PART ONE S THE SE'iTINGS THE DISTRICT IN SPACE AND TIME

AREA, QRIGEi, AHlIUJm AND SOCIAL DYNAI4XGS

The district of Bhavnagar occupies south eastern portion

of Saurashtra. It lies between 20^X3* and north latitude

and 71°15* and 72®lB* east longitude. Th« tv/o sides of the

district are bounded by the Arabian Sea (also parts of the

Amreli district) on the south and the Gulf of Gainbay on the

east* The other sides are bounded by Surendranagar and

Ahmedabad districts on the north, and Hajkot and Amreli districts

on the west.

The shape (Fig, i) of the district is roughly crescentic,

and has an area of 12, sq,km. The district is divided into three sub-divisions, seven talukas, five mahsls and eight hundred

and ninety four villages. Total norulation is 1,405,235 (1971

Census) out of which 6B percent is of rural base.

The district derives its name from the city of Bhavnagar,

This particular region was called Gohilwad as it was ruled by the various branches of Gohil Rajputs who came to Saurashtra

in the later half of the 13th Century (The District Gazetteer

1^69 t 1),

As hinted by the archaeological discoveries (of. Chapter

two, Foundation Section) , the district wais inhabited by the

Stone Age People, e w T le V n o . 1 NfcP Of THB IHAVIAQAR SlSTRICfi

o V »c t

tvjVi

-cT pr'!. o C i OC < e> < z

I CO

H- O (C K

O

H

-'t The neolithic culture is, however, yet conspicuous by

its absence in the district of Bhavnagar.

Archaeological explorations and trial diggings (lAR

1957-58 t li8-20i lAR l960-6l : 7-8) have brought to light

foci of chalcolithic culture!s) in the district from the

valleys of Ghelo and Kalubhar. The Chalcolothic culture

of this district, however, does not seem to be so promising

as the adjacent districts of Surendranagar (Rangpur) and

Ahmedabad (Lothal).

The people of Saurashtra are firmly rooted in the past.

Legend and tradition attest their historical antiquity.

According to one account, Anartta, the son of Saryitl and

grandson of Manu, is reputed to have had his capital at

Kasasthali or Dwarika in Surastra (V irji, 1952 t 1), Whereas

another legend credits the iadava Krsna who is said to have

ruled the whole province from the capital at Dwarka

(Sankalia, 1941 » 7). Even it finds mention in Panini’ s

Ganapatha,

The fact is, the early political history of the area

concerned, as that of the ancient India, commenced with

/the advent of the Mauryas in C .319 B.C, The first king of

the Mauryas, Chandragupta having consolidated his power in

Magadha extended his imperial sway to the east and the west (Mookerjii, 1928 : 72) and, afterwards, around C. 304 B .C ., turned to north-west and annexed Kathiawad (Kielhom , Epigraphia Indica, 1905-06 : 8 i 36-49). Since then, the Imperial Mauryas, the Indo-Greek Kings, the Western Ksatrapas and the Imperial Guptas were political

masters for a pretty long period of Saurashtra* s past, yFrom the Mauryas to the Guptas, period between c, 319 B.C.

and c* 470 A,D,, is a period of political consolidation

under the strongest and period of disintegration under

the weak, leading to the struggle for supremacy.

The district of Bhavnagar rose to political prominence

with the rise of the Maitrakas, From the copper plates

of the Maitrakas, it is known that Senapati Bhattirka, the • • progenitor of the Maitraka dynasty, abandaned the old capital,

and the city was shifted from Girinagara (Junagadh) to

Valabhi in about A.D. ISO or 490 (Sankalia, 1941 : 28),

The early Maitraka-rulers did not assume any royal

title like Chakravartin or Mahara.iadhlra.la but continued to

style themselves as * Senapati’ or Mahara.ia. Out of 19 rulers

of this dynasty (Virji, 1952 : 20), the 12th ruler, Dharasena IV,

was first to call himself Chakravartlji (Sankalia, 1941 s 291 V irji, 1952 * 7 7), the other kings who assumed the title of

Mahara.iadhlra.la and Paramesvara were all Siladityas, the

I5th to 19th rulers in the Maitraka genealogical list. The

Maitraka family, known as the Valabhi dynasty, ruled over

Saurashtra for over 300 years, and finally Jain tradition

records, destroyed by the Arabs, but the other view holds

that the Valabhi kingdom was destroyed by the contemporary

pratihara king, who set-up one or more feudatory families

like the Ghapas and the Chalukyas to rule over this territory

(Majumder, R .G ., 1954 s 1 5 D . The fall of the Valabhl dynasty in circa 770 or 738 A.D. (?) is another historical enigma. As implied by the Devali plates

(Journal of J.F, Historical Society : 24*25 : 196) , the

Rastrakutas might have been the arbitrator' of this district for sometime.

The Valas, tracing their origin to Vrishaktu, seemed to have returned and repeopled Valabhl after some inteirval under the leadership of Ebhal Vala, The Vala-rule continued till the thirteen century. Ultimately they were overpowered by the Gohils, who, in turn, were overthrown in 1297-98 A.D, by the Muhammadans, And, in course of time, South Gujarat, mainland and its adjunct formed into a province of the Delhi- kingdom.

The one time Oohil Kingdom gradually emerged as separate states, the principal branches of the Gohils established their power at (l) Bhavnagar, (2) Palitana, ( 3) Vala and (4) Lathi, Bhavnagar was the largest of these States, .'its first capital was at Umrala (1309 A.D,), then shifted to Sihor in A,D, 1547 and later on in 1723, under the stress of political condition then prevailing in Saurashtra, the choice fell on bhavnagar.

The foundation of British rule in the 19th century is a turning point in Indian history, administrative charges were from mediafval to modem, Gujarat ceased to be a province of the Delhi Sultanate as it used to be in the Muslim period and was under British rule included in the Bombay

Presidency, It had three fold administrative units*

A) British districts (consisting of Ahmedabad, Broach and Panchamahals, Kaira and Surat) ; (B) Agency-administered areas (included Eastern Kathiawar Agency, Western Kathiawar

Agency, Sabarkantha Agency and Gujarat State Agency) and

(C) Other states and Estates (chief among them were Baroda,

Kutch, Nawanagar, Junagadh and Bhavnagar),

Till the entire Saurashtra-Peninsula was politically fragpiented. The integration and consolidation of princely areas took place after the independence of the country on 15th August 1947. 'ihe reorganisation of the country led to the formation of Gujarat State in 1950, the district was made, with extinction of princely areas, the principal adtoinistrative unit in the new structure of the newly created

S ta te»

The district then known as Gohilwad was consisted of the former princely States and Thanas of Bhavnagar,

Palitana, Vala, Lathi, Raisankali, Jafrabad, Lakhapadar,

Dedan and Songadh. On the basis of rlus-rainus spatial adjustment, the present district of Bhavnagar was formed in 1959 which is now comprised of the fomer Gohiwad district less (i) all villages of Rajula Mahal except one, (ii) Jafrabad

Mahal, (iii) Lilia Mahal, (iv) Lathi Mahal minus twelve villages, (v) two villages of Jmrala Mahal and two villages of Gadhada ttahal. And territories added are t (i) Gogha

Mahal, (ii) Seven villages of Daninagar Mahal, Arareli district and (iii) three villages of flajula Mahal, Since 1959 no major changes took place in the spatial adjustment of the district, exempting the adjustment in the boundaries of talukas resulting from the transfer of l6 villages of Gogha &

Mahal to bhavnagar and Sihor talukas.

From the Maitrakas to the Muhammadans, and following them, this region has, however, witnessed cycles of rolitico- adrainistrative changes. Structural analysis, so far as politico-administrative changes are concerned, would show growth and decay, but the mainstream of social tradition of this district remains a part and parcel of that "Tradition” ? which sprang from the prehistoric period, carried forward by its own flow, and ultimately embellished, as a process of synthesis which can be termed Indian culture.

Today, basing on the means of subsistence, total populace of the district is divisible into two classes - workers and non-workers. The working r>opulation is subdivided into - (a) Persons engaged in agricultural pursuits and

(b) persons engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. The non­ working class, however, is mainly represented by full-time students, persons seeking employment, or engaged in household duties etc,etc.

In the economic sphere of the district, the most vital role is t;layed by the agriculturists who form more than 60 per cent of the vMorking populace. However, the district also shows a moderate degree of industrialization.

As the striking feature of economy indicating the predominance of agriculture, the district does not show uniformity in the distribution of rxspulation, Zones with levelland and fertile soil show the higher r^ofulation density than the barren uncultivated land, hilly-tracts or areas under forest. The density of population in the urban area is naturally higher than the rural area. But when the prorortion of Hural-urban population to the total population in the district is worked out, the percentage ratio comes to 68,52 i 31.48. I'his implies an importance of villages in the total set up of the district,

ihus, owing to rural-oriented society with agriculture based economy, the general life-pattem of the district is still traditional, Ko doubt the convenient transportation by buses have made cities accessible to the rural folk, yet the old-fashioned character of villages can be seen through­ out the district, as it has more than 800 villages. Proximity to city life has not marred the rural naviete. And while traversing one village after another one does always feel faces have changed, but not the people, neither culture. TiiE OLD STQ^E AGE(s)

DISCOVERY, FOUiNDATIONj SCOPE AND CUMCEPT

Kach or Mhat has been said at the beginning of our study is not the mainstream of our discussion; it was an attempt to understand the nature of historical changes and continuity as well as present day social set-up of the district, Furtlier badctra

I propose to deal with that culture, keeping Saurashtra as a background.

The scientific investigation Ijnto the palaeolithic culture(s) of Saurashtra though began quite late, the province because of its peculiar geographical position, and being *a varitable living etkinographic museum' , has drawn the attention of both, naturcil and social scientists. As far back as 1084, Fedden's geological investigation suggests that this province was subject to a great amount of (localized) denudation, detiression and elevation in the latter part of the trappean period. kVhile, he further suggested, in the subrecent times nearly the whole province was dipped beneath the sea and oii its final elevation the receding water left their mark in the patches and fringes of railiolite now seen on the sides of the hills and in the recesses of the ravines (Fedden, iBBU s

215 2:73-136), But he did not report anything cultural. In

19l6, Robert Bruce Foote, one of the first to collect

Palaeoliths in India, carried out an exploration in some 11

parts of the Peninsular and reported his finds as

’’Neolithic and pottery of later date" (Foote, I9l6 J 146-

155) , but his discovery was also devoid of Palaeolithic arti­

facts. This non-discovery of Palaeolithic artifacts may be

related - he thought - to two factors viz,, the non-availability

of proper raw-material i.e . raetaTiorphic stones like quartzite,

and, also he might have lelt, that like the Deccan (Maharashtra) plateau, Kathiavfar might have been forested (Foote, I9l6 : 36), Hence, Early Man avoided the peninsula* The later discovery,

however, proved his logic illfounded.

The maiden discovery of Early Palaeolithic artifacts y was in 1962 by Sankalia (Sankalia, 1965 * 327-340) and the

evidence of Early and Middle Palaeolithic industries comes

from the stratified deposits on the river Bhadar at Rojadi

(now re-named Shrinathgad), Afterwards, Soundararajan has

reported Early Palaeolithic implements from the Sherdi valley in Junagadh district (lAR, 196? s S6) , and also from the banks of Dokamardonullah about 4.20 km from

Halved-Dhrangadhra road (Sankalia, 1974 • iDl)* However,

following the clue left by Sankalia, Lele started his

investigations on the Late Quaternary deposits in the

Bhadar valley and has brought to light Early Palaeolithic

sites from Jasdan, Atkot, and Dhrangadhra (Lele, 1972

unpublished thesis, Poona tJniveraity), Traces of Early Palaeo­

lithic sites have also come from the Hiran valley in 1972 12

(Sankalia, 1974 * 101) and in 1975 iiarathe discovered early palaeolithic tools from LImrethi-dam site in the same valley in relation to littoral formations (Marathe et al, in press).

The Middle Palaeolithic culture in Saurashtra has a wider distribution than the Early Palaeolithic and the

iranlements of hiddle palaeolithic industry were collected from various parts of the peninsular by Pandya in 1952, Rao in 1959, Sankalia in 1962, Soundrarajan in 1967, Lele in

1970-71 and Marathe in 1975.

The district of Bhavnagar, the south-eastern part of

Saurashtra, was, until recently, a terra incognita in Indian prehistory. The reconnaissance by Possehl and Suraan Pandya in 1971 established the fact that this region is not palaeolithically sterile. Further discovery of a good number of sites (and a large number of implements, both Early and

Middle, Palaeolithic) by the author in 1974 has substantiated the fact. The cultural area lies between Jmrala and

Rajripla in the Kalubbar valley. Jnless the Kalubbar

industry (or industries) is rlaced against the prehistoric

foundation of Saurashtra, its cultural significance cannot be understood.

For a study of the Palaeolithic, the present landmass of Saurashtra can broadly be divided into three parts : 1) Coastal land, 2) Table land and 3) High land. Not that 13 each of these parts developed as a cultural area in a different way, each of these areas rather presents evidence by way of tools which provide clue to understand the culture-complex as well as Earlyman* s relation with the environment, for these three divisions are represented by a marked physiographic contrast.

The coastal land again can be sub-divided into areas receiving high/less rainfall as well as areas having direct impact of transgression. The types of landfonns, therefore, vary within a part, but, in general, the coastal land is characterized by quaternary der^osits and also by recent to sub-recent alluvium. The maximum length of this coastal land which covers the strips of east, south and west parts of

Saurashtra is about 540 km while its width varies from 5 to

30 km inland. Innumerable riverlets that drain this part are mostly non-perennial, and drainage-system is not integrated and has a parallel orientation with a decreasing size of the channels in their lower course.

From the point of Palaeolithic culture, the southern coastal land - the Valleys of riiran and Swrasati - is most important. This area has yielded evidence of Early and

Middle p>alaeolithic artifacts. The Early Palaeolithic complex is represented by handaxes and cleavers on basalt. These tools have come from a pebble bed overlain by a solidified bed of oyster in the Hiran river. "This bed is an indication of the fact that only fringe - the coastal area of the

■peninsula had been submerged under the sea after the arrival 14 of Early Stone Age man (iiankslia, 1974 * 101). Recently, the Early Palaeolithic artifacts, a sub-trangular handaxe, a proto-handaxe or core, and a thick side flake all made on basalt and showing early to mid-Acheulian character, have been found from the basal fluvial gravel designated as lower unit at Jmrethi-dam site and geologically dated to

Middle Pleistocene (Marathe et al» in t^ress),

On the other hand, Middle Palaeolithic is also reported from this area. The sites, generally situated between 15 and 30ion inland, are borvab, Chitrod, Talala, Bherala and Bhatchel, of which the last mentioned is located at an altitude of 130 meters above mean sea level, and all these sites come from the Hiran Valley (Marathe, personal communica­ tion), The assemblage shows scraper-borer complex and tools are mostly made on chart and jasper. Stratigraphically, however, the Middle Palaeolithic tool-bearing alluvia in tiie Hiran valley (in the Bhadar valley also) lies on or against but not below miliolite (Govindan et al,1975).

And, on the present Palaeontological evidence, the Middle

Palaeolithic industry can be dated to the Late Pleistocene but may be placed in the ^arly -pleistocene (Sankalia, 1974 • 145).

Table land The table land of Saurashtra lies between 70 m and 300 m contours, and is, like the coastal land, divisible into several areas such as the central, south-eastern and north-eastern table­ lands. Exempting the north-eastern tableland, the central and

south-eastern tablelands are covered by the extensive sheet of 15 lava, known as Deccan Trap. An important feature of the central tableland is the swam of dykes, sometimes as wide as 60 metres and as long as 50 km. Whereas in the north-east, Dhrangadhra- wadhwan-Wankaner areas, there is a large patch of Jurassic rocks.

The surface of the tableland, mostly basaltic, rises from all sides towards the centre, and has an average altitude of about 100 || above mean sea level. The main rivers of Saurashtra arise from the central tableland c;nd radiate outwards.

In the central tableland, the main cultural area comes from the Bhadar valley. The type-site is Rojadi (re-named Shrinathgadh) which lies at a distance of 54.4 km from Rajkot and 18,2 km east of Gondal, The tool-kit composition primarily consists of Acheu- lian type of handaxes, cleavers, chopping tools and scrapers,

A handaxe on dolerite as well as several flakes of the same material, and the three pebble tools on chert which were found in the first gravel (Sankalia 1974 * 101) are morphologically suggestive of the Abbevillian type. Thus the Abbevillian and the Acheulian artifacts tyrify the Early Palaeolithic industrial complex here.

The Middle Palaeolithic tools have been reported from this area since 1958 (lAR 1958-59 ’• 18, 19). The important sites from where tools of this Palaeolithic culture occur are Rojadi, Jetpur, Dhoraji and Kutiana on the Bhadar, and

Jpleta on the i'4oj (Lele, 1972 : 107). The tool-kit compo­ sition restricts to limited types Siz., scrapers, borers 16 and points, and mostly made on the fine grained raw material like chert and Jasper. However, the stratigraphical position of the industry as observed from the sections at Rojadi and

Jetpur, is the fine gravel conglomerate that lies on the reddish ailt resting over pebble conglomerate, the Acheulian / horizon (iiankalia, 1967, 1974). tab].^J.an4

The South-eastern tableland of Saurashtra is, in a sense, an extension of the central tableland and composed largely of

trap, leaving narrow coastal plain on the east. The flat prodiictive plain mostly covered with the medium black soil lies between the Kalubhar river on the north and the ^.hetrunji on

the south.

The Kalubhar valley between Jmrala and Rajnir^la has yielded evidence of both Early and Middle Palaeolithic

cultures. The Early Palaeolithic sites are located one at

Samadhiala, Jmrala Mahal, and the other at Rajpir>la, Gadhara

Mahal of the Bhavnagar district. The Early Palaeolithic

site of Samadhiala, ao far, is the richest site in this

region. This bamadhiala Acheulian assemblage includes

handaxes, cleavers, mini-picks, small choppers, scrapers, flakes and cores etc., and mostly made on trap-rocks, i'^iorphologically, however, these specimens, especially handaxes and cleavers, with their shallow flake-scars,

symmetrical sections, and also their thinness suggest a late

stage as compared to other Acheulian industries found from

Saurashtra, r^stly these tools occur at this site on the

so-called terrace surface of a locally originated 9^ 1y 17

from the agricultural field, but some of them were found ^

V situ in the Boxildery gravel deposit of the basal section of

the gully.

The Kalubhar valley between Jrarala and Rajpi^la is

also rich with Middle Palaeolithic culture. To mention a

few among many other Middle Palaeolithic sites are - Umrala,

Tarpala, Vangadhra, Bhojabhadar etc. The tool-types include: 1) scrarers of various tyres, 2) Borers, 3) scraper-borers, V 4) points, 5) Notches, 6) small Handaxes, 7) small choppers, 8) knives and 9) flakes etc. In its industrial complex, the assemblage with small handaxes, choppers and knives on flakes may suggest a TX)st-Ach€ulian phase within the Middle

Palaeolithic, but in terras of percentage they are so ill-

represented that noUiing positive can be postulated, nvhereas, the scraper-borer complex represents two fascicles, one showing predominence of flake, flakelet elements, the other (strongly) nodule-elements, of the Middle Palaeolithic

culture, iyorth-eastem tableland

The north-eastern tableland - Dhrangadhra-Wadhwar-Wankaner

areas - is bounded by the basaltic tableland of Rajkot on the west, the little Rann on the north and the plain of Mehsana on the east. At Dhrangadhra and Wankaner some clay deposits

are inter-bedded in the Jurassics while the area(s) has a

sand-base underlying the sandy soil.

The Palaeolithic artifacts have been reported from the 18

Dhrangadhra area (Soundrarajan 1967, Lele 1972). The site is situated on the banks of Dokamardo nullah about 4.2 kin from Halbad on the Halbad-Dharangadhra road, "The tools” ,

infonns Soundrarajan, "included hsndaxes, evolving into advanced Micoquian-like point whose body is dressed only to

the minimum and cortex rresent, small cordiform handaxes,

side scrarers, and cleavers ’'roduced by the combination of

the side blows and bifaced technique (Sankalia, 1974 '* 101).

The Palaeolithic tools on cherty quartzite from this area

show an advanced Achealian facies having entranched presence of the prepared platform teclmique (Lele, 1972 : 102). Most probably the stratigraphical horizon of these group of tools is the cemented gravel conglomerate resting on ly

rock and capped by silt.

iiubscquent explorations (J^ele 1972, Sankalia, 1974)

at the site of Dokamardo and its nearby nullah had yielded

a number of tools. "From their material and type, it would be advisable to include them in the Middle Palaeolithic (Sankalia, 1974 • 101). The scraper-borer complex of Middle Palaeolithic industry or which the raw material is

chert and jasper, is also collected by Soundrarajan from

this site (Lele 1972 : 102).

Hifil^and

The third division of Saurashtra is the highland(s) resul­

ting from the denudation of the basaltic plateau, generally lying about 300 metres above mean sea-level and culmi­ nating in the uorakhanath Peak (1,117 m) of the ^im a f

hills. These nighltnds can broadly be divided into 19 a) H u i s , and b) Hangea. The hill-groups are consisting of the Mandar hills, the t^lrnar hills, and the Barda-Alech hills. The Mandar hills or the northern part of highland lies east of the Rajkot-Gondal axis with a highest i^oint near Chotila (340 m) , about AO km east-north-east of Rajkot,

The Girnar hills rise abruptly from the plain at a distance hardly 3 km from Junagadh, and form the highest landmark in

Saurashtra, The Barda-Alech hills, the third group is in the vicinity of Porbandar, of which the Barda rises to 637 metres, wh0.e the flat-topped Alech hills have a height of

298 metres above mean sea level, Wherers the highlands known as the Gir Ranges are presented by an assemblage of hills 5 the Sarkalan (643 ni) in the centre, the Kanara (326 m) in the extreme west, the Sasa (4S0 m) and the Nandivela (529 m) to the south-east of the Southern division of Saurashtra.

These ranges are covered with thidc forest.

It is evident from the discovery made in the highland areas that the Palaeolithic man also inhabited these regions.

In the Southern highlands, the unequivocal evidence of

Early Palaeolithic tools comes from the forested areas of the Sasa ranges; these tools, handaxes and cleavers, though very few, are crude and heavy and made on trap and typo- logically suggest Abbevilo-Acheulian character. Whereas in the Northern highlands, the Palaeolithic Industry that comes from Chotila is characterized by the scraper-borer _ complex. And the raw material for this Chotila group of tools is the crypo-crystalline silica rocks such as jasper, 20

opal, agate etc. 'i’he nodule elements are also present,

along with the flake-eleraents, in this group of ^^iddle

Palaeolithic artifacts.

Briefly, then, basing on the evidence, so far discovered

from the three geo-cultural areas, the Palaeolithic culture

of Saurashtra can be divided into two main stages - Early/Lower

Paleolithic and Middle Palaeolithic, Somewhere, however, /•9 between the end phase of the Early Palaeolithic and the j •

beginning of the Middle Palaeolithic lies a transitional stage.

The Early Palaeolithic culture in Saurashtra is,

basically, represented by the handaxe-cleaver complex.

It is, at places, such as at Rojadi and the Sasa hills, a

mixed Abbevilo- Acheulian complex, and elsewhere i.e . at

Samadhiala and at Jmrethi dam site, it is Acheulian :

typologically, however, within the Acheulian complex mainly

consisting of handaxes, cleavers, choppers, scrappers and

flakes, morphological variations can be observed. For

instance, the Acheulian tools found at Jmrethi dam site

are comparatively cruder than the Acheulian tools found

from Samadhiala, I“brphologically, therefore, the former > is earlier than the latter, Furtherroore, tools from the

Dhrangadhra region as well as some diminutive specimens

from the South-eastern part of Saurashtra suggest yet

another avant-grsde stage within the palaeolithic technology,

but their typological or technological evolution cannot

be shown stratigraphically as there is no site or section 21 in Saurashtra that shows vertical sequences impregnated with all- the complexes of the great Early Palaeolithic iradition.

The Middle Palaeolithic culture in Saurashtra embraces a group of diminutive flake-tools, but mainly is a scraper- borer complex. The diminutive flake-tools consisting chiefly of small bifaces, choppers and knives which are morphologically akin to the last phase of Acheulian product, may suggest a post-Acheulian industry belonging to the

Middle Palaeolithic culture. However, in terms of percentage, they are not well represented, although their presence also cannot be ignored. The scrarer-borer complex, for which tool types are scrapers, borers, points, notches etc., technologically shares common characteristic, whereas within this complex two strong elements are observed - the flake, flake-let elements on the one side and the nodule-elements on the other, but they all belong to the tradition designated as ^'^iiddle Palaeolithic culture.

within these two main stages of culture, the noticeable differences are i (i) in the mode of occurrence of the implements in their stratified context; and (ii) in the employment of raw-material for making implements. Exempting the surface sites, the implements of Early Palaeolithic industry, if the section is not disturbed, are found at the base (Pebble conglomerate); whereas the i'^-iddle •

Palaeolithic implements are generally figure in medium-to- fine-grained gravel. The raw-material for garly palaeolithic 22

industry in Sourashtra is mostly lava rocks of various tyres,

and the fine-grained siliceous minerals like chert, jasper,

chalcedony etc., for the Kiddle Palaeolithic, In tirie iSouth

eastern part of Saurashtra, acid trap, coarse and glossy, I ^ was employed, however, as raw-material for both ralaeoliths.j •

Discoveries made since 1962, thus, opened up a new

vista in the cultural life of the Early Man in 5aurashtra,

and have given a wider perspective into the Palaeo-anthro-

pological and Palaeo-geograrhical -problems of the Peninsula,

In the concluding sentence of a highly significant article

on Stone Age of Saurashtra, Prof, H,D, Sankalia suggests,

’several collateral fields of investigation’ as ’ it (Saurashtra)

is the one region in India which because of its smallness in

size, but unique geographical position, rich archteolo£ical

and ethnographical data, might prove an ideal region for

understanding the various steps taken by man for advancing I from barbarism and Savagery to civilization,’ iet, despite

the notable improvement in research information, there is,

still, a paucity of usable data on significant matters like

social evolution, ihe present state of evidence does, no

doubt, allow us to draw outlines of lithi-culture, but most

questions of order, stages, of development and their relation­

ship and deviation avjait not only more and better quantitative

data, but also evidence from undisturbed context. The

^generalizations presented above, however, are formulated as

working hypotheses to help grasp the nature of Palaeoliths 23 in Saurashtra, than as final facts about its total comrosition.

Within the framework, it has also been observed that material culture is the principal subject in this study.

The geographical scope of this work includes mainly the

Early and the ^•'iiddle Palaeolithic cultures of the South-eastern part v i z ,, the Klubhara valley in the district of Bhavnagar in Saurashtra. Examples from other parts are given for parti­ cular purposes, especially in the discussion on techno-tyrolol^, stratigraphy or chronology. The focus is on the complex. Then the chief corar>onents - handaxes, cleavers, picks, cho’^rcrs etc,, on the one hand and, scrapers, borers, points etc., on the other hand - are examined and analyzed. The impact of other forces, especially geomorphology, geology or climatology etc. ^ is taken into account, but these forces are not centre of our] inquiry. The inquiry is meant for several kinds of cultural

(palaeolithic) inquiries. The main period of observation - in the area in question-falls within the pleistocene period, more precise time-limit, however, at the present state of our knowledge is partically impossible.

Since the fossil remains of man’ s early ancestors and data on the progress made by man in the production of means of subsistence are yet lackadaisical in Indian Pleistocene prehistory, the culture concept of the period concerned sprang and developed centring around the consecutive changes in

implements and in the technique of their manufacture as well as in their mode of occurrence in stratified context. 24

Stone Age terminological concept in India based on the techno-complex and spectra of tool-morphology has undergone

I changes a good many times follo-wing new discoveries. The classification of the ’ prehistoric cultures* of the Peninsular

India into Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Early and Later Iron Age by Foote ( I 9l6) marked the beginning of the classificatory stage, hence the end of Empirical stage in Stone Age research in India. As yet new discoveries were met with, Foote’ s scheme was found to be too broad to bring forth the precise techno-complex witnin the Stone Age culture(s). Fourteen years after Foote, Burkiit and Gammiade (1930) felt the need for a farther systematization in which as a ster forward they grouped their Stone Age evidence into the following series - I, II,

III and IV which corresponded with the European sequence of

Lower, Middle, Upper palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultural groups.

This four-fold classification of Indian material rosed a problem so far as the tools of Series II and II I were concerned. The problem was that while the tools of Series I and IV could broadly be equated to the Eurorean lower palaeolithic and mesolithic respectively, the position of

Series II and III were somewhat tentative as the blade-and- burin industry equivalent to those of upper palaeolithic of Europe was yet conspicious by its absence in India,

It was, therefore, thought that these two industries, stratigraphically lying between the handaxe and the raicroliths. 25 were not two 'differentiated groups' but rather seemed to form a single major group with a number of local and temi^ral variants (Allchin, 1963; 93 s 2:210-234).

As a sequel to it, a threr-fold model, comparable to terminology used in Southern Africa, was proposed for the

Indian pre-neolithic cultures wherein the culture-concerned has been divided into - Early, Kiddle and Late Stone Ages. This three-fold model was, however, adopted in 1961 by a Coimnittee set-up to consider the proposed terminology at the i*'irst International Conference of Asian Archaeology in i’^ew Delhi,

This three-fold classification of pre-neolithic cultures which 'was little more than a hypothesis* was needed to be revised with the discovery of blade-and-burin industry from various parts of India, Hence, the terminological reversal to the European system of dividing the stone age into palaeolithic and mesolithic, and subdividing the former into lower, middle and upper palaeolithic has been advanced by Misra (1962 : 15 s 2 : 113-24), Since the blade-and-burin industry which is no longer a lacuna but a distinct phase in the Stone Age cultures of India, the tendency towards the reversal of the earlier classification of lower, middle, upper palaeolithic and mesolithic which as a concept though not flawless stands by its own nomenclature.

The Lower Palaeolithic of India embraces two distinct industrial tradition, one where handaxe industries predominate* 26 while the other showing handaxes less numerous but consisting of an admixture of chopper and chopping tools. Hence the

Indian Lower Palaeolithic tradition was thought to be different from that of its Eurorean counterpart. However, it may be poined out that even in Europe the Lower Palaeolithic shows industries without handaxes, and Oberraaier as well as Breuil

"had long been calling attention to the variety of ' cours de poing’ (handaxes) in Central and Eastern Europe (Bordes,

1970 : 83). This peculiarity of industrial tradition is, however, best understood in Asian context, more esrecially in the

North-West of Indian Peninsula, As a whole, there is a

"cultural unity" - *a kind of sameness in the material culture of the Lower Palaeolithic rhase all over the Old World ’ which led to the postulation of likely relationship between India, ^

Western Asia, Europe and Africa (Sankalia, 1974 s V).

The Indian Middle Palaeolithic - encompassing regional variations - consists of flake and flake-blade tools, and is mainly a scraper-borer complex. Through the works of

Cammiade and iiurkit (1930), de terra and Paterson (1939) and

Todd (1939) the existence of a flake industiv (post-Acheulian) though was known in India, it was the discovery at iMevasa

(Sankalia, 1956 : 12 : 35-52) that made the position of the aforesaid industry clear in stratified context. It is now quite certain that comparable industries of this grour have a wide spread distribution and techno-tyrxslogically they can be broadly equated to the Mousterian industry of Eurore and 27

West Asia (Sankalia 1971). However, the Mousterian in Europe

is ”a continaoasly evolving rrocess", whereas in India these do not display ’ homogeneous assemblages from undisturbed

sites’ and, therefore, their specific affinity with any of

the I'iousterian variants of Europe cannot be determined. In

spite of these flaw, the industry (or industries) ’ has its own individuality’ in India, and the term the Indian Middle

Palaeolithic, Sankalia has pointed out, brings out its precise

connotation which may be employed to designate the assemblages from those areas where artifacts of such industry or industries

’ climatically’ ’belong(ed) to humid phases’ , as it has been revealed ’ in many parts of Peninsular India’ ,

The Upper palaeolithic though less widespread than the

Lower and Middle, its existence is not as dubious as it was

ten years ago. These industries discovered from different parts of the country ( a .P, Isaac I960, Murthy 1968; 1970,

Heddy 1970), Bihar iGhosh, 1965), Gujarat lAllchin and

(^’oudie, 1971; Allchin et al 1972), M.F, (de Terra & Paterson

1939; Sankalia et al 1958; Sen 1960-61), Maharashtra (Sankalia, i960); Mysore (Paddayya 1970); SJ.P. (Sharma, 1968; 197>)

'display typo-technological differences among themselves indicating a heterogeneous culture growth’ . Typo-technologically, however, three different complexes have been recognized, v iz., the industries made on (i) flakes and flake-blade ( 2) blades and blade - tools along flake and flake-blade elements and ( 3) the distinct blade-and-burin industries (Murthy, 1970 ! 4 s 1-4 106-128). However with the recognition 23 of the blade and burin Industries, the term upper palaeolithic in Indian context is not merely a misfit hypothesis but rather factual, and though their (Renigunta industries) ’ independent origin’ was spoken of (Murthy, 1969) , it has also been pointed out that certain tools ’ recall the Chatelperronian and Gravettian types’ while the other types (burins) are most akin to those that occur in the Aurignacian and Magdalenian; upper Aurignacian of the

Linsenburg; Kostenki II, III and IV and Borshova II of the USSR; and the Dabban industry at Hagfet-ed Dabba and the Menchian near the centre of Koraombo plains in North Arfica (Murthy 1970),

Geo-chronologically, however, the Old Stone Age flourished in India during the Quaternary period. Quaternary has two sub-divisions - Pleistocene and Holocene. The Palaeolithic phases of cultures have been assigned to the related Pleistocene periods, though the Palaeolithic cultural divisions do not necess­ arily imply uniform time-depth. Geo-chronological clues provided , by the Geo-stratigraphy as well as Palaeontological association, and, in a limited sense palaeobotanical, suggest that: 1) ’ The Lower Palaeolithic culture of India dates back to the Middle Pleistocene with a proviso that it might have originated in the Lower Pleistocene’ . The complexity of deposits do not permit further geo-stratigraphical sub-divisions of the Middle Pleistocene in India; 2) The Middle Palaeolithic culture of India stratigra- j phically succeeding the handaxe industry and preceding the blade-and-burin industry may be placed in the Late Pleistocene, 29 earliest being the Early Late Pleistocene. Palaeontological data, however, do not provide chronological clue to these group of industries as the same mammalian fauna is also . ' ,.‘V found to be associated with the Acheulian, Basing on the ' '

three 14-C dates, this cultural phase is f,ound to range between

20 and 30 thousand years whereas on typological rarallel the emergence of these cultures in India may be dated back

to 40,000 years B.P. (Joshi, 1971).

3) The blade-and-burin industries recognized as Indian

Upper Palaeolithic occur, like the former two industries, either on surface or in a stratified context. This is found to occur at Re'i^gunta at a depth of eight inches underlying a microlithic industry of quartz; the stratigraphical position of this industry in the Belan basin is between the

Riddle Palaeolithic and microlithic industries, and, also, it has been found in a fossil sand dune near Pavagarh in i^ujarat, ueo-stratigraphically the 'middle gravel’ , the middle Palaeolithic horizon, could be dated to a period bet­ ween 30,000 or 37,000 years iJ.P., nence the overlying tool- bearin^i deposit, the upper palaeolithic horizon, could be placed in the closing phase of the J-nper Pleistocene.

The Palaeontological evidence from the Kurnool cavps also

indicates the upper pleistocene age for the Upper Palaeolithic,

However, due to lack of proper datable material, the age of Upper ■palaeolithic in India is bound to remain yet controversial, 30

Against this all India background we may place our

collection from South Eastern part of Saurashtra. Here

the industrial complexes ( cf, i'oundation section) are

represented by : l) A mixed assemblage of handaxes and cleavers and 2) the scraner-borer complex, the former belonging to the Lower Palaeolithic, while the latter to

the ^iiddle Polaeolithic of the Indian tradition.

To conclude s in our work, I have employed the termino­

logical concept that has emerged as a sequel to equating

the Palaeolithic cultures of India on techno-morphological

grounds to the European palaeolithic cultures; and the

reason is that this concept is broadly understood. It has

to be admitted that this has the limitation too. However,

the cultural data, so far obtained, have come mostly from

secondary sites whereas eJccavated primary sites are yet a

few in India e .g ., Adamgarh (Joshi, 1964) and Bhirabetka

(rtakankar, 1973; Misra, 1974) in Madhya Pradesh, Ghirki-

I^evasa (Gorvinus, 1967; 1969; 1970; 1973; Ansari and Pappu,

1975) in Maharashtra, the Kurnool cave sites in A ,P ,,

(Murthy, 1974), and the hunsgi valley sites in Karnataka (Paddayya, 1975; 1976), Suffice it to say that work still in progress at some of the above mentioned sites as well

as further discovery of prira;.^ry/living sites from other

geographical units of India and the data to be obtained by

excavation coupled with intensive .quaternary environmental

studies bringing out climatic changes, clear-cut stratigraphical 31 divisions etc,, of these cultures will decide whether or not the European system of dividing the Indian culture will stand the test of time. THE EGQ-SYS'IEMS

aSQPOGRAPHY, HYDftOGRAPHI^ GEOLOGY, CLIMATE,

vegetation and s o il s

After a general idea of the eco-cultural Saurashtra,

the eco-systeras such as topography, hydrography, geology, climate, vegetation and soils of the district of Bhavnagar are described. The sources for this chapter are heavily dravm from The District Gazetteer (1969), but, also, other sources are consulted e .g ., Fedden (l8S4), wadia (1970), etc. However, the arrangement that follows is writer’ s own, l9,.p,fl£rap.^y The topographical aspects of the district though

differ at different places, may broadly be divided into

the following components (Gazetteer, 1969) !

i) The coastal plain including the adjacent sand banks;

ii) The inland plain; and V iii) The hill-masses that belong to North-Eastern and

the South-Western systems of the Kathiawar hills.

The general lie of the district is low level coastal belt

rising gradually towards the interior, and in nature partly

islandish and partly flat. The coastal belt is either

highly eroded or deltaic and swamry or sandy. The interior

portion, the alluvial lowland, is fertile and cultivable barring the vicinity of the foot of the hills, ridges and

the low reefs. The land features of the region, therefore, introduce 33 considerable local diversity, in macro-scaling its features are simple, while micro-scaling speaks of complexity : the aspects of the surface configuration differing from flat­ ness to undulating rugged surface gently dipring towards the sea, and, at places, stunted and sterile or covered with deciduous scurb forest,

i) The coastal plain including the ad.iacent sand banks

The district of Bhavnagar has roughly 144 km of coast, broken by many creeks. The coastal plain overlooking the

Gulf of Cambay and the Arabian sea is a low muddy foreshore lined with mangroves and is partly sandy or rocky and, which, may be divided into the following three sections (ibid) :

a) A muddy foreshore or marsh and swamps and mangroves

which extends from Sonrai creek to Gopnath;

b) The sandy coast extending from Gogha to Gopnath

point; and

c) the rocky coast between Gopnath and Gadhada,

a) Foreshore - Sonrai to Gogha

From the Sonrai creek to Gogha lies 30.4 km stretch of low muddy foreshore of marsh and swamp lined with mangroves, and at places sandy and rocky. The coastal marsh however extends to the interior about 5 to 6 km along the river courses such as the Kalbi and the Kalubhar, whereas between

the Bhavnagar and the Sonrai creeks, the lateral extent of

this tract of soft marshland is about 19 km. The coastal creeks becoming multinydral flow, during the high tides, a consider­ able distance inland, but south of Bhavnagar the coast rises 34 towards Gogha and it becomes more rocky, having hillocks in the background.

In this part of the coastal plain, the bhavnagar shoal,' some 10 to 11 km from the town and 2,6 km from the shore, forms a sub-section characterized by shifting sands, and may be said to be connected with the Hhook bank at the north end of the bavliari creek,

b) ^ d y coast Go^ha to qppnath Point

From Gogha to Gopnath point, the coast covering a distance of about 52.4 km presents a diverse topography, but predominantly sandy. About a distance of 32 km i,e, between Gogha and Morchand, the sandy coast is comparatively broad and tolerably high but broken by the ravines and trees.

But south of it, up to the mouth of the Shetrunji, the coast narrows down, and is fringed with sandhills, J^eyond the

Shetrunji, the coastal belt again widens out and finally merges with the marshes of iiultanpur and Tarsara, tiere the country is low, but further inland it is open country with negligible vegetation.

c) The rockv-coast between Gopnath and Gadhada

From Gopnath to Gadhada, about 51,2 km, the coast is strewn with offcshore rocky islands. The cliffs are of moderate height, and sometimes hollowed by the sea into

caverns. This coastal belt with bold headlines, however,

continues upto Diu. 35

,V ii) Ttig.

Behind the coastal belt lies the inland plain of the district of Bhavnagar. However, the inland plain is not a stretch of continuous lanctoiass, but is broken by the hill ranges. Taking two sections, the inland plain can be divided into two dissected landraasses, one across the plain from the north-west highlands to the Cambay coast, and the other across the district from the Sonrai creek in the north-east to the district boundary in south-west. The landmass across the plain from the north-west highlands to the Cambay coast, cutting through the Shetrunji river, has an average contour of 152 m. in the north-west but rather breaks abruptly to a plain of 76 m, contour which maintains a steady slore towards the coast. Whereas the landmass lying across the district from the Sonrai creek in the north-east to the district boundary in the south-west shows a plain rising from the sea-level to a hight of ?6 m. contour until it reached the ishatrunjaya hill where the land rises abruptly to 49^ m but again it sinks to a plain of 76 m contour, only broken by a few detached hills (inselberg) rising to about 2UU m.

Thereafter the land gradually slopes south-westwards which mrlntriningl-! contour of 152 m for a short distance off the district border and near the sea, the land sinks again to 76 m contour and less. The inland plain, therefore, is formed by rather two detached landmasses joining here and there where the hills are not very high, and is characterized by V the alluvial deposits developed from the denuded materials ? 36 of the highland belts,

iii) The hill-masses ~ North-fteat and Central-South

The two nearly parallel-lined hill-masses, running north-east and south-west, which dominate the north-west and central-south of the district of Bhavnagar, belong to one of the two systems of the Kathiawar hills. The general direction of these two system of the Kathiawar hills are similar, but they differ considerably in physical characters.

The north-eastern series of Kathiawar hills rise at a little distance to the east of Kotda (Pitiia) and stretch northward throwing off branches into two directions. The branch that goes north to Chotila and Than and finally sinks

into the plain near Dhrangadhra is known as the Mandav hills.

The other branch runs south of the Hajkot-Wadhwan road is

called the Thanga chain which begins as stony plateau with low barren ridges and gradually develops into a succession of short rocky ranges culminating in the barda hills at

Porbandar,

The south-western system of the Kathiav;ar hills, with higher and bolder ranges than the north-eastern system, begin at Mangrol in Junagsdh district. At first consisting of detached hills of moderate size, the range passes through

the southern part of Junagadh and Amreli districts where

it fills a breadth of nearly AB km. Afterwards it narrows

towards east and a break occurs near Arabardi sinking the

hills into a plain crossed by low stony ridges and scored 37

by the headwaters of the Dhatarvadi river. Beyond the

Dhatarvadi these hills take their rise under the name of

the Lesser Gir or the Mordhar range and circling the

north-east follow the bend of the coast until a second

break occurs where the Shetrunji cuts its way into the

Gulf of Cambay. Thereafter the ranges appear on the

further side of the Shetrunji in detached masses of higher

as well as lesser elevation e.g. the Shatrunjaya (447 m), Lonch ( 610 ra), Lamdhar and the Khokhra (184 m), Finally, they merge with the coastal plain of the Gulf of Cambay.

Of these two systems of the Kathiawar hills, the

district of Bhavnagar has very few of the ranges belonging

to the north-eastern series. The outliers of this series

that abut into the district make its north-western part -

portions of Botad and Gadhada divisions - hilly. These

hills reach an elevation of 232 m to the west of Dhrufania,

whereas in Bhadli, Utaria and Kariana the elevation of

hills range from 117 to 296 m. These series of hills

almost reach up to the valley of the Kalubhar.

The north-eastern series of Kathiawar hills in most

parts do not support vrgetation but at tilaces they are

thinly covered by cactus scrub and low brushwood. The

eastern extention of the series which enters into the

district is consisting of sandstones and shales through

which traps croin, but towards the centre large areas are

occupied by basalt. 3d

The dista'ict of Bhavnagar feels the greater impact of the south-western system of, Kathiawar hills which almost lying parallel to the coast in a south-west north-easterly direction dominate the central-south part of the district. As these hills penetrate the district from the south, they make Kundla,

Palitana and Sihor quite hilly. General elevation of these hills ranges from 305 to m.

The natural cover of these hills differs considerably, some of the ranges are barren and rocky while the Shatrunjaya and Lonch hills are thinly covered with low brush wood and some of the ranges of the Lesser Gir present grass-covered hill slopes.

The dykes of columrti^'basalt are quite common in this group, and they are also found in the central and south-eastern parts of the Peninsula in the trarspean area. However, the general fonnation consists of varying composition associated with granite and gneiss and passing under beds of calcareous sand­ stone assumes, in parts, the nature of limestone.

Hydrography

The two systems of hills, governing the surface configura­ tion that cut across the breadth of the peninsular, constitute two distinct water partings. From them as well as from the cent­ ral table land, there radiates all the rivers and streams which drain the peninsxila. Thus the drainage in Saurashtra has a perfect radial pattern : the north-flowing streams empty into the Gulf of Kutch or the Little Hann, the west flowing streams in the Arabian sea, and the east flowing streams terminate in the Gulf of Cambay, Many of these rivers are. 39 however, intermittent (fig, 2).

The principal rivers and their tributaries forming the main bulk of drainage system of the district of Bhavnagar may be grouped as under :

a) The Mandav froup,

b) The Gir-Girnar group, and

c) The Shatrunjaya group,

a) The Mandav froup

The principal rivers, riverlets and the tributaries

(excluding the rivers which do not flow in the district, v iz., the tihadar, the Aji etc.,) are : the Ghelo, the Kalubhar and its tributary the iianghola, the Fadata, the Keri, the Goma and the iJtavali. All these rivers have their start from the various ranges of the i'^landav hills near Jasdan,

The Ghelo has the total length of about 89 km, but its course in the district is about 72 km, and mainly drains the Gadhada division, from Gadhada (105 m) the river flows almost east through Adtala, Pipal, Tantania, Lakhanka, Ishavaria,

Dared, Melana, Loiyana, Hadmatia, Khetatimbi, Navagam, where the river branches into two channels, and Vallabhipur.

The river has changed the direction of flow from Dared onwards.

Now it has almost south, south-east to east direction.

However, the Ghelo keeping its general flow towards east, it penetrates the tidal creek which or?ens out to the Gulf of Uambay near Bhavnagar town.

The Kalubhar has a total course of almost 91 km, and enters the district east of Padapan. The river flows almost Ui

«/) s

UI z i u < %

CO < J ac

<

o s ! S

Th -4 5 H 3

a - ::__ 41 parallel to the Ghelo for about 65 km through Pa tana, Khijadia, Chosla, Lijnala, Rajripla, Samadhiala, Bhojadhadar,

Vangadhra, Tarpala, Rajtholi, 'Jmrala, Ratanpur and Dhamanka.

Then flowing south-east through Thapnath it bifurcates into two channels south of Chamardi, The bifurcated channels join again to flow in the tidal creek near Bhavnagar along with the Ghelo,

In its 91 km course, the Kalubhar is fed by many tributaries and insignificant streams. Mention must be made of the Ranghola which drains about 42 km in the district, and the lialeshari which flows about 36 km in the central and the eastern part of the district.

The other rivers of this group are the i^eri, the Padala, the Goma and the Jtavli of which the K^ri and the Padala flow south-east, through marsh and swamp and terminates in

the Sonrai crerk; but the Goma, as a tributary to the Wadhv;an

Bhadar, flows north-west to join the Bhadar at Ranrur

(Surendranagar district) while the Utavli partly flowing In

the district loses itself in the swamp of Dhandhuka,

b) The Gir-Girnar group

The principal rivers of this grout) which flow through the

district of Bhavnagar are the Shetrunji and its tributaries,

especially the i>hel, and the Dhatarvadi and its tributary,

the Surajvadi, (The other significant rivers of this group

are the hiran, the Sarasvati, the Ozat, the Vrajani, etc.,

but they do not flow in the district), 42

The Shetarunji, the second largest river of Saurashtra, has a total length of about 180 km of which about 92 km of its course is through the district of Bhavnagar. In its journey from the Dundhi hills of the Gir to the Gulf of

Cambay, the river is fed by many tributaries, but in the district of Bhavnagar it receives only one tributary of importance, the 3hel, The Shetrunji drains Savarkundla,

Gariadhar mahal, Palitana, Talaja, and then flows to

Sultanpur where it enters the Gulf of Cambay,

The Dhatarvadi and the Surajvadi rising in the Gir run for a short distance in the district. The Dhatarvadi enters the district near the village of Khodiana and leaves it south of bhaksni, while the surajvadi going past the villages of /makgadh, Jnabal, Ghania and then leaves the district to the Dhatarvadi river south-east of the village of Bhakshi,

Then the united streams flowing a little distance discharge into the sea,

c) The ^hatrunjaya ^rauE

The principal rivers of this group are the Malan and the Bagad. The Malan rises in the south-eastern hills at Habarika (252 m) and flows south-east, except in the

Mahuva taluka where it drains south. But before emptying itself into the Mahuva creek west of the Mahuva port, it flows some km east of the Jgalyan hills (15^ m) i and then passes the villages of Khuntavda, Garas and Sangania on the west bank and Tavida on the east bank. 43

The Bagad rising in the southern hills but near Matalpur

(241 m) flows south-east through Manpur, 'iitoda, Dharai,

Kherdi, Padgadh, i^aroli and Liluan. The river then loses itself in the swamps of Valer and the ^saltpan in Datha,

The drainage system, therefore, in the district of Bhav- nagar shows that the rivers run from the north-west to south-east, except in the Mahuva taluka where it drains south. Topographical features make the rivers sluggish and most of these streams dry up during summer. These streams with low gradient and low banks, however, present a different rsicture during the monsoon : then they are of considerable size, carrying volumes of water full to the brim. However, any of these rivers that flow in the district of Bhavnagar can hardly be described as perennial streams.

by far the largest surface extent of the Peninsular is covered by the basaltic trap, but the numerous dykes and the fairly wide range of younger rocks, with aeolian and alluvial '' deposits, bring diversity to surface monotony (Wadia, 1970).

In the district of bhavnagar, the geological formations are, how­ ever, consisting of the Deccan Traps associated with basic and acid trap dykes, the lateritic rocks, the Gaj beds, the miliolite- limestones, the conglomerates end the alluvium (Gazetteer, 1969).

Deccan Traps

The areal preponderance of the lavas, known as the Deccan

Tvraps, is noticed throughout the length and breadth of the 44 district except the eastern and southern coastal tracts which are covered by tertiary and post-tertiary sediments. The traps, which are lava flows, ernrlaced from fissures, appear to be horizontally bedded through a gentle tilt towards south as seen in the Sihor range of hills. The maximum thick­ ness of the trap in the district is about 600 metres, while the average thickness of an individual flow is nearly 13 metres.

They are invariably jointed, besides sheet joints, vertical on inclined and columnar or prismatic joints are also observed.

In composition, the flows vary considerably i the lower most being more decomposed while the later flows are comparatively hard. The basaltic flows are generally amygdaloidal filled with chalcedony, agate and calcite etc., but agglomerates, tuffs and ashes etc., are found occasionally interbeded with the flows.

However, various layers of lava flows, in the district, include basalts, dolerites, felsites, granophyre, obsidian, pitchstone, rhyolite, soda felspar rocks, trachyte, diorite, agglometrates, breccias, tuff and ashes etc.

The trap flows have been intruded by numerous dykes, the two sets of dyke intrusions, one running east-west, the other north-south or north-west-south-east, can be observed.

There are eight parallel dykes which lie between Dodwa and

Umrala, but they are more conspicuous in the south-eastern part of the district around Talaja. These dykes differ in composition but mostly compact, and greyish green to dark grey in colour and micro-crystaline and sub-ophitic in texture. 45

Lateritic Rocks

In the district, commencing from Adhevfada and passing through Budhel, Thordi, and Badi towards Morchand, there lies a continuous band of laterite which varies from one to

three kilometers in width and extends to a length of about

32 km. Isolated patches of laterite also can be observed near Bharpur, Mathwada, Talaja, Konjli, Gundari and Bhavnagar, The average thickness is about 5 metres which, generally fringes around the Deccan basalt, and is overlain by the tertiary sedimehtsj at places such as at Longadi and

Talgajarda, it contains horizons of bauxite. Basically, it is a soft variegated concretionary ferruginous clayey rock of red to lavender and grey colour containing a fairly rich proportion of iron, often passing into haematite and red ochres.

The extensive deposition of the Gaj beds in the district stretches southwards from Akwada to Mathwada in a continuous chain and then alluvium covers the bed towards Soshia,

An isolated patch occurs near Unadevi, The most famous locality is the Piram island. The Gaj beds are everywhere vrry nearly horizontal, and though the vertical section of the entire

thickness is not yet available, an individual section reveals that it is between 12 and 15 metres. The formation consists conglomerate, grits, sandstone, clays and marls, and gyps^ being associated with clays and marls. The approximate geological position of the beds is upper Miocene. 46

Fossils found from the Gaj beds near Akwada, Bhumbli,

Gogha, Hathab, Mithivirdi, Jnadevi and the Piramislands

are species belonging to the genera of Pecten^ Oatrea,

VfiijiSa, Esiliona, Ar.ga, ^calariaf Venus and fragments of the molar of Mastodon. Apart from these, tertiary fossils of several varieties belonging to the families of Proboscidea, Jngulata, Crocodylia, Chelonia and Pisces are reported from

the Piram island. But other extraordinary discoveries made

from the Piram island are those of Brahmatherium^ Pinotherium

and ColosKOchelvs atlas.

Conglomerate

Outcrop of conglomerate has also been reported from

various places, such as Jaspara, iilang, Mittivadi, bhumbli

of the district of bhavnagar. The maximum thickness of the

conglomerate las seen a village about 20 km,

a little south of Bhavnagar) is about 15 metres which

disconformably rests on laterite and trar), and occurs at an

elevation of about 6 to 10 m above M.S.L, and is 0.5 km inland

from the Gulf of Cambay (Lele, 1972). The formation is constituted

by quartz, chalcedony, chert or agate, the pebbles of which vary

20 mm to 25 mm and is well. cemented with siliceous and ferruginous

cement (Lele, ibid). The conglomerate found from Alang, Mittivadi

and Bhumbli are either ferruginous or agatiferousiFedden, lS34) •

M U 4:9.; 1-^ The railiolite-limestones occur in this district around

Gopnath and Mahuva, and forms the bluff and cliffs on the 47 south-eastern coast. At places, it extends sheeting the surface of the country (Fedden, ibid), 'ihe maximum total thickness of the railiolite, in the district, is not yet known, but obtained from other places (Veraval, Dungarmr in Junagadh district) it varies between 46 m and 50 m (based on the data of boreholes sunk by Oil and Natural Gas Commission, ONGC, Ahmedabad)

However this formation shows variations in vertical as well as lateral textural characteristics (Govindan et al,1975). The foraminifer - consisting of rotalids and miliolides - forms the bulk of miliolite-formation (Govindan et al, ibid). The age and origin of the miliolite, though controversial, it has been found to overlap the tertiary rocks and to rest uron the lat- erite and trap.

The alluvium deposits in the district of Bhavnagar consist of sand dunes, tidal mud flats, raised beaches and fresh water alluvium. In the vicinity of coasts, the sand dunes are common whereas along the river valleys, the fresh water alluvium forms a thick blanket which can be seen in the neighbourhood of Gogha, Bhavnagar, Vartej, Sihor, Sanosara and also along the southern coastal tract.

Aridity is the leading feature of the climate of the district, e x c e p t the coastal regions. There are four distinct seasons in a year : Cold season from December to

February; ilot season from March to May; South-West monsoon season from June to iiertember; and Post-monsoon season between October and November, The district has mean maximum temperatures of 32,S°C in January and 44. 1°C in May, and the mean diurnal ranges for these months are respectively some 15°C and 40.7°C; the mean minimum temperatures being 7, 4°C in January and 2 3 .2°C in May, The southern coastal region of the district due to proximity of the sea is neither so cold nor the heat is as intense as in the interior. The sorching hot wind starts blowing during the summer and is generally light but becomes strong in the latter part of the

summer season and forceful during the South-West monsoon

season. The monsoon winds blow from the south-west to west but it takes the direction between north-west and north-east

during October and i'iovember. The relative humidity during the monsoon season is generally high, being over 60 per cent in the northern parts and over 80 percent in the southern part near the coast. The rest of the year, the air is relatively dry and the annual relative humidity is 56 percent.

The total annual Rainfall is hardly sufficient, the fall being 600. mm and variations range between 300 and 300 mm. Statistical details of temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, etc., are presented in Tables-1 to 6,

Vegetation

The natural vegetal cover of the district is dry

deciduous scrub forest, but has bren much destroyed or

reduced by over grazing or due to wanton cutting and 49 poarching. The true forest area, however, is very limited and scattered, and is concrntrated only in the hilly areas near Sihor, Palitana, Kundia and Bhavnagar. Flat areas without treegrowth is either stunted and malformed or turned into grass land. However, the total area under forest in the district is 260.02 sq, km which accounts for 2,80 percent of the area of the State (Gujarat 1966, Directorate of Information, Gujarat State : 105). The number of sT'ecies are not varied and prominently deciduous : Acacia seneeal Willd, Acacia ar.-'-bl

Caouarina eguisetifolia Forst. etc, /aid along with these, at places, the teak forest, though negligible, is associated.

The process of deforestation has also to be taken into account, as it results soil erosion which, on the other hand, has already brought ecological imbalance. And it has endangered the wild-life, and mostly the animals found in these forest are in the decline. Today though forest is sparse in the district, it still retains the wild animals like lion (Panthera leo) , leopard (Panthera EgXte.) , s t r i^ d hyena (Hyaena hyaena) Wolf

( Ganls lurns) Jackal ( Canls aureus), Indian fox (Vulpes benRalensis) , jungle cat (Fg2.is .gh^u^>) , Wild boar ( ^ ,§,£rfl,fa ),

Chital (Axis axis) , Sambar (Gervus unicolor). Gazelle

(Gazella gazella) , nilgai (Boselat)hus tragoeamelus) , black buck ( Antilop.e ceruicarra) , Porcurine (Hzsjtis iMl££) » longeared hedge hog ( ^^emiechinus auritus) and ratel or leadger

(Mellivora capensls) , 50 tisLHa The soils of the district of i:^havnagar, with the exception of a few strips, are derived from the trap rock. The basaltic topography is due to the volcanic effusions and spread of lava, and denundation has resulted in the creation of lowland tracts like the Shetruffli basin (Deshpande, 1948). The black cotton soils in the undulating areas in the interior of the district are not very deep and, even in rains, are susceptible to erosion; whereas along the coastal belt, the soils are deerer and more plain but get inundated by the ingress of the sea as these areas lie very low.

The soils of the district, however, can be divided into the following types ( Gazetteer, 1969) s

(a) Medium black soil found in parts of Sihor, Bhavnagar,

Talaja, Mahuva, Falitana and i>otad talukas and Jmrala

and Gadhada mahals. This is the most predorainent type

of soil in the district and covers a major part of its

area,

(b) Ck>astal sandy alluvial soil in Mahuva taluka,

(c) Light murram soil in elevated areas of Sihor,

Bhavnagar and Palitana talukas,

(d) Clay lime soil in Gariadhar Mahal,

(e) Clay alluvial soil of Bhal tract. 51

TABLE . 1

MONTriLi kAXli^iJM 'lEMPEiiATJRE °C

Station Dwarka Veraval Rajakot Jamnagar Bhavnagfr Latitude W Longitude E 22° 22‘ 20°54’' 22° 18’ 22°27* 21°45’ Altitude 69°05* 70° 22» 70°47’ 70°02' 72®11» A^iSL (m) 11 8 138 23 11

JAiM 29.5 32.5 32.8 30.0 32.8 FEb 31.6 34.7 35.4 32.5 35.9 MAR 34.4 38.3 39.5 37.0 39.9 APR 33.4 3:^.1 42.1 39.9 42.6 may 33.0 35.0 43.3 40.3 44.4 JJN 33.3 33.3 41.0 38.7 41.9 JUL 32.3 31.5 36.8 35.8 37.5 AUG 30.7 30.7 34.3 33.7 35.0 SEP 30.9 32.4 36.3 34.9 34.4 OCT 35.6 37.3 37.6 37.2 37.5 NOV 34.7 36.2 35.6 34.6 35.1 DEC 31.3 33.8 33.0 30.8 32.5 ANNJAL 37.1 1^0.1 43.5 40.9 44.2

TABLE - 2

MONTHLY MII'JIMUM TEl^EHATUfffi °C

JAlM 12.1 9.7 5.7 7.3 7 .4 FEB 13.3 11.1 6.9 8.2 8 .5 i'iAR 17.3 14.0 11.8 13.1 13.3 AFR 21.6 18.0 17.0 17.8 18.9 MAY 25.6 22.6 21.7 22.4 23.2 JJiM 25.8 24.8 23.7 24.4 23.9 JJL 24.4 24.1 22.7 23.5 23.6 AJG 24.2 23.8 22.3 23.2 23.3 SEP 23.9 22.5 20.8 21.7 21.6 OCT 20.6 18.8 16.8 18.1 18.8 NOV 17.4 15.1 12.1 12.6 12.8 DEC 13.7 11.5 7.7 8.8 9 .1 ANNUAL 11.6 9.0 5.2 6.3 6.6 52

TABLE - 1

RELATIVE HJMIDITI i/a) station Dwarka Veraval Rajakot Jamnagar Bhavnagar Latitude N ° * ® * Longitude E 22 22 20°54’ 22 18 22.°27’ 21®45* 69 05 70° 22* Altitude 8 70®47* 70°02’ 7 2° 11’ AI-iSL (ra) 11 138 23 11

JAN 65 49 51 60 44 FEB 72 56 57 60 44 MAR n 63 71 39 APR 81 72 66 68 44 MAi 82 82 72 70 54 JJN 81 83 76 69 65 J JL 8/f 68 85 82 77 AJG 85 89 86 82 77 SEP 84 86 85 81 74 OCT 79 68 70 76 60 NOV 68 51 50 61 50 DEC 63 47 49 60 45 annjal 77 69 67 70 56

TAtiLE - 4

MEAN WIND SPEED (Km/hr)

JAN 15.5 12.3 13.1 8.8 8 .4 FEB 14.8 13.2 13.6 7.8 8.6 MAR 16.1 14.9 16.6 8.8 9.8 APR 16.7 16.6 19.7 11.1 11.3 i'iAX 20.0 17.3 26.2 15.9 13.9 JJN 23.5 22.5 28.1 16.2 15.3 JOL 27.1 28.8 28.3 15.6 14.7 AJG 21.9 24.1 23.2 14.2 12.5 SEP 15.0 15.3 17.4 9.7 10.0 OCT 11.8 12.1 12.1 7.0 7.7 NOV 12.4 10.3 10.6 6.9 6.8 utc 12.3 11.1 11.3 7.5 7.0 AImNJAL 17.1 16.5 18.3 10.8 10.5 53

TAbLE , 5

MoiMTriL^ TOTAL HAIMFALL (mm^

Station Dwarka Veraval Rajkot Jamnagar Bhavnagar Latitude N 22° 22* 22°ia» Longitude E 20°54’ 22^27' 21°45* Altitude 69®05’ 11 70° 22’ 70°47* 70°02 7 2° 11’ AI'KL (m) 3 13S 23 11

JAN 2.1 0 .7 1.1 0.6 2.5

FEB 2.0 1.3 0 .4 0 .9 0.5

MAR 0 .9 0.2 1.0 0.1 3.4

APR 0 .4 4.6 2.5 0.0 12.5

MI 0 .4 5.3 6.6 8 .4 6 .2

JJN i»S.8 130.3 99.3 63.3 13.7 JUL 22.0 304.B 292.8 215.8 242.8

AUG 75.9 145.8 143.0 125.7 152.0

SEP 42.1 66.9 93.3 62.1 121.9

OCT 4.8 29.1 25.4 9.5 37.8

NOV 19.2 7 .3 4.8 3.1 7.3

DEC 2.3 1.1 3.6 0.8 0.2

ANNUAL 218.9 702.4 673.8 490.3 600.8 o •H •• «» 1^ »- •• +3 CO CO 0} CO CO xJ TJ TJ X5 "d a s . m 54 c < <

LTV tr\ lA ^ -d vO ■CO 'T ' \ 0 I—I r - vO o vO to

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•H CM to to U O » ©•H >» o 0< •ts ■P Ch O CNi »rv CO « C Oi r<\ CNi ir \ 3 73 ® H s I—I

o H 25 cv O• O • o O CO o 3 o o 9-1 ■P i < rH V O M M § CO s-t -4- u O 4> ON 150 to V V CD g ^ ^ s OJ p Oh *H -4- -4- 'O \0 -< o M t-« o a;-H s S r\ o O "O O d s c to • ••••• cnS *3 iTkcn r«> rH vO ^ cn H m

I G cs o q ■P CO +> O > CO (U W

■H CD « aO rH CO CO *> CO CO o p > »• 4> iS CO •o CO CO •o CO a. p CO -C «w =!5 CO CQ > CQ W 55

THE SITES

LOCATION, SPATIAL Al^D TEMPORAL DISTHIBJTIQN, i\ND

GEQMOHPHOLOGICAL ObSERVATION

The culture-area 3) in the Kalubhar valley, as It has already been noticed in the second chapter, lies between

Jmrala in the Jmrala Mahal and Rajpipla in the Gadhada Mahal,

This belt between Jmrala and Hajpipla roughly has a rectangular shape with a maximum diameter of 15 km, and lies below 75 metres contours. Several ephemeral gullies having a course of two to three kilometres, originating locally, cut across the breadth of the belt, and emanate into the Kalubhar river which, on the otherhand, flows over the pediplaned surface with a thin cover­ age of sub-recent and recent alluvium^.

The Palaeolithic sites, whether Lower or Middle, that have been discovered from this strip of land, can broadly depending on their nature, be classified into : i) oren air / channel occupation ii) Gravel-bed and iii) river-section sites. The location, spatial and temporal distribution of these sites, as well as the geomorphic features of the valley are described in the succeeding pages.

LU>VER PiiLAEOLITnlG SU ES

SPATIAL lEr-iPOxiiiL DISTRIbJTIQM

I 1, Ra.1t)it)la (21°53* E, 71°39' N) The Hajpipla village, about 10 km north-west of Dhola 56

t'Li -s.

-

junction, is situated on the northern bank of the river Kalubhar,

The Lower palaeolithic site, lying across the river about

300 to kOO metres away from the village, is located on the southern bank of the Kalubhar. This open-air site, showing an almost oval-shape, and measures 15x10 metres in diameter

The terrace surface gently sloping towards the south, in which artifacts of Acheulian industry were found, consists ofvalluvio-colluvial and rubble deposits ( 1 m thick) of * • th« Late Pleistocene period. This deposit has been exposed T. due to erosion and gully-cutting. A small gully-channel that cuts across the breadth of the site may seem to have originated in the post-Pleistocene period. However, the majority of Acheulian artifacts were found scattered all over the terrace surface, but showing concentration on the north-western edge of the site,

2. Samadhlala (21°52’ E, N)

The Samadhiala village lies on the southern bank of the river Kalubhar. It is eight kilometres to the north-west of

Dhola junction and 6 .4 km south-west of Jjalvad station on the Bhavnagar-Wadhwan railway. This is, however, not the

Samadhiala mentioned by foote (l9l6)

This is also an open air vis-a-vis the channel occupation site. The site lies at the confluence of two locally originated tributary streams, and is about 1 km inland from the main river Kalubhar. The implementiferous area is quite extensive, but the present collection of artifacts were made from the 53

eastern edge of the SAT^N -i locality only, about 10x25 metres

In size.

The valley is relatively broad but shallow and extends a few kilometres on all sides. It is a pediment surface which is capped by thiTp\ veneer of black soil that has developed on the thin veneer of colluvial wash from the upslope of the pediment.

The terrace morphology is well preserved in the Samadhiala area (Fig, 4), The deposit‘overlies or rests against a rolling pediment surface which dips gently towards the south down to the point where the Samadhiala nullah discharges into the

Kalubhar. The Acheulian rock-cut or an erosional terrace (about 1 km inland) developed at the level of. about 10 m and slopes towards the Late Acheulian alluvial fill terrace occurring at a height varying between 6 and 9 metres. There is a more- or-less overlap of the Late Pleistocene alluvial fill deposit and the Late Acheulian channel fill deposits. From the morpho­ logical relationship of these terraces, it appears that these two formations are not separated by a long geological time gap.

The only evidence for erosional unconformity after the Late

Acheulian fill is in the form of rejuvenation of the Kalubhar, by about 5 m. This rejuvenation has taken place in the hard- rock, while the tlolocene rejuvenation is mainly in the Late

Pleistocene alluvial fill. The lithological units that have been recognized in the area may be cited as under (from bottom to top) : 59

Bed-rock, porphyritic amygdaloidal basalt

Intruded by dolerite dykes, uneven and

steeply dipping

-unconformity-

Boulder gravel, 2 to 3 m thick, unsorted,

well cemented, dominated by locally derived

basalts and dolerites. Redeposited

Acheulian tools

grades to

Tufaceous or calcreted gravel, rubbly,

0 .6 to Ira thick, predominated by sub-

angular chunks or nodules of basalts,

dolerites, e t c ,, poorly sorted, ungraded

and unstratified. Main Acheulian horizon i grades to I I Calcareous sandy gravel with silty matrix,

2 to 2,5 m thick, poorly sorted, intercalated by tufaceous or Kankar beds. 60

3 < X z5

U X

UJ "S'

-j <

f c o

« o M

a c o •. 6l

MIDDLE palaeolithic SITES

SPATIAL AiMD TE^'lFQRAL DISTRIbJTIQN

1. (21°53’E, 7A o ’ N)

The Middle Palaeolithic oren-air site of Rajpipla occupying 100 x 8 m area lies on the northern bank of the

Kalubhar river, and is about 0 ,8 km due east of the village.

The feature of the valley is rocky, and having the height between 5 and 8 metres above the present river level. The rock-floor is overlain by medium black-soil which supports little vegetation of low grasses or Acacias. Artifacts were found scattered all over the site, showing no concentration

at specific place,

2. Samadhlala (21°5l' E, 71®39’ N)

This is also an open-air site lying on the southern bank of the river Kalubhar, and is about 600 metres west to the village of Samadhiala, The site measuring 66 x 55 m gives the appearance of a parallelogramatic shape. The surface is moderately plain, only undulating at the east- em-end. As usual, the slope is towards the South, and the surface monotony is broken by a rain channel bifurcating into two branches. The north-western side has the vegetation coverage of semi-arid thicket. And the black- soil coverage varies in thickness between ti/o-three-and half-a-metre. Artifacts were found, lying loosely, on either side of the channel banks. 62

3.bho.1abhadar (21^52’ E, 71°42» N)

The village of Bhojabhadar is distant about 4.S km north­ west of Dhola junction and lies on the southern bank of the

Kalubhar river. This site is also open-air, and is located on

the left bank of a small stream which springs about 2 kra inland

and empties into the Kalubhar from the southern side. The site

is however lying about 300 m south-east of the Bhojabhadar

village. It is almost circular in shape, 50 m being diameter.

The valley shows thick cover of black cotton soil with brushwood

as vegetation, the maximum thickness of the soil coverage, as

shown in at parts, is 4 to 5 m. Artifacts were found as scattei*ed

objects, the collection being small may be due to vegetation

coverage which prevents erosion.

The section (Fig, 5) observed on the right bank of the

Kalubhar, about 0,8 km down the village, is as follows (from bottom to top) !

Bed-rock, not exposed

Bouldery gravel, 0 ,7 5 ^thick, well consolidated predominated by heterogeneous sub-angular to aub-rounded pebbles. Implementiferous,

grades to ; Sandy-silt, 1,5 m thick, well laminated, 3 to 5 cm thick I T grades to tT Silt, 0,75 m thick, light brown (5 YR 6/4) I Surface soil formed due to weathering 63

j , miiiiiinniijfTT w - SILT oc. (light b r o w n )- Ui k- w 2

SANDY SILT

BOWl'OtRY GftAVtL • o ; ' ^ ^ ( ^ ^ ‘LEMENTIFEnOUS:) R.KALUiHAH

F13.5 . AT BHO-JBHAOAR 64

4. Vangadhra 121^51’ E. 71^44’ N)

/^bout 3,12 km north of Dhola junction or 7 km west of

Jmrala lies on the southern bank of the Kalubhar, the Village of Vangadhra, This is an open-air factory site, discovered by Possehl and Suraan Pandya in 1971. The site is situated about O.S km west of the village, adjacent to the southern bank of the river, and it measures a hundred metres by varying breadth between 50 and 20 m. In fact, the northern extension of the site has been extensively cultivated while the southern side is broken into a wavy-line due to ingress of the river. The valley is monotonous rising between 2 and 3 metres above the present river level and is covered with

two sets of alluvium, the light brown silt of 0.6 to 2 m being capped by the medium black cotton soil of varying thickness,

5. Between Vangadhra and Tarrala l21°51’ E, 71°45* N)

It is a river section site, lying on the northern bank of the Kalubhar river, and is about 1 km due east of Vangadhra,

The section has a height of about 4 m, and stands steeply where the river has a little winding, laterally describing a curve, extends for over 30 metres.

The section (Fig, 6) is as follows (from bottom to top);

Bed-rock, Deccan Trap, uneven and gently dipping

-unconformity- J

I. 66

Bouldery pebbly gravel, 1 ra thick, unsorted,

well cemented, dominated by sub-rounded pebbles

of basalt, acid-trap e t c ,, sub-angular nebbles

corat»aratively less. Redeposited Middle Palaeolithic

tools comet from this horizon I I grades to I Sandy-silt, 2,5 m thick, brown (7.5 5/4)

Black soil, 0.5wthick, at the surface top

6. laniala E, 71°46’ N)

Tarpala, a small hamlet, lies on the northern bank of

the Kalubhar, and is located about 4 km north-west to Umrala.

The site is, however, situated about 0 .1 2 km south-west to

the village of Tarpala, and is about 3 km west to Umrala.

This is also an oren-air site, measuring 75 x 50 m. The terrace

surface which is covered by black soil has a gentle sloping towards the south, exposure of brownish silt however can also be seen at certain parts but the general contour of the valley

is low, between two and three metres. Middle palaeolithic

artifacts were found in an undisturbed condition on the north-eastern side of the site, the concentrated area measur­

ing 7 X 4 m. Artifacts were also found as scattered objects on the south-eastern and south-central side of the site.

The Section (Fig, 7) on the left bank of Kalubhar, at 67

liiiiiMiii inriiiTT

~ b l a c k soil 3 -

(A SANDY SILT IX U> — -REDDISH BROWN »- 2- Ui 1

" "O tTo ^ CK •>•7; PEBBLY GRAVEL

A ^ TRAP ^ ^ ^

AT TARPALA 68 the foot of the site, is as follows (from bottom to top):

Bed-rock, weathered - basalt

-unconformity-

Pebbly-gravel, 1 ra thick, moderately

sorted, well cemented, characterized by

heterogeneous sub- rounded pebbles of basalt,

acid-trap etc, t I

grades to t t Sandy-silt, 2 ra thick, laminated, reddish-

brown (5 iR 6/4) f t grades to I t Black soil, 0.5 m, thick I t Surface soil developed due to weathering.

7. iJmrala (21°52» F, 7 l V ’ N)

Lying on the southern bank of the Kalubhar, Hmrala, the one-time capital of the Bhavnagar Gohils (A.D, 1309), is distant about 8 km north-east of Dhola station. About 100 m away to the west of Jmrala-Vallabhipur road bridge, there occurs a gravel-bed in form of sheet-deposit which has a lateral extension of about 50 m with varying spread over, the maximum being 11 metres. Artifacts, loosely cemented, were recovered from the sheet-deposit. 69 The section (Fig.8) on th^ right bank of the Kalubhar, near the bridge, is as follows (from bottom to top)'.

Bed-rock, Deccan trap

«un conf ormi ty-

Bouldery-pebbly gravel, 1 m thick, well sorted, well graded, well cemented, predominated by sub- angular chunks or nodules of basalt, acid-trap etc. Redeposited Middle Palaeolithic tools found from this horizon » t grades to I gravelley sand, 1 to 1,5 m thidc, well laminated, at times cross-bedded I grades to Black soil, 1,5 m thick

The GeomorrholQgical Observation

The Kalubhar is essentially a plateau river having its catch­ ment in the semi-arid region. The drainage integration is poor and

there is a considerable amount of surface flow, probably in the

form of sheet floods during the monsoons. Low relief index, poor

drainage integration and the nearness of the Gulf of Cambey have

produced the following geomorphic features in the valley.

The alluvial cover is thin (10-15 m) in the middle

and upper reaches, and there are no formations older than the 70

Late rieiatocene in the middle reaches of the valley. In fact,

tile most conspicuous Late Pleistocene formation observed in the

area ia represented by yellowish brown calcareous sandy/gravelly

silt arid its associated pebbly/gravelly lenses. It is apparent

ti'iat dux'ing the early part of the Late Pleistocene, the base

level cf erosion, if not in the whole valley, at least in the

middle reaches, was higher by *5 w. It is during this period the

Acheulisn (upper) man occupied the area.

The strong rejuvenation of the Kalubhar (probably in

response to lowering of the sea level) during the phase of maxiiiiam glaciation is followed by general valley filling in the

Middle Palaeolithic times. Even the bributaries seem to have been

filled by colluvio-alluvial trappean sediments. These fluvial sedi­ ments shoviing heavy calcretisation may indicate somewhat drier

conditions during the Middle Palaeolithic times, or also during

tiie closing rhase of the Pleistocene, It was probably during

this phase, the drainage in the lower reaches of the valley got

disorganized and the beds sand cnocked. However, the Holocene

drainage lines have retained the geomorphic marks of the Late

Pleistocene, Many of the abandoned channels or dried streams in

the area are of Sub-recent or even of historical age.

To sum up, the late Pleistocene fluvial histiory in the

Kalubhar valley is characterized by early man wasting the upland,

followed by the pre-Middle Palaeolithic rejuvenation, ubiquitous

valley filling in the Middle Palaeolithic times, succeeded by

moderate rejuvenation and drainage disorganization during the

closing phpse of the Pleistocene, 71

m

----SLACK SOIL

Ul »- w

•. ** *' V *iOulDIRY PESBl.Y GRAVEI.Q>

■ ‘c^ o ^MrLIM^NTlFlROU^ ' \ - C> •' C> • q ' ■ . dl © ^ C R. KALUftHAA

Fig.f^.AT UMRALA 72

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