in each of us - in a point-of-view work of the Radical Anthropology to the destruction of Home Tree. He shot), when he is transfixed by her Group (see http://www. isn’t mature enough, it turns out, to second arrow. We are witnessing radicalanthropologygroup.org/new/ be her lover, her equal, until about Jake’s final transformation into Home.html ); why it is inspiring the point where he finally ‘goes one of ‘them’; but we are doing it protests against destructive mining native’, and turns and fights against from a subject-position which is projects...14 Quarritch, the ‘father-figure’ (who already that of one of ‘them’. This repeatedly addresses him as ‘Son’). perhaps implies: We may have We should pause to consider in By the end of the film, Jake no already in some sense made this this connection why the Na’vi longer needs mothering by his lover, transformation for ourselves. Our themselves are literally larger his equal. He has truly learnt – and avatar may already be ahead of us, than life. They dwarf us. They are so, perhaps, have we – that Ai’wa waiting to meet us. figured as our new parents. Again, (Gaia) needs to be respected and not this is part of what is happening in raped, that our mother can be kept Thirdly, it is perhaps a look of the beautiful scene in which Neytiri alive; and that future generations enlightenment. He has left his cradles Jake’s broken human body, are collectively our children, that it human form behind; he finally and responds to him lovingly is they that need virtual ‘parenting’ knows what it is like to live as without patronising him. This is by all of us, and that we just have a Na’vi, fully a Na’vi body-self, part of a journey to maturity that to be mature enough to make that rather than just an avatar. she is seeing him through. She is happen. gradually moving from being his Fourthly, and most important of mother to truly being able to love The most powerful moment of all, he is looking directly at you. him as his lover, a point that she hope in the film is perhaps the very You, the viewer, receive this look arrived at prematurely earlier in last shot, that mirrors the opening directly. He looks you in the eye. the film to great cost. She sees the of the film I discussed earlier: the This look completes the call to you. beauty of his human form, of him. flicking open of Jake’s eyes, now It asks you: What are you going to transmigrated fully into his avatar do? It addresses you; it requires Figuring the Na’vi as our new body. He has become his own that you now act, that your point of parents is a wonderful bouleverse avatar. It is worth dwelling on this view becomes activated (activist- of the standard stereotype of shot. What do we see – what are we ed). The film in a certain sense is ‘primitive’ peoples as like children. seeing – when Jake’s avatar eyes not complete until you complete it Similarly, there is an obvious flick open for and onto us? – through your own transformation connect here with Jake referring to and your own action. For, if you human activity on Earth as meaning Firstly, it’s a look of love. His eyes don’t act differently, you have not that humans have ‘killed their are opening onto the face of Neytiri, really been transformed. This look mother’ – and so are badly in need of his lover, his love, who we can underlines the call – the call upon new parents. All the same, it might safely assume is leaning over him. you to complete the film which it be claimed that there is something ends.15 oddly Oedipal about the scene that Secondly, therefore, it can be I keep returning to in which Neytiri seen as a point of view shot from Thanks to Survival International for cradles Jake – the ‘iconography’ her. That is interesting: in the very permission to use their photograph, is all mother-and-child. Well, as I final shot of the film, this inspiring http://www.survivalinternational.org/

Rupert Read is Reader in Philosophy at the University of East Anglia, specialising in environmental and political philosophy. He is a Green Party Councillor in Norwich. His most recent books are Philosophy for Life and There is No Such Thing as a Social Science. [email protected]

40 Radical Anthropology Notes 4. See e.g. http://james-camerons- 11. Deep ecological thinkers such as Aldo avatar.wikia.com/wiki/Pandora Leopold, Susan Flader, John Seed, Joanna Macy, Pat Fleming, and Arne Naess have 1. In this regard, Avatar follows a venerable 5. For example, http://flowtvorg/2010/02/i- see-you-gender-and-disability- taught us to ‘think like a mountain’. We ‘philosophical’ tradition of ‘enlightenment’ need to redesign human societies so that films. Consider Fight Club’s climactic in-avatarmichael-peterson-laurie- beth-clark-and-lisa-nakamura/ they work as ecosystems do, without line, just prior to Jack’s overcoming of his having any waste; this is the central parasitic Tyler Durden self, ‘My eyes are 6. Of course, this point in itself isn’t new. principle of permaculture. And we need open’. Compare also the meaning in context See A Man Called Horse, Dances with to learn to ensure that we are not living of Leon’s call to Deckard in Blade Runner: Wolves, The Last of the Mohicans. in a way incompatible with ecosystemic ‘Wake up! Time to die...’. Avatar pulses 7. Thus http://io9.com/5422666/when- resilience among those ecosystems that through a long sequence of fallings-asleep are primarily or almost entirely outside of and wakings-up. That’s how the humans will-white-people-stop-making-movies- like-avatar completely misses the point. human life. The Na’vi – and real indigenous switch in and out of their avatar personas. peoples – can help with both tasks. And take for instance Grace’s important 8. Thinking here for example of James remark: ‘You need to wake up, Parker… Frazer, as critiqued by Wittgenstein in his 12. The Chinese authorities in a certain The wealth of this world isn’t in the ground, “Remarks on Frazer’s Golden Bough”. sense interpreted the film more or less it’s all around us. The Na’vi know that, and See also my There is no such thing as a correctly; like the right-wing critics of they’re fighting to defend it.’ This is what social science (Ashgate, 2008), co-authored the film, they perceived its genuinely the film is trying to teach us, about our own with Wes Sharrock and Phil Hutchinson. radical potential — and were scared. world. Can it wake us up enough, to hear it? 9. Though we should note that, 13. See e.g. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ 2. A charge issued by some critics and prior to the action of the film, Grace news/picturegalleries/worldnews/7222508/ Leftists, but made most famously by herself apparently had to go through a Palestinians-dressed-as-the-Navi-from- no less than the Pope: http://www. transformative journey of her own – the the-film-Avatar-stage-a-protest-against- moviefone.co.uk/2010/01/11/vatican- early attitude of the anthropologists Israels-separation-barrier.html calls-avatar-sentimental-hokum towards the Na’vi was it seems one of 14. New protests keep appearing which 3. The ‘etc.’ here is important. As Joshua trying to get them to wear Western clothes take inspiration from Avatar: the latest Clover puts it, on p.6 of “The struggle for etc. The anthropologists have already that I have encountered, just as this space” (Film Quarterly 63:3, pp.6-7): ‘The gone through a process of reversing article goes off to press, is http://www. blue anthro-feline Na’vi, three meters tall, their assumptions qua anthropologists survivalinternational.org/news/6273 are not so much any indigenous people, 10. My There is no such thing as a 15. Thanks to my avatarian co- but rather any number thereof: Native social science explores how such true conspirators Vincent Gaine and Peter Americans in their natural harmony, or the anthropology prescinds altogether from the Kramer for very helpful comments on Urarina of the Amazon rainforest – but no category of science, and how ‘social science’ an earlier draft. Thanks also to Chris more these than, say, Iraqi natives (cued is a recipe for endless failure to understand Knight (especially), and to an audience bluntly by the phrase “shock and awe”).’ the other (and to change oneself). at the University of East Anglia.

Premenstrual stress and the Human Revolution Viky Sousa-Mayer introduces a project on PMS ‘In order to see anger as a blessing instead of a curse, it may be necessary for women to feel their rage is legitimate.’ 1 Emily Martin (1988: 178)

have just returned from a disease manifests itself. Men as researches, several accounts of PMS conversation with a neighbour. well as women have depression, experiences show common features: In her late fifties, she’s had but in this study I started with primarily unhappiness with life but depressionI from age 28 that premenstrual stress (PMS). Women also, determination, aggression and was never addressed. Recently are more prone to depression during creativity. These could have been her state deteriorated: she was the main reproductive phases of essential during the sex-strike rituals hearing sounds inside her head their life. Hormonal fluctuations that, according to Chris Knight, and couldn’t walk. When she told are often invoked as a cause. created human symbolic culture. me about another neighbour who The sex-strike model suggests committed suicide at the local It is a step further from dismissal ways of understanding PMS as a cliffs, I recalled a high-school and disbelief, but it’s not the whole functional and natural response. colleague who did the same when story. Mainstream attitudes and depression became unbearable. frameworks towards depression(s) I explore this possibility need to be turned on their head. further in my blog on http:// By 2020, depression could be PMS needs to be approached not as a divagosantropologicos.blogspot. the second most common killer symptom of a dysfunctional woman com/2010/06/pms-and-human- disease in the world. The need to but as a symptom of dysfunctional revolution-viky-mayer.html understand it is now an emergency. life circumstances. As a self- Unfortunately, depression is often regulatory mechanism, PMS serves 1. Emily Martin, 1988. Premenstrual viewed with a mixture of attitudes, a function. This could have mattered Syndrome: Discipline, Work, and Anger meeting disbelief and stigma. So to our ancestral foremothers in in Late Industrial Societies. In Thomas if you are depressed and you tell becoming human, providing the Buckley and Alma Gottlieb (eds), Blood people, they think you might be lying mental and emotional impetus in a Magic: The Anthropology of Menstruation. and lazy, or mad and dangerous. new sex-strike strategy, intended to Berkeley, Los Angeles & London: University There are many ways in which the encourage male investment. In my of California Press, pp. 161-181.

41 Radical Anthropology Raga Woods An open confession from a member of Democracy Village Democracy Village pitched up on Parliament Square on Mayday 2010 after a Carnival against the sham general election. Raga Woods, a founder villager, reflects on her experiences in this ‘world turned upside down’.

his is an attempt to describe We often feel irritated that racetrack. Meanwhile, back at the the development of an the popular media seems duty High Court, deliberations continue. experiment in participative bound to represent us as a nest of democracyT – a gathering of people lawbreakers and worse. We regret We villagers have all dared to show living on Parliament Square. We this kind of lazy, clumsy reporting our heads above the parapet and have called this Democracy Village. which seems to be just churned out defied the bye-laws of the city of without much regard for the rather Westminster. Yes, Brian was here Like the Diggers we are indeed a more interesting phenomenon of before us by almost nine years and ragged band at the village. Right a cross-cultural community who frequently makes it clear we are not now as we wait for judgement to have been surviving on a traffic welcome to share his patch. This is be handed down on June 29 many island for a couple of months. We yet another rather darker aspect of members of the general peace/green are really quite an exotic bunch, as our mad Pantomime. Brian Haw movement will be busy dismissing you would expect in London, with frequently swears Democracy us as chancers, nutters and even many messages to give and display Village is run by MI5 and that we wandering drunks. True, along about bringing fairness and peace are mostly agents of the state come with the committed participants to the world, though we accept we to do our dirty work and rid the who gather at our meetings, there sometimes fall short of being able square of him forever. Meanwhile are people who have just stumbled to transmit our statements to full strange spooky men with cameras, across us. But we have come to see effect. But we keep trying! possibly posing as tourists, actually that this is bound to be the nature do creep around the edges of of an inclusive-style democracy, We who do actually stay in the village the gardens where we frequently and, yes, it is tough. The truth is have come to appreciate the grand glimpse them hiding behind the that many of us British citizens are English tradition of pantomime lavender beds. indeed struggling to hold ourselves being adapted to complement the together and London is where the ongoing production across the road. One day a young woman was mirror we hold up to society reflects We have a mad King and a fantasy dancing a shamanic spell aimed that truth most poignantly. Queen all of our own. Her Maj is at the evil CCTV camera on the On Parliament Square we regularly particularly fond of having people Treasury Building opposite, it hold meetings in the round where executed so she carries a large graciously waved back but sadly we we discuss everything from Wonderland axe around with her don’t think the spell has been quite sanitation on the square to the and sometimes wears an impressive strong enough…yet! We guess that ongoing struggles in Afghanistan. cloak and crown. She was hilarious there are indeed plenty of dedicated A lot of political passion and a lot of on the day of the State Opening of agents of the state who are glad to personal pain emerges. Parliament and helped us keep it all watch over us. We speculate we in perspective in the village. The inadvertently employ a good chunk However, we consistently find assembled populace did their great of well-paid followers in our wake ourselves to be impressively strong ranting and jeering as the golden who enjoy the rewards of getting to and capable. We find we are a rich mix coach rolled by. know us. of resilience and daring, with huge dollops of Pythonesque self -send- Our wit has been noted within both Actually we suspect we are sinking up added as a leavening agent. Also, Houses of Government, though ever deeper within the vulnerable some of us are very skilled at warmly not many Members have dared to underside of the establishment. Our supporting other people’s needs with negotiate the siren-ridden traffic banners silently declare that peace compassion and genuine empathy. that surrounds us like a monster cannot be achieved by war, the words

42 Radical Anthropology penetrate and attune to the thoughts I realized I needed to find other as a resource in our society and of passing motorists. Parliament one-parent families to share my I believe our time has come for Square has become more electric experiences of loneliness with. making a special contribution. than Piccadilly. Daily the media This led me to founding a self-help Clearly many of our families and give away their news sheets and network I called Gingerbread in young people are expressing a sense with terrible regularity announce Christmas 1969 which has since of lostness and resentment in the yet another bloodletting, and so developed into a fairly significant face of social neglect and economic our messages and banners flood the organisation based in North London mismanagement. As I ponder on consciousness of Westminster. Our with groups all over the country. how to continue the process of work is to question the necessity of grassroots revitalization, I sense it sacrificing young people in a so- As we move towards the conclusion is time to investigate the traditions called war that is possibly all about of the court proceedings I imagine of tribal elders, held in high esteem the need to control the power of the Judge in the High Court in traditional societies. Today wise oil in the Middle East. Is it about understood what I meant when I women could use their experience Opium? or the aftermath of Nato- recently stated I want to move on to facilitate the development of spawned terrorism? It appears UK from the Parliament Square traffic young people who are negotiating soldiers are preparing the way of an island. The future is rooted in our changing social boundaries. Just oil pipeline under a to say for now that cover story about the my experience at education of women Democracy Village in Afghanistan. has greatly opened my We do get sad and mind and increased our hearts seem to my confidence in the resonate with our future. doleful mechanical brother, Big Ben. We will also always We feel a hollow assert that we booming sound provided the best inside our souls possible offering to but our banners those who administer and rainbow flags our democracy demand we carry and who sometimes

on for as long as Chris Knight seem defensive or we possibly can. disconnected at the Yes, we delight in People’s Assembly on Democracy Village, Parliament Square roots. We came, we knowing that we are stayed, we raised an antidote to pomposity and we past and here and now has a strong our banners and we called out celebrate knowing we absolutely sense of urgency. Like so many of to the citizens of this city that we are not what any nervous new us, I want to use my allocated time are all needed to keep alive at the government wants to have on to some good purpose. I see how grassroots or die of apathy and display in the front garden of the much we care about each other ignorance. House. This is a creative expression and I ask the unknown future to of democratic people-power. This give us guidance and calling at We are now awaiting judgement, hands-on experience leaves us this time. My dream is to set up a but as they say, we do not hold our feeling alive and kicking. We are kind of democratic training where breath! bearing witness. This war is not in citizens like myself can learn our name! how to develop both personal and I want to end with an collective communication skills acknowledgement of full respect And a little about myself, excuse me and I particularly see how mature to Brian Haw for the powerful for this digression but everything women can play a significant role stance he has taken on Parliament begins with the personal. I am a in providing some old-style dragon Square; he has been an inspiration grandmother. I have, over the years power as we go on to try to evolve to thousands. And to Maria, the true been actively involved in various new forms of grassroots democracy. enabler of all that’s taken place on campaigns including Twyford Parliament Square in the name of Down and the Ogoni campaign All and everyone is needed of course the peace movement. to Save Ken Saro Wiwa before he and our design for the future must was murdered in Nigeria. Earlier, be inclusive of all. However, older [email protected] when known as Tessa Fothergill, women are greatly underestimated http://democracyvillage.org/

43 Radical Anthropology Ifi Amadiume Re-placing Gender and the Goddess: Layers of Ethnographic Disruptions and Discourse In dialogue with Igbo elders, Ifi Amadiume explores the consequences of a history of ‘faith interruptus’ as missionaries and developers impose their vision of modernity.

olonialist violence was not – as visionaries, faith interruptus resistance. I draw on my father’s only in an interruption would result in empty spaces in direct statements to back my case of faith in existing their invisible world if not filled for the continuing relevance of indigenous religions, by their ancestors, spirits and indigenous knowledge and local Cbut in the psychological violence their own deities and supernatural voices as an important social text of the imposing of new religions. forces. One can then imagine the in conversation with the scholarly Natives were also forced to witness bifurcation in the minds of the text in postcolonial discourse. I their cultures being condemned ordinary people being subjugated challenge, post-modernist denial of and rejected, thus creating by an alien and contradictory the continuing relevance of African disconnections and empty spaces, ontological sacred. In resistance, traditions. and in some cases, an imposed new African religious movements, inferiority complex, as opposed such as prophetic movements Gender Contest and African Independent My work on the anthropology of Christian churches, have gender, based on the ethnography of incorporated elements of a Nigerian Igbo village, Nnobi (over traditional symbols and 60,000 in population), developed For indigenous religious leaders, faith interruptus would result in empty spaces in their invisible

Ifi Amadiume Ifi world if not filled by their ancestors, spirits and their own

Afor market spills into the streets. deities and supernatural forces to precolonial native pride of beliefs to create a more familiar into an interest in the complexity identity. The consequences of these Christianity, but still grounded in of socio-cultural systems, including experiences remain a destabilising Biblical faith. The fact remains the intersections of religion, culture factor in African societies, village that Christianity has a hierarchical and politics3. My study of religion life and politics, and present officialdom and approved doctrines in indigenous Nnobi society the challenges of empty spaces that reject the African creative identifies and brings into focus for radical anthropology and its efforts at indigenisation that are women’s social agency and their relationship to its ethnographic base. not in accordance with its accepted models countering a patriarchal I use the term ‘faith interruptus’ orthodoxy; therefore, the ranking of representation of religion. to address the cultural, social and superiority and inferiority of faith philosophical ramifications of the still holds. Traditional African societies present disconnections and empty spaces several myths and do not impose created due to colonialist intrusions I use conversations with my father a single sacred narrative on and interruptions in African Chief Solomon Amadiume (1918 – their communities. I have used experiences.1 2004), whose chieftaincy title was an interdisciplinary perspective Eze Ideyi,2 to visit the question informed by gender analysis to For indigenous religious leaders – of empty spaces in the context of probe some empty spaces in Igbo prophets, mediums and priests local discourse of oppression and religions in general and Nnobi

44 Radical Anthropology religion in particular. How can I elders using traditional culturally for disputation. Whereas European hear women’s voices of resistance in shared knowledge and strategy to scientific culture is rich because of myth narratives and philosophical challenge a modern lawyer over different views. This is what Appiah propositions in traditional Nnobi a land dispute with implications is saying. thought? West African primordial for gender and change in Nnobi myths about Earth and Sky reveal traditional goddess religion. The Ideyi: Who knows the kind of elders gendered principles of contestation breakdown of communication has that this author interviewed, and speaking to real histories and serious ramifications for inter- they are in the majority. What our milestones in shifting systems of lineage and inter-village relations in people call such elders is palm- matriarchy and patriarchy. post-colonial Nnobi society. wine-smashing-elders (okenye otikponkwu), if you do not pour The argument or quarrel between Ideyi was responding to the them more than two cups of palm- Earth and Sky about who is senior criticism of the ignorance of elders wine, they’ll fight you. Is it this parallels the history of migration and and tradition by Anthony Appiah5, sort of elder that you’ll go and of immigrant clans or communities by saying that there imposing patriarchal rule over are different types of indigenous Earth religions and elders, knowledgeable Traditional African societies matriarchal ideologies and cultures. ones who seek wisdom One sees this myth as a diachronic and – as in any other present several myths and do history of change in religious society – there are also practices, with gender implications. the palm-wine drinking not impose a single sacred One also sees synchronic patterns: elders, not interested in narrative on their communities structural contestation of gender acquiring knowledge. between constituting institutions, and between male and female Ifi: I was reading a leadership over primordial first- book called In My Father’s rights in a system that recognizes House, by Anthony Appiah. He the seniority of elders; and in other is saying that what is holding forms of hierarchical systems of Africans back is because they titled Chiefs, Queens and Kings. do not have a written tradition, only an oral tradition. You However, social or structural are saying that if we go to contestation does not mean that the elders with their wisdom there isn’t also an ideal of gender they can explain matters of complementarity in practice. tradition. Appiah is saying that Amadiume Ifi Cooperation and balance are this is not correct, that when encouraged by propositional Igbo you go and ask them, they are statements of no absolutes (Ife not able to explain anything. kwulu, ife akwudobe ya, there He says the only thing you Ideyi is looking into the entrance to the Igwe’s is another side to a coin); and hear them say is what their palace, with the market and market women selling similar propositional statements forefathers said, and that to right outside and into the entrance. about the twinness of things; that say what your fathers said is things exist in pairs (Ihe di abuo not knowledge because that abuo); this suggests an ideal of knowledge does not leave room interview? If you get the right elder, equality. In Nnobi society, ideals for discussion, that is, for one to you can interview him intelligently, are discursive, and such discussion challenge what was said by their if you bring argument, he’ll equally of claims and counter-claims fathers for progress. This is because respond. If you were to meet those characterize social processes. This knowledge is a history of a series of like Ezeaku or Ejeaku of Nnobi, plurality of paradigms makes for discussions. On this basis, African or my Nnaochie Ezenyikatu who social dynamism, and therefore traditional religion or African knocked down a lawyer. indigenous models of opposition.4 traditional systems of knowledge is working on something static. It Ifi: Did what? The Goddess and ‘development’ is always what their fathers said, A conversation with Ideyi in Enugu and proverbs are the same, they Ideyi: He asked a lawyer a question on August 19, 1994 illustrates are fixed. Therefore it does not and the lawyer could not give an the indigenous nature of dispute, leave room to improve on things. answer. discourse, opposition and conflict The culture does not leave room resolution. It also shows native for opposition, for conversation, Ifi: In court?

45 Radical Anthropology Ideyi: In court. The lawyer of That was how Awuda won that case. in a triangle, because triangles all Ebenesi asked the spokesman of The land that they were disputing have equal sides. Awuda: ‘Isn’t it a fact that Nnobi is in the border with Ebenesi. It consists of three quarters and is very clear that it belongs to Ideyi: After discussion as we are Ebenesi is the senior?’ My Nnaochie Ebenesi. But when they got to court leaving I remind you by saying Ezenyikatu raised his hand and Awuda was more clever. It was my that proverb. That if the three mud said that the Chief Judge should be Nnaochie who did the trick. He died mounds do not have consensus informed that he wants to respond prematurely and there is suspicion any pot put on top will fall. In the to this question because it is their that this might be the cause of his land case where they were saying responsibility to do so as elders. death because those involved are that Ebenesi had first share, my The Judge said, ‘why is this person Ifite people, ndi isi Idemili, who Nnaochie tried to disprove it by causing trouble and who is he?’. have the priesthood of the Goddess saying not in this case. He was informed that he was one Idemili. of the leaders and wants permission Ifi: Had they another clever elder to respond to this question himself. Ifi: The custodians of the Goddess from Ebenesi, it actually leaves The Judge said, ok, he should Idemili. room for a debate. answer, so my Nnaochie got up and said to the lawyer of Awuda to say Ideyi: Yes, Ifite and they don’t Ideyi: He’ll fire back. to the chief Judge that he would forgive anybody. like to respond with a question. Ifi: This case challenges what the Is he permitted to use a question Ifi: Right, because how is it that professor is saying. instead? The Chief Judge sitting Idemili forest is in Awuda? It doesn’t on the judgment seat said, ‘ok, make sense. Ideyi: One would fire back. with all pleasure’. Everybody was wondering what he wanted to ask. Ideyi: Emeh is now explaining that Ifi: He’ll fire back with the rights of Do you know that it was to a lawyer Idemili is in Awuda. The whole of di-okpala, first son. that he wanted to pose a question! Agbor Idemili (Idemili forest) was So they said to him ask, and he said involved in this particular case. Ideyi: Yes, one would fire back. If that he is addressing himself to the They made rubbish of our lawyer. it had been with Amadunu, where lawyer. That they have explained to Why I am recounting this story is we had Ikesebe, or Ibanwalie, or in him that Nnobi is in three quarters. to show that the person who helped our Umunshim with people who can What he wants to ask the lawyer is win this case was an ordinary elder talk. that three pieces of mud mounds are who was knowledgeable. Had used to carry a load (akwukwa nato such an elder been interviewed by Ifi: Speakers, Orators! na ebu otu ibu). Does he agree that the author of that book that you that is so? In that case of the three mentioned he would make him to Ideyi: When things get tough in mud mounds which is carrying the change his mind. Amadunu we go and call Ezegbue load the most? The place burst into in the obi of Uzuako or Anoliefo. a roar of laughter! (Oda zooo!) The Ifi: Yes, because things changed. Ifite are more action people. Their elders at the back row roared with History was made there. That is things are done more in secret. laughter because they understood true. They believe very much on means his question. Lawyer didn’t know (imensi?), because really after that what it meant and said they should Ideyi: History was made there. case, many heads rolled in Awuda, explain to him the question that this including that of my Nnaochie. This man asked. And they told him that in Ifi: There was immediate change. man that I am telling you about a tripod, which is carrying the pot What was the Igbo word that he called Ezeenyikatu; do you see how more than the other? The lawyer used for tripod? that name sounds, when he speaks, could not answer and for five it sounds like thunder descending minutes the Chief Judge was saying Ideyi: Akwukwa nato. There is a from the sky. yes? yes? to him!! You see why I proverb that says ‘no n’akwukwa am telling this story is to show that nato ite sili’. The meaning of the This conversation with my father some elders have more knowledge proverb is if you are finding three tells us about the expected role than others. people at fault, for that matter to go of elders, indigenous cultural forward, there must be a consensus. resources for resistance and Ifi: In what year did this happen? So if that is agreed as we disperse, oratory. It shows there is room for I’ll say that proverb to you. innovation and cleverness, even Ideyi: This would be in the early in the intimidating presence of 1930s because I was grown by then. Ifi: In English, it is called a court colonial might and modernity as

46 Radical Anthropology represented by hitherto unknown people (indigenous to the land, i.e. are sectional. In a socio-cultural and, in the eyes of the colonized, followers of the traditional religion), sense, all of Nnobi is still influenced punitive institutions – the law court, were in the minority. But, the by the Goddess Idemili in spite of lawyers and prisons. Elders can use Goddess Idemili still commanded a majority Christian population; oratory and creativity to dispute the respect of all, including the traditional cultural practices are and overturn the customary law of Christians who were against the woven into the very fabric of social primogeniture, for example. But, indigenous religion. The opposition life. injured parties do not leave it at that, to the ‘developers’ was complex they resort to indigenous subversive with counter arguments from many However, in addition to the grand means known and feared by all, like perspectives, including a class narrative of gender that portrays power-medicine, magic and sorcery perspective on the developers, a the Goddess Idemili as central mentioned by Ideyi, both part of the conservation and environmental indigenous culture that everyone perspective, a gender perspective knew. This incident took place on their patriarchal greed. during the early days of colonialism Most important was a religious and the account of the dispute over perspective on the sacrilege being Agbor Idemili, Idemili’s forest, committed by the developers who shows the power of indigenous dared to clear and build on sacred religion and the Goddess Idemili in lands, especially Idemili’s sacred Nnobi was in turmoil over what was seen as the excesses of ‘developers’ who were encroaching on and grabbing land, including the Goddess Idemili’s forest

Nnobi. Most of Nnobi during that forest. This is due to its implications period still practiced the indigenous for Nnobi matriarchy. religion. In my study of ritual and gender, I

Today, many do not know this link a matriarchal ideology to the Amadiume Ifi important history that explains why worship of the Goddess Idemili, Idemili’s forest that ought to belong and a patriarchal ideology to the to Ifite, her priestly lineage, remains ancestor religion, having examined in the hands of Awuda. I was not the beliefs and practices surrounding given this account during fieldwork these spirit entities. The presence of Uncut tree in Nnobi forest. in the 1980s, therefore it is not in a matriarchal ideology ‘generated my ethnography of Nnobi.6 Local and supported favourable female to the overall administration of people in a position to know seemed ideas and strong matrifocality in Nnobi economy, social and political to have avoided talking about this Nnobi culture’.7 Although believed issues, this all-powerful Goddess major historic incident. However, the to be supernatural and spiritual, is also subjected to some of the situation was different in the early all these spirit entities are very contradictions present in narratives 1990s when Nnobi was undergoing much part of social discourse. They of everyday gender realities in major development constructions to are present in all sorts of cultural social relations between men and expand and modernize Afor market, narratives, involving, for example, women concerning marriage, sex the central market place. Nnobi was questions of seniority, family and and romance. Idemili is paired with in turmoil over what were seen as the marriage relationships, rights of a lesser deity, Aho. In the politics excesses of ‘developers’ who were succession and inheritance, names of gender, just like contemporary encroaching on and grabbing land, of markets, a calendar to determine people, traditional people invent including the Goddess Idemili’s market days, village ceremonies stories around their religious super forest, and the sacred groves of and festivals of thanksgiving to s/heroes. other revered spirits and power- the Goddess Idemili.8 Most of the medicines. While in the 1930s’ extra-descent social and religious I recorded two versions of the Nnobi dispute over the Goddess Idemili’s activities are held in the name of the myth of origin, one following a forest, practically all of Nnobi were Goddess Idemili, so that she is all- pattern of Igbo matriarchal naming with the traditional religion, in the embracing and worshipped by all of villages after the mother, so that early 1990s’ conflicts, Odinani of Nnobi, while other spirit entities Nnobi becomes Nne-Obi, mother

47 Radical Anthropology of Obi. In the second version Awuda and Ifite of Ebenesi over the stressed. . . As well as the maternal recounted to me by the then priest Goddess Idemili’s forest and village role of the goddess being stressed, of Idemili, the Goddess Idemili capitalist development. Added to peaceful qualities were also originates from the Idemili River that is the problem of Christian attributed to her’.11 as a woman to bring prosperity or patriarchy dictating development in benefit, ulu to Nnobi people. Since a historically matriarchal African The grand indigenous matriarchal the senior wife said that she did village. narrative couldn’t be clearer about not have the means, it was a junior the power of the Goddess Idemili, wife in Ifite (a minor lineage in The marketplace was and still is a and the interconnections between Ebenesi, the first major patrilineage traditional Igbo woman’s second economic success and women’s in Nnobi), who provided all that home. With ‘modernity’ and power. In this context, historical Idemili demanded in order to come development, men increasingly developments have also given new out of the water on condition that encroach on this women’s space, significance to the narrative of a Idemili would be in her possession. and this has been the case in Nnobi quarrel between Aho and Idemili A house temple, (Okwu Idemili where market women have faced that I had previously recorded. Nke Uno), was therefore built for and resisted the intrusion of so- Although seen as gods and Idemili in the compound of the called market masters and other goddesses, myth also represents junior wife, and this explains why male government officials who Aho and Idemili as husband the main temple of the Goddess are constantly collecting tolls and and wife in a family. Idemili’s

The grand indigenous matriarchal narrative couldn’t be clearer about the power of the Goddess Idemili, and the interconnections between economic success and women’s power

Idemili is in Ifite.9 Idemili grows levies. When local governments industriousness brings her great in popularity and establishes her or local developers are involved, wealth, she ‘became a great woman; temples and influence in the major the threats to women’s control rich, powerful and much more village quarters of Nnobi (in the of their markets grow with total popular than her husband, Aho’12. order of seniority they are Ebenesi, reorganisation, displacement of Aho sees Idemili as arrogant and Ngo and Awuda) and throughout women by men and loss of market decides to humble Idemili by all the lands of Idemili – meaning sheds whether by design or because marrying a second wife, Afor. all the villages along this river. they are too expensive to afford. Idemili gets angry and counters Her daughter, the Goddess Edo, by closing all the rivers of these with the gifts given to her by her For women in Nnobi, religion, other deities, Aho and Afor, and mother, repeats her mother’s fame culture, the market place and the declares that only her own river will by establishing her own influence economy are interrelated in the continue to flow. That is when Aho throughout the lands of Edo, a matriarchal tradition. In addition declares that all important activities neighboring town, Nnewi.10 to the house temple of the Goddess in Nnobi should be done in Afor’s Idemili in Ifite, as a water spirit, place. So Afor became the central In the grand narrative the Goddess she also has another temple by the marketplace, where most activities Idemili is everywhere, so also is her stream, a sacred place that only her take place. Afor is also the name power. Not so Aho, her supposed priest and the most senior of titled of one of the four days in the week husband. Nnobi indigenous Ekwe women called Agba Ekwe in Igbo calendar. It is indeed Nnobi matriarchal culture does not could enter to consult her. However main market day in the traditional seem to have any problems with a specific people were able to take rotation or cyclical market system founding mother looming so large. refuge in her house as it was a that still governs Igbo marketplace The interruptions by colonialism sanctuary for some social offenders. patterns. and Christianity imposed a The sacredness of the stream was marginalisation of women, the also extended to all creatures in Given present developments, Ifite very subject of feminist and radical it. This includes the python that remembers that what is today anthropology. What once seemed a is ‘personally associated with the Afor marketplace was previously straightforward narrative of gender goddess and was taboo among the Idemili market in Ifite. The secular politics between Aho and Idemili, communities settled along the holy explanation is that it was moved and how Idemili market came to be stream. It was a totemic symbol and to the present location to be more in Afor, takes on a different meaning was referred to as mother just as the centrally accessible to everyone. in the context of the conflict between maternal role of the goddess was But the temple to Chi Idemili (Chi

48 Radical Anthropology being the divinity, essence, power in with what Ideyi in disdain liked to these Christian attacks. everyone and everything) is in Afor call ‘the new order’ based on new market place, and all festivals and religious fundamentalism. Ideyi During the period of these ceremonies that take place at Afor argued that in many such cases of interviews, ‘Big Men’ in Nnobi and are in the name of the Goddess conflict, when deeply observed, in the leadership of Nnobi Welfare Idemili. The public group worship each case tradition triumphs. This Organization (NWO) under the of Idemili, Ilo Chi Idemili, (led by is due to social necessity; to fulfill Presidency of Mr. B.B.O. Emeh and dominated by women) takes practical needs in these multilateral were embroiled in personal place in Afor where Chi Idemili societies with higher is located.13 For the opening of human interaction and the Odinke (the displaying of interdependence. cows and taking of the prestigious Ogbuefi title by both men and Even though the women) festival, the priest of the traditional institutional main Idemili temple goes to Afor structures of social to perform Oke Opi dance.14 The organisation remain same priest also gives the signal for the same, as are the New Yam Festival through the categories and terms display of new yam in Afor market of kinship relations, place.15 During the festival of the Christians object to outing or exhibition of the religious some ritual practices Amadiume Ifi spirits, all the religious icons and that they consider objects were also displayed in Afor pagan. This leads to Market women in open sheds marketplace. This was led and constant reforming of organised by Inyom Nnobi, Nnobi Women’s Council, consisting of all The marketplace was and still is the women of Nnobi, which sees to women’s affairs, All these sacred a traditional Igbo woman’s second home. grounds are tended by women who With ‘modernity’ and development, men sweep the open spaces and keep them clean. increasingly encroach on this women’s space

Here we see the contradictions that life-cycle ceremonies fuel social and religious conflicts. and argument over The contradiction is between Ifite, what is to be allowed, the custodians of the main temple of especially in marriage the Goddess Idemili, who look after ceremonies, funeral and her, love her and are still very proud burial rites. Temples to of her, continuing her traditions, the traditional religious and Christian fundamentalists and spirits are considered zealots who would like to completely pagan shrines and destroy the ‘shrine’ of the Goddess therefore burned down Idemili in Awuda. One can argue or cleared; traditional that the traditional Goddess is music and masquerades conceptually in exile in Awuda. are banned. In the Amadiume Ifi The questions of faith interruptus tradition of restoring and empty spaces relate to new voice to text, what Market women now in concrete sheds religious fundamentalism and the better than to give voice fanatical attacks on the perceived to the local people and have them rivalries, competition and quarrels paganism of traditional religions. speak for themselves, conveying about who did what and who Many Christians, rejecting Nnobi local flavour and nuances. I find brought what to Nnobi. Protestant traditional religion, see even normal, that each time I re-read these and Catholic rivalry, and the but important cultural practices as direct ethnographic accounts, they privileging of one’s own village pagan. Such people have attacked come alive and give power to local quarter over others lay beneath indigenous Nnobi religion, cutting people, and I discover something these conflicts, especially over the down forests and sacred groves new and exciting. The following development and expansion of Afor and destroying spirit temples. An conversations with different and other markets in Nnobi. With additional dimension of conflict is factions in Nnobi in 1994 discuss ineffective and underfunded local

49 Radical Anthropology governments to meet development another example . . . Leaving it there abode in my house. needs, villages and village- does not mean that we believe in it towns depend on fundraising and or that we are worshipping it. Jesus Ifi: It came after Ichiabia was powerful personalities, with big Christ said that we should give to cleared? men acting as government. This God what belongs to God and to leads to a persistent question Caesar what belongs to Caesar. Igwe: It is in here now. of accountability. Unfortunately That is the interpretation, rather these men are also competing for than fighting what one does not Ifi: It came on its own? leadership and the control of NWO, know about. One should face what a nongovernmental town union that they know and do it well. Those who Igwe: Yes, this is the sole thing seems to run the affairs of the whole know the other things know how Nnobi is suffering – having to clear of Nnobi.16 Some of their power to do it, let them do those. Going Ichiabia without a ceremony. conflicts have resulted in court to criticize and fight that which cases that the general public have you do not know is a mistake. . . Interview with Moses Ndukwe an found disturbing in a society that There is freedom of religion. But it Ifite elder – formerly a Christian, still thinks in kinship terms, fearing is tradition that we are discussing, now chief priest of Idemili – on the power-medicines and spirits. where everything that one does is August 6, 1994 in Nnobi, on Afor dubbed idol worshipping. That is Nnobi as the central marketplace. First, a short excerpt from an wrong. Ndukwe understood the need for interview with Ideyi, my father new markets and market expansion, Solomon Amadiume in Enugu on but not at the expense of respect August 19, 1994. The clearing of A short excerpt from an interview for and right of Nnobi customary Ichiabia – the power-medicine with the traditional chief of Nnobi, traditions and religion. spirit in Afor central market place Igwe Eze Okoli on August 6, 1994 – came up consistently as a cause of in Nnobi, about Idemili and Eke, her Moses: Ebenesi has land at Afor; Many Christians, rejecting Nnobi traditional religion, see even normal but important cultural practices as pagan

anger for Nnobi traditionalists, their python totem and messenger. Igwe Awuda has land at Afor, Ngo’s land supporters and concerned citizens. read the presence of the pythons in is at Afor. It is because it is the centre. It was seen as an attack on Nnobi his house as a sign of the Goddess Afor market used to be right here at traditional religio-cultural heritage Idemili’s displeasure with the this Afor Ifite. It is the original Afor by Christians. interference with sacred groves, the where Nnobi conducted their buying clearing of forests and the politics and selling. Later it was moved to involving market expansion and the that place. When it started having Ifi: You have said many times that allocation of new sheds. problems was when all other towns it is a clash between tradition and and counties began to trade there religion. It isn’t a clash between Igwe Eze Okoli: The traditional that Nnobi decided that the centre tradition and religion because source of Idemili is from Agulu lake. is the best thing to do. Furthermore, you need to qualify that religion; It continues from sources until it they wanted to avoid a fight with perhaps a clash between tradition came from Obosi to Nnobi and was Nnewi. Where it was in Ifite, it and new religions, in Christianity, given another name – Obi Aja. Then would cause a fight with Nnewi. not Igbo religion. it came to Obosi and it is called You know we always fight with them Idemili. You will see python (Eke) during certain seasons. So before Ideyi: Yes, new order. there. The only way to confirm this any town will bring a fight now it is that if the Eke bites someone from will be difficult. That is why they did Ifi: Igbo culture and Christianity. this Agulu lake (Idemili), it will not all these things, putting powerful It is very clear, because when hurt. If it bites you after Agulu it is medicine spirits like Odakolo and Igbo culture is integrated with instant death. Instant death. Ukpakaike there. When something the religion of the same culture, it is placed, they also add what it doesn’t have this sort of clashing, Ifi: Really? does. A dibia (traditional medicine and this is really what the Christians priest) placed a medicine pot for are fearing that they are being Igwe: Absolutely. There is Eke in my Ichiabia. What has happened now pulled back to ‘paganism’. house right now. If I bring out one is that there is problem. Idemili got here you will all run away. Since annoyed that all the ‘order’ given Ideyi: The clearing of Ichiabia is Ichiabia was cleared Eke has taken have no more standing. Nobody

50 Radical Anthropology regards them. You understand? the reason we don’t is because after If we want any land we have to you tell them, they will take it to appeal to the spirits... The trees, are Ifi: Yes. the white man. They ruin things. they inside Ichiabia. It is good. That The church people went to Idemili’s is not the problem. It is Ukpakaike. Moses: All the spirits moved temple and burnt it and killed the (erupted) because they have no monkeys. We are not telling. If Ifi: They removed Ukpakaike. It is place to stay. Because if one has no place to sit (that is home), he will have no place to sit and break kolanut or eat. They have no place to stay, they began to wonder about and ‘war’ ensued.

Ifi: Igwe said that Ekepython ( ) is camping in his home since Ichiabia was moved.

Moses: Okay, let them live with him.

Ifi: He says that there are three pythons. What is going to be done to right these things so that Nnobi will be alright.

Moses: You have to start from where that water got soiled. That Emeh I Amadiume Ifi called him when all these things Concrete walls around the centre of what was a shrine to Ichiabia. started. . . I told him about four An electric pole is placed in the middle, and a biblical verse written on a wall. things — Eke that is being killed and eaten in Nnobi, ‘Mbubo’ (Monkey) Idemili calls you, you go and make not there anymore. The two trees I that was shot. Power-medicine the sacrifice if you want to. If you saw, what are they? One this way place that is being cleared... four don’t want to, then leave it. You and the other that way, and you have things I told him. I wrote it down... can’t tell people everything. a big electric pole in the middle at I talked about the spirits that are Ichiabia. being disturbed. All of them. I told Ifi: The church people went and him about all these things. What cleared the Ichiabia grove. Obidike: I don’t know. If it is alive they are doing now is pointing (active), if it is not alive. Who knows accusing fingers... Okeke. Okafor, Obidike: Ukpakaike. (Obidike is its relationship with the spirits. You etc. Suddenly one person and the referring to the powerful medicine know some of them have something other start quarrelling. It is nothing spirit that inflicts small pox, to do with the powerful medicine. but simple mistake. “kitikpa”) . . . What I am telling you is: go down to certain areas and see Ifi: I went to see the Igwe. He said A short excerpt from an interview what the Ide is doing. that the three Eke, pythons, are in with an Odinani (one who practices his house and talking to him; that the traditional religion), Obidike, an Ifi: That is mud slide and erosion. nobody told him before doing all Ebenesi elder, a palm wine tapper these things. and a dibia, a traditional medicine Obidike: In the next two years you priest on August 6, 1994 in Nnobi. will hear that erosion has reached Obidike: The trouble in Nnobi is A thorough Odinani elder, Obidike here. It wants to pull down our hall. causing all this. Odinani is not being had a holistic approach and believed They are coming from different regarded. You know, we started. We in the power of the spirits to punish directions and converging. All the have done Ikwu Ahu. Our people wrongdoing. He also spoke from trees there are falling down. . . We came out and we did Ahor. . . What the perspective of the poor and agreed that we needed a market at is happening at Nnobi. The plan oppressed in criticizing corruption. Afor. We have no land and we have was to help poor people and give to clear some bush, but we will have them a place, but the whole thing Obidike: I am in Odinani. . . We to create a place for the spirits. We changed. They could have cleared a don’t tell the Christians all the gave them order to clear the market field around there and kept it clean, Odinani things. We tell your father. but no one should touch the shrines. but they refused. All this trouble...

51 Radical Anthropology No, we are not in it. They do not Chukukwa, leader of Inyom Nnobi. Women’s Council.) She would have want our input. had her own palace in the market. Ifi: What does she mean that Ifi: Even Inyom Nnobi, we hear they women were not allocated sheds in Ideyi: Right. They should have been have a new set. the market? Does this mean after given two sheds where they would the rebuilding of the market? install traders and use the income to Obidike: Oh yes. They have run their organization. When next I disbanded the old group...people Ideyi: Yes, after the market was go to Nnobi I’ll ask what happened, especially from her.

Authenticity also means the opposite of empty spaces; Short excerpt from interview with Anoliefo, it means reconnections and an affirmation of a shared a young lawyer who was closely and culture or a shared struggle against oppression. passionately involved in Traditional peoples and their elders are not ignorant the events in Nnobi on July 31, 1994 at Enugu:

who would say it as they see it. rebuilt, certain compensations were Anoliefo: . . . Ukpakaike has been They brought a new group whom given. For example shed was given allotted and shared out, and market they say are educated people. The to Igwe, to Okpala. . . stalls built on it. Why don’t they other group were always there just build something around a spot to advise on certain traditional Ifi: Igwe and Okpala got, but women and indicate that this is the place of things because they were born into didn’t get. Ukpakaike and build all the market Odinani (traditions of the land). We space that they want by the side. are looking at them. Ideyi: Yes, Igwe and Okpala got But they want all these built, and as a matter of respect. So, Inyom posterity will not know these things All the spirits of our land they have Nnobi said that they too should get. again. There is need to preserve cleared; some they burnt and that is It will be useful to them, because if these things. Whether you like it what is causing upheaval in the land they are given the shed, they can get or not, there were people whose today. We are looking at them. They rentals from it and use the money lives were influenced by these did not tell us the truth. Church is to sponsor their organization. We institutions. not money. Every time they ask for do not pay a salary to Okpala; we money and when you give it a few do not pay a salary to Igwe. They Ifi: It is their history; it is their people misuse it. Poor people and get money from putting people in culture. widows suffer most. the sheds that we gave to them. We promised them sheds, but Mrs Anoliefo: It is their culture, it is Short excerpt from an interview Chukwuka came up with another their way of life. We didn’t just fall with Ideyi about Inyom Nnobi, the program. She said that someone from the sky. Women’s Council, an organisation gets a newborn and names the child of all the women in Nnobi that ‘ehe obu’! Ifi: You don’t replace it with takes care of women’s affairs, on something borrowed, your concrete, July 16, 1994 at Enugu. Under the Ifi: ‘Ehe obu’! meaning ‘whenever’! your electricity built as your concept traditional system, Inyom Nnobi of enlightening. was the parallel political women’s Ideyi: Yes, because we told them administrative government in a that we shall think over it. So Mrs. Conclusion dual-sex political system that is Chukwuka refused. In a discourse that involves practical ameliorated by a flexibility in and conceptual questions of gender gender classification so that men Ifi: She said to make a decision. and power on placing and re- and women can share power.17 With placing the female principle and the the patriarchy of colonialism and Ideyi: Yes. Goddess, one is constantly engaging Christianity, men and NWO began with layers of ethnographic to encroach on women’s spaces and Ifi: Giving the child the name that disruptions and empty spaces. How traditional rights and power, as can means ‘later’! Mrs. Chukwuka! She can oppressed people risk existing be seen in their marginalisation is right because if it were in the olden as a blank slate in a situation of race, over market sheds and the strong days, she and her other leaders gender, cultural, religious, ethnic, response from the women’s leader. would be Ekwe titled women. (Ekwe class and sexual oppression? Hence, Ifi and Ideyi are talking about Mrs titled women were leaders of Nnobi the importance of cultural history

52 Radical Anthropology to inform the present and the future. narratives and structures; they have are results in a misrepresentation practices of pluralism, diversity and of the character of society in Africa An anti-colonialist perspective, opposition. Socio-cultural claims before the colonial encounter, thus like an anti-imperialist stance, and propositional statements are a hierarchical dichotomisation of emphasises African authenticity certainly contested, and form part pre-colonial ‘tradition’ and post- and dignity against the backdrop of traditional African philosophies, colonial ‘modernity’. of European destruction of and discourse, action and reaction, misrepresentation of native societies oppositional models and local The traditional can be dynamic and traditional cultures. No matter how one reads the colonial experiences of African societies, the challenge for postcolonial discourse is in analysing why and how and what followed? We are faced with the task of examining the character of the traditional system, and the effects of the European encounter. We are also compelled to interrogate the writers, ethnographers, anthropologists, etc. Amadiume Ifi to see if they represented this social history in a way that leaves empty spaces – missing out local voices and opinions. Stumps of cut down trees in Ichiabia shrine.

In the study of traditional Africa, traditional activism. Authenticity and juxtaposed with other newer it is unfortunate that those who also means the opposite of empty forms, with society progressively know are not able to make their spaces; it means reconnections and creatively moving backward case. Others speak for them and an affirmation of a shared and forward in spite of mixes through secondary sources, culture or a shared struggle against and hybridization. It is therefore resulting in misrepresentations and oppression. Traditional peoples and important to give recognition appropriations. The example of their elders are not ignorant; people to local voices and indigenous Nnobi shows that traditional social are not just subservient followers of activism, especially on the question systems present multiple myths, custom. The assumption that they of gender and social justice.

Ifi Amadiume is Professor of Religion and African and African-American Studies at Dartmouth College, USA. Her books include Male Daughters, Female Husbands (1987, Zed Books), Daughters of the Goddess, Daughters of Imperialism: African Women, Culture, Power and Democracy. (2000, Zed Books) and three award-winning volumes of poetry.

Notes 1.The argument for a social text and the Female Husbands; Gender and Sex in an 9. Amadiume 1987, p.100. topic of ‘faith interruptus’ are developed in African Society, London: Zed Books & St. 10. Amadiume 1987, p.29. two consecutive essays, ‘Restoring Voice to Martin’s Press. 11. Amadiume 1987, p.54. Text – Ideyi and My Own Father’s House’ 4. I. Amadiume, 2002. ‘Subverting 12. Amadiume, 1987, p.110. in a collection of essays in Aboriginal Greed: African Perspectives on Religious Voices to be published in the Social Text Conscience and the Global Economy’, in 13. Amadiume 1987, p.104. journal. It is in fact an abstraction from Paul Knitter and Chandra Muzaffar (eds), 14. Amadiume 1987, p.102. another paper, ‘Faith Interruptus and Subverting Greed: Religious Conscience 15. Amadiume, 1987, p.101. the Politics of Religion and Culture in and the Global Economy, Maryknoll, New African Post-colonial Discourse’ that I had York: Orbis Books, pp. 15-37. 16. I. Amadiume 2000. Daughters of the presented at a colloquium on ‘Religion and 5. K. A. Appiah, 1992. In My Father’s Goddess, Daughters of Imperialism: African Postcolonial Criticism’, by the Center for Women, Culture, Power and Democracy. the Study of Religion and the Department of House: Africa in the Philosophy of Culture, New York, Oxford: Oxford University London, New York: Zed Books and St. English at Princeton University, New Jersey, Martin’s Press. USA, March 10-11, 2006. Press. 6. Amadiume 1987. 17. I. Amadiume 2007. ‘Dual-Sex Political 2. In this essay, I use Dad and Ideyi Systems’ in Bonnie G. Smith (ed.). interchangeably. 7. Amadiume 1987, p.99. Encyclopedia of Women in World History. 3. I. Amadiume 1987. Male Daughters, 8. Amadiume 1987, p.101. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

53 Radical Anthropology Review

by David Graeber A review by Simon Wells

practices’ (p. 222). This is because it leaves ‘people with the feeling anarchism ‘is a way of living, or at that radical politics is unrealistic’ least, a set of practices’ (p. 215). (p. 284). But Graeber summarises Marx who ‘never ceased to insist The period of the ethnographic that what makes human beings study is perhaps unique for different from animals is that they activists. It followed the collapse can first imagine something, and of ‘Communism’, when capitalism then try to bring it into being’ put its foot to the floor and assumed (p. 514). With the force of state it could bring about the End of violence, the anarchist world is History, as Francis Fukuyama put therefore in a state of construction

Amelia Gregory it. However, activists had other and destruction. And even among ideas when they dreamed that co-radicals of marxist persuasion, another world was possible. The the threat of bureaucratic violence reader is plunged immediately is not far away. For example, we Black bloc ready for action into the meetings and travails learn that all the anthropologists avid Graeber, anarchist, of the New York City Ya Basta! of a British left-wing group were academic and anthropologist, Collective and the Direct Action purged because they did not agree hasD used his skills to write up an Network as it makes its way to the with the party line that humans ethnography of direct action. His heated battles with the Canadian had only really become human in case study is the 2001 protests at the state machinery in Quebec City. On the neolithic. Graeber cannot be Summit of the Americas in Quebec the way we learn that the activist sure of this story, but this actually City. The book is divided into ten is kitted out in a black hoodie, happened to members of the chapters, the first half of the book a black bandana, military pants Radical Anthropology Group. I can dealing with events building toward over thermal underwear, cashmere confirm it is true – if not purged the protests at Quebec City, the sweaters and a formal shirt. Not that then silenced. second dealing with direct action this would have provided protection itself, power and the state, and the when ‘Tear gas canisters started It is understandable why the book overall meaning of anarchism. bouncing, spinning, exploding all runs to 568 pages, and it can around us’ from a ‘faceless line of appear daunting to read through Graeber describes his book as a police, all in gas masks and battle the descriptions of meetings, just classic in the sense that, as Franz armor’ (pp.153, 154). There was as some of the activists I am sure Boas puts it, the general is in the only going to be one winner in this felt they were tedious. But it’s a service of the particular. What he particular battle. But battles don’t rewarding book that puts together means is that the words in print always win wars. the recent history of activism and are not there to make a theoretical also acts as a guide for activists point but to describe the actions of From the perspective of non- in creating another world that is the anarchists who are creating an anarchists, all of this action may morally transparent, democratic alternative narrative. This echoes appear futile. Graeber quotes Evans- and unselfconscious as Graeber’s the consensus decision-making Pritchard about Zande witchcraft: study of the rural communities processes of anarchism as compared ‘how can otherwise reasonable of Madagascar showed. For me a to majoritarian politics. As Graeber people claim to believe this sort lesson to take from this book is says, ‘in consensus, you’re trying of thing?’ (p. 218). However, he that if you are pursuing your own to come up with a compromise, answers this by showing the agenda then you are not practicing or synthesis, so the incentive is to practical problems of creating a solidarity. always look for the best or smartest new society in the shell of the old. part of other people’s arguments’ He shows that the ‘coercive force Direct Action: an ethnography, by (p. 305). Further, anarchism fits the of the state’ (p. 282) is everywhere David Graeber, AK Press, 2009, pp.568. purpose of ethnography, as it teases limiting human possibilities with ‘out the implicit logic in a way of the threat of violence, because it has Simon Wells is an activist life along with its related myths and the power to maintain the monopoly and student of anthropology rituals, to grasp the sense of a set of over the use of force. So of course at University of East London.

54 Radical Anthropology Review

L. Meyer and B. Alvarado (eds) A review by Davide Torri

ndigenous communities are concept of comunalidad as a new languages. Several commentators imagining a different path to category of thought in the dialectic deal with the state-controlled progress,I autonomy and self- of power between State and Society. and organised school system as governance. All over the world, they An indigenous category, elaborated an instrument of oppression used are facing cultural annihilation and through the practice of conflict against marginal communities. a new wave of oppression, often at and resistance against State- But they also recognise the the hands of the same post-colonial promoted initiatives: ‘Indigenous progressive role a local-centered entities who were facing colonial Comunalidad reaches far beyond and administered school could exploitation just a few generations ago. Western ideas of cooperation, have: the use of local idioms and collectivization, or social concern knowledges together with the usual New World of Indigenous Resistance for the other, addressing the school subjects will produce a explores the meaning of indigenous philosophical, moral, even spiritual conducive environment for the new unrest at the beginning of the 21st question: what, or who, is the generations. Century. This is done through long very ground of existence, both interviews with Noam Chomsky human and cosmic?’ (p. 23). For The book explores also the and the answers he received from a the indigenous communities, on a implication of NAFTA agreements, wide selection of American Voices, deeper ontological level, the land and the alternatives brought forth by often speaking directly from the does not belong to those who work the Zapatistas, Via Campesina and field. it. This could appear like a great gap the leftist governments of Brasil, between the Indigenist and Marxist Venezuela, Bolivia. The book is The starting point is the Oaxaca thought, but, as Chomsky points out intended as an ongoing conversation Movement, in Mexico: in 2004 an quoting Rosa Luxemburg: ‘we are offering a vision of indigenous indigenous movement broke out, never going to have socialism until resistance, survival and possibly a requesting dignity and equal rights there is a spiritual transformation new hope for the future. for the population. An innovative among the population to recognise educational project was launched, a different array of values’ (p. 353). New World of Indigenous Resistance. based on the links between Noam Chomsky and Voices from North, scholarisation, language(s) and The school is another battlefield South and Central America. Edited by communities. The Mexican state- for the Indigenist movement, Louis Meyer and Benjamin Maldonado formation process was leaving and an ambiguous one: as one Alvarado, City Lights Books, 2010, pp. 416. behind indigenous communities, commentator says, in Bolivia and scholarisation was, under a during the first half of the twentieth Dr Davide Torri is Visiting veneer of modernisation, just a way century the movements fought for Lecturer in the Department to homogenise them into an obedient access to scholarisation and access of Theology and Religious class of low-waged workforce. At to the Spanish language; then, in Studies, University of Chester the same time, it was destroying the second half, for the equally Email [email protected] local cultures and communities. important preservation of their own

In a couple of years, in 2006, the movement was so strong and Subscriptions: diffused that it was able to seize Radical Anthropology is an annual journal and appears every October. the power for seven months. During that time, Oaxaca was administered Latest issue £3 Five current issues £10 through the Popular Assembly A few back copies are available – £10 for all four issues to date. of the People of Oaxaca (APPO, Send a cheque made payable to ‘Radical Anthropology Group’ to: Asamblea Popular de los Pueblos Radical Anthropology, c/o Camilla Power, Anthropology Programme, de Oaxaca). Conflict with the State School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of East London, was inevitable, and bloody: Oaxaca 4-6 University Way, London E16 2RD Email: [email protected] Popular Assembly was defeated and many people were killed. The journal is also available free via our website: www.radicalanthropologygroup.org The book revolves around the

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