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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-61322-4 — Assessing the Conservation Value of Freshwaters Edited by Philip J. Boon , Catherine M. Pringle Index More Information

Index

Abstraction licences 49 Canadian Heritage Rivers System 232 Areas of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) Castor Hanglands National Nature Reserve 12, 98, 178 184–187 Asset Management Programme 2 42 Centre for Ecology and Hydrology (CEH) 22 Australian fresh waters Chalk rivers 74 Australian Regional Forest Agreements 227 Challenging developments affecting fresh conservation audit of river reaches waters 105–111 229–230 protective legislation for bull trout, US case evaluating restoration potential 223–225 study 108–109 geomorphic condition –‘river styles’ 224 small-scale housing, UK case study groundwater-dependent ecosystems 106–108 (GDEs) 222, 223, 231 Conservation and freshwater resource historical aspects 218 management, opinions 18–25 international agreements for freshwater of IUCN 19–20 protection 221–222 of Nature Conservancy (Great Britain) 18 key strategies for freshwater conservation of US Environmental Protection Agency 18 231–232 of The Nature Conservancy (USA) 19 national agreements, strategies and of WWF 20 protected areas 222–223 Conservation criteria – see Natural values of National Water Initiative 220 rivers and lakes philosophical and political aspects 220–221 Conservation information needs and data responding to environmental threats 223 gaps 55 scoring versus systematic approaches to in developing countries 256, 257–258, 268 evaluation 225–228 National Biodiversity Network (NBN) 10, subterranean fresh waters 231 110, 173 Wentworth Group 220 NatureServe Network 55, 63 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) Biodiversity 41, 91, 112, 143–144, 161, 230 European Biodiversity Strategy 92 Agenda 21 112 global biodiversity hotspots 259 in Australia 222 loss of 61, 91–92 in South Africa 242 threats to, in Europe 92–93 objectives 10, 257 threats to, in USA 93–94 Co-operative conservation and partnerships, Biogeographical zones 80–81, 84 UK 52–53 freshwater ecoregions 65–68, 80, 157, 50-year vision for England’s water and 188-189, 265 wetlands 52 Limnofauna Europaea 81 Action for the River Kennet 55 Natural Areas 81 collaboration in challenging development Natural Heritage Zones 81 109–111 Biological Records Centre 168 Heritage Lottery funding 54

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-61322-4 — Assessing the Conservation Value of Freshwaters Edited by Philip J. Boon , Catherine M. Pringle Index More Information

286 Á Index Co-operative conservation and partnerships, effects on site integrity 50 UK (cont.) freshwater habitats and species of Little Ouse Headwaters Project 56 Community interest 74–77, 145, 192 reducing flood risk and encouraging Habitats Regulations 11–12 biodiversity 52 Natura 2000 site network 10, 75, 112, 193 River Care 55 site assessment criteria 11 The Living River 56 Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) Tweed Forum 53 10–11, 50, 74–75, 78, 106, 142, 181, Co-operative conservation and partnerships, 192–193 USA 50–51 Special Protection Areas (SPAs) 10–11, 75, protection of ivory-billed woodpecker 51 106, 192–193 recovery of whooping cranes 51 EC Water Framework Directive 3, 12, 24, USACE and TNC – Sustainable Rivers 100, 112, 162 Project 51 classification of ecological status 12, 43, 82, Countering threats to aquatic ecosystem 162 conservation 96–99 failing ecological objectives 166 ability to assess conservation value 96–98 heavily modified water bodies 135 legislative framework 97–99 hydromorphology 135, 181 river basin characterization 43 Definition of ‘conservation’ 2 river basin management plans 12, 42, 43, 162 Developing countries typology of surface waters 12, 81, 193 assessing diverse and representative UK Technical Advisory Group 24 ecosystems 259 Ecology of threats classifying freshwater ecosystems 265–267, convergence 95 270 irreversibility 95 community participation 260–261, 273 multiplicity 95 defining conservation targets 268–271 spatial dynamics 95 development of large dams 260 Economic development versus evaluating biological integrity 272 environmental protection 40, 48 evaluating restoration potential 262–263 Ecosystem goods and services 119, 255, 256, fish species richness 259 257 fisheries data 258 Environmental Impact Assessment and involvement of statutory and non-statutory hydropower development organizations 258 case study in Scotland 102–103 Mesopotamian marshlands – restoration 263 case study in USA 104–105 methods for assessing conservation value Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 264–273 Program (EMAP) 156 remote sensing 265–266, 270 European Union environmental legislation responding to environmental threats 260 41–44 River Continuum Concept – in tropical conflicts with regulatory frameworks in regions 270 USA 44 river gauging stations 257 enforcement 43 selecting areas of high conservation value 273 setting goals for conservation targets 272–273 Fens 56 transboundary river basins 259 Forests and Water Guidelines 25 Duality of mandates within and between Freshwater conservation planning 62, 63, 65, government organizations 48–50 67, 83, 85, 175, 177, 225–228, 243, 256, 273–274, 281 EC Habitats and Birds Directives 10, 42, 78, Freshwater ecoregions 65–71, 157, 188–189 102, 106, 112, 191–192, 216 criteria for assessing biological criteria for selecting SACs 145 distinctiveness 157

Index Á 287 in developing countries 265 Integrated Catchment Management 160, 261 in North America 66 Integrated Water Resources Management spatial priorities 67–71, 79–81 (IWRM) 20–21 Freshwater habitat classification (typology) Invasive species CORINE 75 giant hogweed Heracleum mantegazzianum Ecological Drainage Units (EDUs) 53 265–266, 267 in USA 94 hydroecoregions 266 Japanese knotweed Fallopia japonica 53 lake classification in UK 175–177 mink Mustela vison 170 lake classification in USA 177–178 North American signal crayfish Pacifastacus OECD classification based on nutrient leniusculus 13, 171 status 174, 175 zebra mussel Dreissena polymorpha 171 river community sub-types 160 using hydrographic data 266 Klamath Hydroelectric Project 46, 104–105 Freshwater Imperative 23 Freshwater Initiative 190 Lake Assessment for Conservation (LACON) 79, 181–187 Geomorphological processes 161 Lake conservation value criteria used in Nordic countries 202–204 Hetch Hetchy Valley dam controversy 7 ecosystem functionality 190 Historical changes in the mission of evaluating and prioritizing lakes for government agencies – UK 46–48 conservation in UK 178–187 Countryside Agency 47 evaluating and prioritizing lakes for Countryside Council for Wales 46–48 conservation in USA 187–191 English Nature 46–47 Important Plant Areas (IPAs) 192–193 Environment Agency 47 LACON 79, 181–187 Forestry Commission 46 survey and data collection 167–168 Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Pollution 47 survey methods – UK and USA 169–172 National Rivers Authority 47 Lake Habitat Survey 24–25, 181–182 Nature Conservancy Council 46 Lake restoration 119, 125–126, 128–129 Nature Conservancy 46 Lakes (named) Scottish Natural Heritage 46–47 Bear Lake 189 Historical changes in the mission of Benton Lake 194 government agencies – USA 45–46 Cairngorm Lochs 195 US Army Corps of Engineers 45 Esthwaite Water 42 US Bureau of Reclamation 45–46 Great Salt Lake 189, 194 US Environmental Protection Agency 45 Lake Champlain 168 US Fish and Wildlife Service 45 Lake Erie marshes 194 Historical development of conservation – UK 7 Lake Superior 189 Historical development of conservation – Lake Tahoe 168 USA 6 Lake Waccamaw 189 Laurentian Great Lakes 62, 168, 178, 187 Identifying conservation priorities in the UK Loch Leven 106 71–82 Loch Lomond 73 priority habitats 73–76 Loch Maree 102 priority species 77–78 Loch Morar 73 Identifying conservation priorities in the USA Loch of Strathbeg 195 62–71 Long Lake 194 Incentives for freshwater conservation 2 Mono Lake 194 Index of Biotic Integrity 67, 184 Norfolk Broads 42, 193 Indicator species 78 Salton Sea 194

288 Á Index Lakes (named) (cont.) National Water Act 238, 240, 243, 245, Sevier Lake 189 247, 252 South Texas Salt Lakes 194 Natural Environment And Rural Swan Lake 194 Communities Act 10, 13 Upper Klamath 46 Nature Conservation (Scotland) Act 10, Upper Lough Erne 193 13, 98 Utah Lake 189 Nature Conservation Act (Sweden and Lakes in Sweden – distribution 201 Norway) 200 Legal action Ohio Scenic Rivers Act 148 bull trout 108 Protected Areas Act 242 Sierra Club versus the US EPA 57 Ramsar Convention – see separate entry Legislation – Acts, directives, conventions, Registration, Evaluation and agreements 8–15 Authorization of Chemicals Act for the Preservation of the River (REACH) 44 Thames 39 Rivers (Prevention of Pollution) Bern Convention 10, 78, 144–145 Act 135 Biodiversity Act 242 Swamp Land Acts 40 Convention on International Trade in Toxic Substances Control Act 44 Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and UK nature conservation legislation Flora (CITES) 14 12–13 Clean Water Act 8, 14–15, 45, 54, 57, 58, Water Environment and Water Services 99, 104, 112, 135, 148, 150, 177 Act 2003 12 Control of Pollution Act 135 Wild and Scenic Rivers Act 13–14, 54, Convention on Biological Diversity 10, 41, 104, 142, 148 161 Wilderness Act 8 Countryside and Rights of Way Act 13, 98 Wildlife and Countryside Act 12–13, 76, EC Directive on Environmental Liability 58 78, 98, 135, 161 EC Directive on Integrated Pollution Legislation – national and international Prevention and Control 43 contrasts 41–44 EC Habitats and Birds Directives – see separate entry National Academy of Sciences 24 EC Strategic Environmental Assessment National Forests 49 Directive 100 National Gap Analysis Program 158 EC Urban Wastewater Treatment National Park Service 7, 148 Directive 42, 43 National Research Council 24 EC Water Framework Directive – see National Vegetation Classification 80, 168 separate entry National Water Quality Assessment Endangered Species Act 14, 46, 54, 68, 93, (NAWQA) Program 156 99, 104, 108, 109, 112, 127, 135, 148, Natural Environment Research Council 17, 150–151, 161, 189, 190 167 Freshwater Fish Directive 42 Natural Heritage Network 173, 189 Kyoto Protocol 41 Natural Heritage Programs 63, 173 Louisiana Swamp Act 40 Natural values of rivers and lakes Magna Carta 39 (conservation criteria) 25–36, 79 National Environmental Policy Act 101, diversity/richness 26–36, 79, 153–154, 103, 122 179–180, 207, 213 National Forest Management Act 99, 104 naturalness 26–36, 79, 81–82, 153–154, National Parks and Access to the 160, 167, 179, 206, 208, 212–214 Countryside Act 99 position in an ecological unit 181 National Spatial Biodiversity Assessment rarity 26–36, 153–154, 179, 202, 206–207, Programme 242 212–213

Index Á 289 representativeness/typicalness 26–36, 154, Wildlife Trusts 52 179 World Conservation Monitoring Centre size 181 92, 259 special features 26–36, 154, 209 World Resources Institute 259 Nature conservation as a ‘use’ 18–19, 21 WWF 20, 110, 157, 188–189, 194–195, Nature Conservation Review 13, 79, 179 258, 259, 265 Nature reserves Local Nature Reserves 98 Ohio Aquatic Gap pilot project 189 National Nature Reserves 98, 106 Opposition to dams 7 New Zealand Waters of National Importance Echo Park Dam battle 8 Project 228–229 Organizations relevant to freshwater Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) conservation and management American Rivers 23, 54 Agency structure in USA and UK 15–17, Anglers Co-operative Association 53 45 Association of River Trusts 54 British Waterways 17 Bird Life International 20 CONABIO (Mexico) 258 Botanical Society of the British Isles 167 Countryside Council for Wales 13, 16, 17, British Trust for Ornithology 167, 170 19, 46 Conservation International 20 Department for Environment, Food and European Bureau for Conservation and Rural Affairs (Defra) 47, 53 Development 110 District Salmon Fishery Boards 17, 171 European Environmental Bureau 110 Environment Agency (England and Wales) IUCN 20, 92, 110, 203, 258 16, 43, 47, 49, 52, 118, 167, 171, 172, LakeNet 194–195 184 LINK bodies 109–110 European Commission 58, 100, 110 National Audobon Society 7, 54, 56 European Environment Bureau 58 National Wildlife Federation 7 Federal Energy Regulatory Commission Pacific Rivers Council 23 104 Pond Conservation 54, 167, 172, 184 Fisheries Research Services 171 River Restoration Centre 54, 127 Forestry Commission 17, 25, 46, 52 Rivers and Fisheries Trusts Scotland Joint Nature Conservation Committee 16, (RAFTS) 56 77 Role of NGOs as watchdogs of federal Mekong River Commission 258 agencies 57–58 Natural England (formerly English Nature) Role of NGOs in freshwater conservation 13, 16, 17, 19, 46, 52, 53, 56 53–58 Nigerian Conservation Foundation 258 Royal Society for Protection of Birds 52, Northern Ireland Environment Agency 54, 58, 110, 170 16, 19 Sierra Club 23, 57 Northern Ireland Water 17 Society for Protection of Birds 7 Rivers Agency 16 Tatshenshini Wild 23 Scottish Environment Protection Agency The Nature Conservancy (USA) 19, 20, 16, 49, 53, 167 23, 70–71, 168, 177, 189, 258, 265 Scottish Natural Heritage 13, 16, 19, 46, Trout Unlimited 23 102 US National Parks Conservation Scottish Water 17 Association 57 South African Department of Water Affairs Voluntary natural history organizations and Forestry 240 (UK) 54 South African Institute of Aquatic Wetlands International 21, 258 Biodiversity 242 Wilderness Society 23 South African National Biodiversity Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust 19, 170 Institute 242

290 Á Index Organizations relevant to freshwater Ramsar Convention conservation and management (cont.) criteria for evaluating wetlands 9 Swedish Environmental Protection definition of ‘wetland’ 9 Agency 203 in Australia 221 US Department of Agriculture Forest Ramsar sites 41, 106, 143, 191 Service 48, 57, 188 restoration potential of wetlands 262 US Environmental Protection Agency 18, Rarity status of aquatic charophytes 76 23, 45, 57, 156, 188 Red list species 76, 173, 183, 207, 209 US Fish and Wildlife Service 18, 45, 48, IUCN Red Data Book/Red List 77, 97, 51, 109, 170 144, 194, 257 US Geological Survey 156, 170 Species of Conservation Concern 77–78 Water companies (England and Wales) 17 Reference condition 81–82 Outstanding Waters designation 14, 150 Restoration ‘Key Watersheds’ 127–128 Peer-reviewed scientific publications 25 addressing uncertainty 126 Perceptions of nature conservation value in and ECOFRAME 127 the UK and USA 25–36 and flood prevention 118 Canvassing views of freshwater specialists and overall ecosystem change 118 25–36 and SERCON 127, 134 Comparison with Australian study 34, 35 defining achievable ecological targets Differences according to professional sector 122–126 28, 33 definitions 124 Questionnaire results 28–36 disturbance 129–130 Phase 1 survey method 175 dual purpose 119 Philosophical conservation movements ecological concepts 119 Evolutionary-Ecological Land Ethic 6 establishing priorities 121–122, 224 Resource Conservation Ethic 6 evaluating restoration potential 126–134, Romantic-Transcendental Conservation 223–225 Ethic 6 functional versus species targets 124 Plant Lake Ecotype Index (PLEX) 183 future evaluation 134–136 Ponds – conservation evaluation 184–187 in developing countries 262–263 Precautionary principle 44 learning from success and failure 133 Predictive System for Multimetrics (PSYM) normative rivers concept 119–120, 121, 184–187 123, 124, 134–135 Priority species for conservation – USA of diversity 125 63–64 pre-project and post-project evaluation keystone species 63, 83 120–121 representative components of aquatic recovery after restoration 130–133 biodiversity 64 River Restoration Centre 127 umbrella species 63, 83 role of legislation 135 unique stocks 64 scale as a factor in success 124, 130–131 Protecting aquatic environments through the selecting restoration sites for conservation planning system 99–105 120–126 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) selection criteria for 119–120 101–103 Riparian areas 24, 133, 160 Environmental Impact Statement 104 River Community Types 145–146 within Europe and the UK 99–103 River conservation value within North America 103–105 assessing critical habitat for imperilled Public awareness of the importance of species 150–151 conservation 7 assessing rivers for wild and scenic values Publication of Aquatic Conservation 1 148–150

Index Á 291 assessing stream and river integrity in the Nile 272 USA 156–157 Olifants/Doring 243 Bern Convention, inclusion of rivers 144 Orthon 266 Community Conservation Index 147–148 Paraguay 266, 267, 268, 271 criteria for assessing freshwater biodiversity Pongola 240 in the USA 157–159 Rock 143 diversity of fish communities 158 Sabie 239 EC Habitats Directive, inclusion of rivers Skell 52 145 St Lawrence 22 European approaches 144–145 Tay 73 features used to assess US streams and rivers Thames 56 149 Tigris-Euphrates 260 Habitat Action Plans for rivers 143–144 Tuolumne 7 International approaches 143–145 Tweed 52–53 IUCN Red Lists 144 Umpqua 96 Limitations of species approaches 161 Vaal 243 Methods used in the UK 145–148 Yampa 8 Methods used in the USA 148–151 Yangtze 260 National Rivers Inventory 148 Role of scientific societies in promoting Outstanding water quality and biological conservation 21–25 integrity 150 American Fisheries Society (AFS) 21–22, River Habitat Survey 151–152 23 rivers as Ramsar sites 143 Freshwater Biological Association (FBA) 7, SERCON 153–155 22, 167 River corridors and connectivity 160 International Association of Limnology River Habitat Survey 151–152 (SIL) 21 field method 152 North American Benthological Society Habitat Modification Class 152 (NABS) 22–23 Habitat Quality Assessment 152 Rivers (named) Scientific information relevant to freshwater Amazon 259, 272 management 25 Avon 56 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) 12, Berg 243 13, 42, 49, 79, 106, 178–181 Breede 243 criteria for amphibians 180–181 Cache 143 criteria for birds 180 Congo 259, 272 criteria for Odonata 181 Crocodile/Marico 243 favourable condition 50 Eden 49 guidelines for selection 13, 79, 80, Gouritz 243 145–147, 151, 178–181 Great Fish 243 habitat classifications for use in site selection Green 8, 51 80, 145–146 Humber 73 numbers of SSSIs/ASSIs 98 Kennet 55 South African fresh waters Kerry 102 ‘Ecological Reserve’ 238, 245–247, 251 Klamath 46, 104–105 aridity – limits to water extraction 249 La Plata 260 climate and topography 237–238 Laver 52 ecological importance and sensitivity (EIS) Madre de Dios 265–266 system 244 Mekong 261, 268, 272 economic valuation 247 Mississippi/Missouri 62, 64, 70, 72, 118 environmental water requirements Murray-Darling 218–219 (EWRs) 240, 245

292 Á Index South African fresh waters (cont.) pink-footed goose Anser brachyrhynchus evaluation methods 243–247 106 habitat integrity assessment (Kleynhans) Potamogeton species 180 244 ramshorn snail Anisus vorticulus 11 history and politics 238, 239, 241, 250–251 river lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis 145 history of the Sabie River 239 shortnose sucker Chamistes brevirostris 46 identifying important areas for biodiversity shoveler Anas clypeater 106 242 slender naiad Najas flexilis 11 Kruger National Park 239 smalltooth sawfish Pristis pectinata 194 mapping river integrity and conservation southern damselfly Coenagrion mercuriale 11 status 243 spined loach Cobitis taenia 145 National Water Act 1998 238, 240, 243, steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss 64 245, 247, 252 twaite shad Alosa fallax 78, 144 people and water supply 238 vendace Coregonus albula 13, 78, 171 poverty – Maslow’s hierarchy of needs warty newt Triturus cristatus 171 249–250 water shrew Neomys fodiens 170 protection for use 248–249 water vole Arvicola terrestris 170 River Conservation System (RCS) 244 white-clawed crayfish Austropotamobius river heterogeneity signatures 243 pallipes 11, 194 South African Institute of Aquatic whooper swan Cygnus cygnus 106 Biodiversity 242 whooping crane Grus americana 194 South African National Biodiversity Statutory nature conservation bodies (UK) Institute 242 Countryside Council for Wales 13, 16, 19, Species of conservation importance 46 allis shad Alosa alosa 78, 144, 171 Joint Nature Conservation Committee 16, American eel Anguilla rostrata 64 77 American shad Alosa sapidissima 64 Natural England (formerly English Nature) Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus 78, 102 13, 16, 19, 46, 52, 53, 56 Atlantic salmon Salmo salar 11, 102, 144, Nature Conservancy Council 13, 46 145 Northern Ireland Environment Agency beaver Castor canadensis 170 16, 19 black throated diver Gavia arctica 102 Scottish Natural Heritage 13, 17, 19, 46, black-spotted newt Notophthalmus 102 meridionalis 194 Sustainable development 240 brown trout Salmo trutta, genetically System Aqua distinct 78 advantages 204–205 bull trout Salvelinus confluentus 108 application to WFD and Habitats Directive coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch 46 216–217 cutthroat trout Oncorhynchus clarki clarki 64 evaluation 206–207 floating water-plantain Luronium natans 11 future development 215–216 freshwater pearl mussel Margaritifera identification and characterization 206 margaritifera 11, 13, 102, 145, 194 integrated score for natural value 214–215 great-crested newt Triturus cristatus 11 interpretations of outputs 211–214 gwyniad Coregonus lavaretus 78 scoring indicators and criteria 210–211 Lost River sucker Deltistes luxatus 46 structure 206–210 marbled murrelet Brachyramphus mamoratus System for Evaluating Rivers for 194 Conservation (SERCON) 26, 79, 127, moss Thamnobryum angustifolium 144 134, 151, 153–155, 161, 182 natterjack toad Bufo calamita 171 as the basis for System Aqua 204 otter Lutra lutra 11, 144, 170 conservation criteria and attributes Pacific salmon Oncorhynchus sp. 64 153–154

Index Á 293 Evaluated Corridor Section (ECS) 153 Local BAPs (LBAPs) 10, 74 scoring 153 priority species and habitats 10, 74, 76, 173 SERCON applications 155 role of NGOs 110 United Nations Water for Life programme Taxonomy 112 data 124 United Nations Environment Programme 92 keys 22 US National Wildlife Refuge System 56 survey gaps 268 White River National Wildlife Refuge Threatened and endangered species 63, 143 67–70, 150–151 AFS Endangered Species Committee 63, 64 Vermont Biodiversity Project 177 categories (e.g. imperilled, vulnerable) 63, Volunteer monitoring programmes 195 76, 77–78 State Wildlife Grants program 68–69 Waterborne diseases 40 US NOAA Fisheries program 68 Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network 193–194 UK Biodiversity Action Plan (BAP) Wetscore 181 Habitat and Species Action Plans 74, World Water Council 1 143–144 World Water Forum 1