KURDISH-ARMENIANKURDISH-ARMENIAN RELATIONRELATIONSS IINN THETHE LATLATEE OTTOMANOTTOMAN EMPIRE:EMPIRE

POWEPOWERR STRUCTURESSTRUCTURES ANANDD INTERACTIVINTERACTIVEE BEHAVIORBEHAVIOR

bbyy

BradBrad DennisDennis

A thesisthesis submittedsubmitted ttoo thethe facultyfaculty ofof ThThee UniversitUniversityy ooff UtahUtah iinn partialpartial fulfillmentfulfillment ooff ththee requirementrequirementss foforr ththee degredegreee ofof

MasteMasterr ooff ArtsArts

IIIin

MiddlMiddlee EasEastt Studies/HistoryStudies/History

DepartmentDepartment ofof LanguageLanguagess andand LiteratureLiterature

ThThee UniversitUniversityy ofof UtahUtah

DecembeDecemberr 20082008 CopyrighCopyrightt © BraBradd DenniDenniss 20082008

AlAlll RightRightss ReservedReserved THE UNIVERSJTY OF UTAH GRADUATE SCHOOL

SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE APPROVAL

of a thesis subm itted by

Brad R. Dennis

This thesis has been read by each member of the following supervisory committee and by majority vote has been found to be satisfactory.

Chair: Peter Sluglett

Peter von Sivers

M. Hakan Yavuz THE U N J V E R S J T Y 0 F UTAH G R A D U ATE S C 1-] 0 0 L

FINAL READING APPROVAL

To the Graduate Counci I of the Unive rsity of Utah:

J ______rad e s _____ have read the thesis of B_ _ _R_. D_ J_U_li_ _ in its final form and have found that (1) its format, citations, and bibliographic style are consistent and acceptable; (2) its illustrative materials including figures, tables, and charts are in place; and (3) the final manuscript is satisfactory to the supervisory committee and is ready for submission to The Graduate School.

�.�� P:: Date Peter Sluglett (; Chair: Supervisory Committee

Approved for the Major Department

Ch�ir/Dean

Approved for the Graduate Council

David S. Chapman Dean of The Graduate School ABSTRACABSTRACTT

WhaWhatt explainsexplains collaboratiocollaborationn andand conflicconflictt betweebetweenn KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmenianArmenian societiessocieties durinduringg ththee LatLatee OttomaOttomann periodperiod?? InIn ordeorderr ttoo answeanswerr thithiss questioquestionn thisthis thesithesiss focusesfocuses onon ththee relationshiprelationship betweebetweenn structurestructuress iinn KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann societiessocieties anandd politicalpolitical behaviorbehavior.. ThThee significancsignificancee ooff thithiss studstudyy lieslies iinn thathatt itit provideprovidess a neneww angleangle from whicwhichh toto loolookk atat ththee ArmeniaArmeniann questionquestion,, iinn relatiorelationn ttoo ththee KurdKurdss aass opposeopposedd toto onlonlyy iinn relatiorelationn toto ththee OttomaOttomann statstatee anandd GreaGreatt PowerPower,, anandd alsalsoo iinn thathatt iitt analyzeanalyzess ththee impacimpactt ooff political,political, ethnicethnic,, andand nationanationall consciousnesconsciousnesss onon groups'groups' interactivinteractivee behaviorbehavior.. InIn ordeorderr toto explainexplain conflicconflictt anandd collaborationcollaboration,, thithiss studystudy comparecomparess andand contrastcontrastss ththee socioeconomisocioeconomicc andand politicapoliticall experiencesexperiences thathatt ththee KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianArmenianss hahadd witwithh OttomanOttoman state,state, examinesexamines thethe affecaffectt ooff ththee OttomaOttomann policpolicyy oonn ththee localocall dynamicdynamicss ooff powerpower,, andand analyzeanalyzess ththee rolerole internainternall andand externaexternall politicapoliticall factorsfactors oonn interactivinteractivee behaviorbehavior.. IItt isis arguearguedd thatthat adjustmentsadjustments inin ththee traditionatraditionall powepowerr relationshiprelationship,, resultanresultantt fromfrom thethe implementationimplementation ofof variouvariouss policpolicyy changes,changes, gavgavee risrisee ttoo neneww politicapoliticall spacespacess througthroughh whicwhichh neneww socialsocial structuresstructures werweree formedformed.. ThThee competitioncompetition betweebetweenn neneww anandd oldold structuresstructures forfor powepowerr ledled somesome groupgroupss ttoo radicalizeradicalize theitheirr policiepoliciess iinn ordeorderr toto securesecure theitheirr continuecontinuedd existenceexistence.. TheThe factorsfactors thathatt determineddetermined a group'group'ss decisiodecisionn ttoo allallyy witwithh oror fight againsagainstt otheotherr groupgroupss waswas influenceinfluencedd bbyy influentiainfluentiall individualsindividuals'' interpretationinterpretationss ooff ththee politicapoliticall situationsituation andand theirtheir internainternall anandd externaexternall structures.structures. CONTENTCONTENTSS

ABSTRACABSTRACTT ...... i ivv

INTRODUCTIOINTRODUCTIONN ...... 1 1

MethodologMethodologyy ...... 2 LayouLayoutt ...... 6

CHAPTECHAPTERR

11.. KURDISH-ARMENIAKURDISH-ARMENIANN RELATIONRELATIONSS 1839-18761839-1876:: TRANSFORMATIONTRANSFORMATION OOFF TRADITIONATRADITIONALL POWEPOWERR STRUCTURESTRUCTURESS ...... 9

IdentityIdentity,, StructureStructure,, anandd AgencAgencyy iinn KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann SocietieSocietiess ...... 9 ThThee Socio-EconomiSocio-Economicc GeographGeographyy ooff EasterEasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa ...... 2020 TheThe anandd KurdisKurdishh SocietySociety ...... 3232 BedBedrr KhaKhann ...... , ...... 3434 ThThee Tanzimat anandd ArmeniaArmeniann SocietySociety ...... 3939

2.2. THETHE RUSSO-TURKISRUSSO-TURKISHH WARWAR,, ITITSS AFTERMATHAFTERMATH,, ANANDD ITSITS EFFECTSEFFECTS ONON KURDISKURDISHH ANANDD ARMENIANARMENIAN SOCIETYSOCIETY 1876-18821876-1882 ...... 4747

TheThe Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish WarWar 1877-81877-8 ...... 4848 TheThe AftermathAftermath ofof thethe War.War ...... 5757 TheThe RiseRise ofof SultanSultan AbdulhamidAbdulhamid II:II: PerceptionsPerceptions ofof HimHim inin HistoryHistory ...... 6161 EffectsEffects ofof thethe WarWar onon ArmenianArmenian andand KurdishKurdish LoyaltiesLoyalties ...... 6464

3.3. THETHE EARLYEARLY SULTANSULTAN ABDULHAMIDABDULHAMID PERIODPERIOD 1882-1896:1882-1896: THETHE INFLUENTIALINFLUENTIAL FACTORSFACTORS OFOF CONFLICTCONFLICT BETWEENBETWEEN THETHE KURDSKURDS ANDAND ARMENIANSARMENIANS ...... 7575

ArmenianArmenian RevolutionariesRevolutionaries andand thethe KurdsKurds ...... 7676 ComplaintsComplaints ofof KurdishKurdish AttacksAttacks ...... 818 TheThe EmergenceEmergence ofof thethe NewNew ArmenianArmenian RevolutionaryRevolutionary ...... 8686 TheThe FormationFormation ofof thethe HamidiyeHamidiye CavalryCavalry ...... 9393 FromFrom TensionTension toto ConflictConflict ...... , ...... 11000 0

CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION ...... 110no

REFERENCESREFERENCES ...... " ..... 11511 INTRODUCTIOINTRODUCTIONN

TheThe mid-1890mid-1890ss wawass ththee scenescene ooff massivmassivee violencviolencee anandd sociasociall strifestrife amonamongg andand betweebetweenn ththee KurdisKurdishh anandd AnnenianArmenian populationpopulationss ofof eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia.. ThroughouThroughoutt thisthis perioperiodd KurdisKurdishh tribaltribal chiefchiefss contendecontendedd amongamong eacheach otherother anandd alsoalso witwithh OttomanOttoman administratoradministratorss forfor controcontroll ofof politicapoliticall officesoffices;; KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann peasantpeasantss sufferedsuffered underunder thethe heavheavyy handhandss ofof tribatriball andand OttomaOttomann administrativadministrativee authorityauthority;; anandd KurdisKurdishh andand

ArmeniaArmeniann politicapoliticall groupsgroups clashedclashed witwithh oneone anotheranother (particularly(particularly duringduring ththee 1890s)1890s) resultinresultingg inin soaringsoaring deathdeath tollstolls.. HoHoww doesdoes oneone accounaccountt forfor ththee increasedincreased conflicconflictt betweenbetween ththee ArmenianArmenianss andand KurdKurdss iinn ththee 1890s?1890s? WaWass iitt a resulresultt ofof aann insidiousinsidious governmentgovernment agendaagenda ttoo dividedivide anandd conquerconquer ththee ArmenianArmenianss andand KurdKurdss iinn ordeorderr ttoo thwartthwart ArmenianArmenian nationalisnationalistt oorr separatistseparatist aimsaims inin eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa anandd dissolvdissolvee ththee controcontroll ooff ththee KurdishKurdish tribestribes,, oror wawass iitt ththee resulresultt ofof anan ArmeniaAnneniann nationalist-inducenationalist-inducedd rebelliorebellionn whicwhichh spurredspurred alreadalreadyy festerinfesteringg sociasociall tensiontensionss betweebetweenn ArmeniansArmenians anandd KurdKurdss ttoo culminateculminate inin bloodshedbloodshed?? ToTo answeranswer thesthesee questionsquestions thithiss studystudy examineexaminess variouvariouss interactioninteractionss amongamong ththee ,Kurds, ththee ArmeniansArn1enians,, andand ththee OttomanOttoman governmentgovernment;; lookslooks atat ththee effecteffect ofof governmentgovernment policpolicyy oonn powepowerr structuresstructures withiwithinn ArmeniaArmeniann andand KurdishKurdish society,society, andand exploresexplores thethe reasonreasonss forfor ththee ultimateultimate inabilitinabilityy ofof ArmenianArmenianss anandd KurdKurdss ttoo collaboratecollaborate againstagainst ththee OttomaOttomann government.government. UltimatelUltimatelyy itit seekseekss ttoo offer a neneww understandinunderstandingg ooff thethe

Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationshirelationshipp asas sociallysocially interstructurainterstructurall anandd interelitinterelitee ratheratherr thanthan interethnic,interethnic, interreligiousinterreligious,, interculturalintercultural,, oror internationalinternational (i(inn ththee sensesense ooff iitt beinbeingg betweenbetween 2 twtwoo peoplpeoplee nationnationss ratheratherr thathann twotwo nationationn states).states).

MethodologyMethodology

AlthoughAlthough manmanyy studiesstudies ofof eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa duringduring ththee laterlater AbdiilhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII periodperiod discussdiscuss Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationsrelations,, onlonlyy a fefeww articlesarticles havhavee givengiven a detaileddetailed analysianalysiss ofof thisthis issue.issue. TheThe discoursdiscoursee oonn Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationsrelations hashas largelylargely beebeenn subsumedsubsumed withiwithinn ththee generagenerall narrativnarrativee ofof ththee ArmeniaArmeniann genocidegenocide debate,debate, whichwhich itselfitself isis primarilyprimarily concernedconcerned witwithh ththee issuissuee ooff culpabilityculpability forfor thethe ArmeniaArmeniann massacres,massacres, ratheratherr thanthan thethe broadebroaderr topitopicc ooff ththee interactioninteractionss betweebetweenn andand amonamongg ththee groupsgroups.. ThThee generalgeneral dearthdearth ofof scholarshipscholarship oonn Kurdish-ArmenianKurdish-Armenian relationrelationss cancan bbee attributeattributedd ttoo a numbernumber ooff factorsfactors,, andand perhapperhapss havehave ttoo ddoo witwithh ththee factfact thathatt ArmeniaArmeniann studiestudiess andand KurdishKurdish studiesstudies areare nonott placedplaced withiwithinn thethe samesame areaarea studiesstudies grougroupp withiwithinn thethe areaarea studiesstudies divisions:divisions: ththee formerformer beingbeing placeplacedd inin CentralCentral EurasianEurasian StudiesStudies anandd thethe lattelatterr placeplacedd iinn NeaNearr EasterEasternn studies.studies. WithWith fewfew exceptions,exceptions, studiesstudies havhavee lookedlooked atat thethe Kurdish-ArmenianKurdish-Armenian relationshirelationshipp asas parpartt ofof thethe

ArmenianArmenian questionquestion ratheratherr thathann thethe KurdisKurdishh question.question. FurthermoreFurthermore,, ththee dauntindauntingg tasktask ofof gatheringatheringg sourcessources whicwhichh araree scattcredscattered throughouthroughoutt numerounumerouss archivearchivess iinn RussiaRussia,, Istanbul,Istanbul, anandd EuropeEurope iinn a numbenumberr ooff differendifferentt languagelanguagess hashas probablprobablyy kepkeptt scholarsscholars fromfrom delvingdelving veryvery fafarr intointo thithiss topictopic.. LastlyLastly mucmuchh ofof thethe researcresearchh oonn eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa hahass beebeenn guidedguided ttoo fifitt questionquestionss particulaparticularr ttoo ththee ArmeniaArmeniann GenocidGenocidee debatedebate,, whicwhichh continuescontinues ttoo bbee highlyhighly controversialcontroversial anandd a sourcsourcee ooff severesevere sociasociall tensiontensionss iinn somesome regionsregions.. AAss a resulresultt scholarsscholars havhavee beebeenn drawndrawn toto studstudyy eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa primarilprimarilyy inin ththee contextcontext ofof thethe questioquestionn ooff thethe

ArmeniaAnneniann genocidegenocide.. OneOne coulcouldd speculatspeculatee thatthat werweree iitt notnot foforr ththee ongoinongoingg controversycontroversy surroundingsurrounding thithiss regioregionn duringduring thisthis periodperiod,, ththee bodbodyy ooff scholarshischolarshipp regardinregardingg EasternEastern

AnatoliAnatoliaa mighmightt nonott havehave beebeenn soso largelarge.. LibaridiaLibaridiann statesstates thathatt ththee deartdearthh ooff scholarshipscholarship 3 thatthat focusefocusess onon Armenian-KurdishArmenian-Kurdish relationrelationss cancan bbee attributedattributed toto ththee following:following:

HistorianHistorianss andand scientistsscientists areare nonott abstractabstract entitieentitiess whwhoo develodevelopp interestsinterests andand conclusionconclusionss iinn a vacuumvacuum.. TheyThey usuallyusually begibeginn witwithh perspectiveperspectivess thathatt predetenninepredetermine ththee subjectssubjects ttoo studystudy aass welwelll asas ththee questionsquestions toto bebe raisedraised witwithh regarregardd toto thatthat · 1I susubject.b ~ect.

ThereThere areare a fewfew noteworthnoteworthyy studiesstudies ofof Kurdish-ArmenianKurdish-Armenian relations.relations. TheThe mostmost comprehensivecomprehensive accountaccount wawass writtewrittenn byby GaroGaro Sasuni,Sasuni, whosewhose bookbook entitledentitled Kurt UlusalUlusal

Hareketleri ve Ermeni-Kurt lliskilerijli~kileri (15.yy 'dan Gunumuze)Giinumuze) [The Kurdish NationalNational

Movements and Armenian-Kurdish Relations (From the fifteenthfifteenth Century to Our Day)]Day)] wawass originallyoriginally publishedpublished inin ArmeniaArmeniann asas anan eighteen-parteighteen-part seriesseries inin thethe Boston-basedBoston-based

ArmeniaAnneniann journajournall Hairenik Amsagir betweebetweenn 19291929 andand 1931,1931, andand subsequentlysubsequently translatedtranslated intointo TurkisTurkishh andand publishepublishedd asas a bookbook inin BeiruBeirutt inin 1969.1969. 2 TheThe boobookk provideprovidess a detaileddetailed andand intricateintricate analysisanalysis ofof thethe Kurdish-ArmenianKurdish-Armenian relationshiprelationship throughoutthroughout numerounumerouss periodsperiods ofof timtimee inin ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire basedbased onon numerounumerouss archivalarchival sources,sources, AnnenianArmenian publicationspublications,, andand EuropeanEuropean reports.reports. WhilWhilee SasuniSasuni isis undoubtedlundoubtedlyy intentintent onon lendinglending credencecredence ttoo thethe notionotionn thatthat ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire wawass onlyonly entitentityy directlydirectly responsiblresponsiblee forfor thethe massacremassacress ofof ,Armenians, ththee concernconcern toto provprovee culpabilityculpability actuallyactually appearsappears subsidiarysubsidiary ttoo hishis maimainn argument:argument: thathatt a Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann unionunion waswas possiblpossiblee andand necessarynecessary inin orderorder ttoo putput pressurpressuree onon TurkeyTurkey ttoo createcreate independentindependent KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaAnneniann states.states.

ThroughouThroughoutt hihiss boobookk hehe citescites instanceinstancess ofof collaborationcollaboration betweebetweenn KurdKurdss andand ArmeniansArmenians

I1 GerardGerard J.J. Libaridian,Libaridian, Modern : People, Nation, State (New(New Brunswick,Brunswick, NewNew JerseyJersey:: TransactionTransaction Publishers,Publishers, 2004),2004), 170.170. ThisThis quotequote isis taketakenn fromfrom a chapterchapter 9,9, "Ideology"Ideology andand History:History: ProblemsProblems inin thethe StudyStudy ofof Anneno-KurdishArmeno-Kurdish Relations,"Relations," whicwhichh waswas firstfirst publishepublishedd inin 19881988 undeunderr thethe titltitlee "Studies"Studies ofof Armeno-KurdishArmeno-Kurdish RelationsRelations andand ItsIts Problems"Problems" inin Studia Kurdica, nosnos.. 1-51-5 (1988),(1988), 63-76.63-76. 2 ForFor mormoree backgroundbackground infonnationinformation onon SasuniSasuni seesee TessaTessa HofinmIDHofmann andand GerayerGerayer Koutcharian,Koutcharian, "Thc"The HistorHistoryy ofof Armenian-KurdisAnnenian-Kurdishh RelationRelationss iinn thethe OttomanOttoman Empire,"Empire," 4 againstagainst ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire andand attributesattributes hostilithostilityy betweebetweenn KurdsKurds anandd ArmenianArmenianss ttoo thethe

OttomanOttoman Empire'sEmpire's divide-and-conquerdivide-and-conquer tactics.tactics.

A propagandpropagandaa slantslant isis evidentevident iinn Sasuni'sSasuni's writingswritings:: "What"What isis ththee goagoall ofof thethe

AnnenianArmenian anandd KurdishKurdish friendshipfriendship anandd unionunion?? ThThee deliverancdeliverancee ofof ArmeniArmeniaa anandd KurdistanKurdistan fromfrom thethe TurkisTurkishh yoke.yoke.,,3" HoweveHoweverr hishis boobookk representrepresentss a mucmuchh mormoree sophisticatedsophisticated approachapproach ttoo understandinunderstandingg Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationrelationss thathann mosmostt ofof ththee DashnakDashnak propagandpropagandaa circulatincirculatingg durinduringg ththee 1920s.1920s. HHee presentpresentss a complecomplexx seriesseries ooff eventeventss betweenbetween

KurdsKurds andand ArmenianAnnenianss iinn a cohesivecohesive andand fluifluidd mannermanner,, explaininexplainingg reasonreasonss foforr bothboth collaborationcollaboration anandd conflictconflict.. Conflict,Conflict, hhee asserts,asserts, wawass generallgenerallyy a resulresultt ooff ththee nefariousnefarious designdesignss ofof TurkishTurkish divide-and-conquedivide-and-conquerr policypolicy andand nonott parpartt ooff ananyy primordiaprimordiall culturalcultural tensiotensionn betweebetweenn thethe KurdsKurds andand thethe Armenians:Armenians:

ThThee fundamentafundamentall reasonreasonss foforr enmityenmity iinn paspastt periodperiodss araree nnoo longer,longer, anandd wwee mustmust acceptaccept thathatt ththee enmitenmityy isis nnoo longelongerr forfor ththee [following][following] reasonsreasons:: TheThe ArmeniaArmeniann waswas thethe servantservant anandd ththee KurKurdd wawass ththee mastermaster.. IInn ourour dadayy suchsuch a clasclasss relationshirelationshipp iiss nono longelongerr presentpresent.. TheThe KurKurdd wawass armedarmed andand ththee ArmeniaArmeniann wawass unarmeunannedd andand thethe KurdsKurds'' livelihoolivelihoodd wawass dependendependentt upouponn exploitatioexploitationn andand robberyrobbery.. TodaTodayy thithiss iiss nono longer..longer. ... iiff yesterdayesterdayy wwee werweree enemieenemiess todatodayy wwee areare friendsfriends...... wwee araree nonott praisingpraising thethe Armenian-KurdisArmenian-Kurdishh friendshipfriendship foforr reasonreasonss ooff tacticatacticall principleprinciple,, bubutt becausbecausee thisthis friendshipfriendship iiss realrea1.. 4

ThThee articlearticle bbyy HoffmaHoffmann anandd KoutchariaKoutchariann coverscovers Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationsrelations betweebetweenn frofromm ththee fifteenthfifteenth centurcenturyy untiluntil WWIWWI.. MucMuchh liklikee Sasuni,Sasuni, oonn whoswhosee worworkk theythey relyrely significantly,significantly, thetheyy focusfocus primarilprimarilyy oonn Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Anneniann relationrelationss withinwithin ththee contextcontext

Armenian Review 44,, nono.. 4-154-1566 (Winter(Winter 1986),1986), 3.3. LibaridiaLibaridiann alsalsoo includeincludess somesome backgrounbackgroundd informatioinformationn onon SasuniSasuni iinn Modern Armenia, 173-174.173-174. 3 MyMy translationtranslation fromfrom thethe Turkish.Turkish. GaroGaro Sasuni,Sasuni, Kurt ulusal hareketleri ve Ermeni-KurtErmeni-Kurt ili~kileriiliskileri (l5.yy(15.yy'dan 'dan gunumuze) [The[The KurdishKurdish NationaNationall MovementMovementss andand Kurdish­Kurdish- ArmeniaArmeniann RelationRelationss (from(from ththee fifteentfifteenthh centurcenturyy ttoo ouourr day)]day)],, transtrans.. BedroBedross ZarataryaZarataryann andand MemMcmoo YetkiYetkinn (Cagaloglu,(Cagaloglu, Istanbulistanbul:: MeMedd YaymeviYaymevi,, 1992),224.1992), 224. 4 MMyy translationtranslation fromfrom ththee Turkish.Turkish. Ibid.Ibid.,, 223223.. 5 ofof ththee ArmeniaAnneniann questionquestion andand givegive ththee KurdishKurdish questionquestion onlyonly a cursorycursory glance. 55 InIn a briebrieff articlearticle onon Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Anneniann relationrelationss duringduring thethe SultanSultan AbdiilhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII period,period,

JanetJanet KleiKleinn exploresexplores explanationsexplanations forfor bothboth conflictconflict andand collaborationcollaboration betweenbetween AnneniansArmenians andand KurdKurdss focusingfocusing onon ththee questionquestion ofof landland ownershipownership andand powepowerr atat locallocal levelslevels asas detenninantsdeterminants ofof interactiveinteractive behaviobehaviorr ratheratherr thanthan statestate policypolicy andand "primordial"primordial hatreds"hatreds" alone:alone:

JustJust asas cooperationcooperation wawass nonott guidedguided bbyy ethnicity,ethnicity, neitherneither wawass conflictconflict shapedshaped solelysolely bbyy communalcommunal concerns.concerns. ArmenianAnnenianss werewere thethe primaryprimary targetstargets becausbecausee theythey hadhad fewerfewer protectorsprotectors andand couldcould easilyeasily bbee denounceddenounced asas traitortraitorss ifif theythey lodgelodgedd a complaintcomplaint againsagainstt theitheirr aggressors.aggressors. ButBut KurdisKurdishh peasantpeasantss andand weakeweakerr tribespeopletribespeople alsalsoo fellfell victivictimm ttoo ththee samesame kinkindd ofof violenceviolence,, a factfact thathatt mustmust bebe consideredconsidered inin thisthis storystory ofof conflict.conflict. 66

ThisThis thesithesiss seeksseeks ttoo carvecarve outout a spacespace fromfrom ththee existingexisting scholarshipscholarship bbyy lookinlookingg atat ththee shiftsshifts inin traditionatraditionall powerpower structuresstructures withinwithin KurdishKurdish andand AnnenianArmenian society,society, andand thethe consequenconsequentt transformationtransfonnationss ofof identityidentity andand socialsocial structure,structure, asas keykey detenninantsdeterminants ofof conflicconflictt anandd collaborationcollaboration.. InIn addition,addition, itit furtherfurther takestakes a structuralstructural approachapproach toto analyzinganalyzing

Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Anneniann relationsrelations.. ItIt identifiesidentifies ththee existingexisting powepowerr structuresstructures andand politicalpolitical identitieidentitiess ttoo whichwhich AnneniansArmenians andand KurdsKurds werweree boundbound,, explainsexplains thethe factorsfactors thatthat shapedshaped powerpower andand identityidentity inin thesthesee societies,societies, andand exploresexplores thethe reasonreasonss whywhy suchsuch structuresstructures werewere mutuallymutually compatiblcompatiblee oror incompatible.incompatible.

ThisThis studystudy recognizesrecognizes religiousreligious andand politicapoliticall institutionsinstitutions asas thethe structuringstructuring propertiesproperties thatthat shapedshaped KurdishKurdish andand AnnenianArmenian society.society. ItIt isis assumedassumed thatthat ethnicity,ethnicity, culture,culture, andand religionreligion cannotcannot bebe understoounderstoodd withoutwithout duedue considerationconsideration ofof ththee interactioninteraction ofof

5 5 HomannHofmann andand Koutcharian,Koutcharian, "The"The HistoryHistory ofof Annenian-KurdishArmenian-Kurdish Relations."Relations." 6 JanetJanet Klein,Klein, "Conflict"Conflict andand Collaboration:Collaboration: RethinkingRethinking Kurdish-AnnenianKurdish-Armenian RelationsRelations inin ththee HamidianHamidian PeriodPeriod,, 1876-1909,"1876-1909," International Journal of Turkish Studies 13,13, nos.nos. 1&21&2 (2007:(2007: 153-166),153-166), 166.166. 6 certaicertainn societasocietall eliteelitess witwithh ththee predominanpredominantt politicapoliticall anandd normativnormativee structurestructuress ofof botbothh thethe governmengovernmentt andand ththee respectivrespectivee socialsocial structuresstructures ooff societies.societies. EthnicityEthnicity,, culture,culture, religion,religion, anandd nationationn cancan bbee seeseenn primarilprimarilyy aass abstracabstractt notionnotionss ttoo whicwhichh eliteselites appealeappealedd inin orderorder toto legitimizelegitimize theitheirr rulerule,, attracattractt followersfollowers,, anandd enforceenforce policypolicy,, ratheratherr thanthan aass fixefixedd identitiesidentities thathatt determinedeterminedd behaviorbehavior.. ThougThoughh botbothh KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann societysociety hadhad a degreedegree ofof cultural,cultural, religiousreligious,, anandd ethniethnicc distinctivenessdistinctiveness,, ththee boundarieboundariess ofof ethnicityethnicity,, religionreligion,, nation,nation, andand culturculturee werweree reifiereifiedd througthroughh thithiss procesprocesss ofof interactiointeractionn ooff actorsactors witwithh contemporarycontemporary socialsocial anandd politicapoliticall structures.structures. InIn thithiss studystudy KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianArmenianss araree seenseen nonott asas ethnicitiesethnicities,, culturescultures,, oror religionreligionss asas mucmuchh aass groupgroupss ooff individualindividualss tietiedd ttoo a singlesingle structurstructuree oorr a numbenumberr ofof structurestructuress existinexistingg withiwithinn a politicapoliticall framework.framework.

PeriodPeriodss ooff conflictconflict anandd collaboratiocollaborationn betweebetweenn KurdKurdss andand ArmenianArmenianss cacann bebe understoounderstoodd aass compositcompositee ratheratherr thathann holisticholistic.. KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann societiessocieties werweree notnot historicallhistoricallyy pittepittedd againsagainstt eaceachh otherother basebasedd oonn ethnicityethnicity,, religionreligion,, culture,culture, oorr nationalnational sentiment.sentiment. RatherRather,, ththee harmonharmonyy oorr disharmondisharmonyy betweebetweenn thethemm varievariedd accordinaccordingg ttoo timetime andand spacespace.. ThThee factorsfactors thathatt influenceinfluencedd KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianArmenianss eitheeitherr ttoo collaboratecollaborate oorr bbee inin conflictconflict witwithh ononee anotheanotherr cancan bbee explaineexplainedd bbyy ththee interactioninteraction betweebetweenn a hoshostt ooff agentsagents withiwithinn ththee existingexisting powepowerr structurestructuress botbothh inin ththee OttomaOttomann governmengovernmentt anandd iinn KurdisKurdishh andand

ArmeniaArmeniann societysociety,, wherwheree sociasociall structurestructuress werweree reinforcereinforcedd anandd maintainemaintainedd aass a resulresultt ofof

OttomaOttomann policy.policy.

LayouLayoutt

TheThe layoulayoutt ooff thithiss studystudy iiss asas follows.follows. ChapteChapterr 1 lookslooks atat ththee statestate ooff Kurdish­Kurdish-

ArmeniaArmeniann relationrelationss beforbeforee ththee risrisee ooff SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdUlhamidd IIII ttoo powerpower.. OfOf particularparticular interestinterest iinn thithiss chapterchapter iiss ththee questioquestionn ooff identitidentityy andand socialsocial structurestructure iinn ArmeniaArmeniann andand 7

KurdisKurdishh societsocietyy andand howhow thesthesee relatrelatee ttoo differendifferentt internainternall andand externaexternall factors.factors. WhatWhat differentiatesdifferentiates a KurdKurd fromfrom anan ArmenianArmenian andand hohoww dodo theitheirr individuaindividuall sociasociall andand powerpower structuresstructures diffedifferr fromfrom eaceachh other?other? HowHow dididd ththee transformationtransformation ooff ththee policpolicyy ofof thethe

OttomanOttoman statestate affecaffectt powepowerr structuresstructures iinn KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaArmeniann societiessocieties?? BByy analyzinganalyzing ththee politicapoliticall geographygeography ofof eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia anandd ththee individuaindividuall socialsocial structuresstructures presentpresent withinwithin KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann societiessocieties,, thithiss chaptechapterr seeksseeks ttoo understanunderstandd ththee rolrolee ofof ethnicity,ethnicity, religionreligion,, anandd culturculturee iinn ththee Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationshirelationshipp asas iitt existedexisted duringduring thethe tanzimat perioperiodd betweebetweenn 18391839 andand 1876.1876.

ChapterChapter 2 lookslooks atat ththee effectseffects ooff thethe Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish WaWarr anandd ththee TreatTreatyy ooff BerlinBerlin betweenbetween 18761876 untiuntill ththee mid-1880smid-1880s.. ThThee twtwoo majomajorr questioquestionn thathatt thithiss chaptechapterr attemptattemptss toto answeranswer araree 1)1) ththee rolrolee ofof thethe policpolicyy anandd interactiointeractionn ofof ththee GreaGreatt PowersPowers andand ththee OttomanOttoman administrationadministration inin shapingshaping andand enforcingenforcing powepowerr structurestructuress inin societiessocieties bbyy analyzinanalyzingg thethe effecteffect ofof ththee Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish WaWarr anandd ititss aftermataftermathh (specificall(specificallyy ArticlArticlee 6161 ofof ththee TreatTreatyy ofof

BerlinBerlin)) onon Armenian-KurdisArmenian-Kurdishh relationrelationss anandd 22)) ththee extentextent ttoo whicwhichh KurdisKurdishh andand ArmenianArmenian societysociety werweree ablablee toto interacinteractt outsideoutside certaincertain structuresstructures createcreatedd anandd enforcedenforced botbothh bbyy thethe politicalpolitical andand economiceconomic trendtrendss inin ththee OttomanOttoman EmpirEmpiree andand bbyy ththee existingexisting powepowerr structuresstructures ooff theitheirr ownown individuaindividuall elites.elites.

ChapteChapterr 3 examinesexamines ththee Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationshiprelationship durinduringg ththee conflicconflictt iinn thethe

1890s.1890s. BByy exploringexploring a hoshostt ooff EuropeanEuropean andand OttomaOttomann documents,documents, a mormoree subtlesubtle relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn KurdsKurds anandd ArmenianArmenianss thathann ththee conventionalconventional picturpicturee ofof continualcontinual conflicconflictt iiss revealed.revealed. TheThe twotwo mosmostt importanimportantt politicapoliticall actoractorss withiwithinn ArmeniaAnneniann andand

KurdisKurdishh societsocietyy areare consideredconsidered herehere:: ththee ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionarrevolutionaryy partiepartiess andand ththee Kurdish­Kurdish- dominatedominatedd HamidiyHamidiyee cavalrycavalry.. IInn orderorder ttoo understanunderstandd ththee rolrolee thathatt eaccachh entitentityy playeplayedd onon 8 ththee Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Anneniann relationshirelationshipp thithiss chaptechapterr seeksseeks ttoo placplacee thesethese groupsgroups withiwithinn thethe socio-politicalsocio-political andand normativnonnativee contextcontextss inin ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire.. TheThe AnnenianArmenian revolutionarrevolutionaryy partiesparties,, iitt iiss arguedargued,, arosarosee inin responsresponsee nonott onlonlyy ttoo ththee OttomanOttoman government'government'ss failurefailure ttoo implementimplement ththee reformreformss affectingaffecting ththee ArmenianAnnenianss whicwhichh hahadd beenbeen agreeagreedd upouponn undeunderr ththee termtennss ooff ththee TreatTreatyy ooff BerlinBerlin,, bubutt alsalsoo iinn responsresponsee ttoo ththee powerpower strugglstrugglee withiwithinn ththee ArmeniaAnneniann religioureligiouss hierarchyhierarchy.. IInn essenceessence,, thethe partiepartiess appealeappealedd toto ethnicitethnicityy aass a unitinunitingg factofactorr amonamongg ArmeniansAnnenians.. ThThee organizationorganization ofof ththee HamidiyeHamidiye cavalrcavalryy bbyy ththee OttomaOttomann government,government, whicwhichh wawass designeddesigned ttoo incorporatincorporatee KurdKurdss intintoo thethe governingoverningg systemsystem,, endedended uupp havinhavingg effecteffectss oppositoppositee ofof thosthosee whicwhichh OttomanOttoman administratorsadministrators hahadd intendedintended:: ratheratherr thathann dissolvindissolvingg powepowerr amongamong ththee KurdisKurdishh tribestribes,, itit emboldenedemboldened tribalistribalismm anandd fosterefosteredd competitiocompetitionn betweebetweenn themthem,, thuthuss resultingresulting inin politicalpolitical andand sociasociall tunnoil.turmoil. BotBothh ththee OttomaOttomann governmentgovernment andand ththee KurdisKurdishh tribatriball chiefchiefss appealedappealed ttoo religioreligionn aass a meansmeans ooff mobilizinmobilizingg powerpower.. ThThee generalgeneral trendtrendss iinn AnnenianArmenian anandd KurdishKurdish societiessocieties werweree goingoingg iinn oppositoppositee directionsdirections:: ArmenianAnnenianss werweree movinmovingg awaawayy fromfrom religionreligion aass a unifyinunifyingg factorfactor,, whilwhilee KurdKurdss werewere movinmovingg towardtowardss it.it. CHAPTECHAPTERR 11

KURDISH-ARMENIAKURDISH-ARMENIANN RELATIONRELATIONSS 1839-1876:1839-1876: TRANSFORMATIONTRANSFORMATION

OFOF TRADITIONATRADITIONALL POWEPOWERR STRUCTURESSTRUCTURES

ThThee analysisanalysis ofof interactiveinteractive behaviobehaviorr betweebetweenn twtwoo groupgroupss hashas tendetendedd ttoo revolverevolve arounaroundd thethe structurstructuree vsvs.. agentagentss debate.debate. ArAree trendtrendss iinn interactivinteractivee politicapoliticall behaviobehaviorr moremore attributablattributablee toto overarchingoverarching politicapoliticall andand sociasociall structuresstructures oror ttoo ththee agentsagents actingacting withinwithin thosthosee structuresstructures?? WhilWhilee iitt iiss beyonbeyondd thethe scopscopee ofof thithiss chapterchapter ttoo flesfleshh outout anan answeranswer toto thithiss questionquestion,, itit iiss relevanrelevantt ttoo keekeepp iitt iinn minmindd whewhenn analyzinganalyzing socialsocial interactionsinteractions betweenbetween

KurdKurdss andand ArmeniansAnnenians.. IIss interactiveinteractive politicapoliticall behaviobehaviorr betweebetweenn ArmenianAnnenianss andand KurdKurdss a producproductt ooff ththee individuaindividuall structurestructuress iinn theitheirr societiessocieties andand ooff OttomaOttomann anandd globagloball politicalpolitical structuresstructures whicwhichh elitelitee politicapoliticall figurefiguress havhavee littlelittle impactimpact onon changing?changing? OOrr dodo ththee actorsactors themselvethemselvess plaplayay a greategreaterr rolrolee iinn determinindetenniningg whethewhetherr oror nonott KurdKurdss andand AnneniansArmenians collaboratecollaborate oror conflictconflict?? ThiThiss chaptechapterr looklookss aatt ththee relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn highighh levellevel politicspolitics atat regionaregionall anandd globagloball levellevelss andand ththee powepowerr structuresstructures withiwithinn KurdisKurdishh andand AnnenianArmenian societysociety iinn ordeorderr ttoo determindetenninee whethewhetherr structurstructuree oorr agentagentss havhavee greatgreat explanatoryexplanatory powerpower forfor KurdishKurdish anandd ArmeniaAnneniann interactivinteractivee politicapoliticall behavior.behavior.

IdentityIdentity,, StructureStructure,, anandd AgencAgencyy inin KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaAm1eniann SocietiesSocieties

ThThee interactivinteractivee socialsocial anandd politicapoliticall relationrelationss betweebetweenn KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianAnnenianss inin thethe latlatee nineteentnineteenthh centurcenturyy cannocannott bbee understoounderstoodd withouwithoutt discussiodiscussionn ofof thethe structurastructurall andand 10 agency-relateagency-relatedd mechanismmechanismss ofof collectivcollectivee identityidentity formationfonnation.. CollectiveCollective identificationidentification provideprovidess a basibasiss forfor explainingexplaining conflicconflictt andand collaborationcollaboration,, sincsincee iitt fonnsforms ththee fundamentalfundamental elementelement ofof grougroupp politicapoliticall fonnationformation anandd self-distinction.self-distinction. IItt cancan bbee definedefinedd asas ththee basicbasic uniunitt ooff grougroupp cohesivenescohesivenesss basebasedd oonn sharedshared socialsocial oorr culturalcultural traittraitss thathatt manifestsmanifests itselfitself inin interactivinteractivee situationssituations inin whicwhichh "the"the selself'f anandd "the"the otherother"" areare identified.identified.

CollaboratioCollaborationn anandd conflictconflict basebasedd onon identitidentityy (that(that isis,, nonott basebasedd onon individualindividual struggles)struggles) iiss rooterootedd iinn groupsgroups'' politicallpoliticallyy consciousconscious perceptionperceptionss ofof "the"the self'self andand "the"the other."other." HoweverHowever,, ththee integratiointegrationn ooff social,social, politicalpolitical,, anandd culturalcultural identitidentityy iiss nonott a preconditiopreconditionn forfor ththee existenceexistence ooff extendeextendedd socialsocial harmonyhannony.. InsteaInsteadd harmonhannonyy oror disharmondishannonyy amonamongg differendifferentt groupgroupss iiss largellargelyy dependentdependent uponupon,, iinn ththee wordwordss ooff AlexanderAlexander

WendtWendt,, "how"how deepldeeplyy ththee sociasociall structuresstructures [which[which groupsgroups]] instantiatinstantiatee penetratepenetrate conceptionconceptionss ooff ththee self.,,7self."7 DespitDespitee ostensiblostensiblee linguistilinguisticc anandd religioureligiouss differences,differences, iitt cannotcannot bbee saisaidd thatthat KurdKurdss andand ArmenianAnnenianss categoricallycategorically regarderegardedd eacheach otherother aass outsideroutsiderss andand

"others""others" sociallysocially,, politicallypolitically,, anandd culturallyculturally.. IInn facfactt thertheree araree manmanyy instancesinstances,, aass wilwilll bebe discussediscussedd later,later, iinn whicwhichh KurdsKurds andand ArmenianAnnenianss assimilatedassimilated ttoo eacheach otherother culturally,culturally, religiouslyreligiously,, anandd linguistically.linguistically.

AAss definitiondefinitionss ooff "self'"self anandd "other""other" differeddiffered overover timtimee andand spacspacee amonamongg KurdishKurdish anandd ArmeniaAnneniann society,society, iitt isis mosmostt relevanrelevantt inin thithiss studystudy nonott ttoo identifidentifyy whwhoo KurdKurdss andand

ArmenianAnnenianss generallgenerallyy perceiveperceivedd asas "the"the other,"other," bubutt ttoo identifidentifyy ththee factorsfactors thatthat influencedinfluenced ththee conceptionsconceptions ooff collectivecollective identificationidentification.. WaWass ththee interactiveinteractive politicapoliticall andand socialsocial behaviobehaviorr ooff ArmenianAnnenianss anandd KurdKurdss mormoree a producproductt ooff ththee socialsocial andand politicapoliticall structuresstructures inin whicwhichh botbothh groupgroupss werweree situatedsituated,, oorr wawass theitheirr behaviobehaviorr mormoree a producproductt ofof ththee agencagencyy ofof 1111 variouvariouss actorsactors?? WhilWhilee ththee bulbulkk oofthisf this favorsfavors ththee hypothesihypothesiss thathatt agencagencyy wawass ultimatelyultimately mormoree a determinandeterminantt ofof politicapoliticall behaviobehaviorr thathann structurestructure,, structurestructure cannocannott bbee dismisseddismissed asas aann irrelevantirrelevant factor.factor. ItIt iiss indeeindeedd ththee agencagencyy ooff actorsactors thathatt leadleadss ttoo variouvariouss politicalpolitical outcomes;outcomes; however,however, structurestructure limitlimitss ththee numbenumberr ooff avenuesavenues thathatt actorsactors cacann pursuepursue.. ForFor instanceinstance,, ththee KurdKurdss coulcouldd notnot becombecomee politicallpoliticallyy consciousconscious withouwithoutt ththee existenceexistence ooff a socio-politicalsocio-political structurestructure whicwhichh fosteredfostered ththee growtgrowthh ooff a bourgeoibourgeoiss classclass.. YeYett iitt wawass thethe agencyagency ooff ththee KurdisKurdishh actoractorss ttoo makmakee choicechoicess frofromm a rangerange ofof possibilitiepossibilitiess thathatt resulteresultedd inin ththee risrisee ofof politicapoliticall consciousnessconsciousness amongamong Kurds.Kurds.

AnthonAnthonyy GiddensGiddens'' explanationexplanation ooff ththee relationshirelationshipp ofof structurstructuree anandd agencyagency isis fittingfitting foforr ththee discoursediscourse aboutabout Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relationrelationss durinduringg ththee latlatee OttomanOttoman periodperiod.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo Giddens,Giddens, thertheree existsexists a dualitdualityy inin structurationstructuration iinn societysociety accordingaccording ttoo whicwhichh structurstructuree iiss "produced"produced aass aann unintentionaunintentionall by-producby-productt ofof mormoree concreteconcrete typetypess ofof humanhuman activity.activity. HoweverHowever,, undeunderr somsomee conditionsconditions itit cacann bbee consciouslyconsciously steeresteeredd andand directed."gdirected." StructureStructure isis neitheneitherr inviolableinviolable nonorr permanenpermanentt anandd isis "bot"bothh mediumediumm andand outcomeoutcome ofof thethe reproductioreproductionn ofof practices.practices."" FurthermorFurthermoree structurstructuree "enters"enters simultaneouslysimultaneously intointo thethe constitutionconstitution ooff sociasociall practicespractices,, andand 'exists'exists'' iinn ththee generatingeneratingg momentmomentss ooff thisthis constitution.,,9constitution."9 InIn Giddens'Giddens' framework,framework, identitidentityy inin relatiorelationn ttoo structurstructuree emergeemergess aass bothboth anan intentionaintentionall andand unintendeunintendedd consequenceconsequence ooff structure.structure. ActorActorss cacann consciouslconsciouslyy formform andand guidguidee identitieidentitiess ttoo ththee extenextentt thathatt thetheyy themselvethemselvess araree politicallpoliticallyy consciousconscious.. However,However, thisthis doesdoes nonott meameann thathatt identityidentity isis purelypurely ththee producproductt ooff agency-driveagency-drivenn socialsocial

7 AlexandeAlexanderr Wendt,Wendt, "Collective"Collective IdentitIdentityy FormatioFormationn anandd ththee InternationalInternational State,"State," The American Political Science Review 88,88, nono.. 2 (Jun(Junee 1994):1994): 386.386. go Giddens summarized in Charles Crothers, Social Structure (London: Routledge, 1996), Giddens summarized in Charles Crothers, Social Structure (London: Routledge, 1996), 54. 54. 9 Anthony Giddens, Emile Durkheim (New York: Viking Press, 1979),4. Anthony Giddens, Emile Durkheim (New York: Viking Press, 1979), 4. 1212

construction;construction; instead,instead, structurestructure cacann havhavee a mormoree subtlsubtlee rolrolee inin shapingshaping identitidentityy amongamong

thosthosee whwhoo areare lessless politicallpoliticallyy conscious:conscious: "structur"structuree hahass nnoo existenceexistence independentindependent ofof thethe

knowledgeknowledge thathatt agentsagents havhavee abouaboutt whawhatt thetheyy ddoo iinn theitheirr day-to-daday-to-dayy activityactivity...... Huma Humann

historhistoryy iiss createcreatedd bbyy intentionaintentionall activitiesactivities bubutt iiss nonott aann intendeintendedd projectproject:: itit persistentlypersistently

eludeeludess efforteffortss ttoo brinbringg iitt undeunderr consciousconscious direction.,,10direction."10 AgencyAgency,, oonn ththee otherother handhand,, "refers"refers

nonott ttoo ththee intentionsintentions ofof peoplpeoplee havhavee inin doindoingg thingsthings,, bubutt ttoo theirtheir capabilitycapability ooff doindoingg thosethose

thingsthings iinn ththee firsfirstt place.,,11place."11

GiddensGiddens'' analysisanalysis cancan bbee appliedapplied ttoo ththee cascasee ofof structuresstructures inin KurdisKurdishh andand

ArmeniaArmeniann society.society. FoForr instanceinstance,, ththee originoriginss ooff ththee tribatriball structurestructure iinn KurdisKurdishh societysociety cancan

bbee seenseen aass thethe unintentionaunintentionall by-producby-productt ofof ththee needneed forfor protectioprotectionn inin mountainoumountainouss andand

barrebarrenn terrainterrain.. However,However, ththee choicechoicess ofof actoractorss werweree nonott guidedguided bbyy structurestructure alone.alone.

InsteadInstead thethe tribaltribal structurestructure limitelimitedd ththee optionsoptions thathatt tribatriball leaderleaderss coulcouldd pursuepursue asas avenuesavenues

ttoo guideguide theitheirr tribestribes.. TribaTriball leadersleaders exercisedexercised ththee agencagencyy ttoo allyally themselvethemselvess witwithh oorr fightfight

againsagainstt neighborinneighboringg tribes.tribes. However,However, thethe tribatriball structurestructure inin andand ofof itselitselff diddid nonott affordafford thethe

tribatriball chiefchiefss ththee optiooptionn ooff participatinparticipatingg inin a socialsocial orderorder beyonbeyondd ththee tribetribe,, suchsuch asas civilcivil

society.society. InsteadInstead iitt wawass ththee interventionintervention ofof agentsagents botbothh insideinside anandd outsideoutside thethe tribaltribal

structure,structure, whwhoo hahadd beebeenn influencedinfluenced bbyy otheotherr politicapoliticall anandd socialsocial structures,structures, whicwhichh couldcould

introduceintroduce ideaideass competingcompeting witwithh thosthosee ofof ththee tribatriball leadersleaders,, thusthus leadinleadingg ttoo transformationstransformations inin tribatriball society.society. TheThe casecase ofBedrof Bedr KhanKhan,, whicwhichh wilwilll bbee discussediscussedd belowbelow,, illustratesillustrates anan

instanceinstance ofof a tribatriball chiefchief,, influenceinfluencedd bbyy ideaideass whicwhichh hhee gainegainedd durinduringg hihiss serviceservice iinn thethe

OttomanOttoman militarmilitaryy andand govemment,government, becam~ecamee anan agentagent ooff transformatiotransformationn ofof KurdisKurdishh societysociety

10 GiddensGiddens,, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of StructurationStructuration (Cambridge(Cambridge:: PolitPolityy PressPress,, 1984),26-27.1984), 26-27. 1II1 Ibid.Ibid.,, 9.9. 1313

iinn thethe CizreCizre region.region.

TheThe socialsocial andand powerpower structuresstructures inin societysociety areare rootedrooted mormoree inin ththee agencyagency ofof actorsactors

thathann biologicabiologicall humahumann behaviorbehavior.. ItIt isis ultimatelyultimately ththee collectivecollective interactioninteraction ofof actors,actors,

throughthrough theitheirr agency,agency, thatthat determinesdetermines powepowerr distributiondistribution inin societysociety andand thuthuss producesproduces

variouvariouss socialsocial andand politicapoliticall outcomes.outcomes. A socialsocial structurestructure cancan bebe understoodunderstood asas anan

arrangementarrangement ofof relationshipsrelationships withwith membermemberss ofof societysociety thatthat isis operatedoperated throughthrough ththee powerpower

structures.structures. TheThe powerpower structurestructure isis thethe agencagencyy spacespace ofof actorsactors inin societysociety ttoo actact politically.politically.

ThoseThose atat ththee totopp ofof thethe powerpower structurestructure havehave ththee largestlargest allotmentallotment ofof agencyagency spacespace andand

thosthosee atat ththee bottobottomm ofof ththee structurestructure havehave ththee least.least. ThoseThose whwhoo transgresstransgress theirtheir allotmentallotment

ooff powepowerr withiwithinn thethe structurestructure oftenoften causecause conflictconflict andand riftsrifts.. TheThe originsorigins ofof powerpower

structuresstructures inin societysociety areare predominantlypredominantly a productproduct ofof humahumann agency.agency. ForFor instance,instance, thethe

structurestructure ooff thethe GregorianGregorian ArmeniaArmeniann churchchurch waswas determineddetermined andand maintainemaintainedd byby thethe

leaderleaderss ofof ththee churchchurch whwhoo devisedevise policiepoliciess asas a meansmeans ofof organizingorganizing thethe societysociety aroundaround

themthem anandd ultimatelyultimately maintaininmaintainingg powerpower.. StructuresStructures thatthat operatedoperated outsideoutside thatthat ofof thethe

GregorianGregorian ArmeniaArmeniann churchchurch werweree toleratedtolerated soso lonlongg asas thesthesee diddid nonott interfereinterfere withwith thethe

structurestructure ofof ththee church.church. TheThe structurestructure ofof thethe ArmenianArmenian businessbusiness class,class, headeheadedd byby thethe

amiras, wawass toleratedtolerated byby thethe Patriarchate,Patriarchate, despitedespite operatingoperating largelylargely outsideoutside ththee churchchurch powepowerr structure,structure, mainlymainly becausbecausee itit provideprovidedd ththee financialfinancial foundationsfoundations forfor thethe church.church. OnOn

thethe otherother handhand,, ththee ProtestantProtestant andand CatholicCatholic powepowerr structures,structures, whicwhichh formedformed iinn AnnenianArmenian

societysociety inin ththee earlyearly nineteenthnineteenth century,century, werewere notnot toleratetoleratedd becausebecause thesethese directlydirectly

challengedchallenged thethe authoritauthorityy ofof thethe Patriarch.Patriarch.

BByy thethe latelate nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury ththee socialsocial structuresstructures ofof KurdishKurdish andand ArmenianArmenian societiessocieties werweree nnoo longerlonger jusjustt basibasicc family/clanfamily/clan structuresstructures whoswhosee membermemberss werewere generallygenerally 1414 acquaintedacquainted witwithh eacheach other;other; instead,instead, thethe socialsocial structuresstructures includedincluded a substantialsubstantial populationpopulation whoswhosee identityidentity wawass a productproduct ofof identificationsidentifications bothboth fromfrom withiwithinn andand from outsideoutside theirtheir socialsocial structures.structures. IInn orderorder toto maintainmaintain powerpower,, groupsgroups resortedresorted toto creatingcreating institutionsinstitutions forfor thatthat purposepurpose.. PowerPower inin KurdishKurdish societysociety wawass originallyoriginally maintainedmaintained throughthrough thethe tribe,tribe, thethe leadingleading aga acquiredacquired powepowerr bbyy provinprovingg thathatt thethe strengthstrength ofof hihiss groupgroup waswas greatergreater thanthan thathatt ooff others.others. However,However, inin thethe coursecourse ofof thethe eighteentheighteenth century,century, sheikhs, thethe spiritualspiritual

12 leaders of Kurdish society, gained an increasing amount of powers. 12 They legitimized leaders of Kurdish society, gained an increasing amount of powers. They legitimized their power by their ties to higher ranking religious authorities and, in some cases, even their power by their ties to higher ranking religious authorities and, in some cases, even claimed to be descendants of the prophet Muhammad. Armenians, on the other hand, did claimed to be descendants of the prophet Muhammad. Armenians, on the other hand, did not organize themselves in tribal defensive units like the Kurds. They had infiltrated the not organize themselves in tribal defensive units like the Kurds. They had infiltrated the commercial networks of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires and many, though by no commercial networks of the Ottoman and Safavid Empires and many, though by no means all, had acquired a great degree of wealth. Power was maintained in Armenian means all, had acquired a great degree of wealth. Power was maintained in Armenian society through wide-ranging connections with global and regional commercial networks society through wide-ranging connections with global and regional commercial networks and also through religious institutions. Since the eighth century, the Armenian Orthodox and also through religious institutions. Since the eighth century, the Armenian Orthodox church was the leading authority over the Armenian people. Under the Ottoman church was the leading authority over the Armenian people. Under the Ottoman millet system,13 the structure of the Armenian Church was not only maintained, but actually system,13 the structure of the Armenian Church was not only maintained, but actually strengthened, since the Sultan granted the Patriarch full power over the Armenian millet. strengthened, since the Sultan granted the Patriarch full power over the Armenian millet. While it is clear that ethnicity among eastern Anatolian societies during the late While it is clear that ethnicity among eastern Anatolian societies during the late did not have the same boundaries as it does today, the notion of ethnic Ottoman Empire did not have the same boundaries as it does today, the notion of ethnic distinction, nevertheless, was present in both Kurdish and Armenian society. Before the distinction, nevertheless, was present in both Kurdish and Armenian society. Before the

1212 SeeSee MartinMartin vanvan BruinessenBruinessen,, Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and PoliticalPolitical Structures of KurdistanKurd is tan (London(London andand NeNeww Jersey:Jersey: ZeZedd Books,Books, 1992),1992), 145-173.145-173. 1313 A millet isis a self-administratingself-administrating non-Muslimnon-Muslim religiousreligious groupsgroups throughoutthroughout thethe EmpireEmpire (i.e.(i.e. Annenians,Armenians, Greeks,Greeks, Serbs,Serbs, Slavs,Slavs, etc.).etc.). TheThe ArmenianArmenianss werewere thethe secondsecond largestlargest millet inin ththee OttomanOttoman EmpirEmpiree afterafter ththee Greeks.Greeks. 1515 risrisee ofof ethniethnicc anandd nationalisnationalistt consciousnesconsciousnesss amongamong ththee membermemberss ooff theitheirr respectiverespective societies,societies, ththee KurdKurdss andand ArmenianArmenianss cancan arguablarguablyy bbee consideredconsidered,, iinn ththee wordwordss ooff AnthonyAnthony

D.D. Smith,Smith, ethnies, pre-nationapre-nationall ethnoculturalethnocultural groupgroupss iinn whicwhichh a typtypee ofof ethnically-basedethnically-based identityidentity existeexistedd whicwhichh "tend["tend[ed ed]] ttoo bbee exceptionallyexceptionally durabldurablee undeunderr 'normal'normal'' vicissitudesvicissitudes andand ttoo persispersistt oveoverr manymany generationsgenerations,, eveevenn centuries,centuries, formingforming 'moulds''moulds' withiwithinn whicwhichh allall

14 kindskinds ooff sociasociall andand culturaculturall processes.processes .... .unfold[ed]. unfold[ed)."" 14 ThThee documentdocumentss anandd writingwritingss ooff centuriescenturies paspastt suggestsuggest thatthat KurdKurdss andand ArmenianArmenianss havhavee beebeenn collectivelcollectivelyy identifiedidentified byby outsideroutsiderss anandd alsoalso havhavee identifiedidentified themselvethemselvess foforr centuriecenturiess aass ethnicallyethnically distinctdistinct groups.groups.

TheThe preservatiopreservationn andand propagatiopropagationn ofof theitheirr respectivrespectivee ethnies cacann bbee attributeattributedd ttoo bothboth religioureligiouss anandd tribatriball institutioninstitutionss withiwithinn eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatoliann societsocietyy andand ttoo thethe parameterparameterss ofof

OttomanOttoman politicalpolitical culture.culture.

TheThe boundarieboundariess ofof ththee ArmenianArmenian ethnie reifiereifiedd aass a resulresultt ooff a combinatiocombinationn ofof thethe policiepoliciess ofof thethe GregorianGregorian OrthodoOrthodoxx ChurchChurch andand ththee OttomaOttomann administrationadministration.. ThThee churchchurch serveservedd ttoo preservpreservee ththee languaglanguagee anandd ethnicethnic identitidentityy ooff ththee ArmenianArmenianss anandd alsalsoo distinguishdistinguish thethemm fromfrom theirtheir MusliMuslimm neighborneighborss andand otheotherr ChristiaChristiann groupsgroups.. TheThe OttomaOttomann milletmillet systemsystem recognizedrecognized a basibasicc distinctiodistinctionn betweenbetween MuslimsMuslims andand non-Muslimsnon-Muslims.. BaseBasedd oonn thethe

IslamiIslamicc legalegall dhimmi statute—whicstatute-whichh grantedgranted ChristiansChristians andand JewJewss livinlivingg withiwithinn dar al­al- (literally(literally ththee domaidomainn ofof peacpeacee denotindenotingg ththee politicapoliticall areareaa oveoverr whicwhichh MuslimMuslimss hadhad controlcontrol)) certaicertainn politicapoliticall andand economiceconomic privileges—thprivileges-thee millet systemsystem grantedgranted non­non-

MuslimsMuslims (Jew(Jewss andand ChristiansChristians)) thethe privilegprivilegee ttoo administeadministerr oveoverr theitheirr ownown peoplpeoplee inin judiciajudiciall andand religiousreligious affairaffairss undeunderr a state-appointedstate-appointed milletbasimilletba:jl (head(head ofof ththee millet). TheThe milletbasimilletba~l ooff ththee ArmenianArmenianss wawass ththee PatriarcPatriarchh ofof ththee GregoriaGregoriann OrthodoOrthodoxx churchchurch whowho

1414 AnthonAnthonyy DD.. Smith,Smith, The Ethnic Origins o/Nationsof Nations (Oxford:(Oxford: BlackwelBlackwelll Publishing,Publishing, 1616 resideresidedd aatt IstanbuIstanbull undeunderr ththee supervisionsupervision ofof ththee Sultan.Sultan. GellnerGellner arguearguess thathatt ththee milletmillet systesystemm hahadd ththee indirecindirectt effeceffectt ooff givinggiving ththee ArmeniansArmenians,, liklikee otherother non-Muslinon-Muslimm groups,groups, a sorsortt ofof "ethnic"ethnic specialization,specialization,"" whicwhichh contributecontributedd ttoo ththee perpetuatioperpetuationn ofof theitheirr "ethnic"ethnic distinctiveness,"distinctiveness,,,1515 althoughalthough assimilationisassimilationistt trendtrendss werweree mormoree commocommonn iinn ththee urbaurbann areas,areas, particularlparticularlyy iinn ththee guildsguilds,, duringduring ththee seventeentseventeenthh anandd eighteentheighteenth centuries. 1616 EthnicEthnic distinctivenessdistinctiveness appearsappears ttoo bbee mormoree ththee resulresultt ooff ththee risrisee ooff nationalisnationalismm inin ththee nineteenthnineteenth centurycentury,, thathann a featurfeaturee ofof ththee millet systemsystem.. AccordinAccordingg toto ZiyZiyaa GokalG6kalpp (d.(d. 1924),1924), oneone ofof thethe leadingleading ideologueideologuess ofof ththee TurkisTurkishh nationalisnationalistt movemenmovementt inin thethe earlyearly twentiethtwentieth century,century, manmanyy ArmenianArmenianss anandd GreekGreekss throughouthroughoutt ththee EmpireEmpire,, whwhoo hahadd onconcee beebeenn moremore assimilatedassimilated ttoo OttomanOttoman culture,culture, begabegann ttoo "revive"revive theitheirr languagelanguagess afterafter theythey hahadd beenbeen

Turkified."Turkified.,,1717 ThThee millet servedserved mainlmainlyy ttoo preservpreservee thethe powepowerr structuresstructures associateassociatedd withwith thethe religionreligion,, thanthan toto producproducee ethnicethnic nationalisnationalismm directly.directly. EthnicEthnic nationalisnationalismm rosrosee outsideoutside ththee millet ratheratherr thanthan withiwithinn itit.. AAss wilwilll bbee latelaterr shown,shown, thethe milletbasismilletba~'ls ofof thethe ArmenianArmenian millet durinduringg ththee latlatee nineteentnineteenthh centurcenturyy tendetendedd ttoo bbee againstagainst nationalisnationalistt groupsgroups,. IslamIslam waswas,, aass GellnerGellner describedescribess itit,, a "trans-ethnic""trans-ethnic" andand "trans-social""trans-social" religionreligion:: "it"it diddid notnot equateequate faith with the beliefs of anyone community or society.,,181 & As the Kurds were faith with the beliefs of any one community or society." As the Kurds were predominantly Muslim (with pockets of them adherents of Yezidism and Alevism, both predominantly Muslim (with pockets of them adherents of Yezidism and Alevism, both deemed heretical by Sunni Muslims) the Ottomans did not include them under the deemed heretical by Sunni Muslims) the Ottomans did not include them under the

1988),1988), 1616.. 1515 ErnesErnestt GellnerGellner,, Culture, Identity, and Politics (Cambridge(Cambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1987),26.1987), 26. 161 SeeSee Abdul-KareemAbdul-Kareem Rafeq,Rafeq, "Craft"Craft Organization,Organization, WorkWork Ethics,Ethics, andand thethe StrainsStrains ofof ChangChangee inin OttomaOttomann ,"Syria," iinn Journal ojof American Oriental Society 111,111, nono.. 3 (Autumn(Autumn 1991):1991): 495-51l.495-511. 1717 ZiyaZiya G6kalp,Gokalp, Turkish and Western : Selected Essays ofoJZiya Ziya Gokaip,Gokalp, ed.ed. anandd trans.trans.,, NiyazNiyazii BerkeBerkess (New(New York:York: ColumbiColumbiaa UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1959),1959), 130-13l.130-131. 118 Gellner,Gellner, Muslim Society (Cambridge:(Cambridge: CambridgeCambridge UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1993),1993), 101101.. 1717

umbrellumbrellaa ooff ththee millet systemsystem throughouthroughoutt mosmostt ooff theitheirr rulrulee overover easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, nonorr diddid

thetheyy attempattemptt ttoo imposimposee a certaincertain ethniethnicc identitidentityy oorr sociasociall practicepracticess onon them.them. Instead,Instead,

accordingaccording ttoo ththee lawlaw,, ththee KurdsKurds,, asas MuslimsMuslims,, enjoyeenjoyedd equalequal statustatuss witwithh otherother MuslimsMuslims

throughouthroughoutt ththee empireempire.. ThThee factfact thathatt ththee KurdsKurds identifieidentifiedd themselvethemselvess primarilprimarilyy accordingaccording

ttoo tribtribee anandd lineaglineagee ratheratherr thathann ethnicitethnicityy suggestssuggests thathatt theitheirr ethnicethnic identitidentityy evolvedevolved largelylargely

asas outsideoutside themselvesthemselves,, aann identitidentityy whicwhichh OttomanOttomanss anandd EuropeanEuropeanss useusedd ttoo identifyidentify thethe

nomadinomadicc andand pastorapastorall peoplepeopless inhabitininhabitingg eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia,, ratheratherr thathann self-identification.self-identification.

ThThee KurdKurdss werweree nonott onlonlyy competincompetingg foforr powepowerr anandd resourceresourcess alongalong witwithh otheotherr non-non-

KurdisKurdishh groupgroupss inin easterneastern AnatoliaAnatoliann society-includingsociety—including NestoriaNestoriann Christians,Christians, Armenians,Armenians,

andand Turks-forTurks—for statusstatus iinn ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire,, bubutt alsalsoo witwithh eaceachh other.other.

GiveGivenn thathatt ththee ArmenianArmenianss andand KurdKurdss havhavee a longlong interactivinteractivee historyhistory,, iitt appearsappears

thathatt inin somsomee areaareass thetheyy assimilateassimilatedd ttoo anan extentextent.. IInn 18691869 ConsuConsull J.G.J.G. TayloTaylorr ooff thethe

BritisBritishh consulateconsulate inin ErzuruErzurumm reportedreported thathatt ththee KurdisKurdishh MamakanleeMamakanlee tribtribee inhabitinginhabiting thethe

regioregionn aroundaround ErzurumErzurum believebelievedd themselvethemselvess nonott ttoo havhavee emigrateemigratedd frofromm DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, asas

hahadd otheotherr KurdishKurdish tribetribess iinn ththee regionregion,, bubutt ratheratherr aass beinbeingg "descended"descended frofromm ththee ArmenianArmenian

MamagoniansMamagonians,, whwhoo areare nativenativess ooff ththee [][Erzurum] soil."soil.,,1919 IInn 19141914 S.S. ZarzeckZarzeckii echoeechoedd thethe

notionnotion thathatt manmanyy ooff ththee KurdKurdss werweree ArmenianArmenianss whwhoo hahadd assimilateassimilatedd toto KurdisKurdishh culture:culture:

WheWhenn ththee KurdKurdss werweree convertedconverted ttoo IslamIslam,, manmanyy mountain-dwellinmountain-dwellingg ArmeniansArmenians followedfollowed theitheirr exampleexample,, embraceembracedd ththee faithfaith ooff MuhammadMuhammad,, mixemixedd witwithh ththee Kurds,Kurds, andand therebtherebyy increaseincreasedd theitheirr numbernumber.. ThisThis presumepresumess thathatt ArmeniaArmeniann bloobloodd runsruns througthroughh ththee veinveinss ooff a greagreatt numbenumberr ooff thesthesee ferociousferocious KurdsKurds whwhoo havehave madmadee thethe ArmenianArmenianss undergundergoo suchsuch terriblterriblee sufferinsufferingg durinduringg ththee laslastt twentytwenty yearyearss ooff thethe reigreignn ooff AbdulhamidAbdulhamid.. IIff ononee askaskss ththee KurdKurdss themselvethemselvess ofof theitheirr originorigin,, thetheyy areare quitequite uncomfortabluncomfortablee anandd responrespondd iinn aann evasiveevasive fashion;fashion; somesome claimclaim ttoo bebe indigenousindigenous,, whilwhilee othersothers asserassertt thathatt theitheirr ancestorsancestors comcomee frofromm IranIran anandd areare

1919 ConsulConsul TayloTaylorr ttoo ththee EarEarll ooff Clarendon,Clarendon, ErzeroumErzeroum,, MarcMarchh 19,19, 1869,1869, iinn BritishBritish Documents on Ottoman Armenians, ed.ed. BilaBilall §imsi~im~irr (:(Ankara: TurTurkk TarihTarih KurumuKurumu BasimeviBaslmevi,, 1982),1982), 1:1: 6262.. 1818

blendeblendedd witwithh ththee ArmenianAnnenianss whwhoo becambecamee MuslimMuslim;; finallyfinally theitheirr chiefschiefs andand principallprincipallyy theitheirr shaykhs, whwhoo areare numerounumerouss throughouthroughoutt theitheirr peoplepeople,, claimclaim ArabArab 2o20 descent.

A letterletter submittedsubmitted toto thethe OttomanOttoman SultanSultan iinn 18841884 bbyy ththee governorgovernor ofof VanVan confinnsconfirms ththee notionotionn thathatt KurdKurdss iinn somesome regionregionss werweree indistinguishablindistinguishablee from Annenians:Armenians:

"[Reciproca"[R]eciprocall materiamateriall andand spirituaspirituall relationrelationss betweebetweenn ththee ArmenianAnnenianss andand ththee Kurds,"Kurds," claimedclaimed ththee governorgovernor,, "are"are closercloser thathann theitheirr individualindividual relationrelationss witwithh otheotherr societies."societies."

ThThee governorgovernor furthefurtherr reportedreported thathatt manmanyy KurdsKurds claimedclaimed thathatt thetheyy werweree ofof "Arn1enian"Armenian stock" and were often mistaken for Annenians by Ottoman officials?l21 stock" and were often mistaken for Armenians by Ottoman officials. The idea that the Kurds and Annenians had a shared ethnic origin was certainly The idea that the Kurds and Armenians had a shared ethnic origin was certainly popular among the Annenian Dashnak party, whose members often appealed to the popular among the Armenian Dashnak party, whose members often appealed to the notion of a shared past with the Kurds as a means of gaining Kurdish support against the notion of a shared past with the Kurds as a means of gaining Kurdish support against the Ottoman administrators. Hagop Shahbazian, a sociologist and leading member of the Ottoman administrators. Hagop Shahbazian, a sociologist and leading member of the Dashnak party, made the same claim in his book published Krda-hay patmutiune Dashnak party, made the same claim in his book published Krda-hay patmutiune [Kurdish-Annenian History], published in Istanbul in 1911,22 that the Annenians and the [Kurdish-Armenian History], published in Istanbul in 1911,22 that the Armenians and the Kurds were of the same ethnic origin: "believe it or not, they [the Kurds and Annenians] Kurds were of the same ethnic origin: "believe it or not, they [the Kurds and Armenians] are originally ofthe same blood, divided [only] by religion and tribe.,,23 Some of the are originally of the same blood, divided [only] by religion and tribe."23 Some of the Dashnak propaganda circulating throughout the region during the 1920s also emphasized Dashnak propaganda circulating throughout the region during the 1920s also emphasized

20 MMyy translatiotranslationn frofromm ththee French.French. S.S. ZarzeckiZarzecki,, "La"La questionquestion kurdo-annenienne,"kurdo-armenienne," La Revue de Paris 2121,, nono.. 1212 (March-April(March-April 1914):1914): 881881.. 21 ErtugruErtugrull ZekaZekaji Okte,Okte, Ottoman Archives: YddlZYildiz Collection, The ,Question, (Istanbul,(Istanbul, TurkeyTurkey:: HistoricaHistoricall ResearcResearchh FoundationFoundation,, Istanbuistanbull ResearcResearchh CenterCenter,, 1989),1989), 33:: 325.325. 2222 Shahbazian'sShahbazian's worworkk citecitedd aatt lengtlengthh iinn ththee GarGaroo Sasuni.Sasuni. I havhavee nonott beebeenn ableable ttoo locatelocate thithiss documendocumentt nornor findfind ananyy evidenceevidence thathatt iitt wawass originalloriginallyy publishepublishedd iinn 19111911 excepexceptt inin Libaridian,Libaridian, Modern Armenia: 179.179. 2233 MMyy translatiotranslationn fromfrom ththee TurkishTurkish.. CelileCelile CelilCelil,, XIX.XIX YuzY11Yuzyil OsmanlzOsmanli Imparatorlugujmparatorlugu 'nda'nda KiirtlerKurtler [Kurds[Kurds iinn ththee NineteentNineteenthh CenturCenturyy OttomaOttomann Empire]Empire],, transtrans.. MehmeMehmett DemirDemir (Ankara(Ankara:: 6z-GOz-Gee YaymlariYaymlan,, 1992),1992), 131131.. 1919 ththee sharedshared ethnicethnic paspastt ooff KurdKurdss anandd ArmeniansArmenians.. 24 ThThee followinfollowingg conversatioconversationn betweebetweenn anan

ArmeniaArmeniann agenagentt anandd a KurdishKurdish tribesmatribesmann whicwhichh wawass reportereportedd ttoo a BritisBritishh AiAirr ForceForce intelligencintelligencee agentagent iinn a memomemo fromfrom ththee IraqIraqii PolicPolicee CriminaCriminall InvestigatioInvestigationn DepartmenDepartmentt inin

19301930 indicatesindicates ththee continuingcontinuing spreadspread ofof sucsuchh propaganda:propaganda:

A ArmenianArmenian agent):agent): WhatWhat isis ththee differencdifferencee betweenbetween youyou andand Armenians?Armenians? K (Kurdish(Kurdish tribesman):tribesman): religionreligion AA:: WhaWhatt abouaboutt nationality?nationality? KK:: NoneNone.. AAss KurdsKurds,, ArmenianArmenianss anandd YazidiYazidiss areare fromfrom ththee samesame origin,origin, thathatt isis Armenians. 2255 Armenians. Not only did the Dashnaks maintain that the Kurds and Armenians had a common Not only did the Dashnaks maintain that the Kurds and Armenians had a common lineage, but the were keen on the idea of peoples' shared ethnic pasts. lineage, but the Young Turks were keen on the idea of peoples' shared ethnic pasts. According to Ziya G6kalp (d. 1924), Turkish tribes living in the rural areas of eastern According to Ziya Gokalp (d. 1924), Turkish tribes living in the rural areas of eastern would become "Kurdified" and the Kurds in the urban areas of the cities would Anatolia would become "Kurdified" and the Kurds in the urban areas of the cities would become "Turkified." Unlike the Dashnaks, however, the thrust of the argument of become "Turkified." Unlike the Dashnaks, however, the thrust of the argument of G6kalp and other leading Young Turks was to advocate that all ethnicities in the Ottoman Gokalp and other leading Young Turks was to advocate that all ethnicities in the Ottoman Empire should unite by adopting a Turkish ethnic identity and thus abandon the ethnic Empire should unite by adopting a Turkish ethnic identity and thus abandon the ethnic nationalism that had been the source of so much political division. nationalism that had been the source of so much political division. The rootedness of Kurdish and Armenian ethnic identity tended to vary according The rootedness of Kurdish and Armenian ethnic identity tended to vary according to the surrounding social circumstances. Whereas the assertion of Kurdiyeti to the surrounding social circumstances. Whereas the assertion of Kurdiyeti

24 DurinDuringg thethe latelate 1920s1920s ththee DashnakDashnakss offeredoffered ttoo allowallow ththee KurdisKurdishh KhoybuKhoybunn partpartyy toto assembleassemble iinn theirtheir meetinmeetingg househousess inin BeiruBeirutt anandd communicatcommunicatee betweebetweenn individualsindividuals throughouthroughoutt ,Iraq, ,Turkey, andand IranIran.. LeaderLeaderss ooff KhoybuKhoybunn anandd ththee DashnakDashnakss woulwouldd traveltravel betweebetweenn BeiruBeirutt andand EasternEastern TurkeTurkeyy wherewhere iitt iiss ververyy likellikelyy thathatt thetheyy woulwouldd spreadspread propagandpropagandaa amonamongg KurdisKurdishh tribestribes ofof a uniounionn betweebetweenn ArmenianArmenianss anandd KurdsKurds.. SeeSee MohammaMohammadd MullaMulla AhmedAhmed,, Jama 'iyat Khoybun wa al- 'Alaqaat al-Kurdiyya al­al- Armaniyya [The[The KhoybuKhoybunn SocietySociety andand Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann RelationsRelations]] (Bonn,(Bonn, Germany:Germany: KawKawaa PublishersPublishers,, 2000)2000),, 133-146.133-146. 25 25 CiteCitedd inin NelidNelidaa FuccaroFuccaro,, "Kurds"Kurds andand KurdisKurdishh NationalisNationalismm inin MandatorMandatoryy Syria:Syria: Politics,Politics, CultureCulture,, anandd Identity"Identity" inin Essays on the Origins of , eded.. AbbaAbbass ValiVali (Cost(Costaa MesaMesa,, CACA:: MazdaMazda PublishersPublishers,, 2003),2003), 205205.. 2020

(Kurdishness)(Kurdishness) tendetendedd ttoo bbee strongerstronger inin ruralrural regionsregions wherewhere KurdishKurdish tribaltribal structurestructure waswas dominantdominant,, ththee assertionassertion ofof ArmeniannessArmenianness tendedtended toto bebe strongerstronger iinn urbanurban areasareas wherewhere thethe

ArmeniaArmeniann OrthodoxOrthodox clergyclergy andand ththee wealthwealthyy ArmeniaArmeniann amira classclass werweree dominant.dominant.

FurthermorFurthermoree KurdishnesKurdishnesss anandd ArmeniannessArmenianness werewere notnot consistentconsistent throughouthroughoutt easterneastern

AnatoliAnatoliaa asas ethnicethnic identities.identities. BasedBased onon itsits ethnicethnic proportionsproportions,, economiceconomic linkages,linkages, andand naturanaturall geographicgeographic boundariesboundaries,, easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa wawass notnot anan interconnectedinterconnected regionregion,, butbut ratheratherr a regioregionn forgedforged throughthrough externalexternal politicalpolitical forces.forces. OttomanOttoman controlcontrol overover easterneastern

AnatoliAnatoliaa hadhad alwaysalways beenbeen ratherrather limited.limited. ItIt conqueredconquered muchmuch ofof regionregion inin ththee earlyearly sixteenthsixteenth century,century, bubutt thethe OttomanOttoman administrationadministration couldcould implementimplement long-tennlong-term controlcontrol onlonlyy iinn certaincertain areas,areas, largelylargely becausebecause ththee region'sregion's largellargelyy mountainoumountainouss terrainterrain mademade itit difficuldifficultt forfor governmengovernmentt forcesforces ttoo control.control. InIn additionaddition thethe factfact thathatt muchmuch ofof itit waswas barrenbarren anandd infertilinfertilee gavegave ththee OttomansOttomans littlelittle incentiveincentive toto investinvest inin securingsecuring thethe fewfew economiceconomic benefitsbenefits thathatt itit hadhad ttoo offer.offer. HenceHence OttomanOttoman interestinterest iinn easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia waswas primarilyprimarily geopolitical.geopolitical. AsAs a meansmeans ofof stavingstaving offoff potentialpotential incursionsincursions fromfrom thethe PersiansPersians toto thethe EastEast andand ththee RussiansRussians ttoo ththee northeast,northeast, thethe OttomansOttomans setset upup garrisonsgarrisons inin a numbernumber ofof towns.towns.

TrendsTrends towardtowardss assimilationassimilation betweenbetween thethe KurdsKurds andand thethe ArmeniansArmenians waswas toto comecome ttoo anan endend inin ththee mid-nineteentmid-nineteenthh centurycentury whenwhen thethe OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire gainedgained greatergreater controlcontrol ofof easterneastern

AnatoliaAnatolia andand implementedimplemented politicalpolitical mechanismmechanismss thatthat distinguisheddistinguished betweenbetween MuslimsMuslims andand non-Muslims.non-Muslims.

TheThe Socio-EconomicSocio-Economic GeographyGeography ofof EasternEastern AnatoliaAnatolia

ItIt wawass inin thethe Ottomans'Ottomans' interestinterest ttoo protectprotect themselvesthemselves againstagainst thethe threatthreat ofof KurdishKurdish tribatriball confederaciesconfederacies mobilizinmobilizingg anyany significantsignificant numbernumberss againstagainst them.them. TheThe OttomansOttomans chosechose ttoo investinvest enoughenough administrativeadministrative efforteffort toto placeplace thethe plainplainss regionregionss ofof easterneastern 2121

AnatoliAnatoliaa undeunderr controlcontrol,, whilewhile allowinallowingg ththee mormoree meddlesommeddlesomee andand strongerstronger KurdisKurdishh tribaltribal confederacieconfederaciess ttoo maintaimaintainn relativrelativee autonomy.autonomy. IInn areaareass inin whicwhichh KurdisKurdishh tribetribess werweree lessless powerfupowerfull andand moremore disparatdisparatee ththee OttomanOttoman governmengovernmentt formeformedd sancaks (a(ann administrativeadministrative divisiodivisionn ofof ththee ) iinn whichwhich KurdisKurdishh chiefschiefs werweree allowedallowed ttoo servservee asas sancakbegissancakbegis

(head(headss oftheof the sancak) undeunderr thethe supervisiosupervisionn ooff government-appointedgovernment-appointed non-Kurdishnon-Kurdish beylerbegis. AllAll necessarnecessaryy tataxx collectiocollectionn anandd militarmilitaryy servicservicee administratioadministrationn controlscontrols werweree applieappliedd ttoo ththee inhabitants.2626 However,However, iinn regionsregions wherwheree mormoree powerfupowerfull KurdishKurdish tribatriball confederaciesconfederacies werweree dominandominantt (typically(typically regionregionss whicwhichh werweree mormoree inaccessible),inaccessible),

OttomaOttomann administrativeadministrative andand militarmilitaryy interventiointerventionn wawass rarerare.. ThougThoughh keepinkeepingg thesethese regionsregions undeunderr theitheirr suzeraintysuzerainty,, ththee OttomanOttomanss allowedallowed thesthesee mormoree powerfupowerfull KurdishKurdish groupsgroups ttoo formform hukumets (governments)(governments) whicwhichh werweree nonott subjecsubjectt ttoo taxatiotaxationn oorr militarymilitary service.service. LanLandd ownershiownershipp wawass dealdealtt througthroughh locallocal regulatorregulatoryy mechanismechanismm iinn accordanceaccordance witwithh KurdisKurdishh tribatriball administrativadministrativee tradition.tradition.

TheThe protectionprotection affordedafforded ttoo somsomee regionregionss iinn easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa bbyy ththee OttomanOttoman administrationadministration allowedallowed forfor a numbenumberr ooff tradtradee routeroutess ttoo emerge.emerge. EasternEastern AnatoliAnatoliaa becamebecame oneone ooff threthreee mainmain tradingtrading zonezoness forfor ththee OttomanOttoman Empire,Empire, connectinconnectingg tradtradee withwith thethe

PersiaPersiann GulGulff regionregion andand ththee landlandss ttoo thethe EasEastt ttoo WesterWesternn AnatoliAnatoliaa anandd ththee BlacBlackk Sea.Sea. TheThe forestsforests ooff easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia provideprovidedd lumbelumberr anandd ththee citiecitiess werweree majomajorr transitransitt pointspoints forfor ththee silsilkk andand spicespice trades.2727 However,However, aass tradtradee witwithh EuropEuropee gainegainedd iinn volumvolumee andand importancimportancee duringduring ththee nineteentnineteenthh centurycentury,, tradtradee witwithh ththee EastEast diminisheddiminished andand thethe costcost ofof

26 vavann BruinessenBruinessen,, Agha, Shaikh, and State, 159159.. 2727 MehmeMehmett Bulut,Bulut, Ottoman-Dutch Economic Relations: In the Early Modern PeriodPeriod 1571-1699 (Hilversum:(Hilversum: VerlorenVerloren,, 2001),2001), 18.18. AccordinAccordingg ttoo BuluBulutt ththee otheotherr twtwoo tradingtrading zonezoness inin ththee OttomaOttomann EmpirEmpiree werweree ththee "island-coast""island-coast" andand "Mediterranean-Indian"Mediterranean-Indian 2222

maintaininmaintainingg overlandoverland tradtradee routeroutess througthroughh harsharshh deserdesertt anandd mountainoumountainouss terraiterrainn andand

maintainingmaintaining securitysecurity foforr thethemm begabegann ttoo outweigoutweighh ththee benefibenefitt ofof tradtradee withwith ththee EastEast.. TheThe

Trabzon-TabriTrabzon-Tabrizz routeroute,, whicwhichh passepassedd througthroughh ErzuruErzurumm andand VanVan,, maintainemaintainedd ititss vitalitvitalityy onon

accounaccountt ooff BritisBritishh interestinterest iinn findinfindingg a shorteshorterr tradtradee routroutee ttoo obtainobtain silksilk frofromm ththee GilanGilan

regioregionn anandd ththee facfactt thathatt RussiRussiaa leviedlevied dutiesduties onon goodsgoods passinpassingg througthroughh ththee GeorgiaGeorgia tradetrade

route. 2288 However, by the nineteenth century most of eastern Anatolia had become route. However, by the nineteenth century most of eastern Anatolia had become economically independent, and domestic trade was more important than trade with other economically independent, and domestic trade was more important than trade with other Ottoman regions and international trade in terms of both volume and value. Regional Ottoman regions and international trade in terms of both volume and value. Regional trade became a significant means of subsistence for the inhabitants of eastern Anatolia. trade became a significant means of subsistence for the inhabitants of eastern Anatolia. In 1890, the value generated by regional trade between , Diyarbakir, and Harput In 1890, the value generated by regional trade between Mosul, Diyarbakir, and Harput was equal to approximately 5 percent of the total export trade in the Ottoman Empire, was equal to approximately 5 percent of the total export trade in the Ottoman Empire, which, given the relatively insignificant status of the cities in the Ottoman economy, is a which, given the relatively insignificant status of the cities in the Ottoman economy, is a remarkable figure. 29 remarkable figure. Geographically, eastern Anatolia consisted of four different types of settlements: Geographically, eastern Anatolia consisted of four different types of settlements: cities, smaller towns, rural mountainous areas, and rural plains areas. The major cities cities, smaller towns, rural mountainous areas, and rural plains areas. The major cities and larger towns in eastern Anatolia were Diyarbakir in the west, Van in the east, and and larger towns in eastern Anatolia were Diyarbakir in the west, Van in the east, and Erzurum in the north. These three cities served as the major economic centers of the Erzurum in the north. These three cities served as the major economic centers of the region and had a strong Ottoman military and administrative presence. In an effort to region and had a strong Ottoman military and administrative presence. In an effort to outbid each other politically and protect their individual economic and geopolitical outbid each other politically and protect their individual economic and geopolitical interest, the Russians, French, and British had assigned consuls to all three cities (with interest, the Russians, French, and British had assigned consuls to all three cities (with

OceansOceans"" zoneszones,, whicwhichh werweree fromfrom ththee AegeaAegeann anandd lowerlower MediterraneaMediterraneann coastscoasts toto EuropeEurope anandd ththee ReRedd SeaSea ttoo IndiaIndia respectively.respectively. 2288 CharleCharless Issawi,Issawi, "The"The -TrabzoTabriz-Trabzonn TradeTrade,, 1830-1900:1830-1900: RisRisee anandd DeclinDeclinee ofof a Route,"Route," International Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 1,1, nono.. 1 (Winter(Winter 1970):1970): 1818.. 2323 ththee exceptioexceptionn ofof ththee RussiansRussians atat DiyarbakirDiyarbakir)) byby thethe mid-nineteentmid-nineteenthh century.30century. TheThe

OttomanOttoman governmentgovernment maintainemaintainedd a stronstrongg administrativadministrativee anandd militarmilitaryy presencpresencee iinn allall threthreee cities,cities, designatindesignatingg eaceachh oneone asas ththee administrativadministrativee centecenterr ofof ththee respectiverespective

DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, Erzurum,Erzurum, andand VaVann anandd establishingestablishing eacheach asas a militarmilitaryy basebase.. TheThe

OttomanOttoman militarmilitaryy presencpresencee inin VaVann functionedfunctioned ttoo protecprotectt ththee EmpirEmpiree fromfrom PersianPersian influencinfluencee anandd ththee militarmilitaryy presencpresencee aatt ErzeruErzerumm servedserved ttoo protecprotectt ththee EmpireEmpire fromfrom RussianRussian influenceinfluence.. AAtt botbothh DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr anandd VaVann ththee OttomaOttomann armyarmy presencpresencee wawass instrumentainstrumentall inin stavingstaving offoff majomajorr KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaArmeniann insurrectionsinsurrections.. IInn termtermss ooff ethniethnicc composition,composition,

VaVann andand DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr (and(and ErzuruErzurumm ttoo a lesselesserr degreedegree)) consistedconsisted ofof a highighh numbernumber ofof bothboth

KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaArmeniann inhabitantsinhabitants.. IInn orderorder ttoo rulrulee VaVann andand DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, ththee OttomanOttoman administratioadministrationn reliereliedd onon manmanyy ofof ththee leadingleading KurdisKurdishh familiesfamilies.. AAss a resulresultt locallocal politicspolitics werweree oftenoften rifrifee witwithh factionalfactional strugglesstruggles forfor powepowerr betweebetweenn clansclans andand familiesfamilies.. IInn 18191819 ththee §eyhzad~eyhzadee familyfamily,, whicwhichh hahadd beebeenn gaininggaining increasinincreasingg powepowerr iinn DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, forfor instanceinstance,, wawass toppletoppledd bbyy OttomaOttomann forcesforces whicwhichh formedformed anan alliancealliance witwithh BehraBehramm PasaPa~a,, a membememberr ooff a rivarivall KurdishKurdish clanclan iinn ththee DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr regionregion,, whwhoo becambecamee ththee mutesarrifmutesarrif'of of ththee DiyarbakirDiyarbakir vilayet.vilayet. 31

29 DonalDonaldd QuataertQuataert,, The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922 (Cambridge(Cambridge:: CambridgeCambridge UniversityUniversity PressPress,, 2005),128-129.2005), 128-129. 30 VahakVahaknn DadrianDadrian,, The History of the : Ethnic Conflict from thethe to the Caucasus (Providence,(Providence, RIRI:: BerghahBerghahnn BooksBooks,, 1995),1995), 131.131. IInn ththee 1860s1860s thethe BritisBritishh andand ththee FrenchFrench setset uupp consulatesconsulates iinn VaVann iinn ordeorderr ttoo counteractcounteract ththee RussianRussian influenceinfluence generategeneratedd bbyy ththee establishmentestablishment ofof a RussiaRussiann consulateconsulate nonott longlong before.before. SubsequentlySubsequently ththee BritishBritish,, RussiansRussians,, anandd FrencFrenchh maintainemaintainedd a mormoree minominorr consularconsular presencpresencee atat DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr andand Erzurum.Erzurum. 1 SeeSee ArielAriel Salzmann,Salzmann, Tocqueville in the Ottoman Empire: Rival Paths to the ModernModern State (Leiden,(Leiden, BostonBoston:: E.JE.l.. BrillBrill,, 2004)2004),191-193., 191-193. AlsAlsoo seseee StephenStephen DuguidDuguid,, "The"The PoliticPoliticss ooff UnityUnity:: HamidiaHamidiann PolicPolicyy inin EasterEasternn Anatolia,Anatolia,"" Middle Eastern Studies 9,9, nono.. 2 (Spring(Spring 1973):1973): 155.155. ThThee KurdKurdss iinn DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr anandd VaVann werweree extremelyextremely influentiainfluentiall onon thethe 2424

AsAs thethe OttomansOttomans beganbegan ttoo establishestablish a greatergreater militarymilitary anandd administrativeadministrative presencepresence inin easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa inin thethe nineteentnineteenthh century,century, anan increasingincreasing numbernumber ofof KurdKurdss migratemigratedd toto ththee citiescities andand ththee surroundingsurrounding areas.areas. TheseThese migrantmigrantss toto ththee citiescities tendetendedd toto de-emphasizede-emphasize theirtheir tribatriball identityidentity andand eveneven abandonabandon theirtheir KurdishnessKurdishness inin somesome cases.cases. ManyMany KurdsKurds dwellingdwelling inin thethe citiescities ofDiyarbakir,of Diyarbakir, ErzurumErzurum,, andand VanVan inin EasternEastern AnatoliaAnatolia attemptedattempted toto fleeflee ththee vicissitudesvicissitudes ofof thethe powepowerr strugglesstruggles inherentinherent inin thethe tribaltribal lifestyle.lifestyle. FrederickFrederick

Millingen,Millingen, whwhoo traveledtraveled iinn ththee regioregionn duringduring thethe 1860s,1860s, wrotwrotee ththee followingfollowing ofof thethe

MuslimsMuslims livingliving inin ErzurumErzurum,, ththee majoritymajority ofof whomwhom werweree predominantlpredominantlyy ofof KurdishKurdish origin:origin:

"if"if a strangerstranger werweree toto askask oneone ofof ththee nativenative MussulmanMussulmanss ofof ErzeruErzerumm whetherwhether hehe iiss a

KoorKoordd bbyy nationalitynationality,, ththee individualindividual wouldwould undoubtedlyundoubtedly considerconsider ththee questionquestion anan insult,insult, asas hehe claimsclaims toto belongbelong ttoo whawhatt hhee supposessupposes toto bebe a highehigherr caste.,,32caste."32 HarrHarryy LynchLynch observedobserved thathatt manymany KurdKurdss settlingsettling iinn thethe citycity ofof Van,Van, "disown[ed]"disown[ed] thethe namnamee ofof KurdsKurds andand affect[ed]affect[ed] thathatt ofOsmanh,of Osmanli, oror TurksTurks ofof ththee rulingruling race."race." TheseThese Kurds,Kurds, LynchLynch goesgoes onon toto say, "do not belong to any Kurdish tribe," or at least claimed that they did not. 3333 say, "do not belong to any Kurdish tribe," or at least claimed that they did not. While the Kurds had a fair degree of control on the administration ofthe cities, While the Kurds had a fair degree of control on the administration of the cities, the Armenians tended to control economic affairs. The guilds, trades, banks, and the Armenians tended to control economic affairs. The guilds, trades, banks, and businesses in the cities of Van, Diyarbakir, and Erzurum were predominantly Armenian- businesses in the cities of Van, Diyarbakir, and Erzurum were predominantly Armenian- controlled. Kurdish feudal lords relied on Armenian traders for the purchase of controlled. Kurdish feudal lords relied on Armenian traders for the purchase of

OttomanOttoman administration.administration. TheThe effectivenesseffectiveness ofof OttomanOttoman rulerule onon thethe regionregionss wawass largelylargely dependendependentt onon ththee statestate ofof theitheirr relationrelationss witwithh ththee predominantpredominant tribes.tribes. 3322 MajorMajor FredericFrederickk MillingenMillingcn,, Wild Life Among the Koords (London:(London: HurstHurst andand BlackettBlackett PublishersPublishers,, 1870),1870), 149.149. 33 HarryHarry FinniFinniss BlossBlossee Lynch,Lynch, Armenia, Travels, and Studies (:(Beirut: Khayats,Khayats, 1965,1965, originallyoriginally publishepublishedd inin 1896),1896), 8383.. 2525

"agricultural"agricultural toolstools,, otheotherr meanmeanss ofof production...production ..., , andand otherother necessities."necessities.,,3434 ByBy ththee timtimee ofof

AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa hahadd becombecomee mormoree integrateintegratedd intointo ththee capitaliscapitalistt marketmarket anandd hahadd begubegunn ttoo ususee monemoneyy asas a regularegularr uniunitt ooff exchange.exchange. AAss ththee ArmenianArmenianss werewere traditionalltraditionallyy well-versewell-versedd inin financiafinanciall andand economieconomicc mattersmatters,, thetheyy becambecamee money-lendersmoney-lenders ttoo ththee KurdsKurds,, whwhoo werweree generallgenerallyy unacquainteunacquaintedd witwithh capitalism.capitalism. TheThe introductionintroduction ofof circulatincirculatingg currencycurrency intintoo ththee regioregionn hahadd a profounprofoundd impactimpact oonn socialsocial relationrelationss betweenbetween

KurdsKurds andand ArmeniansArmenians inin manmanyy regionsregions.. IInn ononee casecase inin 18931893 inin ththee DersiDersimm regionregion,, oneone ofof thethe mosmostt economicalleconomicallyy andand politicallpoliticallyy remotremotee regionregionss ooff eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia,, ArmenianArmenian financiersfinanciers managemanagedd ttoo seizeseize propertpropertyy frofromm KurdKurdss whowho hahadd mortgagemortgagedd theitheirr lanlandd iinn orderorder ttoo covecoverr thethe expenseexpensess ooff ththee bridbridee pricpricee andand ththee weddinweddingg ceremonyceremony,, whicwhichh ofof courscoursee leftleft thethe KurdisKurdishh tribetribess incensedincensed atat theitheirr creditors.creditors. 35

TownsTowns inin eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa werweree differentdifferent fromfrom citiescities iinn thatthat,, whilwhilee ththee populationpopulation consisteconsistedd ooff diversdiversee groups,groups, oneone grougroupp tendetendedd ttoo dominatedominate ththee locallocal administration.administration.

WhereaWhereass ththee OttomaOttomann governmengovernmentt hahadd a greategreaterr degredegreee ooff controlcontrol oveoverr ththee administrationadministration ofof ththee citiescities durinduringg ththee nineteentnineteenthh century,century, anandd hahadd parceleparceledd outout administrativeadministrative controcontroll toto differendifferentt tribetribess anandd groupsgroups,, ththee administratioadministrationn ooff a numbenumberr ooff towntownss wawass largellargelyy undeunderr thethe controcontroll ooff a dominandominantt tribetribe.. AmonAmongg ththee towntownss ooff economiceconomic significancesignificance inin easterneastern

AnatoliAnatoliaa werweree ,Bitlis, MusMu~,, HarputHarput,, anandd MardinMardin,, whicwhichh hahadd originallyoriginally beebeenn largelylargely

ChristiaChristiann settlementssettlements whicwhichh hahadd becombecomee mormoree inhabiteinhabitedd bbyy KurdKurdss anandd TurkTurkss overover time.time.

WhilWhilee HarpuHarputt remaineremainedd predominantlpredominantlyy ArmenianArmenian,, witwithh ArmenianArmenianss dominatindominatingg itsits

34 KamaKamall MadhaMadharr AhmadAhmad,, During the First World War (London:(London: SaqiSaqi Books,Books, 1994),146.1994), 146. 3355 Ibrahiibrahimm YilmazcelikYllmazyelik,, XIX.XIX YuzyihnYiizyzlm Ikincijkinci YansmdaYarisinda Dersim Sancagi:Sancagl: Idari,jdari, tktisadijktisadi ve Sosyal Hayat, [The[The DersiDersimm SancakSancak iinn thethe SecondSecond HalHalff ofof ththee NineteentNineteenthh Century:Century: AdministrativeAdministrative,, EconomicEconomic,, andand SociaSociall LifeLife]] (Elazlg,(Elazig, TurkeyTurkey,, 1999),1999), 147.147. 2266

administrationadministration iinn additioadditionn ttoo merelmerelyy dwellindwellingg therethere,, thithiss appeareappearedd ttoo bbee anan exceptionexception toto

mosmostt ofof ththee towntownss iinn easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia.. 36 ThThee extenextentt ttoo whicwhichh ArmenianArmenianss dominateddominated

politicapoliticall affairaffairss iinn HarpuHarputt cacann bbee seenseen iinn ththee factfact thathatt ththee AmericanAmericanss establishedestablished a widelywidely

supportesupportedd missiomissionn ttoo benefibenefitt ththee ArmeniansArmenians.. BitlisBitlis,, nestlenestledd iinn ththee mountainmountainss betweebetweenn onon

ththee WesWestt sidsidee ooff LakLakee andand NortheasNortheastt ooff DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, hahadd a mixemixedd populatiopopulationn ooff ,Arabs,

ArmeniansArmenians,, JacobitesJacobites,, anandd KurdsKurds.. WealtWealthh wawass generategeneratedd bbyy ththee numerounumerouss merchantsmerchants

whwhoo paspasss througthroughh oonn theitheirr wawayy ttoo DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr oror VaVann anandd ititss populatiopopulationn wawass sustainedsustained byby

thethe mountaimountainn pasturepasturess anandd agriculturagriculturee iinn ththee fieldsfields towardtowardss MuMu~s ttoo ththee northeastnortheast.. TheThe

extenextentt ttoo whicwhichh ththee KurdisKurdishh mirs (leader(leader ofof a semiautonomoussemiautonomous principalityprincipality)) controllecontrolledd thethe

areareaa cancan bbee seeseenn iinn ththee portioportionn ooff ththee taxetaxess thathatt thetheyy kepkeptt anandd thetheyy useusedd ttoo papayy thethe salariessalaries

ofof manymany high-rankinhigh-rankingg OttomanOttoman officials. 3737 InIn MardinMardin,, ththee OttomaOttomann administratioadministrationn stillstill

founfoundd itselfitself forcedforced toto shareshare powepowerr witwithh ththee majomajorr KurdisKurdishh tribestribes,, whwhoo continuecontinuedd toto

controlcontrol ththee majomajorr meanmeanss ooff productioproductionn andand distribution,distribution, eveevenn afteafterr ththee destructiodestructionn ooff thethe

38 power of the mirs in the mid-nineteenth century. 38 power of the mirs in the mid-nineteenth century. The rural mountainous areas of eastern Anatolia were difficult for Ottoman forces The rural mountainous areas of eastern Anatolia were difficult for Ottoman forces to penetrate. As such the inhabitants, who were mostly pastoral and seminomadic, had a to penetrate. As such the inhabitants, who were mostly pastoral and seminomadic, had a strategic advantage over the invaders. The Ottoman administration typically exempted strategic advantage over the invaders. The Ottoman administration typically exempted the inhabitants from taxes, military service, and the application oflegal and the inhabitants from taxes, military service, and the application of legal and administrative procedures. The isolation of the Dersim region, to the north of Diyarbakir administrative procedures. The isolation of the Dersim region, to the north of Diyarbakir

336 EdwinEdwin MunsellMunsell BlissBliss et.et. aI,al, Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities (Edgewood(Edgewood PublicationPublication Co.,Co., 1896).1896). HerHeree hhee talktalkss abouaboutt ththee invadinginvading redifsred~fs whwhoo werweree TurkishTurkish soldiersoldierss disguiseddisguised asas Kurds.Kurds. 37 vavann BruinessenBruinessen,, Agha, Shaikh, and State, 162-170.162-170. ThThee sourcessources thathatt vanvan BruinessenBruinessen useusess araree largelylargely fromfrom ththee seventeentseventeenthh centurcenturyy traveletravelerr EvliyEvliyaa ~elebi.Qelebi. HoweveHoweverr mucmuchh ofof ththee samesame structurestructuress appearedappeared ttoo bbee presenpresentt untiuntill ththee mid-nineteentmid-nineteenthh century.century. 2277 andand southwestsouthwest ooff ErzurumErzurum,, wawass sucsuchh thatthat ththee KurdishKurdish tribatriball inhabitantinhabitantss (i(inn manmanyy casescases referrereferredd ttoo asas ththee kizilbas)klzzlba~') spokespoke a dialectdialect (Zaza)(Zaza) whicwhichh wawass completelcompletelyy differendifferentt fromfrom otheotherr KurdisKurdishh dialectsdialects,, andand alsalsoo maintainemaintainedd significantlsignificantlyy differendifferentt religioureligiouss practices,practices, mosmostt ooff themthem adheringadhering ttoo Alevism,Alevism. ThThee relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn ththee KurdKurdss anandd ArmeniansArmenians iinn DersiDersimm wawass traditionallytraditionally mucmuchh closercloser thathann iinn otheotherr regionsregions,. EveEvenn durinduringg thethe tumultuoutumultuouss timetimess undeunderr ththee rulrulee ooff SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII andand ththee atrocitieatrocitiess ooff WWI,WWI, pocketpocketss ofof ththee DersiDersimm regioregionn (as(as ththee regioregionn wawass bbyy nnoo meanmeanss eveeverr unifieunifiedd undeunderr thethe controlcontrol ooff a singlesingle tribtribee oror individualindividual)) servedserved aass aann areareaa ofof refugrefugee foforr ArmenianArmenianss fleeingfleeing conflictconflict anandd deportationdeportation,. ItIt wawass reportereportedd thathatt KurdKurdss ofof DersiDersimm provideprovidedd a safesafe havehavenn forfor mormoree thathann 5,0005,000 ArmenianArmenianss durinduringg ththee 19151915 massacresmassacres,39. ArmenianArmenianss anandd KurdKurdss iinn thethe

DersimDersim regioregionn worshippeworshippedd atat manmanyy ofof ththee samesame holholyy shrines.shrines. ThusThus KurdKurdss throughoutthroughout

EasternEastern AnatoliAnatoliaa woulwouldd makemake ththee pilgrimagpilgrimagee ttoo ththee ArmeniaArmeniann monastermonasteryy ofSt.of St. JohnJohn thethe

4o40 BaptisBaptistt (Sur(Surpp GaraveGaravett VanYankk iinn ArmenianArmenian)) iinn ththee towtownn ooff KhozaKhozatt ttoo bbee curecuredd ofof diseases.

TheThe HakkarHakkarii regionregion,, locatedlocated ttoo thethe soutsouthh ofof VaVann waswas,, muchmuch likelike ththee DersimDersim regionregion,, quitequite mountainousmountainous,, althougalthoughh leslesss isolatedisolated.. LocateLocatedd oonn ththee tradtradee routroutee betweenbetween

VaVann andand UrmiaUrmia iinn westernwestern ,Iran, ititss inhabitantinhabitantss profiteprofitedd frofromm collectincollectingjamarikg jamarik (customs)(customs) from tradertraderss passinpassingg througthroughh ththee region.4141 ThThee climatclimatee andand soisoill ooff ththee HakkariHakkari regioregionn waswas ideaideall foforr ththee growthgrowth ofof qualityquality tobaccotobacco.. BByy ththee beginninbeginningg ofof ththee AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII period,period,

ShaykhShaykh 'Ubaydullah,'Ubaydullah, a prominenprominentt KurdisKurdishh spirituaspirituall leadeleaderr backebackedd bbyy manmanyy differentdifferent

3388 SuaviSuavi AydinAydm,, MarMardin: din: Asiret,A~iret, Cemaat, Devlet (Istanbul:(Istanbul: TurkiyTiirkiyee EkonomikEkonomik ToplumsalToplumsal TarihTarih VakfiVakfl,, 2000)2000),, 257.257. 3399 AhmadAhmad,, 173173.. 4400 LL.. Molyneux-SeelMolyneux-Seel,, "A"A JourneJourneyy inin Dersim,Dersim,"" The GeographicalGeographicalJournal Journal 4444,, nono.. 1 (Jul.,(Jul., 1914):1914): 63.63. Molyneux-SeelMolyneux-Seel writewritess thathatt KurdKurdss woulwouldd continucontinuee ttoo makmakee sucsuchh pilgrimagepilgrimagess toto ththee monasterymonastery duringduring hihiss visivisitt ttoo easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa inin ththee earlearlyy 1911910s Os.. 2828 tribetribess iinn ththee regionregion,, controllecontrolledd ththee tobacctobaccoo tradetrade,, eveevenn ttoo ththee extentextent ooff rivalinrivalingg ththee FrenchFrench tobacctobaccoo compancompanyy RegieRegie.. DurinDuringg ththee latlatee 1870s1870s anandd earlyearly 1880s,1880s, ththee OttomansOttomans struggledstruggled ttoo dislodgdislodgee ththee controcontroll ooff ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess oveoverr ththee tobacctobaccoo tradetrade,, whichwhich tootookk awayaway from ththee demandemandd foforr French-cultivateFrench-cultivatedd tobaccotobacco.. HoweverHowever,, ththee mountainoumountainouss terraiterrainn ofof thethe

HakkarHakkarii regioregionn gavgavee ththee tribetribess anan advantageadvantage inin protectinprotectingg theitheirr tobacctobaccoo andand preventedprevented

OttomaOttomann forcesforces frofromm interveningintervening effectively.42effectively.42 ThaThatt oofthef the villagevillagess scatteredscattered throughoutthroughout thethe mountainmountainss iinn ththee HakkarHakkarii regioregionn werweree namenamedd afterafter ththee predominanpredominantt familyfamily andand landland ownershiownershipp wawass nonott solelysolely iinn ththee handhandss ofof KurdisKurdishh tribestribes.. ThcreThere werwerce manmanyy instanceinstancess inin

4343 whicwhichh AssyriaAssyriann (Nestorian)(Nestorian) tribetribess hahadd controcontroll oveoverr KurdisKurdishh peasantpeasantss inin ththee region.region.

ThereThere werewere a numbenumberr ooff relativelrelativelyy autonomouslyautonomously rulinrulingg eliteselites inin thethe areasareas ofof

ZeitounZeitoun,, nortnorthh ooff modern-damodern-dayy KahramanmarasKahramanmara~,, andand Sasun,Sasun, nortnorthh ofof modern-damodern-dayy Batman.Batman.

TheseThese werewere ththee mountaimountainn ArmenianArmenianss whwhoo werweree regarderegardedd asas "patriot["patriot[s s]] andand freedomfreedom

44 fighter[s]fighter[s]"" againsagainstt ththee OttomaOttomann Empire. 44 AccordinAccordingg ttoo AghassiAghassi,, a prominenprominentt DashnakDashnak writewriterr durinduringg ththee 1890s,1890s, thethe ZeitouZeitounn ArmenianArmenianss eveevenn helpehelpedd ththee OttomanOttomanss fightfight thethe

KurdisKurdishh rebelrebelss aatt oneone poinpointt iinn theitheirr history.history.

WhilWhilee thethe OttomaOttomann trooptroopss continuedcontinued ttoo bbee worwornn ououtt bbyy ththee KurdKurdss iinn ththee otherother locationslocations,, ththee ZeitountsisZeitountsis,, afteafterr havinhavingg taketakenn ththee fortressfortress,, attackeattackedd ththee KurdsKurds fromfrom behinbehindd anandd madmadee themthem suffersuffer considerablconsiderablee loss...loss ..... ThThee grand-viziegrand-vizierr marvelemarveledd atat ththee abilitabilityy andand ththee braverbraveryy ofof ththee ZeitountsiZeitountsiss anandd camecame uupp witwithh ththee ideideaa ofof formingforming aann avant-gardavant-gardee regimenregimentt iinn hihiss armyarmy ttoo putput dowdownn ththee rebelliousrebellious tribes.4545

4411 Celil,Celil, IntifadatIntifadat al-Akrad 'Am 1880 [The[The UprisinUprisingg ofof ththee KurdsKurds 1880],1880], trans.trans. SiyamandSiyamand SirtiSirti (Beirut(Beirut:: DaDarr al-Kitaal-Kitabb PressPress,, 1979),1979), 2424.. 4422 Ibid.,Ibid., 5050.. 433 vavann Bruinessen,Bruinessen, Agha, Shaikh, and State, 118;118; DavidDavid Gaunt,Gaunt, Massacres, Resistance,Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations during WW!WWI (Piscataway,(Piscataway, NeNeww Jersey:Jersey: GorgiasGorgias PressPress LLCLLC,, 2006)2006),, 126.126. RatheRatherr thanthan papayy taxestaxes,, manmanyy tribetribess paipaidd a smallsmall tributtributee ttoo thethe OttomaOttomann governmengovernmentt iinn orderorder ttoo ensureensure theitheirr autonomy.autonomy. 4444 LibaridianLibaridian,, 7575.. 4455 MMyy translatiotranslationn frofromm ththee FrenchFrench.. AghassiAghassi,, Zeitoun: Depuis Les Origines Jusqu'aJusqu'a L'InsurrectionL'!nsurrection de 1895 (Paris:(Paris: EditioEditionn dduu MercurMercuree ddee FranceFrance,, 1898),1898), 103-105.103-105. 2929

ThThee statusstatus ooff botbothh KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianAnnenianss livinlivingg iinn ththee lowlandlowland ruralrural areasareas wawass farfar from enviable.enviable. A sayinsayingg circulatecirculatedd amonamongg highlandehighlanderr KurdisKurdishh tribetribess ofof ththee lowlandlowland villagevillagerr KurdsKurds:: "Ta"Ta jjii mirinmirinee cetireyetire"" (malaria(malaria iiss bettebetterr thathann death).46death). AccordinAccordingg toto thethe explanatioexplanationn givengiven bbyy ZiyZiyaa G6kalp,Gokalp, thithiss meanmeantt thathatt iitt wawass preferablpreferablee ttoo dweldwelll iinn thethe mountainmountainss anandd mamayy bbee exposeexposedd ttoo malarimalariaa thathann ttoo faceface ththee gruesomegruesome existenceexistence ofof lowlandlowland villagvillagee lifelife wherwheree peoplpeoplee werweree exploiteexploitedd bbyy tribetribess andand OttomaOttomann officialsofficials,, seekingseeking taxestaxes andand money.money.

ThThee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess werweree ththee predominanpredominantt forcforcee throughouthroughoutt ththee rurarurall lowlandlowland regionregionss ooff eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia.. ItIt wawass ttoo ththee advantageadvantage ofof KurdisKurdishh peasantpeasantss toto allyally themselvethemselvess witwithh a powerfupowerfull tribtribee foforr protectioprotectionn fromfrom outsidoutsidee enemiesenemies anandd forfor economiceconomic security,security, bubutt ArmeniaAnneniann peasantpeasantss werweree alsoalso dependentdependent oonn ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess forfor protection.protection.

TheTheyy paipaidd ththee hafir tataxx whicwhichh "consisted"eonsist[ ed]] ofof a certaincertain portioportionn ooff allall theitheirr crops,crops, cattle,cattle, silver,silver, oreore,, witwithh ththee additioadditionn ofof articlesarticles ooff clothing,clothing, agriculturalagricultural implements"implements" iinn exchangeexchange forfor ththee protectioprotectionn ofof ththee Kurds.4747 IInn additionaddition ttoo ththee hafir taxtax,, ththee AnneniansArmenians anandd peasantpeasant

KurdKurdss whwhoo werweree affiliateaffiliatedd ttoo a powerfupowerfull tribtribee werweree ttoo providprovidee kislak,kiJlak, oror wintewinterr quarteringquartering forfor KurdisKurdishh nomadinomadicc anandd pastorapastorall tribesmentribesmen,, whicwhiehh drewdrew complaintcomplaintss fromfrom manymany

4488 Annenian peasants to the European consuls and to the Annenian patriarchate. Armenian peasants to the European consuls and to the Armenian patriarchate. This feudal relationship between the Kurds and the Annenians was not entirely This feudal relationship between the Kurds and the Armenians was not entirely burdensome for the peasants; in some eases it was actually beneficial. Thus the burdensome for the peasants; in some cases it was actually beneficial. Thus the

4466 ZiyZiyaa Gokalp,Gokalp, KilrtKurt AsiretleriAJiretleri HakkindaHaklanda Ictimaijctimai Tetkikler [Sociological[Sociological AnalysiAnalysiss ofof KurdisKurdishh Tribes]Tribes],, (Ankara(Ankara:: KomalKomal,, 1975),85.1975), 85. 4477 FFOO 424/1834241183,, InclosurInclosuree iinn NoNo.. 5959,, TherapiaTherapia,, AugusAugustt 15,1895,15, 1895, pp.. 203,203, nono.. 192,192, TurkeyTurkey nono.. 1 (1895)(1895) ParPartt I,I, pp.. 132,132, nono.. 252252,, 25211,252/1, British Documents, ed.ed. $imsir~im~ir,, 44:: 94.94. 4488 Arshag Ohan Sarkissian, History ofthe Armenian Question to 1885 (Urbana: Arshag Ohan Sarkissian, History of the Armenian Question to 1885 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1938), 32-33. University of Illinois Press, 1938), 32-33. 3030

ArmenianArmenianss undeunderr ththee controlcontrol ofof MehmetMehmet SadtkSadik ofof ththee HayderanhHayderanh tribtribee werewere actuallyactually quitequite wealthywealthy.. EveEvenn ththee poorespoorestt ofof thethe ArmenianArmenianss undeunderr ththee controlcontrol ofof MehmetMehmet Sadlk,Sadik, possessinpossessingg atat leasleastt a hundrehundredd sheepsheep perper farm,farm, faredfared mucmuchh betterbetter thathann poopoorr ArmenianArmenianss inin otherother regionsregions.. MehmetMehmet Sadlk,Sadik, iitt shouldshould bbee notednoted,, wawass nonott particularlyparticularly kinkindd towardstowards

KurdisKurdishh tribestribes andand ArmenianArmenianss inin otherother regionregionss andand waswas a notoriounotoriouss raiderraider andand

49 plunderer. 49 YeYett asas thethe OttomanOttoman governmentgovernment begabegann toto centralizecentralize greatergreater controlcontrol overover

EasterEasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa andand toto collectcollect taxestaxes fromfrom ththee inhabitantsinhabitants,, thethe hafir tataxx leviedlevied byby thethe

KurdisKurdishh tribestribes becamebecame increasinglyincreasingly burdensome.burdensome. ByBy ththee timetime ofof SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII,, powerfulpowerful KurdishKurdish tribaltribal confederationsconfederations werweree notnot completelycompletely dissolved,dissolved, andand continuedcontinued toto levylevy thethe tataxx toto raiseraise fundsfunds ttoo countercounter thethe spreadspread ofof OttomanOttoman controlcontrol inin thethe regionregion.. AsAs a

50 resultresult manmanyy ArmeniansArmenians andand KurdishKurdish peasantspeasants werewere double-taxed. 50 TheThe failurefailure ofof

ArmeniansArmenians toto paypay ththee hafir tataxx wawass frequentlyfrequently memett withwith severesevere punishment.punishment.

TypicallyTypically,, ththee KurdKurdss andand ArmenianArmenianss livingliving inin lowlandlowland rurarurall regionregionss hadhad goodgood mutuamutuall relationsrelations andand reliedrelied oonn eacheach otherother forfor defensdefensee againstagainst mormoree powerfupowerfull tribes.tribes. TheThe

ArmeniansArmenians ofof EasternEastern AnatoliaAnatolia werewere largel y ofof thethe rayah class,class, a landlesslandless peasantrypeasantry thatthat wawass illiterate,illiterate, uneducateduneducated,, andand generallygenerally detacheddetached from thethe ArmenianArmenian clergyclergy andand businessbusiness classes.classes. TheThe rayah werewere offeredoffered littlelittle supportsupport eveneven fromfrom thethe clergymenclergymen ofof lowerlower statusstatus whwhoo competedcompeted witwithh themthem forfor prestigprestigee andand accessaccess toto sustenancesustenance fromfrom withiwithinn thethe religiousreligious institution.5151

WhereaWhereass thethe identityidentity ooff AnneniansArmenians waswas stronglystrongly connectedconnected toto religion,religion, thatthat ofof thethe

KurdKurdss wawass stronglystrongly cOlmectedconnected toto ththee tribetribe.. ManManyy ArmeniansArmenians inin WesternWestern AnatoliAnatoliaa diddid notnot

4949 FFOO 195/2284,195/2284, DicksonDickson ttoo Lowther,Lowther, SeptemberSeptember 22,22, 1908,1908, citedcited inin JustinJustin McCarthyMcCarthy etet aI,al, Armenian Rebellion at Van (Salt(Salt LakeLake City:City: UniversityUniversity ofof UtahUtah,, 2006)2006),, 36.36. 5500 Sarkissian,Sarkissian, 3333.. 3311 speakspeak ArmenianAnnenian.. AmericaAmericann ProtestanProtestantt missionariesmissionaries iinn ththee OttomaOttomann EmpirEmpiree requestedrequested thatthat copiescopies ooff ChristianChristian literaturliteraturee bbee publishepublishedd iinn TurkisTurkishh forfor ththee Turkish-speakinTurkish-speakingg AnneniansArmenians iinn thethe WestWest.. OneOne ofof thethe -baseTokat-basedd ArmeniaAnneniann AltruistiAltruisticc Society'sSociety's maimainn functionsfunctions iinn thethe

1860s1860s waswas ttoo "hold"hold SundaySunday classeclassess iinn ththee ArmeniaAnneniann languaglanguagee foforr Turkish-speakingTurkish-speaking

Armenians."Annenians. ,,5252

ThThee maimainn uniunitt ofof self-identificatioself-identificationn foforr mosmostt KurdKurdss wawass ththee clanclan andand ththee tribetribe ratheratherr thathann "Kurdishness""Kurdishness" bbyy itselfitself,, sincsincee ththee KurdKurdss aass a wholwholee werweree divideddivided bothboth religiouslreligiouslyy andand linguisticallylinguistically.. WhileWhile mosmostt KurdKurdss werweree Sunnis,Sunnis, mormoree specificallyspecifically ofof thethe

Shafi'iShafi'i madhhab (which(which isis mormoree conservativeconservative thathann ththee HanafHanafii madhhab ttoo whicwhichh mostmost

TurksTurks adhered),adhered), ththee KurdKurdss ofof DersimDersim werweree AlevisAlevis,, ththee KurdKurdss iinn IraIrann werweree largellargelyy Shi'i,Shi'i, andand manmanyy KurdKurdss inin ththee MosuMosull provincprovincee werweree YezidisYezidis.. TheThe KurdisKurdishh dialectsdialects ofof KurmancI,Kurmanci,

Sorani,, anandd ZazZazaa werweree mutuallymutually incomprehensible.incomprehensible. YeYett thertheree werweree frequenfrequentt powerpower strugglesstruggles betweebetweenn tribetribess ooff similarsimilar linguistilinguisticc anandd religioureligiouss backgroundsbackgrounds.. DuringDuring thethe

SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdUlhamidd IIII perioperiodd thethe ShikakShikak andand HayderanHayderanhh tribetribess ofof IraIrann neveneverr managemanagedd toto mobilizmobilizee sufficientsufficient powepowerr ttoo maintaimaintainn aann edgeedge oonn theitheirr competitors.competitors. WithiWithinn ththee ShikakShikak tribaltribal confederacconfederacyy alonealone thertheree werweree sevenseven majomajorr tribetribess anandd numerousnumerous subtribessubtribes whichwhich regularlregularlyy soughtsought ttoo dominatedominate eaceachh other,other, althoughalthough thetheyy woulwouldd comecome togethetogetherr ttoo competecompete witwithh rivalrival groups.groups. McCarthyMcCarthy mentionsmentions thathatt ththee "paramount"paramount chief'chief ofof ththee ShikaksShikaks waswas

53 mosmostt likellikelyy a weaweakk leaderleader overall. 53

5511 LibaridianLibaridian,, 7575.. 52 52 Louise Nalbandian, The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Louise Nalbandian, The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of Armenian Political Parties through the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), 91. California Press, 1963), 91. 53 See McCarthy, 50. 53 See McCarthy, 50. 3232

ThThee Tanzimat anandd KurdisKurdishh SocietySociety

ThThee tanzimat werweree a serieseriess ooff reformrefonnss undertakeundertakenn bbyy ththee OttomanOttoman administrationadministration

fromfrom 18391839 ttoo 1876,1876, aimedaimed aatt centralizincentralizingg control,control, industrializinindustrializingg ththee economy,economy, andand

fonningforming aann officiaofficiall militarymilitary.. OttomanOttoman defeadefeatt bbyy ththee RussiansRussians duringduring ththee latelate eighteentheighteenth

anandd earlearlyy nineteentnineteenthh centuriecenturiess andand 'Egypt'ss secessiosecessionn fromfrom ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire underunder

MuhammaMuhammadd Ali—whicAli-whichh culminateculminatedd inin Egypt'Egypt'ss invasioinvasionn ofof SyriaSyria inin ththee 1830s1830s -gave—gave

mormoree liberal-mindeliberal-mindedd administratoradministratorss ththee uppeupperr hanhandd inin promotinpromotingg suchsuch reformsrefonns.. SultanSultan

MahmuMahmudd IIII commencecommencedd ththee perioperiodd ooff ththee tanzimat iinn 18391839 witwithh ththee declarationdeclaration ofof thethe

Hatt-Hatt-li Serif$erif ofof GiilhaneGulhane (The(The NoblNoblee EdictEdict ofof ththee RoseRose Chamber).Chamber). ThThee edicedictt "abolished""abolished"

tax-farmingtax-fanning,, reorganizereorganizedd ththee financfinancee systemsystem,, anandd civicivill andand criminalcriminal codescodes,, basebasedd oonn thethe

FrenchFrench modelmodel,, anandd reorganizereorganizedd ththee militarymilitary,, regularizinregularizingg itsits methomethodd ofof recruitmenrecruitmentt andand

fixinfixingg ththee duratiodurationn ooff serviceservice.. NoNott allall ooff ththee reformsrefonns,, howeverhowever,, werewere actuallyactually puputt intointo

practicepractice..

DurinDuringg ththee 1840s1840s manmanyy ooff ththee powerfupowerfull KurdisKurdishh beys werweree upseupsett aatt ththee tanzimattanzimat

reformrefonnss oonn ththee groungroundd thathatt iitt upseupsett ththee "traditional"traditional"" arrangementarrangementss betweebetweenn ththee themselvesthemselves

andand ththee state.state. BeforeBefore ththee reformsrefonns,, manmanyy KurdisKurdishh tribetribess hahadd beebeenn exempteexemptedd frofromm payingpaying

taxetaxess iinn exchangeexchange foforr keepinkeepingg ththee peacpeacee anandd nonott interferinginterfering inin ththee tradetrade routeroutess betweenbetween

ththee commerciacommerciall centerscenters ofof eastereasternn AnatolianAnatolian.. ThThee predominantlpredominantlyy tribatriball structurstructuree inin

KurdisKurdishh societysociety wawass ononee ooff twtwoo institutioninstitutionss througthroughh whicwhichh KurdisKurdishh individualsindividuals couldcould

achievachievee powerpower,, statusstatus,, anandd wealthwealth.. Beys anandd agas werweree ththee predominanpredominantt land-holders,land-holders,

tax-collectorstax-collectors,, anandd commandercommanderss ooff ththee KurdisKurdishh militarmilitaryy forceforce.. AAss ththee villagvillagee elder,elder, thethe

aga'saga's influencinfluencee dididd nonott usuallusuallyy extendextend beyonbeyondd hihiss tribtribee andand villagevillage.. ThThee , oonn ththee otherother handhand,, tendetendedd ttoo owownn mucmuchh largerlarger amountamountss ooff lanlandd anandd hahadd strongerstronger tietiess witwithh a networknetwork ofof 3333

agas andand tribes. 5454 WhileWhile thethe beys hahadd beebeenn grantegrantedd a functionallyfunctionally autonomouautonomouss statusstatus byby ththee OttomaOttomann statstatee betweebetweenn ththee sixteentsixteenthh andand ththee latlatee eighteentheighteenth centuries,centuries, thetheyy wouldwould

55 oftenoften forgforgee alliancealliancess witwithh kekeyy statestate officialsofficials againstagainst rivarivall KurdisKurdishh beys.beys. 55

AAss a resulresultt ooff ththee reformsreforms,, eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa graduallygradually becambecamee incorporateincorporatedd intointo ththee tax-collectiotax-collectionn systemsystem ooff ththee OttomaOttomann statestate.. LocalLocalss complainecomplainedd ooff ththee irregularitirregularityy ofof ititss tataxx collectingcollecting methodsmethods;; thuthuss BedBedrr KhanKhan,, a prominenprominentt KurdisKurdishh bey whwhoo commandedcommanded ththee allegiancallegiancee ofof severaseverall largelarge tribetribess throughouthroughoutt ththee BohtaBohtann (th(thee areareaa inin betweebetweenn modern-modern- dadayy SiirtSiirt andand CizreCizre)) anandd HakkarHakkarii regionsregions,, wrotwrotee iinn a letteletterr ttoo OttomanOttoman administrators:administrators:

"The"The KurdsKurds'' fundamentalfundamental complaintcomplaintss areare nonott thathatt taxetaxess areare burdensomeburdensome;; ratherrather,, iitt iiss thatthat taxetaxess araree nonott fixefixedd andand araree subjectsubject ttoo ththee whimwhimss ooff tax-collectortax-collectorss andand officialsofficials.. ItIt isis appropriatappropriatee thathatt ththee taxestaxes bbee levieleviedd equallequallyy anandd bbee extracteextractedd accordingaccording ttoo ththee amountamount ofof one'one'ss propertyproperty anandd possessions.possessions."" HeHe furtherfurther complainscomplains thathatt ththee locallocal KurdisKurdishh beys werewere beinbeingg replacereplacedd bbyy officiaofficiall administratoradministratorss aass tataxx collectorscollectors.. "The"The tastaskk ooff tataxx collectiocollectionn hashas beebeenn givegivenn ttoo ththee mutesellims [state[state appointeappointedd regionaregionall officialofficialss iinn chargecharge ooff tax-tax- collection]collection].. TheTheyy ddoo nonott gegett thingthingss dondonee equally,equally, [[even even]] ttoo ththee poinpointt ooff forcingforcing ththee peoplepeople ttoo rebellion.rebellion." ,,5656

54 SeeSee VaVann BruinessenBruinessen,, Agha, Sheikh, and State, 81.81. TheThe KurdisKurdishh aga iiss simplsimplyy a leaderleader ooff hihiss villagevillage anandd peoplpeoplee anandd isis ofteoftenn poopoorr andand landlesslandless.. ThThee beys tendedtended toto functionfunction asas ththee landholderlandholder,, whwhoo derivederivedd hihiss powepowerr frofromm hihiss networknetworkss andand tietiess witwithh ththee businesbusinesss andand militarmilitaryy classes.classes. 5555 HakaHakann Ozoglu,Ozoglu, Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities,Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries (Albany(Albany:: StatStatce UniversitUniversityy ofof NeNeww YorkYork PressPress,, 2004)2004),, 53-59.53-59. 5566 MMyy translatiotranslationn frofromm ththee TurkishTurkish.. NazmNazmii Sevgen,Sevgen, Dogu ve GuneydoguGiineydogu AnadoluDdaAnadoluUda Turk Beylikleri: OsmanlzOsmanli Belgeleri ileHe Kurt-Turkleri Tarihi [Turk[Turk Beyliks iinn EasterEasternn andand SoutheasternSoutheastern AnatoliaAnatolia:: OttomaOttomann DocumentDocumentss andand Kurdish-TurkisKurdish-Turkishh HistoryHistory]] (Ankara(Ankara:: TUrkTurk KulturuniKiiltiirunui ArastirmAra~tlrmaa EnstitiisuEnstitUsu,, 1982),1982), 6363.. 3434

BedBedrr KhanKhan

ItIt isis widelwidelyy believebelievedd thathatt thethe ascentascent ofof ththee KurdisKurdishh bey BedBedrr KhaKhann toto powerpower iinn thethe

1830s1830s standsstands aass aann instancinstancee ooff KurdisKurdishh nationanationall cohesiocohesionn aimedaimed atat formingforming anan independentlindependentlyy rulinrulingg KurdisKurdishh state.state. FoForr manmanyy DashnaDashnakk partpartyy membermemberss ththee perioperiodd BedrBedr

Khan'Khan'ss rulrulee wawass anan ideaideall timtimee ooff peacpeacee anandd prosperitprosperityy betweebetweenn KurdKurdss anandd Armenians.Armenians.

BedBedrr KhanKhan,, itit iiss believedbelieved,, helheldd "politica"politicall independencindependencee asas ththee higheshighestt prioritypriority"" andand

"considered"considered ArmenianArmenianss anandd KurdKurdss oonn equalequal terms."terms.,,5757 Shahbazian,Shahbazian, a membememberr ofof thethe

DashnaDashnakk partpartyy andand aann ArmeniaArmeniann sociologissociologistt ofof ththee earlyearly twentiettwentiethh century,century, assertsasserts thatthat

BedBedrr KhaKhann hahadd closeclose relationrelationss witwithh ththee ArmenianArmenianss ooff hihiss beylik (th(thee domaindomain ooff ththee bey)bey)

CO and to have "arranged" marriages between Kurds and Armenians. 58 and to have "arranged" marriages between Kurds and Armenians. Dr. Lepsius, a German explorer of eastern Anatolia during the late nineteenth Dr. Lepsius, a German explorer of eastern Anatolia during the late nineteenth century, wrote the following in an article entitled "Kurds-Armenians" in a journal entitled century, wrote the following in an article entitled "Kurds-Armenians" in a journal entitled The Christian East: The Christian East: UntiUntill 18481848 ththee relationrelationss betweebetweenn ththee KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianArmenianss werewere becomingbecoming increasinglincreasinglyy friendly.friendly. ThereThere werweree manmanyy marriagemarriagess betweenbetween ArmenianArmenianss andand KurdsKurds.. IInn thesthesee situationssituations ththee marriagmarriagee wawass conducteconductedd byby ththee ArmenianArmenian priespriestt inin ththee ArmeniaArmeniann churcchurchh anandd ththee KurdKurdss acteactedd witwithh respecrespectt towardtowardss ththee ArmenianArmenian clergymeclergymenn anandd ththee monkmonkss anandd prayeprayedd iinn churches. 5959

PerhapPerhapss inin anan efforteffort toto appeasappeasee BedrBedr KhanKhan,, ththee OttomanOttoman governmentgovernment appointedappointed hihimm commandecommanderr ofaof a brigadbrigadee sensentt againstagainst IbrahimIbrahim PashPashaa ofof EgypEgyptt inin 1839.1839. RatheRatherr thanthan meeklmeeklyy carryincarryingg ououtt OttomaOttomann orders,orders, howeverhowever,, BedBedrr KhaKhann useusedd hihiss positiopositionn ttoo gaigainn moremore powepowerr overover botbothh ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess iinn thethe regioregionn anandd ththee OttomaOttomann landslands.. HiHiss independentindependent actionactionss werweree deemedeemedd insubordinatinsubordinatee bbyy ththee OttomanOttomanss anandd hhee wawass dismissedismissedd from hishis

57 HagoHagopp Shahbazian,Shahbazian, Krda-Hay Tarihi (Constantinople,(Constantinople, 1915),861915), 86 citedcited iinn Sasuni,Sasuni, 7171.. 58 CQ\\\,XIX.Celil, XIX. Yuzyzi,Yuzyil, 131.131. 59 DoctoDoctorr LepsiuLepsiuss citecitedd iinn Ibid.Ibid.,, 132.132. 3535 position.position. SubsequentlySubsequently hhee mademade appealsappeals toto ththee valis ofof bothboth ththee DiyarbakirDiyarbakir andand MosulMosul provincesprovinces requestingrequesting thatthat theythey annexannex ththee kaza ofof CizreCizre andand recognizerecognize himhim asas leader,leader, butbut hihiss appealsappeals werewere declined.declined.6o60

DisillusionedDisillusioned witwithh thethe OttomanOttoman state,state, BedrBedr KhaKhann turnedturned hishis attentionattention ttoo thethe beylikbeylik ofHakkariof Hakkari forfor support,support, hopinghoping toto uniteunite a forceforce ofof KurdsKurds andand NestorianNestorianss againstagainst thethe centracentrall government.government. NurullaNurullahh Bey,Bey, whowho hadhad usurpeusurpedd powepowerr fromfrom ththee formerformer bey ofof

Hakkari,Hakkari, alliedallied himselfhimself withwith BedrBedr KhanKhan.. AsAs NurullaNurullahh BeyBey hadhad thethe supportsupport ofof SayyidSayyid

Taha,Taha, thethe leadinleadingg SufiSufi ofof ththee holyholy citycity ofof $emdina~emdinann (southeast(southeast ofof Hakkari)Hakkari),, thethe alliancealliance waswas significant. 6161 OneOne ofof NurullaNurullahh Bey'Bey'ss maimainn concernsconcerns wawass thathatt thethe tanzimat wouldwould allowallow ththee NestoriaNestoriann ChristianChristian tribes,tribes, thethe majoritmajorityy ofof whomwhom dweltdwelt inin thethe HakkarHakkarii regionregion,, toto gaingain increasingincreasing power.power. AsAs suchsuch hhee badebade BedBedrr KhanKhan toto chastisechastise ththee MarMar Shimun,Shimun, thethe religiousreligious leaderleader ofof thethe NestoriansNestorians,, andand leadlead anan attackattack againstagainst thosethose NestoriaNestoriann groupsgroups whowho refusedrefused ttoo nonott allyally themselvesthemselves withwith thethe KurdishKurdish force.force. 62 ThoseThose NestorianNestorianss whowho backedbacked

MarMar ShimonShimon werewere killekilledd inin viciouviciouss attacksattacks throughouthroughoutt ththee southeasternsoutheastern region.region. TheThe BedrBedr

KhanKhan coalitiocoalitionn gainedgained strengthstrength duringduring ththee earlyearly 1840s1840s andand managemanagedd ttoo expandexpand itsits controlcontrol over parts ofMosul, Diyarbakir, and as far as the borders with Iran by 1845.6363 over parts of Mosul, Diyarbakir, and as far as the borders with Iran by 1845. In an attempt to counteract the spread of Bedr Khan's influence the Ottoman In an attempt to counteract the spread of Bedr Khan's influence the Ottoman authorities attempted to win over clans opposed to him by offering them positions in a authorities attempted to win over clans opposed to him by offering them positions in a newly created Kurdistan vilayet. In 1846 the grand vizier issued an ira de (imperial order) newly created Kurdistan vilayet. In 1846 the grand vizier issued an irade (imperial order) that a separate Kurdistan vilayet be created comprising the "Diyarbakir province and that a separate Kurdistan vilayet be created comprising the "Diyarbakir province and

6060 Sevgen,Sevgen, 67-70.67-70. 6611 Ibid.Ibid.,, 170.170. 6622 SarahSarah Shields,Shields, Mosul Before Iraq: Like Bees Making Five-Sided Cells (Albany,(Albany, NY:NY: StateState UniversitUniversityy ofof NeNeww YorkYork Press,Press, 2000)2000),, 5555.. 3636

VanVan,, MusMu~,, andand HakkariHakkari districtsdistricts andand ,Cizre, Botan,Botan, andand MardinMardin sub-districts."sub-districts." TheThe vilayetvilayet wawass furthennorefurthermore ttoo bbee grantedgranted "special"special statusstatus andand autonomyautonomy [idare-i mahsusa ve mustakilmustakil tahtmatahtina konulmasi\rkonulmasl]''' HoweverHowever,, thethe factfact thatthat inin thethe samesame irade ththee grandgrand vizievizierr alsoalso namednamed a strategistrategicc locatiolocationn (th(thee towtownn ofof AhlaAhlatt onon ththee weswestt sideside ofof LakeLake Van)Van) wherewhere ththee

"Kurds"Kurds cancan bettebetterr controlledcontrolled witwithh thethe ironiron fistfist [pence-i satvet],,64satvet]"64 revealsreveals thethe Ottomans'Ottomans' ulterioulteriorr motivemotivess inin suchsuch a movemove.. InIn fact,fact, ththee vilayet ofof KurdistanKurdistan diddid existexist fromfrom 18471847 ttoo

1867,1867, bubutt iitt wawass ruleruledd directlydirectly byby thethe PortePorte andand appearedappeared ttoo nonott bebe fullyfully mustakilmustakil

(autonomous)(autonomous) asas proposedproposed inin thethe irade. ByBy thethe mid-lmid-1860 860ss thethe PortePorte undertooundertookk significantsignificant changeschanges toto itsits bordersborders andand eventuallyeventually mergedmerged thethe vilayet ofof MamuretiilazizMamuretulaziz witwithh ththee

DiyarbakirDiyarbakir vilayet inin 18681868 andand diddid awayaway withwith ththee KurdistanKurdistan vilayet.vilayet.6565

ByBy 18471847 BedrBedr KhanKhan waswas forcedforced toto surrendersurrender andand wawass subsequentlysubsequently exiled.exiled. WhileWhile hihiss removaremovall markemarkedd thethe endend ofof ththee beyliks, ththee OttomansOttomans diddid notnot completelycompletely replacereplace ththee

Kurds'Kurds' controcontroll witwithh theitheirr own.own. InIn factfact ththee OttomanOttoman presencepresence inin easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa onlyonly limitedlimited ththee degreedegree toto whichwhich ththee KurdsKurds couldcould mobilizmobilizee througthroughh fonningforming tribaltribal confederaciesconfederacies and,and, KurdishKurdish feudalismfeudalism continuedcontinued toto bbee thethe dominantdominant factorfactor inin ththee remoteremote regionsregions.. ThatThat ththee KurdishKurdish tribetribess continuedcontinued ttoo controlcontrol mucmuchh ofof easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa isis evidenceevidence ofof ththee failurefailure ofof ththee LandLand RefonnReform ofof 18581858 endend ththee controlcontrol bbyy powerfupowerfull landlordslandlords andand transfetransferr landland ownershipownership toto thethe peasantpeasant occupiersoccupiers inin easterneastern Anatolia,Anatolia, wherwheree thethe clauseclause iinn thethe LandLand ReforRefonnm thathatt stipulatedstipulated thethe creationcreation ofof thethe tapu, titltitlee deedsdeeds givengiven forfor peasantpeasant proprietorsproprietors,, hadhad littlelittle effect.effect. TheThe peasantrypeasantry wawass unawareunaware ofof thethe changeschanges andand thethe tribestribes failedfailed ttoo complycomply witwithh thethe law.law. ZiyaZiya GokalpGokalp observedobserved ththee followingfollowing concerningconcerning easterneastern

6363 DavidDavid McDowall,McDowall, A Modern (New(New YorkYork:: 8t.St. Martin'sMartin's Press,Press, 1996),1996), 45-47;45-47; vanvan BruinessenBruinessen,, Agha, Shaikh, and State, 178-180.178-180. 64 .. 64 HakaHakann Ozoglu,Ozoglu, Kurdish Notables, 60-61.60-61. 3737

AnatoliaAnatolia:: "although"although formformss ofof zeamet liklikee sipahilik, yurtluk, ocaklik havhavee beebeenn formallyformally legalllegallyy abolishedabolished,, thetheyy araree iinn actualitactualityy andand iinn facfactt stillstill iinn existence.,,66existence."66

ThThee sheikh, ththee spiritualspiritual leaderleader,, fillefilledd ththee powepowerr vacuuvacuumm iinn KurdisKurdishh societysociety betweebetweenn 18481848 anandd 1876.1876. ThThee increaseincreasedd OttomaOttomann presencpresencee iinn easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa madmadee iitt difficuldifficultt foforr anyany ooff ththee beys ttoo emergeemerge anandd formform a powerfupowerfull tribatriball confederacyconfederacy liklikee ththee oneone underunder BedBedrr KhanKhan.. TribeTribess becambecamee increasinglincreasinglyy disuniteddisunited,, fightinfightingg eaceachh otheotherr forfor power.power.

OOnn ththee otheotherr handhand ththee sheikhs, ththee religioureligiouss leaderleaderss ooff thethe KurdKurdss werweree unaffecteunaffectedd bbyy thethe

Ottoman'Ottoman'ss centralizationcentralization campaigcampaignn anandd filledfilled ththee powepowerr vacuuvacuumm lefleftt bbyy thethe declinedecline ofof thethe beyliks. ThThee sheikhs werweree nonott dominandominantt iinn allall ofof easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia;; ratherrather,, theitheirr powepowerr waswas limitelimitedd ttoo mormoree isolateisolatedd regionsregions wherwheree thertheree werweree nnoo rivarivall religioureligiouss orders.orders. AccordinAccordingg toto

McDowall:McDowall:

ShaykhlyShaykhly dynastiedynastiess werweree mosmostt importanimportantt iinn areaareass wherwheree tribetribess werweree mostmost numerounumerouss anandd pronpronee ttoo feudsfeuds.. HerHeree thetheyy prospereprosperedd oonn conflictconflict resolutioresolutionn (and(and provocationprovocation)) thathatt madmadee theitheirr owownn mediatiomediationn skillskillss indispensable.indispensable. TheTheyy werweree lessless influentiainfluentiall iinn thosthosee areasareas eitheeitherr wherwheree thertheree werweree stilstilll stronstrongg tribestribes,, foforr exampleexample ththee JafJaf,, oorr wherewhere ththee areareaa wawass basicallbasicallyy non-tribalnon-tribal,, foforr examplexamplee ththee landlandss aroundaround DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, andand wherwheree consequentlconsequentlyy tribatriball conflictsconflicts requirinrequiringg mediatiomediationn eithereither diddid notnot,, oorr seldom,seldom, occurred.occurred. 67

ThThee sheikhs werweree especiallespeciallyy powerfupowerfull iinn ththee regionregion ooff Hakkari.Hakkari. §emdinan~emdinan,, nestlednestled iinn ththee mountainmountainss southeassoutheastt ofof HakkarHakkarii neanearr ththee bordeborderr ooff IranIran,, servedserved foforr centuriescenturies asas thethe religioureligiouss centecenterr foforr KurdisKurdishh followerfollowerss ofof ththee NaqshbandNaqshbandii orderorder.. TheThe holholyy familiesfamilies dwellindwellingg thertheree claimedclaimed descentdescent from ththee propheprophett MuhammaMuhammadd anandd commandedcommanded thethe allegiancallegiancee ooff tribetribess throughouthroughoutt ththee southeastsoutheast,, eveevenn thosthosee whwhoo werweree aatodds.t odds. SevgenSevgen

65 Ibid.Ibid.,, 6262.. 6666 NuNurr YalmanYalman,, "O"Onn LandLand DisputesDisputes inin EasternEastern Turkey,Turkey,"" iinn Islam and its CulturalCultural Divergence: Studies in Honor ofo/Gustave Gustave E. von Grunebaum, ed.ed. GirdhariGirdhari LL.. TikkuTikku (Chicago:(Chicago: UniversitUniversityy ooff ChicagoChicago PressPress,, 1971:1971: 180-218),180-218), 187187.. 6767 McDowallMcDowall,, 5252.. 3388 portrayportrayss $emdina$emdinann aass a centecenterr foforr corruptiocorruptionn wherwheree ththee sheikhssheikhs dweldweltt iinn luxurluxuryy iinn ththee midsmidstt ooff ththee abjecabjectt povertpovertyy ooff theitheirr KurdisKurdishh disciplesdisciples.. "Thei"Theirr bedroombedroomss werweree coverecoveredd witwithh fulfulll lengtlengthh mirrorsmirrors,, anandd furnishefurnishedd witwithh rugrugss ttoo ththee walls.walls.,,68" AlthougAlthoughh ththee OttomanOttoman administratioadministrationn maintainemaintainedd a presencpresencee iinn §emdinan$emdinan,, ththee officialofficialss assigneassignedd ttoo HakkarHakkarii anandd

$emdina$emdinann hahadd littllittlee recognitiorecognitionn frofromm ththee localslocals.. MoreoveMoreoverr manmanyy ooff thethemm werweree venavenall anandd accepteacceptedd bribesbribes.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo SevgeSevgenn ththee religioureligiouss leaderleaderss woulwouldd preparpreparee daildailyy mealmealss forfor ththee kaimmakam anandd otheotherr leadinleadingg officials.6969 HakkarHakkarii becambecamee ththee centecenterr ooff KurdishKurdish resistancresistancee durinduringg ththee 18701870ss anandd 18801880ss undeunderr ththee leadershileadershipp ooff ShaykShaykhh 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh asas wilwilll bbee discussediscussedd iinn ththee followinfollowingg chapter.chapter.

FollowinFollowingg BedBedrr Khan'Khan'ss depositiodepositionn iinn 18471847,, militarmilitaryy securitsecurityy poseposedd a probleproblemm forfor eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia.. AAss ththee OttomaOttomann forceforcess coulcouldd nonott afforaffordd ttoo maintaimaintainn conscripconscriptt regimentsregiments throughouthroughoutt thethe rurarurall partsparts oofthef the regioregionn toto patropatroll ththee villagesvillages,, ensurensuree taxtax collection,collection, andand recruirecruitt soldiers;soldiers; theythey becambecamee increasinglincreasinglyy relianreliantt forfor securitsecurityy onon basibozuksba~lbozuks (irregular(irregular forces).forces). ThroughouThroughoutt thethe nineteentnineteenthh centurycentury ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire soughsoughtt ttoo taktakee measuresmeasures ttoo modernizmodernizee ititss militarymili tary.. ItIt dissolvedis sol vedd ththee JanissarJanissaryy corpcorpss iinn 18261826 anandd soughtsought toto implemenimplementt a systemsystem ooff conscriptionconscription modelemodeledd alonalongg EuropeaEuropeann lines.lines. WhilWhilee ththee OttomansOttomans maymay indeedindeed havhavee preferredpreferred toto useuse ba~lbozuksbasibozuks asas a meansmeans ofof minimizingminimizing ththee potentiapotentiall ofof thethe militarymilitary toto seizeseize controlcontrol fromfrom thethe state,state, thethe systemsystem inin easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia waswas highlyhighly ineffective.ineffective. UnlikeUnlike locallocal militiamenmilitiamen andand regularregular militarymilitary regiments,regiments, ba~lbozuksbasibozuks couldcould clearclear thethe battlefieldbattlefield withwith hardlyhardly anyany repercussionsrepercussions.. TheThe weaponsweapons thatthat thethe OttomansOttomans distributeddistributed amongamong thethe KurdishKurdish ba~lbozuksbasibozuks wentwent unaccountedunaccounted forfor andand servedserved asas a meansmeans forfor KurdsKurds toto undertakundertakee feudsfeuds andand vendettasvendettas againstagainst theirtheir rivals.rivals. ChristiansChristians alsoalso sufferedsuffered

6868 MyMy translationtranslation fromfrom thethe Turkish.Turkish. Sevgen,Sevgen, 170.170. 3939 severelyseverely asas a resulresultt ooff raidraidss bbyy unrulyunruly nomadinomadicc KurdisKurdishh brigandbrigand groupsgroups,, manmanyy ooff whomwhom werweree looselyloosely connecteconnectedd ttoo thethe OttomanOttoman militarmilitaryy aass basibozuks.ba~lbozuks. OnOnee observeobserverr saidsaid thethe followinfollowingg ooff ththee basibozuks:ba~lbozuks: "they"they are.are .... .restless restless,, turbulentturbulent,, anandd impatientimpatient ooff discipline;discipline; and,and, likelike ththee membermemberss ooff thathatt fallenfallen corps,corps, araree a babadd specimenspecimen ooff ththee soldiesoldierr anandd thethe citizen."ci tizen." 7070

WhilWhilee thethe OttomanOttomanss couldcould easilyeasily employemploy KurdKurdss aass irregulars,irregulars, iitt wawass difficultdifficult toto maintaimaintainn theitheirr allegianceallegiance.. BByy andand larglargee ththee KurdisKurdishh basibozuksba~lbozuks paipaidd mormoree allegiancallegiancee toto theitheirr owownn individuaindividuall tribetribess thathann ttoo ththee OttomaOttomann statestate.. AccompanyinAccompanyingg a grougroupp ofof KurdishKurdish basibozuksba~lbozuks headedheaded bbyy a FrencFrenchh captain,captain, NoeNoe,, oonn routroutee ttoo BulgariBulgariaa iinn 18541854 wawass a femalefemale religioureligiouss leaderleader (sheikha) whomwhom NoNoee reportereportedd ttoo bbee iinn heherr seventiesseventies.. AAss sheshe enjoyedenjoyed particularparticular religioureligiouss prestigprestigee amongamong ththee KurdsKurds,, ththee OttomanOttoman anandd FrencFrenchh leaderleaderss ofof thethe regimenregimentt foundfound themselvethemselvess needinneedingg toto wiwinn heherr respectrespect iinn orderorder ttoo bbee ableable ttoo commancommandd thethe otheotherr Kurds.Kurds. AAtt oneone poinpointt inin ththee journejourneyy ththee KurdisKurdishh shaikha becambecamee upseupsett oveoverr a

FrencFrenchh officer,officer, CapitaineCapitaine ddee Serionne,Serionne, drawindrawingg a sketchsketch ooff herher,, andand abandoneabandonedd thethe regiment with her Kurdish followers in following weeks. 77l1 regiment with her Kurdish followers in following weeks.

ThThee Tanzimat andand ArmeniaArmeniann SocietySociety

AAss farfar asas ththee ArmeniaArmeniann millet wawass concerned,concerned, ththee tanzimat reformrefonnss hahadd thethe unintendeunintendedd consequenceconsequence ofof weakeninweakeningg ththee traditionaltraditional powepowerr structurestructure amongamong thethe

Armenians,Armenians, whicwhichh hadhad beebeenn cruciacruciall inin keepinkeepingg ththee ArmeniaArmeniann subjectsubjectss iinn lineline witwithh thethe

69 Ibid. 70 RicharRichardd MaddenMadden,, Turkish Empire: Its Relations with and CivilizationCivilization (London:(London: T.CT.C.. NewbyNewby,, 1862),1862), 1:1: 500-501.500-501. 71 71 LouisLouis RoberRobertt JeaJeann NoeNoe,, Souvenirs d'Afrique et d'Orient: Les Bachi-Bozouks et les Chasseurs d'Afrique: La Cavalerie Reguliere en Campagne (Paris(Paris:: M.M. LevyLevy FreresFreres,, 1861),37.1861), 37. 4400

OttomaOttomann statestate.. ThiThiss openeopenedd uupp politicapoliticall spacspacee foforr otheotherr segmentsegmentss ooff ththee ArmenianArmenian populationpopulation,, especiallespeciallyy thosthosee whwhoo werweree nonott tietiedd ttoo ththee clergclergyy oorr ththee amira classclass,, ttoo emergeemerge anandd arousarousee ththee consciousnesconsciousnesss ooff ththee ArmenianArmenianss throughouthroughoutt ththee empirempiree ooff ththee injusticesinjustices whicwhichh thetheyy sufferedsuffered.. IInn 18518566 ththee OttomanOttomanss undertooundertookk anotheanotherr serieseriess ooff reformreformss issuingissuing ththee Hatt-Hatt-li HumayuHiimayunn (Imperia(Imperiall RescriptRescript)) whicwhichh abolisheabolishedd ththee cizye tataxx oonn non-Muslimsnon-Muslims anandd alloweallowedd thethemm ttoo servservee iinn ththee militarymilitary.. ThiThiss parpartt ooff ththee tanzimat reformsreforms,, whicwhichh camecame abouaboutt largellargelyy aass a resulresultt ooff pressurpressuree frofromm BritaiBritainn anandd FrancFrancee ttoo liberalizliberalizee policiepoliciess relatedrelated ttoo non-Muslimnon-Muslimss iinn exchangexchangee foforr theitheirr helhelpp iinn ththee CrimeaCrimeann WarWar,, leledd towardtowardss thethe reformatioreformationn ooff ththee millets anandd ooff ththee traditionatraditionall ArmeniaArmeniann powepowerr structure.structure.

TraditionallyTraditionally,, aass hahass beebeenn mentionedmentioned,, ththee OttomaOttomann statstatee administereadministeredd ththee non­non-

MusliMuslimm groupgroupss througthroughh ththee millet systesystemm whicwhichh alloweallowedd ththee milletbasismilletba:jls (hea(headd ooff thethe millet) ttoo administeradminister theitheirr owownn millets injudiciain judiciall andand religioureligiouss affairs.affairs. TheThe heaheadd ofof thethe

ArmeniaAnneniann millet wawass ththee PatriarcPatriarchh ofof ththee GregoriaGregoriann ArmeniaArmeniann churcchurchh whwhoo wawass appointedappointed bbyy botbothh thethe SultanSultan andand ththee ArmeniaArmeniann amira clasclasss (nobility)(nobility) andand waswas givegivenn nearlynearly uncheckeuncheckedd authorityauthority overover ththee Armenians.Armenians. WhilWhilee KurdisKurdishh religioureligiouss figuresfigures werweree fillingfilling ththee politicapoliticall vacuuvacuumm thathatt ththee OttomanOttomanss hahadd createcreatedd sincsincee thethe endingending ooff thethe powepowerr ooff thethe beys, thethe ArmenianArmenian patriarchate'spatriarchate's powerpower overover thethe ArmenianArmenian peoplepeople waswas becomingbecoming increasinglyincreasingly limited.limited. InIn thethe firstfirst placeplace EuropeanEuropean missionarymissionary infiltrationinfiltration intointo thethe OttomanOttoman

EmpireEmpire hadhad ledled toto thethe conversionconversion ofof numbersnumbers ofof ArmeniansArmenians ttoo ProtestantismProtestantism andand

CatholicismCatholicism whowho werewere subjectsubject toto persecutionpersecution byby thethe GregorianGregorian ArmenianArmenian OrthodoxOrthodox clergy.clergy. AtAt thethe behestbehest ofof thethe BritishBritish AmbassadorAmbassador thethe OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire createdcreated separateseparate millets forfor thethe AnnenianArmenian ProtestantsProtestants inin 18471847 andand thethe ArmenianArmenian CatholicsCatholics inin 1850,1850, cnsuringensuring themthem protectionprotection from thethe hostilityhostility ofof OrthodoxOrthodox ArmeniansArmenians andand placingplacing themthem 4141

72 outsideoutside thethe jurisdictiojurisdictionn ooff ththee GregoriaGregoriann OrthodoxOrthodox millet. 72 InIn additioadditionn groupgroupss ofof

ArmenianArmenianss botbothh insideinside anandd outsideoutside ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire begabegann toto puputt forwardforward philosophiephilosophiess thathatt advocateadvocatedd ththee redistributioredistributionn ooff powepowerr inin ththee ArmeniaArmeniann millet. InspiredInspired bbyy ththee bloodlesbloodlesss revolutiorevolutionn ooff 18481848 iinn FranceFrance,, a grougroupp ooff ArmeniaArmeniann intellectualintellectualss inin Paris,Paris, knowknownn aass ththee YoungYoung ArmeniansArmenians,, puputt forwarforwardd ththee notionotionn ooff aann ArmeniaArmeniann nationationn andand advocatedadvocated ththee creationcreation ooff schoolschool curriculcurriculaa thathatt promotepromotedd ththee ArmeniaArmeniann languaglanguagee andand sought to instill the Armenians with a sense of their own ethnic identity.7373 With the sought to instill the Armenians with a sense of their own ethnic identity. With the division between the Armenian Orthodox clergy and the Protestant and Catholic division between the Armenian Orthodox clergy and the Protestant and Catholic Armenians, the ideas put forward by the Young Armenians served as a means of Armenians, the ideas put forward by the Young Armenians served as a means of cohesion between the conflicting groups within the Armenian millet. What had begun as cohesion between the conflicting groups within the Armenian millet. What had begun as a literary and linguistic movement under the auspices of the Young Armenians, the a literary and linguistic movement under the auspices of the Young Armenians, the Araratean Enkerut'iwn (Ararat Society), eventually grew to encompass political and Araratean Enkerut'iwn (Ararat Society), eventually grew to encompass political and social matters. During the 1850s and 1860s the Armenian community, which had fallen social matters. During the 1850s and 1860s the Armenian community, which had fallen into considerable social disorder on account of its fragmentation into three separate into considerable social disorder on account of its fragmentation into three separate millets, felt the impact of liberal ideas of the Young Annenians. By 1863, a group of millets, felt the impact of liberal ideas of the Young Armenians. By 1863, a group of enlightened liberal Armenians introduced an Armenian Constitution, which redistributed enlightened liberal Armenians introduced an Armenian Constitution, which redistributed the power within the Armenian millet, allowing middle-class Armenians to have a role in the power within the Armenian millet, allowing middle-class Armenians to have a role in the election of the patriarch and legislative assembly. The constitution expanded the the election of the patriarch and legislative assembly. The constitution expanded the accountability to which the patriarch was held, and elements of Armenian society, other accountability to which the patriarch was held, and elements of Armenian society, other

72 HagopHagop BarsoumianBarsoumian,, "The"The EasternEastern QuestionQuestion andand ththee TanzimaTanzimatt Era"Era" inin TheThe ArmenianArmenian PeoplePeople fromfrom AncienAncientt ttoo ModerModemn Times,Times, volvol.. 2 (New(New YorkYork:: St.St. Martin'Martin'ss PressPress,, 1997:1997: 175175-- 201)201),182-185., 182-185. AlsAlsoo seesee KarpaKarp att (1982),(1982), 164.164. 73 73 VartaVartann ArtinianArtinian,, The Armenian Constitutional System in the Ottoman Empire: A StudyStudy of Its Historical Development (Istanbul:(Istanbul: 1988),1988), 64-6564-65.. 4422 thathann ththee nobilitnobilityy andand thethe clergy,clergy, werweree nonoww ableable ttoo plaplayay a rolrolee iinn politics.7474

ThougThoughh ththee OttomanOttoman statestate clearlyclearly intendeintendedd ththee millet groupsgroups ttoo havhavee greatergreater representatiorepresentationn iinn ththee administratioadministrationn througthroughh administrativadministrativee assemblies,assemblies, thuthuss supplantingsupplanting ththee absolutabsolutee controlcontrol ofof ththee patriarcpatriarchh oorr otheotherr religioureligiouss authorityauthority,, iitt wawass hopehopedd thatthat allowingallowing greatergreater freedomfreedomss woulwouldd ultimatelultimatelyy stemstem resistancresistancee oorr separatistseparatist movements.movements. InIn fact,fact, ththee reformrefonnss dididd nonott achieveachieve ththee initiainitiall idealideal ooff creatingcreating anan 'Ottoman''Ottoman' identityidentity toto replacreplacee ththee formefonnerr millet identityidentity.. HorizontalHorizontal alignmentalignment basebasedd oonn clasclasss couldcould nonott verticalvertical alignmentsalignments basebasedd onon ethnicethnic anandd religioureligiouss identification.identification.

UntiUntill 1860,1860, ththee ArmeniaAnneniann patriarcpatriarchh inin IstanbuIstanbull hahadd nearlnearlyy absolutabsolutee authoritauthorityy overover

GregorianGregorian ArmeniaAnneniann religioureligiouss andand socialsocial affairs.affairs. GranteGrantedd ththee rightrightss ooff tataxx collectiocollectionn (a(a functionfunction ttoo whicwhichh hhee appointedappointed manmanyy ooff ththee upper-clasupper-classs amira families),families), propertyproperty administration,administration, controcontroll oveoverr religioureligiouss andand secularsecular education,education, controlcontrol overover thethe tribunalstribunals andand courtscourts,, andand ththee righrightt toto censorcensor publicationpublicationss iinn ArmenianAnnenian,, hhee wawass thethe maimainn linklink betweenbetween ththee millet andand ththee OttomanOttoman administration.administration. AAss hhee alsoalso maintainemaintainedd ththee righrightt toto exileexile anandd ttoo executeexecute ArmenianAnnenianss insubordinatinsubordinatee ttoo hihiss rulerule,, hhee wawass widelywidely fearedfeared iinn thethe

ArmeniaAnneniann community.community.7575 HoweverHowever,, upouponn millet reforrefonnm ththee patriarch'patriarch'ss powepowerr oveoverr thethe

ArmeniaAnneniann millet becambecamee severelyseverely limitedlimited,, iinn botbothh temporatemporall andand religioureligiouss affairs,affairs, althoughalthough herheree hihiss powepowerr wawass maintainemaintainedd ttoo somesome degreedegree.. HHee waswas ableable ttoo continucontinuee ttoo enforcenforcee thethe rulrulee thathatt ArmenianAnnenianss whwhoo dididd nonott fasfastt durinduringg ththee weeweekk beforbeforee EasteEasterr receivreceivee twenty-fivetwenty-five

7676 lashes.

74 Ibid. 75 HagoHagopp BarsoumianBarsoumian,, "The"The EasterEasternn QuestioQuestionn anandd ththee TanzimatTanzimat EraEra"" inin The ArmenianArmenian People fromfrom Ancient to Modern Times, volvol.. 22,, eded.. RicharRichardd HovannisiaHovannisiann (New(New YorkYork:: 8t.St. Marten'sMarten's PressPress,, 1997:1997: 175-201),185.175-201), 185. 76 76 Masis, 2020 MarcMarchh 1893,1893, #3983#3983,, 163163 citecitedd inin Artinian,Artinian, 52.52. 4343

TheThe restructurinrestructuringg ofof powerpower throughthrough thethe millet reformrefonnss wawass alsoalso coupledcoupled withwith resettlementresettlement measuresmeasures inin thethe EasternEastern provinces.provinces. WhileWhile thethe OttomanOttoman state,state, followingfollowing thethe

CrimeanCrimean WaWarr ofof 1853,1853, eventuallyeventually camecame toto ththee realizationrealization thathatt itsits aimaim ttoo maintainmaintain controlcontrol overover thethe BalkansBalkans woulwouldd bbee untenabluntenablee inin ththee longlong run,run, itit soughtsought toto strengthenstrengthen itsits positionposition inin eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia.. TheThe easterneastern AnatoliaAnatoliann projecprojectt aimedaimed toto placplacee allall AnneniansArmenians underunder thethe controlcontrol ofof ththee administrativeadministrative councilcouncil andand dissolvedissolve thethe dissentingdissenting powepowerr blocs.blocs. ZeitounZeitoun waswas ononee particulaparticularr areaarea inin whichwhich AnneniansArmenians enjoyedenjoyed relativrelativee autonomy,autonomy, andand suspicionssuspicions ofof revolutionaryrevolutionary activityactivity spurredspurred ththee OttomansOttomans ttoo undertakundertakee a resettlementresettlement campaigncampaign underunder whicwhichh landland inin nearbnearbyy villagevillagess waswas givengiven toto CircassiansCircassians andand TurksTurks inin anan efforteffort toto weakenweaken potentiapotentiall resistanceresistance.. TheThe continuingcontinuing activityactivity ofof Annenians,Armenians, ththee amassingamassing ofof weapons,weapons, taxtax evasion,evasion, anandd minorminor disputesdisputes witwithh non-Armenianon-Anneniann localslocals duringduring ththee earlyearly 1860s,1860s, gavegave thethe thenthen governorgovernor ofof nearbynearby Marash,Marash, AziAzizz PashaPasha,, ththee pretexpretextt ttoo interveneintervene withwith hishis anny,army, lootloot andand pillagpillagee ArmeniaAnneniann lands,lands, andand establishestablish a militarymilitary basebase ttoo keepkeep thethe areaarea underunder statestate

77 control. 77 control. By the 1870s, the fonnerly "uncaring" wealthy Armenian business class in the By the 1870s, the fonnerly "uncaring" wealthy Armenian business class in the urban areas of Western Turkey was becoming increasingly aware of the situation of the urban areas of Western Turkey was becoming increasingly aware of the situation of the Annenian peasants in eastern Anatolia. Increased ethnic awareness among Armenians Armenian peasants in eastern Anatolia. Increased ethnic awareness among Armenians was largely due to the efforts of , a clergyman and activist from Van was largely due to the efforts of Mkrtich Khrimian, a clergyman and activist from Van who sought to disseminate infonnation about the plight of the eastern Anatolia who sought to disseminate information about the plight of the eastern Anatolia

77 ChristopherChristopher J.J. Walker,Walker, Armenia: The Survival of a Nation (New(New YorkYork:: st.St. Martin'sMartin's Press,Press, 1990),1990), 100-102.100-102. AzizAziz 'sPasha's engagementengagement inin morallymorally reprehensiblereprehensible militarymilitary tactictacticss ofof burninburningg househousess andand rapingraping womenwomen spurredspurred thethe OttomanOttoman statestate toto dismissdismiss him.him. ThThee ZeitounZeitoun inhabitantsinhabitants andand clergyclergy sentsent a delegationdelegation toto bothboth IstanbulIstanbul andand ParisParis toto appealappeal forfor intervention.intervention. UltimatelUltimatelyy thethe TurkishTurkish militarymilitary blockadblockadee ofof ZeitounZeitoun wawass liftedlifted inin exchangeexchange forfor ththee establishmentestablishment ofof a militarymilitary base.base. AlsoAlso seesee BarsoumianBarsoumian,, "The"The EasternEastern Question,"Question," 200-201.200-201. 4444

ArmenianArmenianss amongamong ththee ArmeniaArmeniann elite.elite. ThroughThrough ththee Artsvi (The(The EaglEaglee ofof

Vaspurakan)Vaspurakan) newspapenewspaperr iinn 18551855 andand latelaterr ththee Artzvik Tarono (The(The EagletEaglet ooff TaronTaron)) inin

1862,1862, hhee wawass influentialinfluential inin drawindrawingg attentionattention ttoo ththee treatmentreatmentt ooff ArmenianArmenianss iinn thethe

OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire.. IncreasingIncreasing socialsocial awarenessawareness amongamong ththee ArmenianArmenian elites,elites, couplecoupledd withwith ththee growtgrowthh ofof politicapoliticall anandd national/ethninational/ethnicc consciousnessconsciousness amongamong younyoungg ArmeniansArmenians

-70 largely as a result of the growing number of Armenian schools in Turkey,78 contributed to largely as a result of the growing number of Armenian schools in Turkey, contributed to the rapidly spreading internationalization of the Armenian Question. Britain and Russia the rapidly spreading internationalization of the Armenian Question. Britain and Russia established consulates in Diyarbakir, Erzurum, and Van during the 1860s and 1870s both established consulates in Diyarbakir, Erzurum, and Van during the 1860s and 1870s both asa geopolitical strategy of preventing each other from gaining greater hegemonic control asa geopolitical strategy of preventing each other from gaining greater hegemonic control and also as a means of monitoring Ottoman treatment of the Armenians. and also as a means of monitoring Ottoman treatment of the Armenians. With the Ottoman administration was becoming increasingly encumbered by the With the Ottoman administration was becoming increasingly encumbered by the number and force of the secessionist movements in the Balkans, administrators number and force of the secessionist movements in the Balkans, administrators sympathetic to the Christian minorities were becoming fewer in number and losing sympathetic to the Christian minorities were becoming fewer in number and losing support within the higher ranks of the Ottoman government. In the face of losing support within the higher ranks of the Ottoman government. In the face of losing significant portions of territory and bankruptcy, proponents of liberalization through the significant portions of territory and bankruptcy, proponents of liberalization through the tanzimat reforms were forced to take more stringent attitudes towards reforms which tanzimat reforms were forced to take more stringent attitudes towards reforms which benefitted the minorities. The passing of Ali Pasha in 1871, one of the most influential benefitted the minorities. The passing of Ali Pasha in 1871, one of the most influential figures behind Ottoman liberalization extinguished the hopes of many activists concerned figures behind Ottoman liberalization extinguished the hopes of many activists concerned with achicving greater rights for eastern Anatolian Armenians. In 1872 and 1876, the with achieving greater rights for eastern Anatolian Armenians. In 1872 and 1876, the Armenian National Assembly's appeals to the Ottoman government to lighten Armenian National Assembly's appeals to the Ottoman government to lighten burdensome taxes, provide protection from marauding , dissolve the feudal burdensome taxes, provide protection from marauding Kurdish tribes, dissolve the feudal system under which many Armenians lived, provide greater recognition for non-Muslim system under which many Armenians lived, provide greater recognition for non-Muslim

no 78 RicharRichardd GG.. Hovannisian,Hovannisian, Armenian VanlVaspurakanVan/Vaspurakan (Costa(Costa MesaMesa,, CA:CA: MazdaMazda 4545 testimonytestimony inin courtscourts,, anandd otherother mattermatterss stipulatestipulatedd iinn ththee tanzimat reformreformss werweree largelylargely inin vainvain.. TheThe furthefurtherr suggestiosuggestionn thathatt criminalcriminal anandd commercialcommercial casecasess bbee placeplacedd iinn ththee handshands o f separate Armeman· courts receIve. d no response. 7799 of separate Armenian courts received no response. The tanzimat reforms significantly affected patterns of interaction between The tanzimat reforms significantly affected patterns of interaction between Armenians and Kurds. It weakened the power structure in Kurdish society, leading to Annenians and Kurds. It weakened the power structure in Kurdish society, leading to increased rivalry for power between Kurdish tribes, which in tum worsened the plight of increased rivalry for power between Kurdish tribes, which in turn worsened the plight of the Armenian peasants who perished in the crossfire. The Ottoman Empire's millet the Armenian peasants who perished in the crossfire. The Ottoman Empire's millet reform had the paradoxical effect of creating political space for a new Annenian class to reform had the paradoxical effect of creating political space for a new Armenian class to achieve power by overturning the traditional power structure of Armenian society. The achieve power by overturning the traditional power structure of Armenian society. The tanzimat never fully achieved its aim of centralizing administrative control over eastern tanzimat never fully achieved its aim of centralizing administrative control over eastern Anatolia. Kurdish tribes and the Ottoman state continued to share power throughout the Anatolia. Kurdish tribes and the Ottoman state continued to share power throughout the 1850s and 1860s, albeit with the Ottomans increasing their control. Despite the 1850s and 1860s, albeit with the Ottomans increasing their control. Despite the continued presence of nomadic tribal Kurds and throughout eastern Anatolia, continued presence of nomadic tribal Kurds and feudalism throughout eastern Anatolia, Kurdish identity experienced a major transformation. However, the tanzimat reforms Kurdish identity experienced a major transformation. However, the tanzimat reforms prevented the emergence of a strong representative of Kurdish ethnic identity to extend prevented the emergence of a strong representative of Kurdish ethnic identity to extend his influence far beyond his own tribe, and actually fostered the fragmentation of Kurdish his influence far beyond his own tribe, and actually fostered the fragmentation of Kurdish identity. The tanzimat reforms left an enduring political vacuum in eastern Anatolia identity. The tanzimat reforms left an enduring political vacuum in eastern Anatolia during the 1850s and 1860s which, in part due to the tenuous Ottoman presence, no during the 1850s and 1860s which, in part due to the tenuous Ottoman presence, no significant figure could fill.80 significant figure could fill.80 Overall Kurdish-Armenian relations began to deteriorate significantly as a result Overall Kurdish-Armenian relations began to deteriorate significantly as a result

PublisherPublisherss Inc.Inc.,, 2000),2000), 33.. 7979 EdmunEdmundd HerzigHerzig,, MarinMarinaa KurkchiyanKurkchiyan,, The Armenians: Past and Present in the MakingMaking of National Identity (London:(London: RoutledgRoutledgee PressPress,, 2005)2005),, 7777.. 8080 DuDuee ttoo ththee paucitpaucityy ofof sources,sources, thithiss analysianalysiss ooff easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa duringduring ththee 1850s1850s andand 1860s1860s iiss largelylargely speculative.speculative. 4466 ooff ththee centralizatiocentralizationn ooff OttomaOttomann controcontroll iinn ththee regioregionn anandd ththee consequenconsequentt weakeninweakeningg ooff ththee powepowerr structurestructuress iinn KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann societysociety.. OnOnee ooff ththee majomajorr problemproblemss ooff ththee tanzimattanzimat reformreformss wawass thathatt thetheyy werweree generallgenerallyy weaweakk anandd ineffectivineffectivee iinn eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia anandd coulcouldd nonott providprovidee ththee securitsecurityy enforceenforcedd bbyy ththee KurdisKurdishh beyliksbeyliks whicwhichh hahadd kepkeptt ththee regioregionn relativelrelativelyy peacefulpeaceful.. ConsequentlConsequentlyy a powepowerr strugglstrugglee ensueensuedd betweebetweenn variousvarious

KurdisKurdishh tribetribess ensued,, whicwhichh destabilizedestabilizedd ththee region.. CHAPTERCHAPTER 2

THETHE RUSSO-TURKISHRUSSO-TURKISH WAR,WAR, ITSITS AFTERMATH,AFTERMATH,

ANDAND ITSITS EFFECTSEFFECTS ONON KURDISKURDISHH ANDAND

ARMENIANARMENIAN SOCIETYSOCIETY 1876-18821876-1882

TheThe Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish WarWar andand ththee subsequentsubsequent TreatyTreaty ofof BerliBerlinn (1877-8)(1877-8) waswas a criticalcritical momenmomentt forfor Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann relations.relations. FroFromm oneone angleangle thethe wawarr andand ththee treatytreaty appearedappeared ttoo dividedivide thethe KurdsKurds andand thethe ArmeniansArmenians,, sincesince manymany KurdsKurds foughtfought onon thethe

Ottomans'Ottomans' sideside whilewhile manymany ArmeniansArmenians foughtfought onon thethe Russians'Russians' side.side. TheThe settlementsettlement ofof ththce wawarr atat ththce CongressCongress ofof BerlinBerlin resulteresultedd inin thethe independenceindependence ofof severalseveral predominantlypredominantly

ChristianChristian regionregionss iinn ththee BalkansBalkans andand sparkedsparked increasingincreasing ArmeniaArmeniann nationalistnationalist sentiment.sentiment.

ItIt isis nonott clearclear whctherwhether ththee warwar andand ththce TreatyTreaty ofof BerliBerlinn werweree catalystcatalystss forfor divisiondivision betweebetweenn ththee variouvariouss ArmeniaArmeniann andand KurdisKurdishh factions.factions. IInn Kurt Ulusal Hareketleri GaroGaro

SasuniSasuni makemakess thethe assertionassertion thatthat ththee wawarr andand itsits settlementsettlement causedcaused anan unprecedenteunprecedentedd dividedivide ttoo comcomee intointo beinbeingg betweebetweenn thethe KurdsKurds andand thethe ArmenianArmenianss whicwhichh thethe ArmenianArmenian revolutionariesrevolutionaries,, dcspitedespite theirtheir efforts,efforts, werewere unableunable ttoo fill. sl81 EnverEnver ZiyaZiya Karal,Karal, founderfounder ofof ththee state-sponsoredstate-sponsored TurkishTurkish EducatioEducationn AssociationAssociation (Turk(Turk EgitimEgitim Dcmegi)Dernegi) inin 19611961 andand deadeann ofof OttomaOttomann historians,historians, goesgoes asas farfar asas toto assertassert thathatt thethe "Armenian"Armenian Question"Question" diddid notnot exisexistt beforbeforee ttoo thethe ascensionascension ofof AbdulAbdul HamidHamid IIII inin 1876.1876. HostilitHostilityy betweebetweenn ArmeniansArmenians andand Muslims,Muslims, hehe asserts,asserts, arosearose asas a directdirect resulresultt ofof ArmeniaArmeniann politicapoliticall opportunismopportunism 4848

followingfollowing ththee TreatTreatyy ooff BerlinBerlin.. 82 ThisThis chapterchapter reassessereassessess ththee effecteffectss ooff ththee Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish

WaWarr 1877-81877-8 andand thethe TreatyTreaty ooff BerliBerlinn oonn Armenian-KurdisArmenian-Kurdishh relations.relations.

TheThe Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish WaWarr 1877-81877-8

ByBy thethe mid-1870mid-1870ss ththee OttomanOttoman sultanatesultanate wawass reelinreelingg bacbackk andand fortforthh inin thethe diplomaticdiplomatic tug-of-watug-of-warr betweebetweenn WesterWesternn EuropEuropee anandd Russia.Russia. IntenIntentt oonn gainingainingg backback territoryterritory thathatt iitt hahadd lostlost durinduringg ththee CrimeanCrimean WarWar,, RussiRussiaa wawass encouragingencouraging BalkanBalkan nationalismnationalism.. WitWithh ththee helphelp ooff a numbernumber ooff RussiaRussiann volunteersvolunteers,, SerbiSerbiaa anandd MontenegroMontenegro declareddeclared warwar onon thethe OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire onon JunJunee 30,30, 1876.1876. DesperatDesperatee ttoo clinclingg ontoonto thethe

BalkansBalkans,, ththee OttomanOttoman forceforcess launchelaunchedd aann offensiveoffensive deedeepp intintoo SerbiaSerbia ttoo underminunderminee thethe resistanceresistance.. BByy OctoberOctober a RussianRussian ultimatuultimatumm persuadepersuadedd ththee OttomanOttomanss ttoo ceasceasee militarymilitary actionaction andand signsign a trucetruce withwith Serbia.Serbia. AlthougAlthoughh ththee OttomansOttomans werweree capablcapablee ofof defeatindefeatingg thethe

BalkaBalkann separatists,separatists, ththee strongerstronger handhandss ooff RussiRussiaa anandd WesterWesternn EuropEuropee preventepreventedd thethe

OttomansOttomans frofromm achievingachieving a politicapoliticall victoryvictory.. InIn DecembeDecemberr WesterWesternn EuropeanEuropean andand

RussianRussian officialofficialss metmet ttoo worworkk outout a politicapoliticall compriscomprisee inin whicwhichh BulgariBulgariaa anandd BosniBosniaa andand

HerzegovinHerzegovinaa woulwouldd becombecomee autonomousautonomous undeunderr joinjointt EuropeanEuropean controlcontrol.. OOnn DecembeDecemberr 2323,,

18761876 ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire announcedannounced ititss rejectiorejectionn oofthef the agreementagreementss reachereachedd oveoverr thethe

BalkansBalkans bbyy declaringdeclaring a ConstitutionConstitution thathatt recognizerecognizedd ththee equaequall rightrightss ooff non-Muslims.non-Muslims.

AfterAfter ththee failurfailuree ofof ththee OttomansOttomans ttoo complcomplyy witwithh RussiaRussiann demanddemandss forfor reforreformm inin thethe

BalkansBalkans inin ensuinensuingg months,months, RussiRussiaa declaredeclaredd wawarr oonn ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire oonn ApriAprill 2424,,

1877.1877.

TheThe wawarr ooff 1877-81877-8 wawass hugelhugelyy damagindamagingg foforr ththee OttomanOttoman Empire.Empire. AlthoughAlthough thethe

811 Sasuni,Sasuni, 94-97.94-97. 2 82 EnverEnver ZiyaZiya Karal,Karal, OsmanlzOsmanh Tarihi, VolVol.. VIIIVIII (Ankara,(Ankara, 1962),1962), 126.126. 4949

OttomanOttomanss hahadd a technologicatechnologicall advantageadvantage onon ththee Russians,Russians, sincesince theythey hahadd BritishBritish militarymilitary

equipmentequipment,, ththee RussiaRussiann forceforcess outnumbereoutnumberedd ththee OttomansOttomans nearlnearlyy threthreee ttoo ononee inin thethe

BalkansBalkans andand foufourr ttoo oneone inin easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia.. InIn thethe westwest RussiRussiaa managemanagedd ttoo capturecapture thethe

BalkansBalkans andand advancadvancee ititss armiesarmies deedeepp intintoo ThracThracee iinn ththee directiodirectionn ofof IstanbuIstanbull beforebefore

BritainBritain intervenedintervened atat SanSan StefanoStefano (modem-day(modern-day Yesilkoy)Y e~ilk6y),, a villagvillagee jusjustt weswestt ofof Istanbul,Istanbul,

anandd urgeurgedd ththee RussianRussianss ttoo declaredeclare a tructrucee anandd signsign a treatytreaty.. IInn ththee east,east, inin ththee Caucasus,Caucasus, thethe OttomansOttomans faredfared somewhatsomewhat bettebetterr againsagainstt ththee Russians,Russians, althoughalthough thethe RussianRussianss hadhad takentaken BayazidBayazid,, ArdahanArdahan,, anandd KarKarss bbyy midmid MayMay.. BByy ththee enendd ooff MayMay,, thetheyy provedproved themselvesthemselves againsagainstt alalll oddoddss bbyy liberatingliberating KarKarss andand keepinkeepingg thethe RussianRussianss frofromm takingtaking

Erzurum.8383 IInn JulyJuly ththee OttomanOttomanss launchedlaunched a counteroffensivecounteroffensive iinn AjariAjariaa wherwheree theythey dealtdealt thethe RussiansRussians a heavheavyy blow.blow.

ThThee globalglobal financialfinancial crisicrisiss ofof 18731873 hahadd severelyseverely affecteaffectedd ththee OttomanOttoman Empire.Empire.

ThThee reverberationreverberationss ofof ththee "international"international financialfinancial panicpanic"" ofof ththee 1870s1870s werweree feltfelt deepldeeplyy inin easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia.. WithWith lowlow returnreturnss oonn agriculturalagricultural produceproduce,, increasingincreasing taxestaxes,, andand thethe sensesense ooff imminentimminent wawarr inin ththee earlyearly andand mid-1870smid-1870s,, ththee farmerfarmerss anandd peasantpeasantss whwhoo tilledtilled ththee easterneastern AnatoliaAnatoliann soisoill hahadd littlelittle securitsecurityy ooff tenure. 8484 EconomiEconomicc hardshihardshipp forceforcedd manymany

KurdsKurds anandd ArmenianArmenianss ttoo abandoabandonn theitheirr villagevillagess andand migratmigratee eastwareastwardd towardtowardss RussiRussiaa inin searchsearch ofof greategreaterr economiceconomic stability.stability. MassiveMassive out-migrationout-migration ttoo RussiRussiaa arousearousedd fearsfears amongamong OttomanOttoman officials,officials, alreadalreadyy bracinbracingg themselvethemselvess forfor a widespreadwidespread separatisseparatistt outburstoutburst inin ththee BalkansBalkans,, thathatt similasimilarr socialsocial movementsmovements woulwouldd arisarisee inin ththee east.east. AccordinAccordingg toto thethe

83 TheThe BritishBritish consulconsul ofof ErzuruErzurumm begabegann sendingsending ououtt warningwarning signalssignals thathatt thethe RussiansRussians woulwouldd penetratpenetratee deepedeeperr intintoo ththee easteast.. New York Times, MaMayy 2525,, 1877.1877. 84 84 DonalDonaldd QuataertQuataert,, "The"The AgAgee ofof ReformReformss 1812-1914"1812-1914" iinn HaliHalill inalclkInalcik anandd DonaldDonald Quataert,Quataert, eds.eds.,, The Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, volvol.. 22,, 1600-1600- 19141914 (London(London:: CambridgCambridgee UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1997),1997), 790790.. 5050

RussianRussian consulconsul inin Erzurum,Erzurum, ththee PashPashaa ofof ErzuruErzurumm commissionecommissionedd ththee kaimmakam ofof

BasiBasinn toto personallpersonallyy visivisitt surroundingsurrounding villagevillagess iinn ththee ErzurumErzurum vilayetvilaye! ttoo obtaiobtainn signaturessignatures fromfrom thethe migrantsmigrants affirminaffirmingg theitheirr loyaltloyaltyy ttoo ththee sultanatesultanate andand askinaskingg forfor theitheirr eventualeventual returreturnn toto Turkey.Turkey. TheThe ArmenianArmenianss ofof BasiBasinn adamantlyadamantly refuserefusedd ttoo sigsignn ththee form.form. 85

RussiRussiaa hadhad aann advantagadvantagee againstagainst thethe OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire iinn ititss abilitabilityy ttoo gaingain thethe supportsupport ooff ththee ArmeniansArmenians.. Russia'Russia'ss appealappeal forfor ththee enforcemenenforcementt ooff ChristiaChristiann rightrightss andand libertiesliberties inin ththee OttomanOttoman EmpirEmpiree certainlcertainlyy dredreww manmanyy ArmenianArmenianss ttoo itsits side.side. DurinDuringg thethe

1870s1870s manymany ArmeniaArmeniann peasantspeasants,, thethenn undeunderr thethe heavheavyy burdeburdenn ooff OttomanOttoman taxation,taxation, eagerleagerlyy anticipateanticipatedd a RussiaRussiann invasion.invasion. IInn a visitvisit toto ththee ErzurumErzurum regionregion iinn 1869,1869, ConsulConsul

TayloTaylorr reportereportedd thathatt anan ArmenianArmenian villagvillagee representativerepresentative iinn ononee instanceinstance mistoomistookk hihimm foforr a

RussiaRussiann consularconsular officialofficial andand declareddeclared thathatt "he"he anandd allall hishis flock werweree anxiousanxious atat onceonce toto becombecomee loyalloyal subjectssubjects ofof ththee Czar,Czar, andand readreadyy ttoo ddoo hishis biddingbidding inin thethe eventevent ofof anyany futurefuture war."war. ,,8686 YetYet RussiaRussia alsalsoo hahadd aann advantagadvantagee oveoverr ththee OttomansOttomans iinn attractingattracting ArmeniansArmenians toto theirtheir sidsidee iinn thathatt a largelarge percentagepercentage ofof ththee ArmeniaArmeniann populatiopopulationn dwelledwelledd inin RussianRussian territorterritoryy iinn ththee CaucasusCaucasus mountainsmountains.. ProminenProminentt CaucasusCaucasus ArmenianAnnenianss BeybutBeybut

Shelkovnikov,Shelkovnikov, MikhaiMikhaill Loris-MelikovLoris-Melikov,, IvaIvann LazareLazarevv anandd ArshaArshakk Ter-GhukasovTer-Ghukasov,, allall serveservedd aass generalgeneralss inin ththee RussiaRussiann army.87army.87 A numbenumberr ofof ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess basedbased iinn TifliTifliss (Tblis(Tblisii iinn )Georgia) voicevoicedd theitheirr outrightoutright supportsupport forfor bandingbanding togethetogetherr witwithh thethe

RussiansRussians.. ThThee Tiflis-basedTiflis-based ArmeniaArmeniann newspapenewspaperr Mshak stated:stated: "if"if TurkeyTurkey vanishevanishess fromfrom thethe faceface ofof ththee eartearthh asas a nationnation,, thethe ArmenianArmenianss ofof TurkeTurkeyy musmustt trytry everyevery meanmeanss ttoo joinjoin

o c • • • 85 ForeignForeign PolicPolicyy ArchiveArchivess ooff RussiaRussia,, ththee RussiaRussiann ConsulatConsulatee inin IstanbulIstanbul,, 1873,1873, DivisionDivision 517517 DocDoc.. 732,732, pp.. 5959 citecitedd inin CelilCelil,, Intifada, 27.27. 8686 InclosureInclosure iinn NoNo.. 2525,, MarcMarchh 18,1869,18, 1869, TurkeTurkeyy No.No.,, 1616 (1877)(1877),, pp.. 16-36,16-36, nono.. 13/1,13/1, inin British Documents, eded.. $imsir~im~ir,, 1:1; 56.56. 5151

Russia."Russia. ,,8888

ItIt wawass nonott iinn ththee interesinterestt ooff alalll ArmenianAnnenianss ttoo sideside witwithh ththee RussiansRussians.. ManyMany

ArmenianAnnenianss enjoyedenjoyed highighh positionpositionss inin ththee OttomanOttoman statstatee anandd reliereliedd onon ththee maintenancmaintenancee ofof ththee Empire'Empire'ss integritintegrityy iinn ordeorderr ttoo maintaimaintainn theitheirr status,status, anandd fearedfeared RussiaRussiann interventionintervention woulwouldd disrupdisruptt ththee existingexisting sociasociall structurestructure.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo ononee reportreport,, upouponn hearinghearing thethe newnewss thathatt ththee RussiaRussiann AmbassadoAmbassadorr IgnatieIgnatievv hahadd issuedissued anan ultimatuultimatumm ttoo ththee OttomanOttoman governmentgovernment,, ththee ArmeniaAnneniann PatriarchPatriarch sworeswore hihiss allegianceallegiance toto ththee sultanatesultanate inin ththee eveneventt ofof warwar:: "if"if thithiss greagreatt statstatee isis destinedestinedd toto bbee demolisheddemolished,, wwee consideconsiderr itit ourour dutyduty ttoo bbee buriedburied

OA under its ruins.,,89 This sense ofloyalty to the Ottoman Empire was shared by a host of under its ruins." This sense of loyalty to the Ottoman Empire was shared by a host of other Annenians in high-ranking positions. On the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War other Armenians in high-ranking positions. On the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War on April 25, 1877 Manon Efendi, the Annenian deputy for , stated: "We, the on April 25, 1877 Manon Efendi, the Armenian deputy for Aleppo, stated: "We, the Annenian Christians, wish to announce that we do not need the protection of Russia .... Armenian Christians, wish to announce that we do not need the protection of Russia.... We never deserted our Muslim friends, nor can we desert them now.,,90 We never deserted our Muslim friends, nor can we desert them now."90 The Ottomans and the Russians struggled for the loyalty of the Kurds. Most The Ottomans and the Russians struggled for the loyalty of the Kurds. Most Kurds in eastern Anatolia were primarily interested in either gaining or maintaining the Kurds in eastern Anatolia were primarily interested in either gaining or maintaining the upper hand against rival tribes in the region. According to Colonel Henry Atwell Lake upper hand against rival tribes in the region. According to Colonel Henry Atwell Lake the Kurdish ba$lbozuks, tribal leaders, and religious sheikhs, were "at all times ready to the Kurdish basibozuks, tribal leaders, and religious sheikhs, were "at all times ready to enlist under the banner of those who possess the means and the inclination to pay enlist under the banner of those who possess the means and the inclination to pay

87 VictoVictorr HambartsumyanHambartsumyan,, "Th"Thee Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh WarWar,, 1877-1878,"1877-1878," volvol.. 1010 ofof SovietSoviet Armenian Encyclopedia ((Yerevan,, 1984),1984), 93-94.93-94. 88 NalbandianNalbandian,, 5353.. 8989 SadiSadi KocasKoya~,, Tarih boyunca Ermeniler ve Turk-Ermeni Iliskilerijli$kileri [Annenians[Armenians anandd Turco­Turco- ArmeniaAnneniann RelationRelationss ThroughoutThroughout HistoryHistory]] (Ankara,(Ankara, 1967),1967), 7575,, citecitedd iinn SalahiSalahi RamsdanRamsdan SonyelSonyel,, The Ottoman Armenians: Victims ofo/Great Diplomacy (London(London:: K.K. RusteRustemm & BrotherBrother,, 1987),1987), 4343.. 9090 HakkHakkli TanTankk UsUs,, Meclis-i Mebusan, 1293-1877, II,, 170-1,170-1, citecitedd iinn Sonyel,Sonyel, 4343.. 5522 them."them.,,9191 ThThee RussianRussianss werweree welwelll awarawaree oofthef the neeneedd ttoo forgforgee aann alliancalliancee witwithh ththee KurdsKurds..

ThThee RussiaRussiann ConsuConsull AvreyanoA vreyanovv wrotwrotee ttoo ththee CzarCzar:: "I"Itt iiss necessarnecessaryy foforr ththee leadershileadershipp ooff ththee CaucasuCaucasuss ttoo wiwinn oveoverr ththee KurdKurdss anandd establisestablishh secresecrett connectionconnectionss witwithh thethemm aass iinn paspastt warswars,, otherwisotherwisee iitt wilwilll bbee easieeasierr foforr ththee armearmedd KurdisKurdishh populacpopulacee ttoo bbee flattereflatteredd bbyy ththee

92 Turkish administration and the tricks of the English in fighting against US.,,92 Turkish administration and the tricks of the English in fighting against us." In the mid-1870s the Ottomans had launched a campaign to subdue the tribes of In the mid-1870s the Ottomans had launched a campaign to subdue the tribes of Dersim in hope of expanding their tax and military bases. Samih Pasha was Dersim in hope of expanding their tax and military bases. Samih Pasha was commissioned to go to Dersim in 1875 for the purpose of winning over a number of commissioned to go to Dersim in 1875 for the purpose of winning over a number of Kurdish tribal leaders to the Ottoman cause. His recruitment campaign among the tribes, Kurdish tribal leaders to the Ottoman cause. His recruitment campaign among the tribes, however, was met with fierce resistance by the Kurdish religious class, which had however, was met with fierce resistance by the Kurdish religious class, which had infiltrated tribal politics to a great degree. Sheikh Suleiman Pasha managed to mobilize a infiltrated tribal politics to a great degree. Sheikh Suleiman Pasha managed to mobilize a formidable force of 12,000 soldiers, the militias of numerous tribes, against the Ottoman formidable force of 12,000 soldiers, the militias of numerous tribes, against the Ottoman forces. Aligning himself with the Russians he accumulated a large supply of weapons forces. Aligning himself with the Russians he accumulated a large supply of weapons with which his forces were able to withstand the Ottomans. However, his force was with which his forces were able to withstan93 d the Ottomans. However, his force was eventually routed and he was exiled.93 eventuallThey route conflictd an ind hDersime was exiled was a. graphic revelation for the Ottomans that in the advent ofTh ware conflic witht Russia,in Dersi them waKurdishs a graphi tribesc revelatio could ben afo thornr the inOttoman the side.s thaHowever,t in the the mostadven effectivet of war witwayh Russiafor the, Ottomansthe Kurdis toh tribeovercomes coul dpotential be a thor widespreadn in the side Kurdish. However , the moscollaborationt effective withway thefor Russiansthe Ottoman wass toto forgeovercom alliancese potentia withl thewidesprea Kurdishd Kurdiselites ratherh than putcollaboratio further politicaln with th impositionse Russians waons them. to forg Thee alliance Ottomans wit strategyh the Kurdis was toh enticeelites rathe influentialr than

Kurdishput furthe leadersr politica to lside imposition with thems o nagainst them. theTh eRussians Ottoman by strateg offeringy wa thems to enticpositionse influentia in the l

Kurdish leaders to side with them against the Russians by offering them positions in the 9191 JamesJames J.J. Reid,Reid, Crisis in the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse: 1839-1878 (Franz(Franz SteinerSteiner VerlagVerlag Stuttgart,Stuttgart, 2000),159.2000), 159. 92 GeneralGeneral Avreyanov,Avreyanov, citedcited Celil,Celil, Intifada, 3333.. 5353 statestate administrationadministration,, tax-exemptionstax-exemptions,, andand wealthwealth.. ThThee OttomanOttomanss managemanagedd ttoo gaingain thethe supporsupportt ofof threthreee ofof ththee sonssons ofof BedBedrr KhanKhan,, HuseyiHuseyinn KenaKenann BeyBey,, AliAli $amil$amil BeyBey,, anandd BedriBedri

BeyBey,, whwhoo gatheregatheredd a volunteevolunteerr forcforcee ofof KurdKurdss frofromm AdanaAdana,, IstanbulIstanbul,, anandd SyriaSyria totalingtotaling approximatelyapproximately 38003800 anandd persuadepersuadedd severaseverall KurdisKurdishh sheikhs inin easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa ttoo fightfight witwithh ththee Ottomans.9494

PerhapPerhapss mosmostt significantlysignificantly,, OttomaOttomann officialofficialss alsalsoo wowonn ththee allegiancallegiancee ooff thethe prominentprominent religioureligiouss leadeleaderr ShaykhShaykh 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh bbyy appointingappointing hihimm asas ththee leaderleader ooff a

KurdishKurdish tribatriball force.force. ThiThiss briebrieff alliancalliancee witwithh thithiss sheikh wawass nnoo smalsmalll matter.matter.

'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh hailehailedd fromfrom ththee holyholy KurdisKurdishh citycity ofof NehrNehrii nestlenestledd inin ththee KandilKandil mountainsmountains inin ththee HakkarHakkarii regionregion.. HeHe wawass a membememberr ofof ththee prestigiouprestigiouss $emdinan$emdinan familyfamily thathatt hadhad enjoyeenjoyedd high-rankinhigh-rankingg religioureligiouss statusstatus amonamongg ththee KurdKurdss ooff thethe VaVann andand HakkarHakkarii regionsregions durinduringg ththee nineteentnineteenthh centurycentury.. ClaiminClaimingg descentdescent fromfrom ththee prophetprophet Muhammad,Muhammad,

'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh establishedestablished hihiss spirituaspirituall legitimaclegitimacyy beforbeforee thousandthousandss ooff Kurds.Kurds. AAss thethe leadinleadingg religioureligiouss figurfiguree ofof thethe NaqshbandNaqshbandii SufiSufi orderorder iinn ththee VaVann regioregionn hhee "formed"formed anan administrativadministrativee establishmentestablishment thatthat iiss abovabovee ththee tribes"tribes" andand enjoyedenjoyed thethe loyaltyloyalty ofof

95 numerounumerouss tribatriball leadersleaders,, manmanyy ooff whowhomm werewere aatt oddoddss witwithh eacheach other. 95 NoNott onlonlyy diddid hehe acquiracquiree wealtwealthh througthroughh donationdonationss fromfrom hihiss followers,followers, bubutt hhee alsoalso dwelleddwelled iinn oneone ofof thethe fefeww regionregionss wherwheree ththee ArmenianArmenianss diddid nonott havhavee ththee uppeupperr hanhandd inin tradtradee anandd commerce.commerce.

ThThee KurdKurdss inin HakkarHakkarii dominatedominatedd tobacctobaccoo productioproductionn andand tradetrade.. IInn consequence,consequence,

'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh amassedamassed sufficiensufficientt revenuerevenue ttoo purchaspurchasee largelarge tracttractss ofof lanlandd iinn manmanyy partpartss ofof

^93 Ibid.,Ibid., 30-31.30-31. 9944 Sevgen,Sevgen, 119.119. 9595 MMyy translatiotranslationn frofromm ththee Turkish.Turkish. MuzaffeMuzafferr ilhanIlhan ErdostErdost,, $emdinligemdinli RoportajlRoportaji (Yenisehir(Yeni~ehir,, AnkaraAnkara:: OnuOnurr YaymlanYaymlan,, 1993),1993), 161161.. 5454 easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa andand Iran.Iran.9696

StridentlyStridently awareaware ofof ththee possibilitiepossibilitiess ooff obtainingobtaining highighh rankinrankingg positionpositionss iinn thethe

OttomanOttoman statestate bbyy offeringoffering hihiss loyaltyloyalty,, 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh eagerlyeagerly accepteacceptedd thethe positiopositionn ofof militimilitiaa leaderleader.. HiHiss appointmenappointmentt wawass a historihistoricc momenmomentt forfor ththee KurdsKurds,, whowhomm thethe

OttomansOttomans hahadd beebeenn avidlyavidly seekingseeking ttoo subduesubdue anandd dividedivide throughoutthroughout ththee 1860s1860s anandd 1870s.1870s.

1waidehJwaideh writeswrites,, "certainly,"certainly, [the][the] appointmentappointment [of[of 'Ubaydullah]'Ubaydullah] lefleftt nnoo investiture,investiture, conferringconferring upouponn hihimm whawhatt hahadd beebeenn denieddenied ttoo ananyy otherother KurKurdd sincesince 1847.,,971847."

AsAs ShaykhShaykh ''Ubaydullah's Ubaydullah's authorityauthority onlyonly extendedextended toto certaincertain tribestribes inin certaincertain regionsregions,, hhee wawass unablunablee ttoo calcalll upouponn ththee nomadinomadicc tribetribess ttoo ceasecease ththee violenceviolence.. MoreoverMoreover hehe waswas involvedinvolved inin otherother engagementsengagements withwith hihiss militiamilitia.. AccordingAccording ttoo SeyiSeyitt IslamIslam

GeylaniGeylani,, ononee ooff hihiss recruitsrecruits,, ShaykhShaykh 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh ledled a militimilitiaa ooff somesome 40,0040,0000 irregularirregular horsemen from Diyarbakir, Suleimaniyah, and Unniya against the Russians. 9988 However, horsemen from Diyarbakir, Suleimaniyah, and Urmiya against the Russians. However, his loyalty appeared to be divided between the Ottomans and another local Kurdish his loyalty appeared to be divided between the Ottomans and another local Kurdish overlord, Sheikh 1elaluddin. While 'Ubaydullah was the key religious figure, 1elaluddin overlord, Sheikh Jelaluddin. While 'Ubaydullah was the key religious figure, Jelaluddin maintained the bulk of political influence and military clout. While 'Ubaydullah and his maintained the bulk of political influence and military clout. While 'Ubaydullah and his militia carried out military operations under Ottoman orders in Bayazid in 1une 1877, militia carried out military operations under Ottoman orders in Bayazid in June 1877, some reports suggested that his militia acted as a rogue force under the influence of some reports suggested that his militia acted as a rogue force under the influence of Sheikh 1elaluddin.99 Sheikh 1elaluddin, who came from Urmiya, also participated with Sheikh Jelaluddin.99 Sheikh Jelaluddin, who came from Urmiya, also participated with

9966 OzogluOzoglu,, "'Nationalism'''Nationalism'' andand KurdisKurdishh NotableNotabless iinn thethe LatLatee OttomaOttomann anandd EarlyEarly RepublicaRepublicann Era,"Era," InternationalJournalInternational Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 33,33, nono.. 3 (August(August 2001)2001):: 387-388387-388.. 9977 WadieWadie 1waideh,Jwaideh, The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and DevelopmentDevelopment (Syracuse(Syracuse:: SyracuseSyracuse UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 2006)2006),, 77.77. 9898 GeylaniGeylani makemakess thithiss claimclaim iinn anan intervieintervieww witwithh ErdosErdostt iinn ththee 1950s.1950s. ErdostErdost,, 160.160. 9999 NormaNormann describedescribess 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh aass operatinoperatingg "under"under ththee flagflag ofof 1elaluddin."Jelaluddin." CharlesCharles BoswelBoswelll NormanNorman,, Armenia, and the Campaign ofof1877, 1877, (New(New YorkYork:: Cassell,Cassell, PettePetterr & GalpinGalpin,, 1878),1878), 278278.. 5555 thethe OttomansOttomans iinn raisinraisingg KurdisKurdishh cavalrycavalry regimentregimentss ttoo fighfightt ththee RussiansRussians.. Jelaluddin'sJelaluddin's intenintentt inin participatinparticipatingg alonalongg sideside ththee OttomanOttomanss appearedappeared ttoo bbee mormoree insidiousinsidious thathann thathatt ofof

'Ubaydullah.'Ubaydullah. WhileWhile 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh soughsoughtt ttoo acquiracquiree statustatuss withiwithinn ththee EmpireEmpire duringduring thethe warwar,, JelaluddiJelaluddinn soughsoughtt ttoo completelycompletely underminunderminee ththee OttomanOttoman anandd QajarQajar authorityauthority inin thethe

Kurdish-populateKurdish-populatedd regionregionss oveoverr whicwhichh hhee hahadd influenceinfluence.. ThThee PersiaPersiann foreignforeign ministerminister complainecomplainedd ooff SheikSheikhh Jelaluddin'Jelaluddin'ss "habit"habit ooftransferringf transferring hihiss allegiancallegiancee backwardbackwardss andand forwardsforwards frofromm TurkeyTurkey ttoo Persia.Persia .... .extendin extendingg hihiss maraudinmaraudingg expeditionsexpeditions ttoo both."loOboth."100

UnlikUnlikee otheotherr KurdisKurdishh leadersleaders,, howeverhowever,, JelaluddinJelaluddin appeareappearedd ttoo bbee a sworswornn enemenemyy oftheof the

RussiansRussians,, believinbelievingg thathatt anan alliancealliance witwithh thethemm woulwouldd leadlead ttoo furthefurtherr occupatiooccupationn andand subjugation.subjugation.

TheThe attitudattitudee ofof ththee sheikhs duringduring ththee wawarr wawass nonott exactlyexactly benevolenbenevolentt towardtowardss thethe

ArmeniansArmenians,, especiallespeciallyy asas SheikSheikhh JelaluddiJelaluddinn camecame frofromm a fanaticalfanatical sectsect oflslamof Islam thatthat disdaineddisdained Christians.Christians. HiHiss fatherfather,, SheikhSheikh Sabadullah,Sabadullah, reportedlreportedlyy donneddonned a faceface veiveill whenwhen travelingtraveling,, foforr hhee considereconsideredd iitt a sisinn merelmerelyy ttoo glanceglance aatt Christians. 101101 ThThee actionsactions ofof

SheikhSheikh JelaluddiJelaluddinn suggestsuggest thathatt hhee continuecontinuedd hihiss father'father'ss bigotrbigotryy towardstowards Christians.Christians.

UndeUnderr ththee proddinproddingg ofof JelaluddinJelaluddin,, 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh engageengagedd iinn a numbenumberr ofof activitieactivitiess toto promotpromotee ththee causecause ooff KurdisKurdishh autonomautonomyy fromfrom ththee OttomansOttomans andand Qajars.Qajars. MostMost notoriouslnotoriouslyy ththee KurdisKurdishh militimilitiaa forceforce brutallbrutallyy massacremassacredd ththee inhabitantsinhabitants ofof a numbenumberr ofof

ArmeniaAnneniann villagevillagess iinn VaVann oonn suspiciosuspicionn ooff collaboratingcollaborating witwithh ththee hatehatedd RussiansRussians.. 102 TheThe

SublimeSublime PortPortee appeareappearedd ttoo recognizrecognizee JelaluddinJelaluddin aass a greategreaterr securitysecurity threatthreat thanthan

'Ubaydullah,'Ubaydullah, anandd afterafter thethe KurdsKurds'' crushincrushingg defeatdefeat aatt BeyaziBeyazidd anandd theitheirr militarymilitary

101000 MrMr.. LayarLayardd ttoo ththee EarlEarl ofof DerbyDerby,, TherapiaTherapia,, JulJulyy 10,10, 18771877,, iinn British Documents, ed.ed. §imsirSim~ir,, 1:1: 8181.. 101101 Sasuni,Sasuni, 9090.. 5566 indiscretionindiscretionss againsagainstt ththee ArmeniansAnnenians,, ththee vali ooff VaVann hahadd Jelaluddilelaluddinn poisonepoisonedd aatt ththee ordeorderr ooff SultaSultann AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII.. OOnn ththee otheotherr hanhandd ththee SultaSultann onlonlyy hahadd 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh exileexiledd temporariltemporarilyy ttoo MeccMeccaa oonn ththee ha]j.103hajj.

OtheOtherr KurdisKurdishh groupsgroups'' switcheswitchedd loyaltieloyaltiess bacbackk anandd fortforthh betweebetweenn ththee RussiansRussians anandd ththee OttomansOttomans.. ThThee HayderanlHayderanlii tribtribee iinn ththee MuMu~s anandd northernorthernn VaVann regionregionss wawass growingrowingg iinn powepowerr anandd influencinfluencee durinduringg ththee mid-1870smid-1870s.. BByy 18718766 ititss chiefchief,, MehrdaMehrdadd BeBeyy

Khatun-ogullanKhatun-ogullan,, anandd hihiss sonson,, YusuYusufBey,f Bey, coercecoercedd OttomaOttomann officialofficialss ttoo grangrantt theitheirr familyfamily ththee appointmenappointmentt ooff kaimmakam oveoverr ththee Shura-geShura-gell districdistrictt (eas(eastt ooff Van)Van),, threateninthreateningg ttoo causcausee widespreawidespreadd chaochaoss iiff ththee OttomanOttomanss dididd nonott complycomply.. ControllinControllingg mosmostt ooff ththee economieconomicc activitactivityy iinn ththee easteast,, hhee wawass ablablee ttoo accumulataccumulatee a greagreatt deadeall ooff wealtwealthh withwith whicwhichh hhee wawass ablablee ttoo bribbribee OttomaOttomann officialsofficials,, anandd eveevenn conducteconductedd raidraidss intintoo RussianRussian territorterritoryy wellwell beforbeforee wawarr wawass declareddeclared.. YeYett iinn timtimee YusuYusuff BeBeyy proveprovedd ttoo bbee a double-double- dealer,dealer, strikingstriking a dealdeal withwith ththee RussiansRussians ttoo sendsend provisionprovisionss ttoo theitheirr trooptroopss inin exchangexchangee foforr a largelarge sumsum ofof money:money: 104104

ItIt iiss a well-knowwell-knownn fact,fact, anandd I havehave iitt frofromm aann officeofficerr highighh onon ththee Commander-in­Commander-in- Chief'sChiefs staffstaff,, thathatt YoussouYoussoufBey,f Bey, sosonn ooff ththee latlatee MehrdaMehrdadd BeyBey,, anandd nephenepheww ooff KurKurdd IsmailIsmail PashaPasha,, hahass beebeenn boughboughtt overover bbyy ththee RussiansRussians,, andand sincsincee ththee commencementcommencement ofof thethe warwar hashas beenbeen supplyingsupplying themthem withwith grain.grain. ThisThis manman isis aann inhabitantinhabitant ofof ththee villagevillage ofof Digor,Digor, andand onlyonly a fewfew daysdays beforbeforee I leftleft thethe campcamp a partyparty ofof RussiansRussians proceededproceeded toto thatthat placplacee toto paypay YYoussou oussouff BeyBey a friendlyfriendly visit,visit, who,who, fearingfearing thatthat a knowledgeknowledge ofof thethe enemyenemy beingbeing soso closeclose toto thethe rearrear ofof hishis campcamp mightmight comecome toto thethe earsears ofof thethe Marshal,Marshal, detennineddetermined toto taketake thethe bullbull byby thethe horns,horns, so,so, warningwarning themthem ofof theitheirr danger,danger, hehe gallopedgalloped offoff toto MukhtarMukhtar Pasha'sPasha's camp,camp, anandd 105 toltoldd himhim thatthat a bodybody...... 105

InIn DersimDersim thethe RussianRussian victoriesvictories inin KarsKars andand BeyazidBeyazid emboldenedemboldened thethe locallocal tribestribes

102 Nonnan,Norman, 278278.. 103 SSasuni asunl, ., 95 . 104 Reid,Reid, 160160.. 105 Nonnan,Norman, 293293.. 5757 ttoo engageengage inin battlebattle witwithh occupyingoccupying OttomanOttoman forces.forces. InIn orderorder toto preemptpreempt ththee KurdsKurds fromfrom gaininggaining uppeupperr hanhandd inin Dersim,Dersim, thethe 44th TurkishTurkish brigadbrigadee stormedstormed a numbernumber ofof villagevillagess inin thethe

ToshiToshikk mountainmountainss drivingdriving ththee rebelsrebels outout intointo thethe mountainoumountainouss wilderness.wilderness. UpoUponn hearinghearing ththee newnewss ofof ththee TurkisTurkishh forces'forces' siege,siege, locallocal KurdsKurds andand ArmeniansArmenians tootookk uupp armsarms andand togethertogether summonedsummoned thethe supportsupport ofof neighborinneighboringg tribes,tribes, forcingforcing thethe TurksTurks toto retreatretreat toto thethe

i • 106106 plainsplains..

DespitDespitee thethe Ottomans'Ottomans' meagermeager successessuccesses inin thethe warwar,, ththee OttomansOttomans werewere bracingbracing themselvesthemselves forfor massivmassivee territorialterritorial lossloss andand economiceconomic damagedamage bbyy ththee timtimee ththee RussiansRussians acceptedaccepted a trucetruce onon JanuaryJanuary 31,31,1878 1878.. AlthougAlthoughh thethe wawarr diddid notnot directlydirectly affectaffect mostmost ofof easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, iitt destabilizeddestabilized thethe regionregion asas a whole,whole, leavingleaving itsits inhabitantsinhabitants toto competecompete forfor powerpower andand resourcesresources.. TheThe misermiseryy thathatt bothboth ArmeniaArmeniann andand KurdisKurdishh peasantpeasantss sufferedsuffered atat thethe handshands ofof dominantdominant maraudinmaraudingg KurdishKurdish tribes—whtribes-whoo actedacted withwith nearnear impunity­impunity— multipliemultipliedd asas a resultresult ofof thethe loominglooming RussianRussian invasioninvasion andand ththee lacklack ofof security.security. TheThe

Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh WarWar spawnedspawned internecineinternecine conflicconflictt betweebetweenn KurdisKurdishh tribetribess inin mostmost regionsregions ofof easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, iinn ththee midsmidstt ofof whicwhichh scoresscores ofof ArmeniaArmeniann peasantspeasants werewere victimized.victimized.

ThousandThousandss ofof KurdishKurdish andand ArmeniaArmeniann peasantpeasantss werweree wounded,wounded, killedkilled,, andand leftleft homeless.homeless.

TheThe AftermatAftermathh ofof ththee WarWar

OnOn MarchMarch 3,3, 18781878 ththee TreatyTreaty ofof SanSan StefanoStefano wawass signed,signed, recognizingrecognizing thethe independencindependencee ofof Serbia,Serbia, Montenegro,Montenegro, andand RomaniRomaniaa andand thethe autonomyautonomy ofof BulgariaBulgaria.. AsAs foforr eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia,, thethe OttomansOttomans werweree toto cedecede AjariaAjaria toto thethe RussiansRussians iinn exchangeexchange forfor wawarr reparations.reparations. Additionally,Additionally, becausbecausee itit waswas fearedfeared thatthat ththee KurdsKurds andand CircassiansCircassians woulwouldd taketake reprisalsreprisals againstagainst thethe Armenians,Armenians, ArticleArticle 1616 stipulatedstipulated thathatt RussianRussian troopstroops

106 106 CelilCelil writewritess thatthat manymany songssongs refereferr toto thithiss battle.battle. Celil,Celil, Intifada, 36.36. 5588 woulwouldd remainremain inin thethe areasareas thatthat werweree cededceded ttoo ththee OttomanOttomanss untiuntill ththee SublimeSublime PortePorte implementeimplementedd feasiblefeasible reformreformss ttoo protecprotectt themthem.. SignificantlySignificantly,, ththee treatytreaty acknowledgeacknowledgedd thethe concernsconcerns thathatt ththee ArmeniaArmeniann NationaNationall AssemblAssemblyy hahadd puputt forthforth durinduringg ththee 1870s1870s againstagainst thethe oppressivoppressivee rulerule ofof ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess oveoverr ththee ArmeniaArmeniann peasantpeasantss iinn easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa andand ensuredensured increaseincreasedd securitysecurity iinn ththee regionregion.. 107 WhilWhilee ththee ArmeniaAnneniann massemassess largelylargely welcomewelcomedd RussiaRussiann interventiointerventionn iinn ArmeniArmeniaa ttoo relievrelievee thethemm ooff ththee burdenburdenss ofof

Ottoman/KurdishOttoman/Kurdish rulerule,, thethe majoritmajorityy ofof ththee ArmeniaArmeniann educateeducatedd elitelitee opposeopposedd RussianRussian interventionintervention anandd promotepromotedd ArmeniaArmeniann autonomyautonomy hopinhopingg foforr ththee arrangementarrangementss similasimilarr toto

108 those made for regions in the Balkans. 108 those made for regions in the Balkans. Fearing that the would give the Russians too much power Fearing that the Treaty of San Stefano would give the Russians too much power in the Balkans and Eastern Anatolia, British and French negotiators pressured Russia to in the Balkans and Eastern Anatolia, British and French negotiators pressured Russia to reconvene at Berlin to rearrange the provisions. A delegation led by Mkrtich Khrimian reconvene at Berlin to rearrange the provisions. A delegation led by Mkrtich Khrimian went to Berlin on behalf of the Armenian National Assembly and Patriarch Nerses in went to Berlin on behalf of the Armenian National Assembly and Patriarch Nerses in order to lobby for the creation an autonomous Armenia. In a letter to Lord Salisbury, order to lobby for the creation an autonomous Armenia. In a letter to Lord Salisbury, Khrimian dwelt at length on the grievances of the Armenians at the hands of the Kurds, Khrimian dwelt at length on the grievances of the Armenians at the hands of the Kurds, claiming that such a rough history of coexistence made it impossible for Christians and claiming that such a rough history of coexistence made it impossible for Christians and Muslims to live together. The only fair solution, he claimed, was the creation of an Muslims to live together. The only fair solution, he claimed, was the creation of an "autonomous Christian organization" much like Lebanon in order to ensure the protection "autonomous Christian organization" much like Lebanon in order to ensure the protection

107 ArticlArticlee 1616 oftheof the TreatTreatyy ooff SanSan StefanoStefano readsreads:: "As"As ththee evacuationevacuation ooff RussiaRussiann trooptroopss ofof ththee territorterritoryy whicwhichh theythey occupoccupyy inin ArmeniaArmenia,, anandd whicwhichh iiss ttoo bbee restorerestoredd ttoo TurkeyTurkey,, mightmight givgivee risrisee ttoo conflictsconflicts andand complicationscomplications detrimentaldetrimental ttoo ththee maintenancmaintenancee ofof googoodd relationsrelations betweebetweenn thethe twotwo countriescountries,, ththee SublimeSublime PortPortee engageengagess ttoo carrcarryy intintoo effect,effect, withouwithoutt furtherfurther delay,delay, ththee improvementimprovementss anandd reformreformss demandeddemanded bbyy localocall requirementrequirementss inin ththee provincesprovinces inhabiteinhabitedd bbyy ththee ArmeniansArmenians,, andand toto guaranteguaranteee theitheirr securitsecurityy frofromm KurdKurdss anandd ."Circassians." i r\n 108 AccordingAccording ttoo Sonyel,Sonyel, thethe majoritmajorityy ooff educatededucated ArmenianArmenianss werweree opposedopposed ttoo RussianRussian occupatiooccupationn whilwhilee thethe majoritmajorityy ofof uneducateuneducatedd massemassess werweree inin favorfavor ofof itit.. Sonyel,Sonyel, 43-53.43-53. 5959 andand prosperitprosperityy ooff ththee ArmenianArmenianss iinn eastereasternn Anatolia.Anatolia.109109

TToo ththee chagrinchagrin oftheof the ArmeniaArmeniann delegatiodelegationn ttoo ththee CongresCongresss ofof BerlinBerlin,, itsits advocacyadvocacy ooff aann autonomouautonomouss ArmeniArmeniaa wawass ttoo nnoo availavail.. BritisBritishh negotiatornegotiatorss deemedeemedd thathatt autonomousautonomous

ArmeniArmeniaa woulwouldd givgivee aann advantagadvantagee ttoo RussiRussiaa anandd henchencee placeplacedd ArmeniArmeniaa inin ththee handhandss ofof

SublimeSublime PortPortee inin hopehopess thathatt thetheyy coulcouldd gaingain a greategreaterr supervisorysupervisory rolrolee overover ththee region.region.

ThThee TreatyTreaty ofof BerliBerlinn reversereversedd ththee provisionprovisionss oftheof the TreatTreatyy ooff SanSan StefanoStefano iinn relatiorelationn toto ththee ArmeniaArmeniann questionquestion.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo ArticlArticlee 6161 ofof ththee TreatTreatyy ooff BerliBerlinn thethe RussiansRussians werweree ttoo withdrawithdraww trooptroopss frofromm alalll ooff easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, anandd ththee SultaSultann wawass ttoo assumassumee fullfull controlcontrol ooff ththee regioregionn anandd taktakee responsibilitresponsibilityy foforr ththee implementationimplementation ofof reformreformss forfor thethe

ArmeniansArmenians undeunderr ththee loosloosee supervisiosupervisionn oofthef the EuropeaEuropeann powerspowers:: "The"The SublimeSublime PortePorte undertakeundertakess ttoo carrycarry outout,, withouwithoutt furtherfurther delaydelay,, ththee ameliorationsameliorations andand reformreformss demandeddemanded byby localocall requirementrequirementss iinn ththee provinceprovincess inhabiteinhabitedd bbyy ththee ArmeniansArmenians,, andand toto guaranteeguarantee theirtheir securitysecurity againsagainstt ththee CircassianCircassianss andand ththee Kurds."Kurds."llo110 FoForr manmanyy WesterWesternn politicianspoliticians,, thethe

TreatTreatyy ooff BerliBerlinn waswas,, iinn relatiorelationn ttoo controcontroll overover easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, a successuccesss iinn keepingkeeping thethe

RussianRussianss atat babayy inin thethe regioregionn thathatt wawass leastleast accessiblaccessiblee ttoo WesterWesternn Europe.Europe. HoweveHoweverr forfor otheotherr WesterWesternn observerobserverss ofof ththee ArmeniaArmeniann questionquestion,, ArticlArticlee 6161 wawass anan impendingimpending disaster.disaster.

ThThee DukDukee ooff ArgylArgylll cynicallycynically summesummedd uupp hihiss poinpointt ofof vievieww onon thethe overaloveralll effecteffect ofof thethe

111 inversioinversionn ooff ththee articles:articles: "Wha"Whatt wawass everybody'severybody's businesbusinesss wawass nobody'nobody'ss business.business."" III

UpoUponn hihiss returreturnn frofromm BerlinBerlin,, KhrimiaKhrimiann openlopenlyy expresseexpressedd hihiss dismaydismay aatt thethe

CongresCongresss ooff BerliBerlinn iinn anan inflammatorinflammatoryy speecspeechh entitlentitlee "The"The PapePaperr Ladle."Ladle." InIn ththee speechspeech hhee highlightehighlightedd ththee futilityfutility ofof hihiss petitionpetitionss anandd documents,documents, hihiss papepaperr ladleladle,, iinn dippindippingg intointo

109 Ibid., 51. 110110 TreatTreatyy ooff BerlinBerlin,, ArticlArticlee 6161.. III111 DukDukee ooff ArgyllArgyll,, Our Responsibilities forfor Turkey (London:(London: JJ.. MurrayMurray,, 1896),1896), 74.74. 6060

thethe internationalinternational "heriseh""heriseh" (a(ann ArmeniaArmeniann stewstew thathatt hhee useusess asas a metaphometaphorr forfor territoryterritory

fromfrom whicwhichh "large"large anandd smalsmalll nationnationss anandd governmentgovernmentss woulwouldd drawdraw theitheirr portion"portion")) againstagainst

thosethose witwithh ironiron ladles,ladles, weaponweaponss andand anns:arms: "where"where gunsguns taltalkk anandd swordsswords makmakee noisenoise,, whatwhat

significancesignificance ddoo appealappealss anandd petitionpetitionss have?have?"" HHee furthefurtherr callecalledd upouponn thethe ArmenianArmenianss toto

taketake upup armsarms anandd fightfight foforr theirtheir libertyliberty:: "when"when yoyouu returreturnn ttoo thethe FatherlandFatherland,, ttoo youryour

relativerelativess andand friendsfriends,, taktakee weaponsweapons,, taktakee weaponweaponss anandd againagain weapons..Usweapons .... Usee youyourr brainbrain

112 and your fist! Man must work for himself in order to be saved." 112 This speech and your fist! Man must work for himself in order to be saved." This speech significantly influenced the rise of militant separatist . Most significantly influenced the rise of militant separatist Armenian nationalism. Most notably Khrimian did not attach blame primarily to the Kurds and Circassians who were notably Khrimian did not attach blame primarily to the Kurds and Circassians who were directly perpetrating atrocities against the Armenians; rather, he pointed his finger at the directly perpetrating atrocities against the Armenians; rather, he pointed his finger at the higher powers for neglecting their responsibilities in providing security for their citizens. higher powers for neglecting their responsibilities in providing security for their citizens. The Ottoman Empire was in a state of dire economic need as a result of the war. The Ottoman Empire was in a state of dire economic need as a result of the war. Aside from amassing a huge public debt to European creditors, it came under the further Aside from amassing a huge public debt to European creditors, it came under the further burden of war indemnities owed to Russia. These indemnities, which were settled in the burden of war indemnities owed to Russia. These indemnities, which were settled in the 1880s, gave Russia an economic foothold in the Empire, where it had none before the 1880s, gave Russia an economic foothold in the Empire, where it had none before the 1877-8 war. For the Ottoman Empire the indemnities "increased Ottoman indebtedness 1877-8 war. For the Ottoman Empire the indemnities "increased Ottoman indebtedness by one-sixth" and placed the Empire's already unstable credit in further jeopardy. 11I 133 Tax

bcollectiony one-sixth became" and placean evend th greatere Empire' necessitys alread iny unstableastern eAnatolia, credit in althoughfurther jeopardy this yielded. Tax

collectiolittle successn becam in thee a moren eve nremote greate regions.r necessit Iny i1881,n easter Husseinn Anatolia Bey,, althougone of hthe thi sonss yielde ofBcdrd

little success in the more remote regions. In 1881, Hussein Bey, one of the sons of Bedr

112 MgrditcMgrditchh KhrimianKhrimian,, "The"The PapePaperr Ladle,Ladle,"" citecitedd iinn HaiHaigg AjemiaAjemiann Hayotz Hairig,Hairig, "Navakogh vushditz haireniatz hayotz, transtrans.. VazkeVazkenn MovsesiaMovsesiann (Tavriz:(Tavriz: AdurbadaganiAdurbadagani hayothayotzz temagantemagan dubaran,dubaran, 1929),1929), 511-3511-3,, http://annenianhouse.org/khrimyan­http://annenianliouse.org/khrimyan- havrik/loving-father.htmhayriklloving-father.htmll (accessed(accessed ApriAprill 2008).2008). 113 113 SeeSee MichaelMichael RR.. MilgrimMilgrim,, "An"An OverlookeOverlookedd ProbleProblemm inin Turkish-RussiaTurkish-Russiann RelationsRelations:: TheThe 18781878 WaWarr IndemnityIndemnity"" inin International Journal of Studies 9,9, nono.. 44,, (October(October 1978):1978): 519-537.519-537. QuoteQuote isis oonn pagpagee 522522.. 6611

KhanKhan,, stirredstirred uupp ththee KurdKurdss iinn thethe DersimDersim regionregion ttoo reberebell againsagainstt ththee OttomaOttomann government,government, claiminclaimingg thathatt ththee OttomanOttomanss werweree destroyindestroyingg KurdisKurdishh villagevillagess thathatt dididd nonott papayy taxes.taxes.

HusseiHusseinn BeBeyy managemanagedd ttoo convincconvincee ththee shaykh ooff anan impendingimpending OttomaOttomann invasioninvasion.. HeHe gatheregatheredd a forcforcee ofof 505000 armearmedd KurdisKurdishh soldiersoldierss ttoo hidhidee iinn ththee mountainmountainss andand sealseal ofofff allall mountaimountainn passespasses.. WhilWhilee ththee OttomaOttomann armarmyy wawass ablablee ttoo drivdrivee bacbackk ththee KurdisKurdishh rebelsrebels,, thethe operatiooperationn eliciteelicitedd a strongstrong responsresponsee frofromm ththee RussiaRussiann consulconsul:: "Sending"Sending thethe armyarmy toto colleccollectt taxetaxess durinduringg sucsuchh a timtimee foforr ththee purpospurposee ooff collectingcollecting taxetaxess isis a dangerousdangerous undertaking." I11 144

ThThee RisRisee ofof SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdUlhamidd II:II: PerceptionPerceptionss ofof HiHimm iinn HistoryHistory

AlthougAlthoughh SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdUlhamidd IIII camcamee ttoo powepowerr inin 1876,1876, ththee influencinfluencee ofof hishis policiepoliciess wawass nonott widelwidelyy feltfelt untiuntill afteafterr ththee Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh WarWar.. SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII camcamee ontoonto ththee politicapoliticall scenescene duringduring a timtimee whewhenn ththee OttomaOttomann governmentgovernment wawass divideddivided oveoverr ththee propeproperr directiondirection iinn whicwhichh ttoo steesteerr itsits policypolicy.. OOnn ththee oneone hanhandd liberaliberall Western-Western- influenceinfluencedd politicianpoliticianss soughtsought ttoo brinbringg a Western-modeWestern-modell constitutionaconstitutionall systesystemm ttoo thethe

EmpirEmpiree whicwhichh woulwouldd ultimatelultimatelyy limilimitt ththee powepowerr ooff ththee sultanatsultanatee andand vesvestt powepowerr inin a representativrepresentativee parliamentparliament.. OnOn ththee otherother handhand,, conservativconservativee politicianpoliticianss promotepromotedd a strongstrong sultanatsultanatee anandd soughsoughtt ttoo movmovee awayaway frofromm WesternizinWesternizingg ththee politicapoliticall system.system. AbdUlhamidAbdulhamid

IIII wawass parpartt thethe latterlatter camp,camp, thosethose whowho promotepromotedd ththee restructurinrestructuringg oftheof the OttomanOttoman politicalpolitical systesystemm ttoo reflecreflectt whawhatt iitt hahadd beebeenn beforbeforee thethe introductiointroductionn ooff ththee WesternizinWesternizingg tanzimattanzimat reforms.refonns. 115115 WitWithh ththee promulgatiopromulgationn ooff ththee constitutioconstitutionn failingfailing ttoo detedeterr ththee greatergreater powerspowers

114114 JanuarJanuaryy 2525,1880, 1880 telegratelegramm sensentt ttoo ththee commandecommanderr ooff ththee fourthfourth divisiodivisionn ooff ththee armyarmy FadlFadlii PashPashaa bbyy ththee RussiaRussiann ConsuConsull iinn VanVan,, citecitedd iinn CelilCelil,, Intifada,Intzfada, 105105.. 111155 FoForr furthefurtherr detaildetailss oonn ththee dividedivide iinn ththee OttomaOttomann governmengovernmentt seesee ButruButruss Abu-Manneh,Abu-Manneh, "The"The SultanSultan anandd ththee BureaucracyBureaucracy:: ThThee Anti-TanzimaAnti-Tanzimatt ConceptConceptss ooff GrandGrand VizieVizierr MahmudMahmud 6262 frofromm intervenininterveningg iinn ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire,, ththee Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish WarWar provideprovidedd thethe impetusimpetus foforr ththee SultanSultan ttoo dissolvedissolve parliamenparliamentt andand suspensuspendd ththee constitutioconstitutionn onon FebruaryFebruary 14,14, 1878,1878, onlonlyy twtwoo weekweekss afterafter ththee RussianRussianss accepteacceptedd a trucetruce.. ThiThiss commencecommencedd a neneww ereraa ofof

OttomaOttomann governmengovernmentt iinn whicwhichh powepowerr wawass vestevestedd completelcompletelyy iinn ththee sultanatesultanate anandd inin whicwhichh whawhatt wawass claimeclaimedd ttoo bbee traditionatraditionall IslamiIslamicc normnormss becambecamee ththee mediumediumm ofof governancegovernance..

FollowinFollowingg ththee warwar,, SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII wawass obligeobligedd ttoo acknowledgacknowledgee thethe

BalkanBalkanss asas "limbs."limbs .... .tha thatt coulcouldd bbee amputateamputatedd withouwithoutt fatalfatal effect;effect;"" centracentrall anandd easterneastern

Anatolia, on the other hand were "the body of the Ottoman state.,,116116 Either by fate, or Anatolia, on the other hand were "the body of the Ottoman state." Either by fate, or Machiavellian scheming, Abdiilhamid managed, during his thirty-three years in power, to Machiavellian scheming, Abdulhamid managed, during his thirty-three years in power, to end up winning a long and drawn-out contest for eastern Anatolia against the tenacious end up winning a long and drawn-out contest for eastern Anatolia against the tenacious arms of the British, the Russians, and the Armenian nationalists, although he achieved arms of the British, the Russians, and the Armenian nationalists, although he achieved much notoriety on a global level in the struggle to realize such victory over the region. much notoriety on a global level in the struggle to realize such victory over the region. His critics blamed him for creating division between the Kurds and Armenians and His critics blamed him for creating division between the Kurds and Armenians and massacring tens of thousands of Armenians, frequently referring to him as the "Red massacring tens of thousands of Armenians, frequently referring to him as the "Red Sultan," "the butcher," and "Armenophobe." "He it is who is responsible," wrote James Sultan," "the butcher," and "Armenophobe." "He it is who is responsible," wrote James Wilson Pierce in 1896, "not the Kurds and Turks, who have only been the instruments of Wilson Pierce in 1896, "not the Kurds and Turks, who have only been the instruments of his cruelty."lI7 Most remarkable, however, is that after the conflict in the mid-1890s the his cruelty."117 Most remarkable, however, is that after the conflict in the mid-1890s the legacy of Sultan Abdiilhamid II in eastern Anatolia appeared to cast a shadow over the legacy of Sultan Abdulhamid II in eastern Anatolia appeared to cast a shadow over the factors that had led to the rise of the Armenian question before the Russo-Turkish War. factors that had led to the rise of the Armenian question before the Russo-Turkish War.

NediNedimm Pasa,Pasa,"" International Journal ofa/Middle Middle East Studies 2222,, nono.. 3 (August(August 1990):1990): 257-257- 274274.. 116116 MesroMesrobb KK.. KrikorianKrikorian,, Armenians in the Service ofa/the the Ottoman Empire 1860-19081860-1908 (London(London:: RoutledgRoutledgee andand KeagaKeagann PauPaull Ltd.,Ltd., 1977),7.1977), 7. 6363

TheThe notionotionn thathatt ArmeniaAnneniann andand KurdisKurdishh societysociety suddenlsuddenlyy becambecamee divideddivided andand polarizedpolarized upouponn hihiss risrisee ttoo powepowerr begabegann ttoo taktakee holholdd afteafterr ththee conflictconflict iinn ththee 1890s.1890s. GeneralGeneral

MayewskiMayewski,, RussiaRussiann ConsulConsul GeneralGeneral ttoo ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire iinn BitliBitliss anandd VanVan,, wrote:wrote:

"Before"Before ththee outbreakoutbreak ooff ththee Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh WaWarr iinn 1877,1877, nnoo enmitenmityy wawass witnessedwitnessed

118 between [Kurds and Annenians] and they generally got by like brothers." I 18 between [Kurds and Armenians] and they generally got by like brothers." Abdurrahman Bedr Khan, who came out against the sultan and sided with his opponents Abdurrahman Bedr Khan, who came out against the sultan and sided with his opponents the Young Turks, wrote in the journal Kurdistan in 1900: the Young Turks, wrote in the journal Kurdistan in 1900: Before [Abdiilhamid II] ascended the throne, the Kurds were knowledgeable and Before [Abdulhamid II] ascended the throne, the Kurds were knowledgeable and civilized people, having brotherly relations with Annenians and avoiding any civilized people, having brotherly relations with Armenians and avoiding any kind of confrontations. Then what happened? Did [Kurdish] civilization and kind of confrontations. Then what happened? Did [Kurdish] civilization and knowledge tum into barbarity, ignorance, and organized rebellion? Who else knowledge turn into barbarity, ignorance, and organized rebellion? Who else carries out the atrocities in Kurdistan but the members of the divisions, carries out the atrocities in Kurdistan but the members of the Hamidiye divisions, who are anned by the sultan and proud of being loyal to him?119 who are armed by the sultan and proud of being loyal to him?119

GivenGiven ththee levellevel ooff hostilityhostility voicevoicedd towardtowardss ththee sultasultann laterlater iinn hihiss reignreign,, iitt isis remarkablremarkablee thathatt immediatelimmediatelyy followinfollowingg ththee Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish WarWar,, BritisBritishh officialsofficials regardedregarded hihimm asas compliantcompliant.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo SirSir HenryHenry LayardLayard,, whwhoo wawass iinn chargecharge ofof implementingimplementing ththee reformrefonnss foforr ththee ArmenianAnnenianss inin 1878,1878, ththee sultansultan appearedappeared ttoo bbee "a"a liberaliberall andand enlightenedenlightened monarch."monarch.,,12o120 ItIt iiss furtherfurther remarkablremarkablee thathatt Abdulhamid'Abdiilhamid'ss "personal"personal financesfinances werewere handlehandledd bbyy a well-knowwell-knownn ArmeniaAnneniann GalataGalata bankerbanker,, HagoHagopp ZarifZarifii BeyBey,, from whomwhom hhee gainedgained a knowledgknowledgee ooff financfinancee anandd economicseconomics thathatt wawass ttoo servservee hihimm wellwell iinn laterlater

117117 JameJamess WilsoWilsonn PiercePierce,, Story ofo/Turkey Turkey and Armenia (R.H(R.H.. WoodwarWoodwardd Company,Company, 1896),1896), 9191.. 118118 General Mayewski, Rus General MayewskiLJnin Dogu Anadolu Raporu: Van ve Bitlis General Mayewski, Rus General MayewskiUnin Dogu Anadolu Raporu: Van ve Bitlis Vilayetleri Askeri Istatistiki (Van: Van Belediye Ba~kanhgl, Killtilr ve Sosyal i~ler Vilayetleri Askeri Istatistiki (Van: Van Belediye Baskanhgi, Kultiir ve Sosyal Isjer MildilrlUgil, 1997), 171. Mudurlugii, 1997), 171. 119 Abdurrahman Bedr Khan, "Kiirdler ve Enneniler" [Kurds and Annenians], Kurdistan 119 Abdurrahman Bedr Khan, "Kiirdler ve Ermeniler" [Kurds and Armenians], Kurdistan 26, (Dec. 14, 1900), cited in Klein, "Power in the Periphery: The Hamidiye Light 26, (Dec. 14, 1900), cited in Klein, "Power in the Periphery: The Hamidiye Light Cavalry and the Struggle over Ottoman Kurdistan, 1890-1914" (PhD diss., Princeton University, and the Struggle over Ottoman Kurdistan, 1890-1914" (PhD diss., Princeton University, 2002),96. 2002), 96. 6464

121 times.times.,,121" NNoo mattematterr whawhatt ththee sultan'ssultan's initiainitiall intentionintentionss mamayy havhavee beebeenn inin relationrelation ttoo thethe

ArmenianAnnenianss inin easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, hihiss lossloss ofof ththee wawarr madmadee hihimm appearappear eveevenn moremore powerlesspowerless.. KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaAnneniann leaderleaderss werweree predominantlpredominantlyy preoccupiepreoccupiedd witwithh thethe politicapoliticall actionactionss ofof RussiRussiaa andand BritainBritain anandd rarelrarelyy expresseexpressedd uneasuneasee oror concernconcern atat thethe factfact thathatt ththee sultansultan hahadd seizedseized completcompletee powepowerr iinn 18781878 byby dissolvindissolvingg ththee parliamenparliamentt andand suspendingsuspending ththee constitution.constitution.

EffectEffectss ofof ththee WaWarr onon ArmeniaAnneniann anandd KurdisKurdishh LoyaltiesLoyalties

ThThee wawarr hahadd a paradoxicaparadoxicall effeceffectt oonn ththee relationshirelationshipp betweebetweenn ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire andand ththee inhabitantinhabitantss ofof easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia.. OOnn ththee oneone handhand,, ththee warwar promptepromptedd ththee OttomansOttomans ttoo penetratpenetratee deepldeeplyy intintoo regionregionss ooff easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa thathatt hahadd hitherthithertoo beebeenn relativelyrelatively autonomousautonomous iinn ordeorderr ttoo gathegatherr resourcesresources,, taxestaxes,, andand militarmilitaryy recruits;recruits; oonn ththee otherother,, thethe

OttomansOttomans'' removaremovall ofof trooptroopss from manmanyy regionregionss ofof eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia ttoo fightfight iinn otherother partsparts ooff ththee EmpirEmpiree decreasedecreasedd overaloveralll securitysecurity anandd createdcreated a politicapoliticall vacuuvacuumm inin thethe regionregion ofof whicwhichh manmanyy KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaAnneniann leaders,leaders, whwhoo hahadd beebeenn anticipatinganticipating windowwindowss ofof opportunityopportunity ttoo mobilizmobilizee powepowerr anandd taketake greategreaterr controlcontrol,, tootookk advantage.advantage.

IInn OctobeOctoberr 18771877 itit wawass reportereportedd thathatt manmanyy nomadinomadicc tribetribess inhabitinginhabiting thethe SasunSasun mountainmountainss hahadd descendeddescended upouponn villagevillagess inin DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr andand MushMush provinceprovincess engagingengaging inin bloobloodd feudsfeuds witwithh rivarivall tribetribess inin anan attemptattempt ttoo regairegainn powepowerr andand lanlandd loslostt toto thethemm decadesdecades earlierearlier.. KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianAnnenianss perisheperishedd theitheirr campaignscampaigns.. OnOnee reportereporterr writeswrites:: "While"While I wawass iinn ththee PashaliPashalicc ooff DiarbakirDiarbakir,, nnoo leslesss thathann threthreee MahommedaMahommedann chiefschiefs werweree murderedmurdered

12012U LayardLayard,, Therapia,Therapia, ttoo Salisbury,Salisbury, 126126 ooff NovembeNovemberr 2222,, 1879,1879, F.O.F.O.,, 424/91,424/91, citecitedd inin DuguidDuguid,, 142.142. 121 121 StanforStanfordd ShawShaw,, History a/theof the Ottoman Empire (Cambridge(Cambridge:: CambridgCambridgee UniversityUniversity PressPress,, 1977),1977), 22:: 172172.. 6655

i on by these robbers for the sake of their property.,,122 Pent up tensions between tribes were by these robbers for the sake of their property." Pent up tensions between tribes were high and conflict was reported to have arisen over such paltry matters as the possession high and conflict was reported to have arisen over such paltry matters as the possession of a gun. The local authorities in Van and Diyarbakir were too often too weak to stave of a gun. The local authorities in Van and Diyarbakir were too often too weak to stave off the onslaught of nomadic Kurdish tribes, arrest them, or prosecute them for criminal off the onslaught of nomadic Kurdish tribes, arrest them, or prosecute them for criminal acts. The Ottoman military was off fighting in the northeast and the armed forces acts. The Ottoman military was off fighting in the northeast and the armed forces available to them often consisted of Kurds whose loyalty was questionable. available to them often consisted of Kurds whose loyalty was questionable. Armenians in the Zeitoun region, who had been fiercely independent since the Armenians in the Zeitoun region, who had been fiercely independent since the , staged a rebellion against the Ottomans. In 1877 an influential Armenian Crimean War, staged a rebellion against the Ottomans. In 1877 an influential Armenian leader in Zeitoun by the name of Babek rallied a number of Armenians together to revolt leader in Zeitoun by the name of Babek rallied a number of Armenians together to revolt against the Ottomans on the grounds of their continual and burdensome demands for against the Ottomans on the grounds of their continual and burdensome demands for money and animals from the Armenians to support the war effort. For months Babek and money and animals from the Armenians to support the war effort. For months Babek and his men wreaked havoc upon surrounding Turkish villages, looting, plundering, and his men wreaked havoc upon surrounding Turkish villages, looting, plundering, and murdering. The unrest prompted the Ottomans to intervene physically in Zeitoun in murdering. The unrest prompted the Ottomans to intervene physically in Zeitoun in September 1878. After a visit to the area, Lieutenant Chermside reported that "the September 1878. After a visit to the area, Lieutenant Chermside reported that "the condition of the town and people ofZeitoun is a disgrace to any Govemment.,,123123 conditioAlthoughn of the tow then declaredand peopl aime o off Zeitou the Ottomansn is a disgrac was eto t orestore any Government. order in Zeitoun," the move provokedAlthough a thnumbere declare ofd Armenians, aim of the hithertoOttoman nots wa involveds to restor ine theorde Babekr in Zeitoun revolt,, toth etake movaction.e provoke In November,d a numbe anr Annenianof Armenians cleric, hithert by theo namenot involve of Delid Papazin the Babe(Crazyk revolt Priest),, to who tak e consideredaction. In November the Ottoman, an presence Armenia inn cleriZeitounc by anth eoccupation, name of Del traveledi Papaz from(Craz Istanbuly Priest) to, who

Zeitounconsidere andd th incitede Ottoma thcn Armenianspresence in to Zeitou rebel nyet an again.occupation 124 Conflicts, travele dbetween from Istanbu Armenians,l to

Zeitoun and incited the Armenians to rebel yet again.124 Conflicts between Armenians,

Ul 122 MrMr.. RassaRassamm ttoo MrMr.. LayardLayard,, VanVan,, OctobeOctoberr 15,1877,15, 1877, FOFO 424/62424/62,, pppp.. 142-145,142-145, no.no. 245/245111 iinn British Documents, ed.ed. $imsirSim~ir,, 1:1: 9797.. 123 Turkey No.No.1 1 (1880)(1880),, 7373 (Parliament:(Parliament: SessionalSessional PapersPapers.. AccountsAccounts andand Papers.Papers. Turkey,Turkey, forfor ththee yearyearss 1877-1881),1877-1881), citedcited inin Sarkissian,Sarkissian, 102.102. 124124 Sonycl,Sonyel, 67.67. " 6666

KurdsKurds,, andand TurksTurks escalatedescalated ttoo a widewiderr areareaa throughouthroughoutt ththee ZeitouZeitounn regionregion.. ByBy FebruaryFebruary

18791879 numerounumerouss clasheclashess betweebetweenn armedarmed MusliMuslimm groupsgroups andand ArmenianArmenianss brokbrokee out,out, promptinpromptingg BritisBritishh officialsofficials ttoo demanddemand thethe OttomanOttomanss ttoo launclaunchh aann inquirinquiryy intintoo ththee mattermatter anandd expediteexpedite reformreformss affectingaffecting ththee ArmeniansArmenians.. A renewerenewedd efforeffortt bbyy ththee OttomanOttomanss toto interveneintervene iinn ZeitouZeitounn proveprovedd ttoo bbee a failurefailure anandd promptepromptedd increaseincreasedd clashesclashes betweenbetween

ArmenianArmenianss anandd MuslimsMuslims.. IItt wawass onlonlyy whewhenn ththee BritisBritishh interveneintervenedd diplomatically,diplomatically, offerinofferingg BabeBabekk protectioprotectionn frofromm MusliMuslimm reprisareprisall iinn exchangeexchange foforr a tructrucee witwithh thethe

Ottomans, that the debacle in Zeitoun was eventually settled in November 1879. 125125 Ottomans, that the debacle in Zeitoun was eventually settled in November 1879. The Babek revolt was a loss for the Ottomans. They failed to oust the Armenian The Babek revolt was a loss for the Ottomans. They failed to oust the Armenian rebels from the mountains, Babek gained an amnesty, and they were coerced by the rebels from the mountains, Babek gained an amnesty, and they were coerced by the British to provide protection for the rebels in their mountain refuge. Babek gained British to provide protection for the rebels in their mountain refuge. Babek gained widespread popularity among the Zeitouni Armenians as a result of the revolt, and was widespread popularity among the Zeitouni Armenians as a result of the revolt, and was eventually named the president of the municipality of Zeitoun. The arrangements eventually named the president of the municipality of Zeitoun. The arrangements particularly angered the Muslim administration in the vi/ayet ofMara~ whom the British particularly angered the Muslim administration in the vilayet of Maras whom the British suspected of trying to plot revenge against him. These suspicions were confirmed in July suspected of trying to plot revenge against him. These suspicions were confirmed in July 1884 when the kaimmakam ofMara~ attempted to arrest Babek on charges of tax evasion, 1884 when the kaimmakam of Maras attempted to arrest Babek on charges of tax evasion, but managed to escape to the mountains with some two hundred to three hundred but managed to escape to the mountains with some two hundred to three hundred followers. The kaimmakam organized a force to pursue the fugitives and provoked a followers. The kaimmakam organized a force to pursue the fugitives and provoked a group of armed Annenian resistors to fire on them. The event alarmed both the British group of armed Armenian resistors to fire on them. The event alarmed both the British and the Porte who admonished the vali of Aleppo and the kaimmakam of Mara~ not to and the Porte who admonished the vali of Aleppo and the kaimmakam of Maras not to take rash action and to refrain from stoking the fires of yet another rebellion. take rash action and to refrain from stoking the fires of yet another rebellion. Interestingly the turf battle planted the seeds of discord between the Armenians Interestingly the turf battle planted the seeds of discord between the Armenians

125125 ConsulConsul HendersonHenderson toto SirSir HenrHenryy LayardLayard,, NargizlikNargizlik,, JunJunee 2626,, 1879,1879, FFOO 424/85424/85,, pp.. 9898-- 6767 themselvethemselvess moremore thathann betweenbetween ththee Ottomans,Ottomans, whwhoo werweree diplomaticalldiplomaticallyy boundbound bbyy thethe

BritisBritishh atat ththee time,time, andand ththee ArmeniansArmenians.. GregorianGregorian OrthodoxOrthodox ArmeniansArmenians,, fearingfearing reprisalsreprisals woulwouldd bbee aimeaimedd atat themthem,, placeplacedd ththee blamblamee oonn ththee ArmeniaArmeniann CatholicCatholic BishoBishopp ofof Mara~Maras

126 anandd hihiss flocflockk forfor provokinprovokingg ththee incident.incident. 126

ManManyy ArmeniansArmenians,, mostlmostlyy ththee educateeducatedd urbaurbann eliteelite,, diddid nonott regarregardd ththee KurdKurdss alonealone asas ththee greatesgreatestt threathreatt ttoo ththee ArmeniaAnneniann peasantrypeasantry.. RatherRather,, manmanyy ArmenianArmenianss sawsaw a greatergreater threathreatt iinn ththee powepowerr strugglstrugglee betweebetweenn KurdisKurdishh tribetribess forfor controcontroll ofof ththee land.land. TheThe followingfollowing reporreportt frofromm MajoMajorr TrotteTrotterr showsshows thathatt iinn manmanyy partpartss ooff eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia,, KurdKurdss andand

ArmenianArmenianss werweree nonott pittepittedd againsagainstt eacheach otheotherr basebasedd oonn ethniethnicc distinctions;distinctions; rather,rather,

ArmenianArmenianss werweree merelmerelyy caughtcaught iinn ththee middlmiddlee ooff ththee rampagerampagess ooff outsideoutsiderr Kurds-mostlyKurds—mostly tribal-nomads-attemptingtribal-nomads—attempting ttoo collectcollect duesdues,, asserassertt authorityauthority oveoverr rivarivall tribes,tribes, oror repelrepel

OttomaOttomann control:control:

127 I stopped a few minutes at the village [Madrak, in the Chabakchur district] 127 and I stopped a few minutes at the village [Madrak, in the Chabakchur district] and was at once surrounded by a crowd of Armenians, who, while loudly complaining was at once surrounded by a crowd of Armenians, who, while loudly complaining of the misdeeds of the Kurds from the neighbouring country, professed to be on of the misdeeds of the Kurds from the neighbouring country, professed to be on good terms with, and well treated by, the Kurds of their own village; and in truth good terms with, and well treated by, the Kurds of their own village; and in truth the Kurdish priest or imam was standing by, and joining in all the assertions of the the Kurdish priest or imam was standing by, and joining in all the assertions of the Annenian priest, who was the principal spokesman. There is no doubt that not Armenian priest, who was the principal spokesman. There is no doubt that not only do both Christians and Kurds suffer terribly from bands of roving insurgent only do both Christians and Kurds suffer terribly from bands of roving insurgent Kurds from the neighbouring mountains, but in many villages the Armenians also Kurds from the neighbouring mountains, but in many villages the Armenians also suffer terrible oppression at the hands of their own [Kurdish] beys and aghas, the suffer terrible oppression at the hands of their own [Kurdish] beys and aghas, the old feudal lords of the soil. As far as I can make out, these beys, however old feudal lords of the soil. As far as I can make out, these beys, however oppressive themselves, are willing to protect their own subjects, as far as lies in oppressive themselves, are willing to protect their own subjects, as far as lies in their power, from external violence, but in the present disorganised state of the their power, from external violence, but in the present disorganised state of the country they can defend neither their Christian serfs not their own countr··y the. y ca128n defend neither their Christian serfs not their own core1 IglOnIStS. i no coreligionists.

9999,, nono.. 185/185111 iinn British Documents, eded.. §im§irSim~ir,, 1:1: 461-462.461-462. 126126 ActinActingg ConsulConsul CalvertCalvert ttoo ththee EarlEarl ooff DufferinDufferin,, AugusAugustt 11,11, 1884,1884, FFOO 4241141,424/141, pp.. 44,, no.no. 431143/1 iinn British Documents, eded.. $im§irSim~ir,, 2:2: 499.499. 127 ChabakchourChabakchour isis ththee ArmeniaAnneniann namnamee forfor ththee modemodemm citcityy ofof BingBinge)}o 1 locatedlocated southwestsouthwest ofof Erzurum.Erzurum. 128128 TurkeTurkeyy nono.. 1010 (1879),(1879), pp.. 15,15, citecitedd iinn WalkerWalker,, 123123.. 6868

InIn somesome instanceinstancess itit appearedappeared thathatt ththee wawarr broughbroughtt KurdsKurds andand ArmeniansArmenians closercloser togethertogether.. ColonelColonel WilsoWilsonn reportereportedd thathatt manmanyy Shi'iShi'i KurdKurdss complainedcomplained ofof TurkishTurkish officialsofficials'' illill treatmentreatmentt towardtowardss themthem andand eveneven consideredconsidered conversionconversion ttoo ChristianitChristianityy inin ordeorderr toto avoiavoidd militarmilitaryy service.service. OtherOther KurdisKurdishh tribetribess ofof ArmeniaArmeniann origin,origin, hhee wrote,wrote, expressedexpressed thethe desirdesiree ttoo converconvertt ttoo ChristianitChristianityy iinn thethe hophopee ooff beinbeingg ablablee ttoo taktakee parpartt iinn thethe governancgovemancee ofof aann autonomouautonomouss ArmeniaAnnenia.. HHee furthefurtherr believebelievedd thertheree ttoo bbee possibilitiepossibilitiess ofof aann alliancalliancee betweebetweenn KurdKurdss anandd ArmeniansArmenians:: "It"It seemeseemedd ttoo mmee preposteroupreposterouss thatthat therethere shouldshould bbee anyany harmonharmonyy betweebetweenn twtwoo raceracess apparentlapparentlyy soso antagonistic,antagonistic, bubutt itit appearsappears thatthat negotiationsnegotiations,, undeunderr thethe pretexpretextt ooff tradetrade,, araree atat thithiss momenmomentt beinbeingg carriecarriedd oonn witwithh thethe

Dersim Kurds, and also with a powerful Chief in the neighborhood ofMush.,,129129 Shaykh Dersim Kurds, and also with a powerful Chief in the neighborhood of Mush." Shaykh 'Ubaydullah, it was believed, was also considering joining such an alliance on the 'Ubaydullah, it was believed, was also considerin130 g joining such an alliance on the condition that he would playa leading role. 130 conditioKurdsn that throughouthe would pla eastemy a leadin Anatolia,g role . particularly in the southeast, were fearful that

OttomanKurd actionss throughou were indeedt easter carvingn Anatolia out a, particularlgeographicy spacein the forsoutheast an autonomous, were fearfu l that

Armenia.Ottoman actionShaykhs wer 'Ubaydullahe indeed carvin apparentlyg out a saidgeographi the followingc space fotor anan Ottomanautonomou officials in

Armeniareaction .to Shaykthe ongoingh 'Ubaydulla politicalh apparentldevelopmentsy said inth eeastem followin Anatolia:g to an Ottoman official in reactionWhat to th eis ongoin this I hear,g politica that lthe development Armenianss arein easter goingn toAnatolia have an: independent state in WhaVan,t andis thi thats I hearthe Nestorians, that the Armenian are goings toar ehoist goin theg to British have a nflag independen and declaret stat e in themselvesVan, and tha Britisht the Nestorian subjects?s arI ewill goin neverg to hoispermitt th it,e Britiseven hif fla I haveg and to declar arm thee themselves British subjects? I will never permit it, even if I have to arm the

129 MemoranduMemorandumm bbyy Lieutenant-ColoneLieutenant-Colonell WilsonWilson onon AnatoliAnatoliaa anandd necessarnecessaryy Reforms,Reforms, JuneJune 2222,, 1880,1880, FFOO 4241107,424/107, pppp.. 2-42-4,, no.no. 2,2, inin British Documents, cd.ed. §imsirSim~ir,, 22:: 70.70. 130130 §imsirSim~ir,, British Documents, 2: 172.172. IInn JanuarJanuaryy 18811881 ColonelColonel WilsoWilsonn latelaterr dismisseddismissed hihiss beliebelieff thatthat a Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann alliancealliance woulwouldd form:form: "A"A rumourumourr ofof a rapprochementrapprochement betweebetweenn KurdKurdss anandd ArmenianArmenianss iiss nonott ononee ttoo whichwhich I woulwouldd attachattach mucmuchh importanceimportance.. IInn manymany districtsdistricts,, howeverhowever,, commocommonn animositanimosityy ttoo ththee TurkTurk,, anandd ChrisitaChrisitann traditionstraditions,, havehave maintainedmaintained kindlkindlyy feelingfeelingss betweebetweenn ththee ArmenianArmenianss andand Kizil-BashKizil-Bash KurdKurdss (not(not inin Kurdistan). " 6969

women.,,131women."131

IInn 1878,1878, anticipatinganticipating thatthat majomajorr administrativadministrativee reformreformss woulwouldd bbee imposeimposedd thathatt wouldwould

alteralter ththee KurdsKurds'' rolrolee iinn localocall politicspolitics,, ShaykhShaykh 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh establisheestablishedd aann organizationorganization

knowknownn asas ththee KurdisKurdishh LeagueLeague,, joininjoiningg togethetogetherr a numbenumberr ooff prominenprominentt KurdishKurdish tribaltribal

chiefschiefs andand beys. OneOne ofof ththee sonssons ofof BedBedrr KhanKhan,, BahrBahrii BeyBey,, actedacted asas anan emissaryemissary forfor thethe

KurdishKurdish LeagueLeague,, gaininggaining ththee supporsupportt ofof KurdisKurdishh tribatriball leaderleaderss iinn ththee surroundingsurrounding areas,areas,

particularlparticularlyy CizreCizre,, wherewhere hehe andand hihiss familyfamily hahadd ththee mosmostt influence.influence. 132132

ManManyy BritisBritishh officialsofficials initiallinitiallyy fearefearedd thathatt ShaykhShaykh 'Ubaydullah'Ubaydullah woulwouldd maintainmaintain

hihiss alliancalliancee witwithh ththee OttomansOttomans andand initiateinitiate a militarmilitaryy campaigcampaignn againstagainst ththee ArmenianArmenianss inin

VaVann andand HakkariHakkari toto prevenpreventt thethemm from seizingseizing control.control. BritishBritish AmbassadoAmbassadorr LayardLayard

suspectedsuspected thathatt SamihSamih PasaPa~a,, ththee FourthFourth ArmyArmy commander,commander, wawass bribinbribingg 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh andand

otherother KurdisKurdishh chiefs-whosechiefs—whose priopriorr actionsactions againsagainstt ththee ChristiansChristians,, accordinaccordingg ttoo ththee report,report,

'merite'merite lala cordcordee [warrant[warrant ththee noose]'—witnoose] '-withh giftgiftss andand monemoneyy iinn orderorder ttoo maintaimaintainn theirtheir

loyalty.loyalty.133133 AbbottAbbott,, ththee BritisBritishh consuconsull inin Tabriz,Tabriz, believebelievedd ththee sheikhsheikh ttoo bbee "carrying"carrying outout

ththee wisheswishes ofof ththee retrogradretrogradee partpartyy iinn TurkeyTurkey"" anandd adviseadvisedd ththee BritisBritishh governmengovernmentt ttoo keepkeep

himhim undeunderr surveillance. 134134 ThThee ArmenianArmenianss alsalsoo fearefearedd anan alliancalliancee betweebetweenn ththee KurdKurdss andand

ththee Ottomans.Ottomans. InIn a letteletterr ttoo ththee ArmenianArmenian patriarchpatriarch,, KhrimiaKhrimiann statedstated hihiss suspicionsuspicion thatthat

ththee formationformation ofof ththee LeagueLeague wawass anan OttomanOttoman ployploy ttoo underminunderminee ArmeniaArmeniann politicapoliticall aims:aims:

"A"A KurdisKurdishh LeaguLeaguee iiss aboutabout ttoo bbee formedformed aatt ththee instigationinstigation ofof ththee CentraCentrall Government,Government,

131131 EnclosurEnclosuree iinn NoNo.7,. 7, ClaytoClaytonn toto Trotter,Trotter, BashkaleBashkale,, JulJulyy 11,11, 1880,1880, GreaGreatt BritainBritain,, TurkeyTurkey No.No.5 5 (1881),7.(1881), 7. 132132 Jwaideh,Jwaideh, 86-88.86-88. 133133 LayarLayardd ttoo thethe MarquiMarquiss ofof Salisbury,Salisbury, TherapiaTherapia,, NovembeNovemberr 17,1879,17, 1879, Turkey, nono.. 44,, 1880,1880, inin British Documents, ed.ed. §imsirSim~ir,, 1:1: 599.599. 134134 Consul-GeneralConsul-General AbbotAbbottt ttoo EarlEarl Granville,Granville, TabrizTabriz,, JulyJuly 13,1880,13, 1880, GreaGreatt BritainBritain,, Turkey,Turkey, nono.. 5,5, (1881),(1881), 8,8, citecitedd inin JwaidehJwaideh,, 8686.. 7700 whicwhichh desireddesired ttoo stiflestifle ththee ArmeniaArmeniann questioquestionn bbyy raisinraisingg a newnew one,one, thathatt ooff ththee Kurds."Kurds."

IInn ththee letteletterr KhrimiaKhrimiann furthefurtherr claimsclaims thathatt ththee LeaguLeaguee wawass "the"the OttomanOttoman policypolicy,, thethe

ShaykhShaykh EbedullaEbedullahh ititss nominanominall centercenter;; BahrBahrii BeyBey itsits assiduouassiduouss emissary.,,135emissary."

DespitDespitee suspicionssuspicions thathatt ththee KurdKurdss werweree operatinoperatingg undeunderr secretsecret OttomanOttoman command,command, thertheree iiss nnoo evidenceevidence forfor thisthis.. OnOn thethe contrary,contrary, thertheree wawass a palpablpalpablee feafearr amongamong PortePorte officialofficialss thatthat ththee MusliMuslimm andand ChristiaChristiann populationpopulationss woulwouldd unitunitee andand stagestage a massivemassive rebellionrebellion.. InIn thethe fallfall ooff 1878,1878, ththee sonsonss ofof BedBedrr Khan,Khan, HusseiHusseinn BeBeyy anandd OsmaOsmann BeyBey,, leledd a numbenumberr ofof KurdisKurdishh tribetribess ttoo taketake theitheirr homelanhomelandd CizreCizre,, locatelocatedd betweebetweenn MosuMosull andand

DiyarbakirDiyarbakir.. LocaLocall OttomaOttomann officialsofficials,, doubtindoubtingg ththee powepowerr ofof theitheirr owownn armieanniess toto prevailprevail againstagainst ththee KurdisKurdishh tribatriball forces,forces, flefledd iinn terrorterror,, anandd ththee KurdisKurdishh forcesforces enteredentered CizreCizre unchallengedunchallenged.. ThiThiss movemenmovementt towardtowardss whawhatt appearedappeared ttoo bbee thethe establishmentestablishment ooff anan

'independent'independent'' (most(most likellikelyy autonomousautonomous)) KurdisKurdishh statestate wawass not,not, howeverhowever,, lonlongg toleratedtolerated bbyy ththee Porte.Porte. SendingSending iinn somesome seventeeseventeenn militarmilitaryy regimentregimentss from DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, ,Erzincan, anandd Erzurum,Erzurum, ththee PortePorte soughtsought ttoo curtaicurtaill thethe spreadspread ofof ththee campaigcampaignn ooff ththee sonssons ofBedrof Bedr

KhanKhan andand eliminateliminatee allall resistanceresistance.. AlthougAlthoughh thethe KurdishKurdish tribatriball forcforcee wawass ableable ttoo fendfend offoff ththee OttomanOttoman forcesforces foforr a while,while, iitt couldcould nonott withstanwithstandd a majomajorr influinfluxx ooff OttomanOttoman regiments in the region and eventually surrendered. 136136 regiments in the region and eventually surrendered. A number of other factors drove the Kurds to join the banner of 'Ubaydullah. A number of other factors drove the Kurds to join the banner of 'Ubaydullah. Increases in property taxes (emlak vergisi) and sheep taxes (agnam vergisi), imposed by Increases in property taxes (emlak vergisi) and sheep taxes (agnam vergisi), imposed by the Ottomans to offset the economic crisis of the 1870s severely affected the majority of the Ottomans to offset the economic crisis of the 1870s severely affected the majority of the rural, predominantly pastoral-nomadic . The appointment of state- the rural, predominantly pastoral-nomadic Kurdish population. The appointment of state-

135 MgrditcMgrditchh KrimiaKrimiann ttoo ththee ArmeniaAm1eniann PatriarchPatriarch,, VanVan,, JunJunee 2020,, 1880,1880, inin GreaGreatt Britain,Britain, Turkey, nono.. 5 (1881),(1881), 8 citedcited iinn Jwaideh,Jwaideh, 8787.. 136136 Celil,Celil, Intifada,Intifada. 46.46. 7171 employeemployedd tax-collectortax-collectorss furthefurtherr upseupsett thosthosee KurdKurdss whwhoo hahadd enjoyedenjoyed eithereither tataxx exemptionexemption oorr tataxx collectiocollectionn privilegesprivileges.. IncreaseIncreasedd taxatiotaxationn ooff agricultureagriculture,, compoundedcompounded witwithh risingrising inflatioinflationn anandd ththee devaluatiodevaluationn ooff ththee currencycurrency,, forcedforced uupp pricepricess ooff graingrainss andand breadbread throughouthroughoutt ththee semiurbansemiurban areasareas ooff eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia,, andand ththee administrationsadministrations ooff Erzurum,Erzurum,

137137 Diyarbakir, and Mosul reported massive food shortages and rioting in 1879 and 1880. Diyarbakir, and Mosul reported massive food shortages and rioting in 1879 and 1880. According to a petition by the Armenian Patriarch dated May, 1890, widespread famine According to a petition by the Armenian Patriarch dated May, 1890, widespread famine was behind the raids of the Kurds against the Armenians. 138 was behind the raids of the Kurds against the Armenians.138 'Ubaydullah's exact political aims following the Russo-Turkish War are unclear, 'Ubaydullah's exact political aims following the Russo-Turkish War are unclear, and some of his letters suggest that he was pursuing a Kurdish nationalist agenda. He and some of his letters suggest that he was pursuing a Kurdish nationalist agenda. He wrote to Vice-Consul Clayton: "The Kurdish nation is a people apart. Their religion is wrote to Vice-Consul Clayton: "The Kurdish nation is a people apart. Their religion is different, and their laws and customs are distinct. . .. We want our affairs to be in our different, and their laws and customs are distinct.... We want our affairs to be in our hands .... Otherwise the whole of Kurdistan will take the matter into their own hands.,,139139 hands...However,. Otherwisgiven hise constant the whol shiftinge of Kurdista of loyalties,n will takande thhise habitmatte rof int formingo their owalliancesn hands. with"

Howeverwhatever, powergiven hiwoulds constan givet himshiftin a high-rankingg of loyalties position,, and his habihis appealt of formin to ang independentalliances wit h whateveKurdish rstate powe appearsr woul dto giv bee nothinghim a high-rankin more than grhetoric position influenced, his appea byl t ocontemporary an independen t nationalistKurdish stat trendse appear amongs to bthee nothin variousg mor Christiane than rhetorigroupsc in influence the Ottomand by contemporarEmpire. In ay letter nationalisto the Mart trendShimun,s amon the gleader the variou of thes NestorianChristian groupChristians,s in th e'Ubaydullah Ottoman Empire clarified. In his a lette r toppositiono the Mar Shimunto the Ottoman, the leade presencer of the inNestoria easternn AnatoliaChristians but, 'Ubaydulla suggests payingh clarifie a degreed his of oppositiotribute to nthe to Ottomansthe Ottoma inn orderpresenc to egain in easter the statusn Anatoli of "independenta but suggest princess payin gin a their degre e of tribute to the Ottomans in order to gain the status of "independent princes in their

13J377 HalfinHalfin,, XIX.XIX YiizyzldaYuzyilda KurdistanKiirdistan Uzerinde MilcadelelerMiicadeleler (Cagaloglu,(Cagaloglu, istanbul:Istanbul: KomalKomal Basim-Yayim-DagitimBasnll-Y ayIm-OagItIm,, 1992),1992), 8080.. 13J388 MehmeMehmett FiraFIratt KilicKiliy,, "Sheik"Sheikhh 'Ubaydullah's'Ubaydullah's MovementMovement"" (Master'(Master'ss thesisthesis,, BilkentBilkent UniversityUniversity,, 2003)2003),, 6363.. 139139 CiteCitedd iinn RoberRobertt OlsonOlson,, The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the Sheikh SaidSaid Rebellion, 1880-1925 (Austin(Austin:: UniversitUniversityy ofof TexasTexas PressPress,, 1989),1989), 22.. 7272 respectivrespectivee countries."countries.,,140140 ThThee suggestionsuggestion thathatt tributtributee bbee paipaidd ttoo gaingain OttomanOttoman recognitionrecognition ooff autonomautonomyy borboree somesome semblancsemblancee ttoo ththee politicapoliticall strategiesstrategies thathatt hahadd beebeenn employeemployedd byby

BedrBedr KhaKhann iinn ththee 1840s:1840s: makinmakingg bidsbids ttoo a numbenumberr ooff actoractorss foforr ththee purpospurposee ooff gaininggaining increaseincreasedd politicapoliticall power.power.

'Ubaydullah''Ubaydullah'ss attempattemptt ttoo rallrallyy supportsupport fromfrom localocall ChristianChristian groupgroupss cancan bebe interpreteinterpretedd asas a movmovee towardtowardss attractingattracting WesterWesternn EuropeaEuropeann sympathsympathyy foforr ththee KurdishKurdish causecause,, andand asas a wawayy ooff offsettinoffsettingg ththee establishmenestablishmentt ooff anan ArmenianArmenian state.state. TheThe MarMar

ShimunShimun rejecterejectedd 'Ubaydullah's'Ubaydullah's bibidd foforr a uniounionn betweebetweenn ththee NestorianNestorianss andand hihiss KurdishKurdish followersfollowers,, statinstatingg hihiss distrustdistrust foforr ththee sheiksheikhh basebasedd onon hihiss earlieearlierr indiscretionindiscretionss againstagainst

NestorianNestorianss andand otherother ChristiansChristians.. 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh alsoalso callecalledd foforr ththee cooperationcooperation ooflocalf local

Armenians,Armenians, whowho,, liklikee ththee NestoriansNestorians,, werweree warwaryy ofof hihiss trutruee objectives.objectives. 141141

BetweenBetween 18801880 anandd 18821882 'Ubaydullah'Ubaydullah embarkedembarked oonn a lengthylengthy andand complexcomplex bibidd forfor powerpower.. IInn 18801880 hhee launchedlaunched anan invasioninvasion ofof PersiPersiaa witwithh OttomaOttomann backingbacking;; a yeayearr laterlater hehe incitedincited ththee KurdKurdss ttoo risrisee upup againstagainst ththee Ottomans.Ottomans. UltimatelUltimatelyy hhee wawass deemeddeemed anan untrustworthuntrustworthyy charactecharacterr iinn easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa andand wawass forceforcedd ttoo surrendersurrender afterafter aann attemptattempt ttoo taktakee ththee towtownn ofof AmadiAmadiaa witwithh hihiss sonson AbdulkadirAbdiilkadir.. HHee wawass exiledexiled toto MedinMedinaa wherwheree hehe diediedd inin 18831883..

OnOnee ofof ththee majomajorr obstacleobstacless facingfacing ththee PortPortee inin implementinimplementingg securitsecurityy inin easterneastern

AnatoliAnatoliaa wawass nonott ththee strengthstrength ofof ththee rebelliorebellionn throughouthroughoutt ththee countryside,countryside, bubutt ththee greedgreed andand venalitvenalityy ooff ititss owownn officialsofficials.. RebellioRebellionn wawass ssoo widespreawidespreadd thathatt OttomanOttoman forceforcess werewere unablunablee ttoo implemenimplementt overalloverall securitsecurityy readilreadilyy andand effectively.effectively. FurthermorFurthennoree manmanyy OttomanOttoman

140140 CaptainCaptain ClaytoClaytonn ttoo MajoMajorr TrotterTrotter,, VanVan,, NovembeNovemberr 14,14, 1879,1879, iinn British Documents, ed.ed. §imsir~im~ir,, 1:1: 624-625624-625.. 7373 officialofficialss werweree corruptcorrupt anandd turneturnedd a blinblindd eyeeye ttoo ththee genuingenuinee grievancesgrievances ooff KurdisKurdishh tribaltribal lordlordss iinn exchangeexchange foforr bribesbribes.. IInn 18811881 ththee EarEarll ooff DufferinDufferin,, thenthen BritisBritishh ambassadorambassador toto thethe

OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire,, submittedsubmitted a reporreportt detailindetailingg ththee actionactionss ofof ththee somesome ofof ththee valis. IzzetIzzet

PasaPa~a,, ththee vali ofof DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, failefailedd ttoo quelquelll crimecrime,, ofteoftenn acceptinacceptingg bribebribess fromfrom rabble-rabble- rouserrouserss iinn exchangeexchange foforr theitheirr acquittalacquittal.. HHee miscalculatemiscalculatedd ththee neeneedd foforr graingrain ttoo offseoffsett thethe severseveree faminfaminee inin DiyarbakirDiyarbakir asas a resulresultt ooff ththee widespreawidespreadd rebelliorebellionn duringduring ththee war.war.

ConsequentlyConsequently riotriotss brokbrokee ououtt iinn ththee citycity iinn 18791879 anandd 1880.1880. DuDuee ttoo ththee failurefailure ofof ththee vali ttoo supplsupplyy MalatyaMalatya,, northwesnorthwestt ooff DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, witwithh sufficientsufficient necessitienecessitiess anandd security,security, thethe

KurdishKurdish tribestribes,, reportereportedd Dufferin,Dufferin, werweree "in"in a chronichronicc statestate ofof rebellion.rebellion."" WhileWhile nono countscounts ooff corruptioncorruption werweree attributedattributed ttoo ththee mutesarrifmutesarrifofMara~, of Maras, MuniMunifPa~af Pasa (who(who oversawoversaw

Zeitoun)Zeitoun),, hhee wawass reportereportedd ttoo bbee weaweakk andand incapableincapable ofof implementinimplementingg anyany effectiveeffective securitysecurity measuresmeasures.. ThThee vali ofof ErzuruErzurumm forcedforced ththee inhabitantinhabitantss ttoo papayy forfor ththee graigrainn thatthat ththee OttomanOttoman governmentgovernment hahadd sensentt asas a gifgiftt ttoo offseoffsett ththee famine.famine. AAss a resulresultt ofof hishis

142 corruption,corruption, iitt isis reportereportedd thathatt forty-fivforty- fivee KurdKurdss dieddied ooff starvation.starvation. 142

ThThee Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh WaWarr disruptedisruptedd ththee balancbalancee ofof powepowerr betweebetweenn OttomanOttomanss andand KurdsKurds thathatt hahadd onlyonly beebeenn helheldd tenuousltenuouslyy iinn placplacee bbyy ththee relativelrelativelyy weaweakk OttomanOttoman securitysecurity forces.forces. OttomanOttoman losselossess iinn ththee wawarr encourageencouragedd elementelementss ooff ArmeniaArmeniann andand KurdisKurdishh societysociety ttoo makmakee bidbidss forfor powerpower.. HoweverHowever,, aass mosmostt ofof thesthesee resistancresistancee efforteffortss lackedlacked organizationorganization,, trainingtraining,, andand equipment,equipment, thetheyy werweree generallgenerallyy nono matcmatchh foforr ththee OttomanOttoman militarymilitary.. AAss sucsuchh a greatergreater numbenumberr ooff groups,groups, includinincludingg severalseveral formerlyformerly fragmentedfragmented

KurdisKurdishh tribetribess anandd particulaparticularr groupgroupss ooff ArmenianArmenianss anandd NestoriansNestorians,, begabegann entertainingentertaining thethe

4 141 CaptainCaptain ClaytonClayton ttoo MajorMajor Trotter,Trotter, VanVan,, NovembeNovemberr 9,9, 18801880 inin British Documents, ed.ed. $imsirSim~ir,, 22:: 151151.. 1 2 142 InclosurInclosuree nono.. 9393,, iinn BritishBritish Documents,Documents, eded.. $imsirSim~ir,, 22:: 275-277'275-277.. 7474 notionotionn ooff aann alliancealliance;; however,however, theitheirr overaloveralll lacklack ooff organizatioorganizationn anandd cohesiocohesionn preventedprevented suchsuch anan ideaidea frofromm everever materializingmaterializing.. TheThe activitiesactivities ofof ShaykhShaykh ''UbaydullaUbaydullahh inin HakkariHakkari andand thathatt ofof ththee ArmeniansArmenians iinn ZeitouZeitounn werweree ththee mosmostt prominenprominentt movementsmovements.. BuButt theirtheir greatesgreatestt effecteffect wawass thathatt thetheyy heighteneheightenedd ththee concernconcern ofof ththee OttomanOttomanss anandd promptepromptedd themthem ttoo instalinstalll tightetighterr security.security. AAss ththee OttomansOttomans begabegann ttoo increaseincrease securitysecurity throughouthroughoutt easterneastern

AnatoliaAnatolia,, ththee traditionatraditionall powepowerr structurestructuress iinn KurdisKurdishh societysociety becambecamee increasinglincreasinglyy brokenbroken dowdownn andand atat ththee samsamee time,, mormoree anandd mormoree ArmenianArmenianss begabegann ttoo loselose faithfaith iinn thethe

Ottoman-backeOttoman-backedd Patriarchate.. CHAPTECHAPTERR 3

THETHE EARLYEARLY SULTANSULTAN ABDULHAMIABDULHAMIDD PERIOPERIODD 1882-1896:1882-1896:

THTHEE INFLUENTIALINFLUENTIAL FACTORFACTORSS OFOF CONFLICTCONFLICT

BETWEEBETWEENN THETHE KURDKURDSS ANANDD ARMENIANSARMENIANS

BByy ththee beginninbeginningg ofof ththee 1890s1890s ththee majoritmajorityy ofof KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaAnneniann peasantspeasants werweree stilstilll nonott integrateintegratedd intintoo ththee OttomanOttoman systemsystem.. WhilWhilee SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdUlhamidd IIII waswas beginninbeginningg ttoo wiwinn ththee allegianceallegiance ooff ththee majomajorr tribestribes,, thetheyy stilstilll hahadd freefree reireinn overover mucmuchh ofof ththee territoryterritory;; albeitalbeit ttoo a mormoree limitelimitedd degree.degree. SupportSupport forfor ththee ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionaryrevolutionary movemenmovementt hahadd begubegunn ttoo spreaspreadd amonamongg ththee ArmenianAnnenianss iinn ththee citiecitiess mosmostt ofof whowhomm werewere tietiedd inin witwithh eithereither ththee esnaf(merchantesnaf (merchant class)class) oror ththee clergyclergy.. HoweverHowever,, sincesince thethe PortePorte exerteexertedd significansignificantt pressurpressuree ttoo containcontain ArmenianAnnenianss anandd bolstebolsterr ththee PatriarchatPatriarchatee againsagainstt thethe dissidents,dissidents, ththee revolutionarrevolutionaryy movemenmovementt failefailedd ttoo blossoblossomm significantlsignificantlyy insidinsidee ththee Empire.Empire.

OOnn ththee otheotherr handhand,, ththee movementmovement witnessewitnessedd dramaticdramatic growtgrowthh outsideoutside ththee EmpireEmpire iinn thethe earlyearly 1890s1890s anandd begabegann ttoo infiltratinfiltratee eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia,, wherwheree iitt gainegainedd considerableconsiderable popularitpopularityy amonamongg ththee peasantrypeasantry.. ThiThiss chapterchapter exploreexploress ththee seriesseries ofof eventsevents thathatt ledled uupp toto ththee conflictconflict betweebetweenn ththee KurdKurdss anandd ththee ArmenianAnnenianss inin ththee mid-1890mid-1890ss anandd seekseekss toto understanunderstandd ththee risrisee ooff thithiss conflictconflict iinn ththee contextcontext ofof ththee strengthsstrengths oror weaknesseweaknessess ofof thethe powepowerr structuresstructures withiwithinn KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaAnneniann society.society. 7766

ArmeniaArmeniann RevolutionarieRevolutionariess andand ththee KurdsKurds

Armenian-KurdisAnnenian-Kurdishh relationrelationss duringduring ththee 1880s1880s anandd 1890s1890s cannotcannot bbee understoodunderstood withouwithoutt referencreferencee ttoo ththee rolrolee ofof thethe ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionariesrevolutionaries.. ThThee activitiesactivities ooff ththee twotwo leadinleadingg ArmeniaArmeniann politicapoliticall partiesparties,, ththee DashnaDashnakk partpartyy anandd ththee HunchaHunchakk partyparty,, hahadd a tremendoutremendouss impacimpactt upouponn ththee sociasociall andand politicapoliticall atmospheratmospheree ofof easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa inin thethe l890s.1890s. TheiTheirr activismactivism towardtowardss thethe liberatioliberationn ofof ththee ArmenianArmenianss inin eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia,, whichwhich thetheyy referrereferredd ttoo asas WesterWesternn ArmeniaArmenia,, greatlgreatlyy influencedinfluenced ththee attitudeattitudess ofof ththee ArmeniansArmenians towardtowardss ththee Kurds.Kurds.

OneOne factofactorr thathatt sesett ththee ArmeniansArmenians apartapart frofromm ththee KurdKurdss wawass thathatt thetheyy werweree muchmuch mormoree politicallypolitically organizedorganized botbothh insideinside andand outsideoutside ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire,, largellargelyy becausebecause ofof ththee millet system,system, whicwhichh hahadd longlong setset ththee ArmenianArmenianss aparapartt botbothh fromfrom ththee MuslimMuslimss andand frofromm otheotherr ChristianChristian groupsgroups.. ItIt gavegave thethe ArmenianArmenianss a greategreaterr senssensee ofof ethnicethnic identitidentityy atat alalll socialsocial levelslevels inin ththee sensesense thathatt ArmeniaArmeniann peasanpeasantt iinn easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa andand a high-rankinghigh-ranking

AnnenianArmenian governmentgovernment officiaofficiall botbothh identifiedidentified themselvesthemselves aass ArmenianArmenian.. WhileWhile thesthesee werewere almosalmostt certainlycertainly high-rankinghigh-ranking officialofficialss ofof KurdishKurdish origin,origin, nonnonee ofof thethemm identifiedidentified themselvethemselvess asas such,such, sincesince thetheyy tendetendedd toto assimilateassimilate ttoo TurkishTurkish culturculturee andand adopadoptt a TurkishTurkish ethnicethnic identity.identity. IItt wawass mucmuchh easieeasierr forfor ArmeniaArmeniann politicapoliticall leaderleaderss ttoo mobilizmobilizee a forceforce ofof

ArmenianArmenianss byby appealingappealing ttoo ththee ethnicethnic identitidentityy thathann forfor theitheirr KurdisKurdishh counterparts.counterparts.

ThThee impetusimpetus forfor ththee ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionarrevolutionaryy movemenmovementt derivederivedd frofromm grassrootsgrassroots

ArmeniaArmeniann politicapoliticall activitactivityy iinn ththee 1860s.1860s. ThThee ArmeniaArmeniann rebellionrebellionss ooff 18621862 iinn Zeitoun,Zeitoun,

VanVan,, andand ErzuruErzurumm camecame atat a significantsignificant timtimee durinduringg ththee historhistoryy ooff ththee ArmenianArmenianss inin thethe

OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire,, whewhenn ththee powerpower ooff ththee clergyclergy andand ththee ArmeniaArmeniann amira clasclasss waswas begimiinbeginningg ttoo wanewane.. AAnn emergingemerging ArmeniaAnneniann bourgeoisiebourgeoisie,, whicwhichh wawass involveinvolvedd iinn tradetrade 7777 anandd commerce,commerce, waswas beginninbeginningg toto enjoenjoyy greategreaterr powerpowerss undeunderr ththee ArmeniaArmeniann constitutionconstitution andand iinn additionaddition ththee CatholicCatholic andand ProtestanProtestantt ArmenianArmenianss werweree nnoo longelongerr subjectsubject ttoo thethe authorityauthority ofof ththee GregorianGregorian PatriarchPatriarch.. TheThe OttomaOttomann government'goverrunent'ss confiscatioconfiscationn ofof

ArmeniaArmeniann propertyproperty,, outout ooff feafearr ofof growinggrowing ArmeniaArmeniann accumulatioaccumulationn ooff powepowerr afteafterr thethe

CrimeaCrimeann WaWarr iinn ththee latelate 1850s1850s incitedincited ththee ArmenianArmenianss iinn VanVan,, MusMu~,, andand ZeitouZeitounn (all(all regionregionss thathatt werweree dominatedominatedd mormoree bbyy merchanmerchantt classeclassess thathann bbyy ththee clergclergyy anandd ththee amiraamira classclass)) toto revolt.revolt.

TheThe ZeitouZeitounn revolrevoltt wawass ththee mosmostt significantsignificant ofof thesthesee rebellionrebellionss iinn thatthat,, althoughalthough ththee ArmenianArmenianss werweree unablunablee ttoo defeatdefeat ththee OttomaOttomann forceforcess militarilymilitarily,, thetheyy managemanagedd toto outwitoutwit thethemm anandd achieveachieve a politicapoliticall victoryvictory.. BByy achievinachievingg ththee interventiointerventionn ofof ththee FrenchFrench undeunderr NapoleaNapoleann IIIIII andand withwith ththee helphelp ofof influentialinfluential ArmeniaArmeniann amiras, ththee ZeitounisZeitounis gainedgained enougenoughh leverageleverage ttoo forceforce ththee PortePorte ttoo withdrawithdraww ititss trooptroopss anandd concedeconcede autonomyautonomy toto them. 143143 TheThe rebellionrebellionss aatt VaVann andand MuMu~s werweree lessless successfusuccessfull andand resulteresultedd iinn heavyheavy casualtiescasualties oonn ththee ArmeniaAnneniann sideside.. RemarkablRemarkablyy ththee ArmenianAnnenianss involveinvolvedd inin ththee uprisinuprisingg atat

VanVan managedmanaged ttoo persuadpersuadee a numbenumberr ofof KurdisKurdishh tribetribess ttoo joijoinn witwithh thethemm inin theitheirr attacksattacks onon

OttomanOttoman forces.forces. MillingenMillingen,, howeverhowever,, reportsreports thathann suchsuch collaborationcollaboration wawass exceptional.exceptional.

AccordingAccording ttoo MillingenMillingen,, thethe ArmenianArmenianss throughouthroughoutt mosmostt ofof ththee VaVann provincprovincee werweree 'serfs''serfs' undeunderr ththee feudafeudall rulrulee ooff ththee Kurds. 144144 IInn MuMu~s ththee KurdKurdss diddid nonott collaboratcollaboratee witwithh thethe

ArmeniansAnnenians,, butbut foughtfought againstagainst them.them. 145145

ThThee rebellionrebellionss instilledinstilled a sensesense ofof ArmeniaArmeniann solidaritysolidarity amonamongg manmanyy segmentssegments ofof thethe ArmeniaAnneniann populationpopulation,, particularlpatiicularlyy thosthosee outsideoutside ththee avenueavenuess ooff powepowerr withiwithinn thethe

143 WalkerWalker,, 102.102. 144 MillingenMillingen,, La Turquie sous leIe Regne d'Abdul-Aziz 1862-1867 (Paris,(Paris, 1868),1868), 168-170.168-170. 145 MillingenMillingen,, Wild Life,Life. 264.264. 7878 clergy.clergy. TheThe firstfirst ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionaryrevolutionary society,society, thethe UnionUnion ofof Salvation,Salvation, wawass establishedestablished iinn VaVann inin 1872.1872. AAss VaVann wawass oneone ofof thethe onlyonly citiescities inin ththee OttomanOttoman EmpirEmpiree witwithh anan

ArmeniaArmeniann majoritymajority,, itit waswas nonott surprisinsurprisingg thathatt itit wawass oneone ofof ththee mainmain centerscenters ofof thethe revolutionarrevolutionaryy movementmovement.. NoNott mucmuchh isis knowknownn ofof ththee UnioUnionn ofof Salvation,Salvation, butbut a fewfew documentsdocuments reveareveall thathatt itit itsits aimaim waswas toto establishestablish greatergreater tiesties witwithh ththee RussiansRussians andand toto ensurensuree ththee protectioprotectionn ofof ththee VaVann ArmenianArmenianss againstagainst ththee KurdKurdss andand OttomanOttoman oppressionoppression bbyy acquirinacquiringg arms.arms. AlthougAlthoughh ththee organizatioorganizationn diddid notnot lastlast manymany years,years, partlpartlyy becausbecausee ofof ititss undergrounundergroundd naturnaturee anandd ththee consequentconsequent failurefailure ttoo attractattract largelarge numbernumberss ofof supporters,supporters, iitt provideprovidedd thethe foundationfoundation forfor ththee developmentdevelopment ofof thethe firstfirst ArmenianArmenian politicalpolitical party,party, thethe

Armenakan Party, established in Van in 1885. 146146 Armenakan Party, established in Van in 1885. After the Russo-Turkish War and the , Armenian revolutionaries After the Russo-Turkish War and the Treaty of Berlin, Armenian revolutionaries were generally in accord on the following issues: an autonomous or independent were generally in accord on the following issues: an autonomous or independent Annenia, increased protection for Armenians both against organized military operations Armenia, increased protection for Armenians both against organized military operations and brigandage (generally from nomadic Kurdish tribes), the creation of societies that and brigandage (generally from nomadic Kurdish tribes), the creation of societies that would include all Armenians, and the acquisition of weapons for self-defense. However, would include all Armenians, and the acquisition of weapons for self-defense. However, there was significant disagreement both inside and outside the Empire regarding the there was significant disagreement both inside and outside the Empire regarding the direction which Armenian political activism should take. Liberal Armenians were the direction which Armenian political activism should take. Liberal Armenians were the main proponents of Armenian political activity. Most conservatives were tied closely to main proponents of Armenian political activity. Most conservatives were tied closely to the clergy and as such feared voicing strong opposition to the Porte. In a letter to the clergy and as such feared voicing strong opposition to the Porte. In a letter to Granville, Wyndham reported that the Patriarch Nerses, even after his resignation in Granville, Wyndham reported that the Patriarch Nerses, even after his resignation in 1881, still pledged his loyalty to the Sultan in his dealings with the Armenians. The 1881, still pledged his loyalty to the Sultan in his dealings with the Armenians. The Patriarch said that he was "anxious not to see the Armenians of Turkey fall under the Patriarch said that he was "anxious not to see the Armenians of Turkey fall under the

146 NalbandianNalbandian,, 80-83.80-83. 7979 despoticdespotic rulrulee ooff Russia.Russia .... .[and [and]] thathatt hhee wishewishedd thethemm ttoo continuecontinue undeunderr thathatt ofof thethe Sultan,Sultan,

· . d d" ,,147147 bubutt Inin aann Improveimproved concondition." Itlon.

TheThe debatdebatee betweebetweenn ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionarrevolutionaryy conservativeconservativess anandd liberalsliberals waswas particularlparticularlyy highlightehighlightedd inin ththee ArmeniaArmeniann newspapernewspaperss Mshak (cultivator)(cultivator) andand MeghuMeghu

Hayastani (th(thee ArmeniaArmeniann BeeBee)) iinn Tiflis.Tiflis. WhilWhilee ththee ArmeniaArmeniann activistsactivists hoverinhoveringg aroundaround

Mshak werweree mormoree liberaliberall anandd favorefavoredd a politicapoliticall trajectortrajectoryy ooff WesternizatioWesternizationn forfor thethe

ArmeniaArmeniann societysociety,, ththee Meghu Hayastani wawass mormoree conservativconservativee anandd favoredfavored traditionaltraditional

ArmeniaArmeniann normnormss oveoverr mormoree progressivprogressivee ideaideass inin establishinestablishingg a foundationfoundation foforr politicalpolitical activity.activity.148148 ThThee divisiodivisionn betweebetweenn ththee twtwoo wawass furtherfurther representerepresentedd iinn theitheirr stancesstances onon

ArmeniaArmeniann relationrelationss witwithh ththee KurdsKurds.. ThThee Meghu Hayastani promotepromotedd ArmenianArmenian exclusivityexclusivity iinn politicapoliticall activityactivity and,and, althoughalthough iitt advocateadvocatedd friendshifriendshipp witwithh ththee non-violentnon-violent

KurdsKurds,, iitt frownefrownedd upouponn joininjoiningg politicapoliticall agendasagendas witwithh themthem.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo ononee writewriterr inin ththee Meghu Hayastani ththee KurdsKurds'' religioreligionn wawass ononee ofof ththee maimainn reasonsreasons forfor theitheirr tendencytendency towardtowardss violence. 149149 IInn contrastcontrast Mshak wawass mucmuchh mormoree iinn favorfavor ooff a Kurdish-ArmenianKurdish-Armenian alliancealliance againsagainstt ththee OttomansOttomans.. InIn ththee latlatee 1870s1870s iitt revealerevealedd thathatt a numbenumberr ofof ArmenianArmenian gunsmithgunsmithss werweree alreadyalready involveinvolvedd inin KurdishKurdish politicapoliticall activityactivity iinn IranIran,, hirinhiringg themselvesthemselves ououtt ttoo KurdisKurdishh militiamemilitiamenn fightinfightingg againsagainstt ththee OttomaOttomann anandd IraniaIraniann governments. ISO150 "If"If ththee BulgarianBulgarianss roserose uupp againsagainstt ththee TurksTurks anandd killekilledd them,them,"" assertedasserted oneone writerwriter,, "then"then thethe

ArmenianArmenianss shoulshouldd undertakundertakee mormoree dangeroudangerouss activities,activities, attemptingattempting ttoo ArmenizArmenizee thethe

147147 WyndhaWyndhamm ttoo GranvilleGranville,, ConstantinopleConstantinople,, DecembeDecemberr 31,31, 1882,1882, nono.. 1160,1160, FOFO 424/140424/140,, pp.. 1,1, nono.. 1,1, iinn British Documents, ed.ed. §imsir~im~ir,, 22:: 446-447.446-447. 148148 Vahe Oshagan, "Modem Annenian Literature and Intellectual History from 1700 to Vahe Oshagan, "Modem Armenian Literature and Intellectual History from 1700 to 1915," in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2, ed. Richard 1915," in The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, vol. 2, ed. Richard Hovannisian (London: Macmillan Publishers, 1997: 139-175), 165. Hovannisian (London: Macmillan Publishers, 1997: 139-175), 165. 149 Celil, Intifada, 58. 149 Celil, Intifada, 58. 8080

KurdKurdss andand instillinstill thethemm witwithh ouourr culture." I 15511 AfteAfterr ththee Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh War,War, thethe

ArmeniansArmenians,, KurdsKurds,, andand AssyrianAssyrianss finallyfinally hahadd a singlesingle andand sharedshared interesinterestt ttoo fighfightt againstagainst ththee Ottomans:Ottomans: "they"they allall shareshare thethe burdeburdenn thathatt TurkeTurkeyy hashas placeplacedd upouponn theitheirr shoulders.,,152shoulders."

ThThee BlackBlack CrossCross SocietySociety wawass establishedestablished iinn 18781878 inin Van,Van, mosmostt likellikelyy inin responseresponse ttoo ththee devastatiodevastationn whicwhichh thethe Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh WaWarr wroughwroughtt upouponn ththee vilayet ooff VanVan.. TheThe societysociety functionefunctionedd mucmuchh liklikee a cultcult andand wawass eveevenn mormoree secretivesecretive thathann ththee UnioUnionn ofof

Salvation.Salvation. ItsIts membersmembers werewere ttoo taktakee anan oathoath ofof secrecsecrecyy andand thosthosee whwhoo brokbrokee thithiss werewere cursecursedd witwithh ththee markmark ofof thethe 'black'black cross'cross' andand killedkilled.. MucMuchh liklikee ththee UnioUnionn ooff SalvationSalvation thithiss societysociety aimeaimedd ttoo acquireacquire annsarms anandd forformm a militimilitiaa foforr ththee protectioprotectionn ofof theirtheir compatriots. The society failed because of its lack of funding and limited support. 153153 compatriots. The society failed because of its lack of funding and limited support. In 1882 another secret revolutionary organization, the Protectors of the In 1882 another secret revolutionary organization, the Protectors of the Fatherland, was formed in Erzurum. It was far more successful than the Black Cross Fatherland, was formed in Erzurum. It was far more successful than the Black Cross Society and the Union of Salvation because of is appeal to Armenians from all social Society and the Union of Salvation because of is appeal to Armenians from all social strata. Members of the organization were skeptical of the Porte's expressed the intention strata. Members of the organization were skeptical of the Porte's expressed the intention of implementing the reforms promised under the Treaty of Berlin and aimed to take of implementing the reforms promised under the Treaty of Berlin and aimed to take measures to protect the Armenians from the Turks, Kurds, and Circassians. The measures to protect the Armenians from the Turks, Kurds, and Circassians. The organization aroused the suspicion of the Porte when large numbers of its members were organization aroused the suspicion of the Porte when large numbers of its members were found crossing the borders into Russia to solicit the financial and military support of found crossing the borders into Russia to solicit the financial and military support of Russian Annenians. Subsequently, the Porte placed seventy-six Armenians on trial on Russian Armenians. Subsequently, the Porte placed seventy-six Armenians on trial on charges of conspiracy, forty of whom were found guilty. The trial, the first of its kind charges of conspiracy, forty of whom were found guilty. The trial, the first of its kind

150150 HourHourii BerberianBerberian,, Armenians and the Constitutional Revolution 1905-1911 (Boulder,(Boulder, Colorado:Colorado: WestvieWestvieww PressPress,, 2001)2001),, 5959.. 151151 Celil,Celil, Intifada, 5656.. 152152 Ibid.Ibid.,, 5959.. 153153 NalbandianNalbandian,, 84.84. 8181 againsagainstt ArmenianAnnenianss iinn ththee OttomaOttomann Empire,Empire, lefleftt aann indeliblindeliblee impacimpactt oonn ArmenianAnnenianss withinwithin ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire andand abroadabroad,, whwhoo claimeclaimedd injusticinjusticee anandd oppression.oppression. NalbandianNalbandian notenotess thathatt ththee occurrenceoccurrencess aatt ErzuruErzurumm duringduring 18821882 andand 18831883 inspiredinspired a commoncommon

154 revolutionarrevolutionaryy sonsongg "The"The VoicVoicee ReechoeReechoedd frofromm ththee ArmeniaAnneniann MountainsMountains ofof Erzerum."Erzerum." I 54

ItIt iiss significansignificantt thathatt ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess dididd nonott promotpromotee ththee ideaidea thathatt thethe

KurdsKurds werweree categoricallycategorically maraudermarauderss anandd anti-Annenian.anti-Armenian. RatherRather,, afterafter ththee TreatyTreaty ofof

BerlinBerlin,, thertheree wawass a generalgeneral senssensee amonamongg ththee ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess thathatt ththee KurdsKurds couldcould iinn somesome waywayss bebe usefuusefull ttoo theitheirr cause.cause. NewNewss ooff a Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Anneniann alliancealliance spreadspread throughouthroughoutt manmanyy avenuesavenues ooff communicationcommunication.. ThThee newspapenewspaperr OsmanlzOsmanli publishedpublished anan articlarticlee onon ththee possibilitpossibilityy ooff a suchsuch anan alliance.alliance. TheThe ArmeniansAnnenians,, iitt claimed,claimed, werweree luringluring

lss155 KurdKurdss ttoo theitheirr sidsidee bbyy "preaching"preaching ChristianitChristianityy ttoo themthem"" andand offerinofferingg thethemm education.education.

IInn realitrealityy itit appearsappears thathatt conservativeconservative ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess favorefavoredd developingdeveloping politicalpolitical movementmovementss thatthat includeincludedd ArmenianAnnenianss onlyonly,, whilwhilee moremore liberalliberal AnneniansArmenians entertaineentertainedd ththee ideideaa ofof includingincluding ththee KurdsKurds inin theitheirr movements.movements.

ComplaintsComplaints ooff KurdisKurdishh AttacksAttacks

AlthougAlthoughh ththee OttomansOttomans dididd managmanagee ttoo controcontroll mucmuchh ooff easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, certaincertain regionregionss werweree stillstill unsecuredunsecured.. DurinDuringg ththee earlyearly 1880s1880s OttomaOttomann controlcontrol oveoverr ththee sancak ofof

MuMu~s waswas weakweak.. ThThee remotenesremotenesss ofof ththee regioregionn fromfrom anyany lucrativlucrativee tradtradee routesroutes providedprovided littllittlee incentivincentivee foforr ththee OttomaOttomann PortPortee ttoo providprovidee security,security, anandd asas itit wawass alsoalso distantdistant fromfrom anyany RussiaRussiann oorr BritisBritishh consulate,consulate, ArmenianArmenianss whwhoo hahadd complaintcomplaintss abouaboutt ththee situationsituation hadhad ttoo travetravell longlong distancesdistances iinn orderorder toto filfilee a reportreport.. ThThee Porte'Porte'ss constantconstant rearrangementrearrangement ofof

154 Ibid.Ibid.,, 85-89.85-89. 155 CelilCelil,, Intifada, 5656.. 8282 ththee borderborderss ooff ththee easterneastern vilayetsvi/ayets lefleftt manmanyy areaareass ofof eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa unaccountedunaccounted forfor andand thertheree wawass generallgenerallyy littllittlee order.order. WhilWhilee ththee citiecitiess ofof VanVan,, DiyarbakirDiyarbakir,, anandd ErzurumErzurum werweree ththee maimainn centerscenters ooff OttomansOttomans politicapoliticall anandd militarmilitaryy authority,authority, MuMu~s wawass anan inconveniencinconveniencee forfor ththee PortePorte.. WhilWhilee iitt wawass originallyoriginally a parpartt ooff ththee vilayet ofof Van,Van, itit waswas placeplacedd iinn thethe BitlisBitlis vilayet iinn 1880.156156

IItt seemseemss thathatt ththee OttomansOttomans entrusteentrustedd MusMusaa Bey,Bey, aann eminenteminent KurdisKurdishh chiefchief inin MusMu~,, witwithh thethe responsibilitresponsibilityy ofof providinprovidingg thethe securitysecurity forfor ththee regionregion.. HHee hahadd acquireacquiredd a leadingleading positiopositionn inin ththee vilayetvi/ayet ofof BitliBitliss foforr somesome timtimee inin ththee earlearlyy 1880s,1880s, mosmostt likellikelyy becausbecausee ofof hishis cloutclout amonamongg ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess ofof ththee regionregion.. AAss suchsuch hhee hahadd tremendoutremendouss influenceinfluence onon ththee vali ooff BitlisBitlis anandd appearedappeared ttoo havhavee nearlnearlyy frefreee reigreignn throughouthroughoutt ththee MuMu~s region.region.

DurinDuringg ththee 1880s1880s MusMusaa BeyBey gainedgained widespreawidespreadd notorietnotorietyy amongamong ArmenianArmenianss anandd British.British.

HHee becambecamee infamouinfamouss aass ththee KurdisKurdishh chiefchief thathatt attackedattacked anandd robberobbedd DrDr.. Reynolds,Reynolds, anan

AmericaAmericann physicianphysician,, anandd M.M. KnappKnapp,, a missionarymissionary,, whwhoo werweree travelintravelingg betweebetweenn Mu~Mus andand

157 BitliBitliss inin 1883.18 8 3.157 AccordingAccording toto thethe missionariesmissionaries thethe sultansultan diddid notnot punishpunish MusaMusa BeyBey sufficientlysufficiently andand dididd nonott givgivee indemnitieindemnitiess ttoo eithereither ooff ththee twtwoo victimvictimss untiuntill nineteenineteenn yearsyears

1 CO after the incident. 158 after the incident. According to a letter from a missionary in Van 1886, Musa Bey appeared to be at According to a letter from a missionary in Van 1886, Musa Bey appeared to be at large in the region creating havoc with his tribal followers who "roamed freely" and were large in the region creating havoc with his tribal followers who "roamed freely" and were

151566 VahakVahaknn Dadrian,Dadrian, WarrantforWarrant for Genocide: Key Elements of Turko-Armenian ConflictConflict (New(New BrunswickBrunswick,, NeNeww JerseyJersey:: TransactionTransaction PublishersPublishers,, 1999),1999), 141141.. 157157 ProtestanProtestantt missionariemissionariess GraceGrace KnapKnappp anandd ClarenceClarence DouglaDouglass UssheUssherr notnotee thathatt theythey passepassedd bbyy ththee villagvillagee ooff MusMusaa BeBeyy whwhoo "[inflicted"[inflicted]] severalseveral swordsword woundwoundss oonn Dr.Dr. Raynolds'Raynolds'ss headhead,, faceface andand handhandss [and][and] leftleft [him][him] bounboundd iinn thethe woodswoods,, somesome distancdistancee fromfrom ththee road.road."" GracGracee KnapKnappp andand ClarencClarencee DouglaDouglass Ussher,Ussher, An American Physician in Turkey: A Narrative of Adventures in Peace and War (London:(London: HoughtonHoughton Mift1inMifflin Company,Company, 1917),1917), 3232.. 8383

"heavily"heavily armed,anned,"" whicwhichh wawass contrarcontraryy ttoo ththee law. 159159 OtherOther documentsdocuments reporreportt thathatt MusaMusa

BeBeyy leledd hihiss tribe,tribe, whicwhichh wawass seminomadic,seminomadic, fromfrom villagvillagee ttoo villagvillagee iinn orderorder ttoo collectcollect duesdues andand builbuildd alliancesalliances.. SomeSome villagevillagess werweree mormoree resistanresistantt ttoo hishis demandsdemands,, refusinrefusingg himhim entranceentrance,, anandd othersothers werweree mormoree welcomingwelcoming,, perhapperhapss iinn ththee hophopee ofof gainingainingg ththee protectionprotection ofof hishis clan.clan. 160160

IInn responsresponsee ttoo claimsclaims ofof KurdishKurdish violencviolencee againstagainst ththee ArmeniansArmenians,, ColonelColonel

ChermsideChennside,, ththee BritishBritish consulconsul iinn ErzurumErzurum,, wawass commissionedcommissioned bbyy BritishBritish officialsofficials toto conducconductt a fact-findinfact-findingg missiomissionn iinn VanVan,, BitlisBitlis,, andand MuMu~s inin ththee summersummer ooff 1889.1889.

ChermsidChennsidee reportereportedd thathatt thertheree wawass significansignificantt tensiotensionn betweebetweenn ththee KurdsKurds anandd thethe

ArmenianAnnenianss andand thathatt ththee manmanyy ooff ththee educateeducatedd ArmenianAnnenianss iinn thethe citiescities werweree pro-Westpro-West.. HeHe furtherfurther addedadded thatthat manmanyy ArmenianAnnenianss treatetreatedd hihimm aass iifhef he werweree a representativrepresentativee ooff theirtheir ownown governmentgovernment,, anandd werweree mormoree thathann willinwillingg ttoo givgivee hihimm infonnationinformation aboutabout theitheirr feelingsfeelings towardtowardss ththee KurdKurdss andand theitheirr owownn situation.situation.

ContraryContrary ttoo ththee hopehopess ofof manmanyy ArmenianAnnenianss thathatt hhee woulwouldd findfind convincinconvincingg evidenceevidence oftheof the Porte'sPorte's neglectfulnesneglectfulnesss inin providingproviding security,security, ChermsidChennsidee reachereachedd ththee conclusioconclusionn thatthat relationsrelations betweebetweenn ththee KurdKurdss andand ththee ArmenianAnnenianss hahadd undergonundergonee a markemarkedd improvementimprovement frofromm whawhatt thetheyy hahadd beebeenn a decaddecadee beforebefore.. "[O]utrages"[0]utrages bbyy ththee KurdKurdss oonn ChristiansChristians,, inter-inter­ tribatriball feudsfeuds,, highwahighwayy robberyrobbery,, cattlcattlee liftinglifting,, allall exist;"exist;" bubutt "none"none appearappear toto [be][be] asas

158 Ibid.,Ibid., 7878.. Dr.Dr. ReynoldsReynolds reportedlreportedlyy useusedd thithiss monemoneyy toto construcconstructt a churcchurchh whicwhichh hehe referrereferredd ttoo asas ththee churchchurch "built"built bbyy ththee Kurds."Kurds." 159159 FOFO 424/1434241143,, pppp.. 30-3130-31,, nono.. 3511,35/1, VanVan,, AugusAugustt 31,31, 1886,1886, iinn British Documents, ed.ed. $imsir~im~ir,, 2:2: 524.524. 160160 StephenStephen G.G. Svajian,Svajian, A Trip through Historic Armenia (Greenhill(Greenhill PublishersPublishers,, 1977),1977), 282282.. "Vartenis"Vartenis villagvillagee preventepreventedd a KurdisKurdishh chieftaichieftainn bbyy ththee namnamee ooff MusMusaa BeBeyy fromfrom passinpassingg ththee nighnightt inin thathatt villagevillage,, bubutt iinn ththee villagvillagee ofof KharKharss a despicabledespicable charactecharacterr knownknown aass HovseHovsepp consideredconsidered iitt aann honohonorr ttoo acceptaccept MusMusaa BeBeyy inin hihiss home."home." 8484

frequentfrequent andand asas wholesalewholesale asas thetheyy werewere"" tetenn yearyearss agoago whenwhen hehe waswas laslastt there. 161161 AsideAside

from ththee indiscretionsindiscretions ofof MusaMusa BeyBey iinn ththee regioregionn ofof MusMu~,, KurdisKurdishh attacksattacks onon AnneniansArmenians

werweree "rare.""rare." HeHe alsoalso foundfound thatthat thethe OttomansOttomans hadhad managemanagedd toto establishestablish a significantsignificant

presencpresencee inin traditionalltraditionallyy lawleslawlesss andand unrulunrulyy regionsregions,, suchsuch asas HakkariHakkari andand BohtanBohtan.. TheThe

Kurds,Kurds, howeverhowever,, werewere affordedafforded littllittlee participatioparticipationn inin governmengovernmentt affairs;affairs; ChennsideChermside

wrotwrotee thatthat hehe camecame acrossacross onlyonly twtwoo KurdisKurdishh functionariesfunctionaries iinn thethe governmengovernmentt whilwhilee hehe

wawass therethere.. ThThee OttomansOttomans werweree mormoree likelylikely toto integrateintegrate thethe KurdsKurds intointo thethe militarymilitary asas

conscriptconscriptss thanthan intintoo thethe administration.administration.

Chennside'sChermside's reporreportt alsoalso describeddescribed thethe socialsocial relationshiprelationship betweebetweenn KurdsKurds andand

ArmenianAnnenianss throughoutthroughout easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia.. AlthoughAlthough thethe populationpopulation ofof easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa waswas

nnoo longelongerr affecteaffectedd byby wawarr andand famine,famine, itit continuedcontinued toto suffersuffer asas a resultresult ofof ththee declinedecline inin

tradetrade andand commerce.commerce. FeudalisFeudalismm continuedcontinued ttoo bebe dominantdominant inin moremore remotremotee regions,regions,

particularlparticularlyy "Hakkari,"Hakkari, ,Bohtan, andand a greatgreat parpartt ofof ththee BitlisBitlis vilayetvilayet"" wherwheree thethe KurdishKurdish

agas woulwouldd collectcollect ththee kabal tataxx fromfrom thethe AnneniansArmenians rayahs, andand mostmost ChristianChristian villagesvillages

werweree inin abjectabject povertypoverty.. AAss a resultresult manmanyy AnneniansArmenians emigratedemigrated fromfrom ththee countrysidecountryside toto

ththee citiescities ofof Diyarbakir,Diyarbakir, Erzurum,Erzurum, Bitlis,Bitlis, andand VaVann wherwheree thethe economyeconomy wawass relativelyrelatively

vibrant.162162 TheThe majoritmajorityy ofof ruralrural AnneniansArmenians migratinmigratingg ttoo thethe urbaurbann areasareas foundfound

employmenemploymentt undeunderr thethe Armenian-dominateAnnenian-dominatedd textiletextile industry,industry, whicwhichh wawass continuingcontinuing toto

experiencexperiencee growthgrowth duringduring ththee 1880s1880s asas a resulresultt ofof SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd II'sIPs militarymilitary

expansioexpansionn andand thethe consequentconsequent risinrisingg demanddemand forfor unifonns.uniforms. Agriculture,Agriculture, onon thethe otherother

161161 ConsulConsul ChermsidChennsidee toto SirSir W.W. WhiteWhite,, InclosurInclosuree inin no.no. 331,331, FFOO 4241162,424/162, p.p. 77,77, nono.. 80,80, inin British Documents, ed.ed. ~im~ir,§imsir, 22:: 659-664.659-664. 162162 AlthougAlthoughh ChennsideChermside believebelievess thathatt thethe OttomanOttoman economyeconomy wawass generallygenerally iinn recession.recession. 8585 hand,hand, wawass plummeting.plummeting. 163

Chermside'Chennside'ss AnnenianArmenian deputydeputy MrMr.. BoyadjiaBoyadjiann agreedagreed thatthat KurdisKurdishh attacksattacks againstagainst ththee ArmenianAnnenianss hahadd decreaseddecreased significantly.significantly. BoyadjianBoyadjian expressedexpressed hishis beliebelieff thatthat thethe

AnnenianArmenian newspapenewspaperr Hayastan waswas merelymerely spreadingspreading unsubstantiateunsubstantiatedd rumorrumorss aboutabout increasesincreases inin attacksattacks andand ofof a secretsecret plotplot designeddesigned byby ththee KurdsKurds toto taktakee overover ththee easterneastern

164 provinces. 164 provinces. By 1889 several unconfinned reports surfaced concerning Musa Bey's By 1889 several unconfirmed reports surfaced concerning Musa Bey's involvement in a number of savage attacks on Annenian villages, in which women were involvement in a number of savage attacks on Armenian villages, in which women were reportedly raped, crops pillaged, and villages plundered. After scores of Annenians, reportedly raped, crops pillaged, and villages plundered. After scores of Armenians, including a delegation from Mu~, gathered in front of the house of the Patriarch in including a delegation from Mus, gathered in front of the house of the Patriarch in Kumkapl, Istanbul to protest Musa Bey's actions, the Ottomans finally inquired into the Kumkapi, Istanbul to protest Musa Bey's actions, the Ottomans finally inquired into the situation. 165 Musa Bey sent a petition to the Sultan insisting that the claims against him situation.165 Musa Bey sent a petition to the Sultan insisting that the claims against him were groundless and indicated his willingness to defend himself against such claims in were groundless and indicated his willingness to defend himself against such claims in court. Subsequently the Porte arraigned him in November 1889 and issued an edict that court. Subsequently the Porte arraigned him in November 1889 and issued an edict that

163 SeeSee DonalDonaldd Quataert,Quataert, Ottoman Manufacturing in the Age of the Industrial RevolutionRevolution (Cambridge:(Cambridge: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1993),1993), 64-7l.64-71. AccordingAccording toto Krikorian'sKrikorian's statisticsstatistics ththee textiletextiless industryindustry wawass predominantlypredominantly occupiedoccupied bbyy ArmenianAnnenianss andand servedserved asas a significantsignificant sourcesource ofof wealtwealthh forfor ArmenianArmenianss inin urbanurban andand semiurbansemiurban areas.areas. SeeSee ArmeniansArmenians in the Service of the Ottoman Empire.Empire. 164164 ArmaArmann 1.J. KirakossiaKirakossiann andand ArmaAnnann Dzhonovich,Dzhonovich, British diplomacy and the ArmenianArmenian question: From the 1830s to 1914 (Princeton,(Princeton, NeNeww Jersey:Jersey: GomidasGomidas lnsituteInsitute Books,Books, 2003)2003),, 153-156.153-156. BoyadjianBoyadjian wawass bbyy andand larglargee moremore sympatheticsympathetic towardtowardss ththee KurdKurdss thanthan manmanyy otheotherr ArmenianArmenian officials.officials. InIn a letterletter toto GravesGraves hehe writeswrites:: "The"The KurdsKurds areare a finefine andand intelligentintelligent racerace,, bubutt extremelyextremely poorpoor.. ThereThere nonott beingbeing sufficientsufficient arablearable landland forfor cultivationcultivation andand havinhavingg nono confidenceconfidence inin locallocal authorities,authorities, theythey dodo notnot daredare leaveleave theitheirr mountainmountain homeshomes iinn orderorder toto pursupursuee a lawfullawful callingcalling andand thusthus gaingain livelihoodlivelihood;; butbut beinbeingg compelledcompelled bbyy thethe instinctinstinct ofof want,want, theythey commitcommit allall sortssorts ofof depredations,depredations, andand thuthuss becomebecome thethe terrorterror ofof thethe districtsdistricts surroundingsurrounding thethe mountains."mountains." BoyadjianBoyadjian ttoo Graves.Graves. [No.[No. 24]24] HarputHarput,, JulyJuly 18,18, 18921892 (F(FOO 4241172;424/172; FFOO 19511766).195/1766). 165165 WhitWhitee toto Salisbury,Salisbury, FFOO 4241162,424/162, p.p. 30,30, nono.. 3737 inin British Documents, ed.ed. ~im~ir,$imsir, 2:2: 615.615. 8686 allall plaintiffplaintiffss musmustt brinbringg theirtheir chargescharges againstagainst hihimm "in"in ththee regularegularr wayway"" anandd gogo immediatelyimmediately ttoo IstanbuIstanbull ttoo submisubmitt a complaint. 166166 MusMusaa BeBeyy hahadd threthreee chargechargess broughtbrought againstagainst himhim:: arsoarsonn ofof a storagestorage uniunitt foforr agriculturaagriculturall toolstools,, looting,looting, andand assaultassault.. AAtt ththee endend ofof thethe tribunatribunall proceedingsproceedings,, howeverhowever,, ththee OttomanOttoman courtcourt acquitteacquittedd MusMusaa BeBeyy anandd allowedallowed

167 him to return to Mu~ on the grounds oflack of evidence. 167 him to return to Mus on the grounds of lack of evidence.

TheThe cascasee ofof Mus a BeBeyy anandd hihiss subsequensubsequentt acquittal,acquittal, whicwhichh wawass widelwidelyy publicizedpublicized iinn WesternWestern newspapersnewspapers,, sparkedsparked ththee outragoutragee ooff ththee BritisBritishh andand ArmenianArmenianss whwhoo callecalledd forfor furtherfurther investigatioinvestigationn intintoo ththee securitysecurity situationsituation iinn eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia.. FurtheFurtherr reportreportss beganbegan ttoo surfacesurface thathatt alongalong witwithh otheotherr KurdishKurdish derebeys, MusaMusa BeBeyy hahadd becombecomee emboldeneemboldenedd byby thethe court'court'ss decisiondecision andand decideddecided ttoo taktakee revengrevengee onon ththee ArmenianArmenianss responsiblresponsiblee foforr outingouting them. 168168

TheThe cascasee ooff MusMusaa BeBeyy markmarkss a significantsignificant breacbreachh ofof ArmeniaArmeniann confidencconfidencee notnot onlyonly iinn ththee OttomanOttoman government,government, ofof whichwhich ArmenianArmenianss hahadd beebeenn suspicioususpiciouss foforr yearsyears,, butbut alsoalso ththee BritisBritishh governmentgovernment.. TheThe ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionarrevolutionaryy messagmessagee ooff independentindependent action,action, aass opposeopposedd ttoo thathatt ofof dependencdependencee onon ththee GreatGreat PowersPowers,, aimeaimedd aatt independenceindependence andand freedom,freedom, becambecamee increasinglincreasinglyy populapopularr throughouthroughoutt easterneastern AnatoliAnatoliaa amonamongg ththee rayah,rayah, particularlparticularlyy thosthosee inin ththee semiautonomoussemiautonomous regionregionss ofof ZeitouZeitounn andand Sasun.Sasun.

ThThee EmergenceEmergence ofof ththee NeNeww ArmeniaArmeniann RevolutionaryRevolutionary

DuringDuring ththee mid-1880smid-1880s ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionarrevolutionaryy activityactivity tootookk a neneww turntum.. SinceSince thethe secretsecret societiessocieties thathatt hadhad beebeenn croppincroppingg uupp throughoutthroughout citiecitiess witwithh a highighh concentratioconcentrationn ofof

1 166 ~im~ir,§imsir, Documents Diplomatique Ottomans: Affaires Armeniennes (Ankara:(Ankara: TurkTurk TarihiTarihi KurumKurumuu Basnnevi,Basimevi, 1985),1985), 1:1: 5353.. i en 167 Turquie, November 26, 1889, cited in British Documents, 2: 667-670. Turquie, November 26, 1889, cited in British Documents, $imsir~im~ir,, 2: 667-670. 168 S .. 285 168 SvajianvaJlan,, 285. 8787

ArmenianAnnenianss werweree easilyeasily dissolveddissolved byby thethe OttomanOttoman authorities,authorities, AnnenianArmenian activistsactivists foundfound

greategreaterr successsuccess iinn developingdeveloping societiessocieties outsideoutside ofof ththee OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire.. TheThe mosmostt notablenotable

ofof thesethese societiessocieties werewere thethe ArmenakanAnnenakan,, ththee Hunchaks,Hunchaks, andand thethe Dashnaks.Dashnaks.

TheThe AnnenakanArmenakan PartyParty waswas foundedfounded iinn VanVan inin 18851885 byby MkrtichMkrtich PortugalianPortugalian andand a

numbenumberr ofof otherother prominentprominent AnneniansArmenians inin Van.Van. PortugalianPortugalian himselfhimself waswas anan educatoreducator whowho

hadhad beebeenn involvedinvolved inin a numbenumberr ofof politicapoliticall activitiesactivities beforebefore thethe Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish War.War. HeHe

waswas partpart ofof thethe AltruisticAltruistic Society,Society, whicwhichh hadhad beebeenn establishedestablished iinn TokatTokat inin 1869,1869, andand thethe

ArarathianArarathian society,society, establishedestablished inin VanVan iinn 1876,1876, botbothh ofof whichwhich promotedpromoted ththee spreadspread ofof

educationeducation toto ththee Annenians.Armenians. ThroughThrough thesethese societiessocieties hehe managedmanaged ttoo builbuildd hishis networknetwork ofof

contactscontacts withwith high-rankinghigh-ranking Annenians.Armenians. FollowinFollowingg thethe Russo-TurkishRusso-Turkish War,War, PortugalianPortugalian

soughtsought supportsupport fromfrom thethe GreatGreat PowersPowers,, includingincluding ththee UnitedUnited States,States, inin sponsoringsponsoring thethe

establishmentestablishment ofof schoolsschools forfor bothboth youthyouth andand adults.adults. TheThe higherhigher educationeducation establishmentsestablishments

forfor AnnenianArmenian adultsadults arousedaroused ththee suspicionsuspicion ofof thethe OttomansOttomans whowho suspectedsuspected thesethese facilitiesfacilities toto bebe promotingpromoting revolutionaryrevolutionary ideas.ideas. ForFor hishis activitiesactivities hhee waswas exiledexiled from VanVan toto France,France, wherewhere hhee establishedestablished thethe journajournall Armenia whichwhich advocatedadvocated liberalliberal democracy.democracy. CallingCalling

forfor self-detenninationself-determination forfor AnneniansArmenians byby meansmeans ofof revolutionaryrevolutionary thoughtthought andand action,action,

includinincludingg thethe disseminationdissemination ofof propagandpropagandaa andand militarymilitary trainingtraining,, Armenia alsoalso promotedpromoted

raisinraisingg ththee awarenessawareness ofof thethe outsideoutside worldworld ofof thethe situationsituation inin ArmeniaAnnenia,, sendingsending financialfinancial

aidaid toto ththee 'homeland''homeland' toto fundfund endeavorsendeavors towardtowardss educationeducation andand self-defenseself-defense projectsprojects,, andand

169 disseminatindisseminatingg Portugalian'Portugalian'ss ownown politicapoliticall andand socialsocial ideas. 169 "What"What mademade ththee partyparty revolutionary,revolutionary,"" accordingaccording ttoo Hovannisian,Hovannisian, "was"was ititss advocacyadvocacy ofof self-relianceself-reliance andand annedarmed

169 NalbandianNalbandian,, 94.94. 8888 resistanceresistance againstagainst statestate terror.,,170terror."170 TheThe partyparty,, however,however, diddid nonott openlyopenly advocateadvocate terrorismterrorism as a political tactic, although "[this] policy was ignored by certain individuals."I?1171 In as a political tactic, although "[this] policy was ignored by certain individuals." In 1889 the Ottoman authorities stopped an Armenian caravan from at the border town of 1889 the Ottoman authorities stopped an Armenian caravan from at the border town of Ba~kale en route to Van for inspection. It was discovered that the traders were smuggling Baskale en route to Van for inspection. It was discovered that the traders were smuggling arms to an Armenian militia. Additionally the Ottomans discovered that they were arms to an Armenian militia. Additionally the Ottomans discovered that they were carrying a letter from Mkrtich Portugalian which detailed a plot for revolution. As the carrying a letter from Mkrtich Portugalian which detailed a plot for revolution. As the Ottoman border guards motioned to arrest the traders, the local Armenians opened fire on Ottoman border guards motioned to arrest the traders, the local Armenians opened fire on the Ottoman forces, leading to a number of casualties on both sides. In172 the OttomaAlthoughn forces Nalbandian, leading to claims a numbe thatr othef casualtie party wass o exclusiven both sides in . its selection of membership,Althoug noth recruitingNalbandia noutside claim sTurkey-let that the part aloney was Van-otherexclusive in exiled its selectio membersn of of the membershipArmenakan ,party, not recruitin particularlyg outsid Mkritche Turkey—le Terlemezian,t alon eencouraged Van—othe rArmenians exiled member to forges o fties the

Armenakawith the Kurdsn party to , supportparticularl themy Mkritc againsth Terlemezianthe Ottomans., encourage Accordingd Armenianto Libaridian,s to forge ties

Terlemezian,with the Kurd whoms to suppor he claimst them was agains thet actualthe Ottomans leader of. Accordinthe Armenakang to Libaridian party, "could, not

Terlemezianleave the Kurds, who outm ofhe hisclaim worldview"s was the andactua advocated,l leader of inth eseveral Armenaka articlesn party in Armenia,, "could no"thet translationleave the Kurd of objectives out of hi realitiess worldview into a" commonand advocated political, in program."l?3several article s in Armenia, "the 173 translatioThen o Hunchakf objectiv (Bell)e realitie Partys int waso a commofoundedn inpolitica Geneval program. in 1887 "by a group of six

ArmenianTh estudents, Huncha kalthough (Bell) Part it wasy wa nots founde calledd suchin Genev until a1890. in 188 Party7 by amembers group o fboasted six

Armeniatheir adherencen students to Marxist, althoug ideology,h it was no butt calle theird culturesuch unti andl 1890mentality. Part ybore member the semblances boasted of their adherence to Marxist ideology, but their culture and mentality bore the semblance of

1?0 RicharRichardd G.G. Hovannisian,Hovannisian, "The"The ArmeniaArmeniann QuestionQuestion inin thethe OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire 18761876 toto 1914,"1914," volvol.. 22,, iinn The Armenian People from Ancient to Modern Times, 213213.. 171171 NalbandianNalbandian,, 171-172.171-172. 172172 AraAramm RubenRuben,, Hai HeghapokhakaniHeghapakhakani Me Hishataknere [Memoirs[Memoirs ofof anan ArmenianArmenian Revolutionary]Revolutionary] (Los(Los AngelesAngeles,, 1952),1952), II,II, 268-269268-269.. AlsoAlso seesee Sonyel,Sonyel, 115.115. 173 173 LibaridianL'bI an 'd' lan, , 11767 6. 8989 populism.populism.174174 OriginallyOriginally sympathizinsympathizingg witwithh ththee causecause oofPortugalian'sf Portugalian's ArmenakaArmenakann Party,Party, havinhavingg publishepublishedd numerounumerouss articlearticless inin hihiss journaljournal,, thetheyy pressepressedd foforr a mormoree militantmilitant versioversionn ofof ArmeniaArmeniann nationalismnationalism.. FindinFindingg thathatt PortugaliaPortugaliann woulwouldd nonott supportsupport theitheirr moremore radicaradicall viewpointviewpoint,, thetheyy decidedecidedd ttoo establisestablishh theitheirr owownn partpartyy anandd startestartedd publishingpublishing materiamateriall openlopenlyy criticizincriticizingg ththee ArmenakaArmenakann journajournall Armenia. IInn timetime ththee partpartyy formulatedformulated a moremore concreteconcrete agendaagenda byby whichwhich itit wouldwould trytry toto achieveachieve itsits goalgoal ofof anan independentindependent

ArmeniArmeniaa whicwhichh woulwouldd includincludee thethe easterneastern provincesprovinces.. FirsFirstt thetheyy soughsoughtt toto teatearr downdown thethe ololdd orderorderss ooff powepowerr iinn ArmeniaArmeniann societysociety andand developdevelop a neneww nationalisnationalistt orderorder iinn itsits place,place, basebasedd onon ththee principleprincipless ooff socialismsocialism andand humanitarianism.humanitarianism.

A commoncommon themthemee inin HunchaHunchakk rhetoricrhetoric wawass nonott onlyonly OttomanOttoman exploitationexploitation ooff thethe

ArmeniansArmenians,, bubutt alsoalso thethe oppressiveoppressive naturnaturee ofof ththee authorityauthority ooff ththee ArmeniaArmeniann patriarchpatriarch.. ItIt envisageenvisagedd anan ArmeniArmeniaa whoswhosee citizenscitizens werweree ruleruledd bbyy anan electedelected legislativlegislativee assembly,assembly, enjoyeenjoyedd absoluteabsolute freedomfreedom ofof speech,speech, presspress,, assemblyassembly,, andand organization,organization, performedperformed military service, had full access to education; and paid taxes according to their income. 175175 military service, had full access to education; and paid taxes according to their income. Unlike the Armenakan, which advocated "revolution" through education and nonviolent Unlike the Armenakan, which advocated "revolution" through education and nonviolent resistance, the Hunchak party advocated immediate social action, widespread resistance, the Hunchak party advocated immediate social action, widespread demonstrations, and brute force as means of achieving independence. Nalbandian writes demonstrations, and brute force as means of achieving independence. Nalbandian writes that the Hunchaks believed that the political situation of the Armenians could actually be that the Hunchaks believed that the political situation of the Armenians could actually be altered by using a combination of "propaganda, agitation, terror, organization, and altered by using a combination of "propaganda, agitation, terror, organization, and

174 AnahidAnahidee TeTerr Minassian,Minassian, "The"The RolRolee ofof ththee ArmeniaArmeniann CommunitCommunityy inin ththee FoundationFoundation anandd DevelopmentDevelopment ofof ththee SocialistSocialist MovemenMovementt iinn ththee OttomaOttomann EmpirEmpiree andand Turkey,Turkey, 1876-1876- 1923,"1923," inin Social and Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire, ed.ed. MeteMete Tun9ayTuncay anandd ErikErik ZurcherZiircher (London(London;; NeNeww YorkYork:: BritisBritishh AcademiAcademicc PresPresss iinn associationassociation witwithh thethe InternationaInternationall InstitutInstitutee ofof SocialSocial HistoryHistory,, Amsterdam,Amsterdam, 1994),1994), 112.112. 175 175 NalbandianNalbandian,, 109.109. 9090 peasanpeasantt andand workeworkerr activities.,,176activities."

ThThee HunchakHunchakss werweree nonott entirelyentirely opposeopposedd ttoo assistancassistancee fromfrom anyany oofthef the EuropeanEuropean

PowersPowers,, bubutt thetheyy insisteinsistedd thathatt ththee PowerPowerss shouldshould nonott intervenintervenee inin thethe internalinternal affairaffairss ofof thethe

ArmeniansArmenians,, sincsincee thethe causecause ofof ArmeniaAnneniann independencindependencee wawass ttoo bbee undertakeundertakenn bbyy thethe

ArmenianAnnenianss themselvesthemselves.. IInn aann excerpexcerptt fromfrom ththee firsfirstt editorialeditorial ofof ththee journajournall Hunchak suchsuch independentindependent resolvresolvee isis stated:stated:

iiff wwee foldfold ourour handhandss andand waiwaitt foforr EuropeaEuropeann interventionintervention,, ththee ArmeniaArmeniann peoplpeoplee willwill sinksink intointo unbearablunbearablee misfortune...misfortune ..... [w]e[w]e musmustt addadd thathatt ththee presentpresent policypolicy andand diplomacydiplomacy ooff ththee EuropeaEuropeann PowerPowerss isis liklikee a windmill—iwindmill-itt turnturnss iinn thithiss directiodirectionn ofof ththee winwindd todaytoday,, whilwhilee tomorrowtomorrow,, accordinaccordingg ttoo ththee pleasurepleasuress ooff ththee samsamee windwind,, iitt mamayy turtumn inin thethe oppositeopposite direction.direction. 177

ThThee HunchaksHunchaks operatedoperated asas anan undergrounundergroundd organizationorganization basebasedd iinn IstanbuIstanbull witwithh a larglargee networnetworkk ofof ArmeniaArmeniann supportersupporterss throughouthroughoutt Europe,Europe, RussiaRussia,, andand ththee UniteUnitedd States.States.

TheirTheir maimainn areaareass ofof interestinterest werweree initiallinitiallyy inin thethe maimainn citiescities iinn easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia.. SinceSince thetheyy werweree rivalsrivals ooff ththee ArmenakansArmenakans,, whwhoo werweree strongstrong iinn VanVan,, ththee HunchakHunchakss hahadd littlelittle appealappeal iinn ththee VaVann regionregion.. TheTheyy hadhad somesome successsuccess inin ErzurumErzurum,, undertakinundertakingg thethe constructionconstruction ooff a foundrfoundryy thathatt manufacturemanufacturedd armsarms inin 1890.1890. ThThee projecprojectt ttoo armarm thethe

ArmenianAnnenianss througthroughh ththee productioproductionn ooff weaponweaponss withiwithinn ththee OttomanOttoman EmpirEmpiree failefailedd afterafter skirmisheskirmishess betweebetweenn a numbenumberr ofof ArmenianArmenianss andand MuslimMuslimss inin ErzuruErzurumm iinn JunJunee 18901890 inin

178 whicwhichh ththee revolutionarierevolutionariess werweree easileasilyy overcome. 178 ThThee HunchakHunchakss werweree alsalsoo bitterlybitterly opposeopposedd ttoo ththee PatriarcPatriarchh anandd carriecarriedd outout a ploplott ttoo assassinateassassinate himhim iinn 1890.1890. WhitWhitee reportedreported ttoo ththee MarquiMarquiss ofof SalisburySalisbury aboutabout a rioriott stagedstaged bbyy thethe HunchaHunehakk revolutionarierevolutionariess aatt KumKum

KapiKapl,, IstanbuIstanbull iinn AugusAugustt 1890:1890: "Th"Thee rioriott wawass apparentlyapparently gogott uupp againstagainst ththee PatriarchPatriarch.. AnAn

176176 Ibid.Ibid.,, 110.110. 177177 CiteCitedd inin Ibid.Ibid.,, 115-116.115-116. 9191

ArmeniaAnneniann wilfullywilfully firedfired aatt hihiss BeatitudeBeatitude,, andand subsequentlysubsequently killedkilled a gendannegendarme afterafter thethe policpolicee hahadd beenbeen broughbroughtt intointo ththee churchchurch iinn orderorder ttoo restorrestoree orderorder amongsamongstt ththee rioters.,,179rioters."

FollowinFollowingg ththee Ottoman'sOttoman's quellingquelling ofof thethe ErzuruErzurumm anandd KuKumm KapKapli incidentsincidents,, ththee HunchaksHunchaks movemovedd theitheirr centercenter ofof operationsoperations ttoo ththee mormoree remotremotee anandd mountainoumountainouss regionregionss ofof SasunSasun anandd ZeitounZeitoun wherewhere thethe ArmenianAnnenianss werweree mormoree independenindependentt ooff OttomanOttoman intervention.intervention.

ThThee DashnaDashnakk partyparty,, alsalsoo knowknownn aass ththee ArmeniaAnneniann RevolutionarRevolutionaryy FederationFederation

(ARF)(ARF),, wawass organizedorganized iinn TiflisTiflis iinn ththee 1890s.1890s. ItIt wawass formefonnedd fromfrom a mergemergerr betweenbetween variouvariouss otherother ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarrevolutionaryy groupsgroups iinn ththee CaucasuCaucasuss whwhoo werweree uniteunitedd iinn theirtheir anti-Ottomaanti-Ottomann andand anti-Czarisanti-Czaristt sentiments.sentiments. AAtt theitheirr inceptioinceptionn ththee DashnaDashnakk anandd HunchakHunchak partiepartiess hahadd fewfew differencesdifferences betweebetweenn themthem,, althougalthoughh ononee majomajorr differencdifferencee surfacedsurfaced overover ththee questionquestion ofof thethe devolutiodevolutionn ofof powerpower.. WhereaWhereass ththee HunchakHunchakss favoredfavored a moremore centralizecentralizedd administrationadministration ofof theitheirr organization,organization, ththee DashnakDashnakss soughtsought ttoo decentralizedecentralize powepowerr intintoo ththee handhandss ofof a representativrepresentativee bodbodyy ofof ArmeniansAnnenians.. AnotheAnotherr majomajorr differencedifference betweenbetween ththee twotwo partiepartiess wawass overover ideology.ideology. AlthougAlthoughh ththee DashnaDashnakk partpartyy wawass basebasedd onon socialistsocialist principlesprinciples,, andand eveneven fonnedformed anan alliancalliancee witwithh ththee HunchakHunchakss forfor a briebrieff period,period, thetheyy werweree arguablyarguably leslesss pronpronee ttoo populispopulismm anandd advocateadvocatedd mormoree carefucarefull anandd drawn-outdrawn-out stagesstages ooff preparatiopreparationn beforbeforee commencincommencingg revolutionarrevolutionaryy activity.activity. TheThe Hunchaks,Hunchaks, byby contrastcontrast,, favoredfavored swiftswift annedarmed actionaction againstagainst ththee government.government. ThThee HunchakHunchakss laterlater disassociateddisassociated themselvesthemselves witwithh ththee DashnakDashnakss iinn 18911891 oonn ththee groundgroundss thathatt thetheyy werewere insufficientlinsufficientlyy Marxist. 180180 TowardTowardss ththee mid-1890s,mid-1890s, ththee rifriftt betweebetweenn ththee DashnaksDashnaks,, thethe

1781 /8 SaiSaidd PashPashaa ttoo RusteRustemm PashaPasha,, JunJunee 2727,, 18901890,, TurkeyTurkey nono.. 11 (1890-91)(1890-91),, pppp.. 50-5150-51,, nono.. 62/16211,, citedcited iinn British Documents, eded.. $imsirSim~ir,, 22:: 701701.. 179179 SirSir WW.. WhiteWhite ttoo ththee MarquiMarquiss ofof Salisbury,Salisbury, Therapia,Therapia, AugusAugustt 2121,, 1890,1890, Turkey no. 1 (1890-1891), p. 66, no. 86, inin British Documents, edcd.. §imsirSim~ir,, 22:: 712712.. 180180 Libaridian,Libaridian, 103,103, 106106.. 9292

HunchaksHunchaks,, andand ArmenakanAnnenakanss grewgrew.. InIn hihiss memoirsmemoirs,, ththee prominenprominentt DashnaDashnakk activistactivist

VahaVahann PapaziaPapaziann revealrevealss hihiss disdaindisdain foforr ththee HunchaHunchakk andand ArmenakaAnnenakann parties:parties:

wwee dididd alalll wwee couldcould ttoo reacreachh commoncommon groundground witwithh ththee HenchaksHenchaks andand thethe ArmenakansAnnenakans.. BecausBecausee ooff theitheirr conservativconservativee andand fanaticalfanatical elements,elements, and-Iand—I mustmust confess-someconfess—some ooff ouourr carelescarelesss anandd ignoranignorantt members.members .... .armie anniess ofof foefoess fonnedformed againstagainst us,us, composecomposedd ofof ththee mosmostt humblhumblee groupsgroups iinn ourour society.society. ItIt wawass nonott a strugglstrugglee ofof ideasideas,, bubutt ratheratherr a vulgavulgarr animosity,animosity, witwithh nnoo holdholdss barredbarred,, jusjustt toto conqueconquerr a fewfew villages...villages ..... ThiThiss 'activity'activity'' wawass mormoree evidenevidentt inin ththee ArmenakaAnnenakann andand HenchaHenchakk partiesparties,, becausbecausee thetheyy dididd nonott havhavee competencompetentt leadersleaders,, anandd thertheree wawass nono 181 party discipline in their ranks. lSI party discipline in their ranks. The Dashnak party was open to the possibility of fonning alliances with Arabs, The Dashnak party was open to the possibility of forming alliances with Arabs, Kurds, Turks, and peoples in the Balkans as a means of gaining support for the cause, Kurds, Turks, and peoples in the Balkans as a means of gaining support for the cause, which would lessen the necessity for an alliance with the Russians or the British, for both which would lessen the necessity for an alliance with the Russians or the British, for both of whom they had developed deep distrust. The Dashaks also attempted to fonn an of whom they had developed deep distrust. The Dashaks also attempted to form an alliance with the Kurds. In Droshak, the Dashnak newspaper, there were letters written alliance with the Kurds. In Droshak, the Dashnak newspaper, there were letters written in Kurdish summoning the tribal leaders to join the party and thus to create a more in Kurdish summoning the tribal leaders to join the party and thus to create a more fonnidable resistance to Ottoman forces. It warned the Kurds to not "fall into the traps" formidable resistance to Ottoman forces. It warned the Kurds to not "fall into the traps" of the Ottoman government, which was attempting to lure them into its military, and in of the Ottoman government, which was attempting to lure them into its military, and in fact many Kurdish tribal leaders in the Dersim area were receptive to the bid of the fact many Kurdish tribal leaders in the Dersim area were receptive to the bid of the Dashnaks. Keri of Erzincan, a Dashnak representative, resided with the Kurdish tribes in Dashnaks. Keri of Erzincan, a Dashnak representative, resided with the Kurdish tribes in Dersim during the mid-1890s spreading revolutionary ideas among them. It even Dersim during the mid-1890s spreading revolutionary ideas among them. It even initiated dialogue with KaSlln Bey, the brother of Musa Bey, and attempted to curry favor initiated dialogue with Kasim Bey, the brother of Musa Bey, and attempted to curry favor with the Kimlik tribe which was predominant in the Mu~ and Dersim regions. 182182 with the Kimlik tribe which was predominant in the Mus and Dersim regions.

181 VahaVahann PapazianPapazian,, 1mIm Hushere, [My[My Memoires]Memoires],, volvol.. 1,1, (Boston(Boston:: Hairenik,Hairenik, 1950),353,1950), 353, citecitedd inin MarMarcc NichanianNichanian,, Writers of Disaster: Armenian Literature in the TwentiethTwentieth Century, (Reading(Reading:: Taderon,Taderon, bbyy arrangemenarrangementt witwithh thethe GomidaGomidass Institute,Institute, 2002)2002),, 182.182. 182 182 Esat Uras, The Armenians in History and the Armenian Question (Sirkeci, Istanbul: Esat Uras, The Armenians in History and the Armenian Question (Sirkeci, Istanbul: Documentary Publications, 1988), 801-802. Documentary Publications, 1988), 801-802. 9933

DurinDuringg ththee earlearlyy 18901890ss thertheree wawass nonott onlonlyy rivalrrivalryy betweebetweenn ththee clergclergyy anandd ththee revolutionarierevolutionariess foforr powerpower,, bubutt alsalsoo betweebetweenn ththee OrthodoOrthodoxx anandd non-Orthodonon-Orthodoxx ArmeniaArmeniann populationspopulations.. BoyadjiaBoyadjiann reporterepOliedd a cascasee ooff a familfamilyy rivalrrivalryy betweebetweenn ArmeniaArmeniann familiefamiliess iinn ththee HarpuHarputt regioregionn iinn ththee villagevillagess ooff HaiHaimm anandd BlaidarBlaidar,, ononee CatholiCatholicc anandd ththee otherother

183 Orthodox, in which both sides hired the services of Kurds to kill the other. 183 It was Orthodox, in which both sides hired the services ofKurdstokilltheother.,OJ It was largely because of the religious rivalry among the different Armenian sects that the largely because of the religious rivalry among the different Armenian sects that the revolutionaries had appeal: they stood for Armenian unity and equality rather than revolutionaries had appeal: they stood for Armenian unity and equality rather than religious supremacy. religious supremacy.

ThThee FormatioFonnationn ooff ththee HamidiyHamidiyee CavalryCavalry

AbdulhamiAbdUlhamidd IPII'ss policpolicyy ooff alliancalliancee buildinbuildingg witwithh ththee KurdKurdss durinduringg ththee 1880s1880s andand

18901890ss wowonn hihimm ththee affectionataffectionatee titltitlee ooff havebave kurdan (fathe(fatherr ooff ththee KurdKurdss iinn Kurdish)Kurdish).. HisHis creationcreation ooff ththee predominantlpredominantlyy KurdisKurdishh HamidiyHamidiyee CavalrCavalryy RegimenRegimentt isis a manifestatiomanifestationn ofof hihiss attemptattemptss ttoo integratintegratee ththee KurdKurdss intintoo ththee statstatee througthroughh diplomacy.diplomacy. ZekZekii PashaPasha,, thethe commandercommander ooff ththee 44thth brigadbrigadee iinn ErzincanErzincan,, wawass puputt iinn chargchargee ofof ththee organizationorganization andand commancommandd ooff thethe HamidiyHamidiyee cavalrycavalry.. AAss ZekZekii PashPashaa waswas oofCircassianf Circassian originorigin andand well-well- acquaintedacquainted withwith thethe geographygeography ofof easterneastern Anatolia,Anatolia, hehe waswas consideredconsidered anan idealideal candidatecandidate forfor thethe position.position. InIn NovemberNovember 18901890 hehe summonedsummoned a numbernumber ofof prominentprominent KurdishKurdish tribaltribal chiefschiefs toto ErzurumErzurum toto discussdiscuss thethe arrangementarrangement ofof cavalrycavalry organizationorganization ofof thethe cavalry.cavalry.

SomeSome ofof thethe largerlarger tribestribes werweree ttoo formform entireentire regimentsregiments onon theirtheir ownown andand lendlend 800-1000800-1000 ofof theirtheir menmen toto thethe cavalry.cavalry. SmallerSmaller tribestribes werewere attachedattached toto regimentsregiments ledled byby largerlarger tribes.tribes.

GraduallyGradually thethe numbernumber ofof regimentsregiments increased;increased; therethere werewere 4040 regimentsregiments inin 18921892 andand 5656 inin

183 183 RustemRustem Pasha,Pasha, OttomanOttoman AmbassadorAmbassador toto London,London, toto SaidSaid Pasha,Pasha, OttomanOttoman MinisterMinister ofof ForeignForeign Affairs,Affairs, London:London: Feb.Feb. 22,22, 1890,1890, No.No. l3690/49,13690/49, inin Documents DiplomatiqueDiplomatique 9494

184 1893.

ThThee maimainn motivmotivee behinbehindd ththee fonnationformation oftheof the HamidiyHamidiyee wawass ttoo centralizecentralize governmengovernmentt controcontroll overover eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa forfor ththee immediateimmediate purpospurposee ofof providingproviding securitysecurity againstagainst internalinternal rebelliorebellionn andand thuthuss ttoo stavestave offoff RussiaRussiann andand BritisBritishh intervention.intervention.

AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII statedstated ththee followingfollowing inin hihiss memoirsmemoirs concerningconcerning ththee Hamidiye:Hamidiye:

ThesThesee KurdishKurdish regimentsregiments,, whicwhichh araree fashionefashionedd afteafterr ththee mannemannerr ooff ththee RussianRussian [],[Cossacks], cancan bbee ofof greagreatt serviceservice ttoo usus.. AdditionallAdditionallyy thethe 'concep'conceptt ooff obedience'obedience' thathatt theythey wilwilll learnlearn inin ththee armannyy wilwilll bbee beneficiabeneficiall toto themthem.. TheThe KurdisKurdishh agas ttoo whowhomm wwee havhavee givegivenn ththee titltitlee ooff officerofficer wilwilll bbee esteemedesteemed inin theitheirr neneww positionspositions andand a numbenumberr wilwilll makmakee anan efforteffort toto enteenterr bbyy force.force. ThThee HamidiyeHamidiye Regiments...wilRegiments ... willl becombecomee a valuablvaluablee army...anny ..... I knoknoww thathatt I aamm criticizedcriticized forfor bringinbringingg ththee childrenchildren ooff somsomee ofof thethe KurdisKurdishh agas toto IstanbuIstanbull andand installinginstalling themthem iinn certaicertainn officesoffices.. [But][But] foforr yearyearss thethe ChristianChristian ArmenianAnnenianss havhavee occupiedoccupied positionpositionss iinn ththee ministryministry.. WhaWhatt harhannm cancan thertheree bbee ttoo drawdraw ththee KurdsKurds,, whwhoo araree ofof ouourr samesame religionreligion,, nearenearerr ttoo us?... I aamm convincedconvinced I aamm iinn ththee righrightt iinn ththee KurdishKurdish policpolicyy thathatt I havhavee undertakenundertaken.. ZekZekii PasaPa~a,, whwhoo hahass examineexaminedd ththee [political][political] situationsituation aatt hanhandd [in[in eastereasternn Anatolia]Anatolia],, hahass shownshown ththee mosmostt effectiveffectivee wawayy 111in putting forth the idea offonning regiments from Kurdish Cossacks.118855 putting forth the idea of forming regiments from Kurdish Cossacks. There is considerable debate over the role of the Hamidiye regiments in the There is considerable debate over the role of the Hamidiye regiments in the Annenian massacres. One camp asserts that the development of the cavalry was part of Armenian massacres. One camp asserts that the development of the cavalry was part of Abdiilhamid II's Pan-Islamic vision of integrating the Muslims in the Ottoman Empire, a Abdulhamid IPs Pan-Islamic vision of integrating the Muslims in the Ottoman Empire, a large majority of whom lived relatively isolated tribal lifestyles, into the state. Bayram large majority of whom lived relatively isolated tribal lifestyles, into the state. Bayram Kodaman is one of the leading proponents of this notion, stressing that the creation of the Kodaman is one of the leading proponents of this notion, stressing that the creation of the Hamidiye regiment was innocuous, generally beneficial, and generally accorded with Hamidiye regiment was innocuous, generally beneficial, and generally accorded with other integration projects for Muslims in the hinterlands. The Ottomans created the a~iret other integration projects for Muslims in the hinterlands. The Ottomans created the asiret mektebi (the tribal office) for the children of leading Arab and Kurdish tribal chiefs, the mektebi (the tribal office) for the children of leading Arab and Kurdish tribal chiefs, the

Ottoman, ed.ed. §imsirSim~ir,, 74.74. 184184 BayramBayram KodamanKodaman,, "Hamidiye"Hamidiye HafiHafifSiivarif Siivari AlaylanAlaylan (II.(II. AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd vvee DoguDogu Asiretleri),A~iretleri),"" [The[The HamidiyeHamidiye LighLightt CavalryCavalry Regiments]Regiments],, TarihTank Dergisi 3232,, (1979)(1979),, 463463.. 451451.. 9595 saray muhafiz birligi (palace(palace guarguardd unionunion)) forfor ththee AlbaniansAlbanians,, andand ththee HamidiyeHamidiye regimentsregiments forfor ththee Kurds.Kurds. ThThee creationcreation ooff ththee regimenregimentt hahadd ththee addedadded benefibenefitt ofof impedinimpedingg thethe

ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionarierevolutionariess fromfrom creatingcreating a statestate,, bubutt servedserved thethe mainmain purpospurposee ofof providingproviding protection.186186 ThThee Ottomans'Ottomans' "random""random" policiepoliciess ofof favoritisfavoritismm toto ononee tribtribee oveoverr ththee otherother caused "jealousy and competition among the tribes" and eventually led to "infighting,,,187187 caused "jealousy and competition among the tribes" and eventually led to "infighting," which in turn spread to affect the Armenians. which in turn spread to affect the Armenians. Others view Abdulhamid's reasoning behind the creation of the Hamidiye as Others view Abdulhamid's reasoning behind the creation of the Hamidiye as directed towards thwarting the Armenian revolutionaries by any means possible. directed towards thwarting the Armenian revolutionaries by any means possible. According to Nalbandian, the Hamidiye not only strengthened Sultan AbdUlhamid II's According to Nalbandian, the Hamidiye not only strengthened Sultan Abdulhamid IPs "Pan Islamic policy," but also "provided a method of separating the Moslem Kurds from "Pan Islamic policy," but also "provided a method of separating the Moslem Kurds from possible cooperation with the discontented Armenians.,,188188 She goes on to state that

Abdulhamid'spossible cooperatio real npurpose with th wase discontente to incite thed Armenians. Kurds against" theSh eArmenians goes on to bystat "allowing"e that

Abdulhamid'them to engages rea inl murderouspurpose wa activitys to incit withe th impunity.e Kurds agains t the Armenians by "allowing" them to Theengag moree in pertinentmurderou questions activit yremains, with impunity however,. if the purpose of the Hamidiye was merelyThe morto incorporatee pertinent thequestio Kurdsn remainsinto the, systemhowever more, if th fullye purpos and eprovide of the Hamidiysecurity ein waeasterns merel Anatoliay to incorporat (especiallye th ate Kurda times intwheno th ethe syste Britishm mor Consule full yin an Erzurumd provid ande securit his y in

Armenianeastern Anatoli deputya (especiall were reportingy at a tim conditionse when th ine easternBritish AnatoliaConsul in to Erzuru be morem an secured his and

Armeniathat the Porten deput wasy weralreadye reportin establishingg condition connectionss in easter withn Anatoli variousa t otribal be mor chiefs),e secur whye an d thaAbdulhamidt the Porte IIwa dids alread not forn1y establishin such an additionalg connection cavalrys with regiment various tribauntill overchiefs) a decade, why after

Abdulhamid II did not form such an additional cavalry regiment until over a decade after

185185 SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdUlhamidd IIII,, Sultan Abdulhamid'inAbdiilhamid'in Hatira Defteri, eded.. {smetIsmet BozdagBozdag (Istanbul:(Istanbul: PinarPinar,, 1986),1986), 7575.. 186186 KodamanKodaman,, OsmanlzOsmanh Devrinde Dogu Anadolu 'nun IdariJdari Durumu [The[The AdminstrativeAdminstrative SituationSituation ooff EasternEastern AnatoliAnatoliaa iinn ththee OttomaOttomann PeriodPeriod]] (Ankara:(Ankara: AnadolAnadoluu BasiBasmn Birligi,Birligi, 1986),1986), 9191.. 187187 KodamanKodaman,, "Hamidiye"Hamidiye HafiHafifSuvarif Suvari Alaylan,Alaylan,"" 463463.. 188188 NalbandianNalbandian,, 161161.. 9966 a ththee Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh War.War.

ThThee establishmenestablishmentt ooff ththee HamidiyHamidiyee regimenregimentt iinn ththee earlearlyy 18901890ss wawass parpartt ooff

AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IPII'ss centralizatiocentralizationn efforteffort.. AccordinAccordingg JaneJanett KleinKlein,, AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd wawass intenintentt oonn

"bringing"bring[ing]] ththee regioregionn iinn ththee OttomaOttomann foldfold,, an andd ttoo ensureensure,, bbyy almosalmostt ananyy meansmeans necessarynecessary,, thathatt iitt remaineremainedd there."there.,,189189 ThThee mechanismmechanismss bbyy whicwhichh ththee KurdKurdss andand

ArmenianArmenianss hahadd beebeenn containecontainedd iinn eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa iinn 18801880ss hahadd a numbenumberr ooff limitslimits..

PuttinPuttingg securitsecurityy measuremeasuress iinn practicpracticee necessitatenecessitatedd disarmindisarmingg ooff ththee tribestribes,, settlinsettlingg thethe nomadsnomads,, blockadinblockadingg certaicertainn migratiomigrationn routesroutes,, anandd installininstallingg securitsecurityy checkpointscheckpoints throughouthroughoutt eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa anandd oonn ththee borderborderss witwithh RussiRussiaa anandd IranIran.. CompletelyCompletely disarmindisarmingg ththee KurdisKurdishh populatiopopulationn proveprovedd nearlnearlyy impossibleimpossible;; nonott onlonlyy hahadd ththee OttomansOttomans distributedistributedd weaponweaponss amonamongg ththee KurdKurdss durinduringg ththee 1860s1860s anandd 1870s1870s whewhenn thetheyy employedemployed thethemm aass ba.)lbozuks,basibozuks, bubutt ththee KurdKurdss hahadd beebeenn smugglinsmugglingg weaponsweapons acrossacross ththee porousporous borderborderss ofof IraIrann forfor yearsyears.. SettlingSettling KurdisKurdishh nomadsnomads throughouthroughoutt eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatolia necessitatenecessitatedd stationingstationing trooptroopss acrossacross relativelrelativelyy unknowunknownn territoryterritory.. SecuringSecuring mountainousmountainous areaareass suchsuch asas DersimDersim,, Sasun,Sasun, ZeitouZeitounn anandd HakkarHakkarii wawass a perpetualperpetual strugglstrugglee forfor OttomanOttoman forceforcess which,which, althougalthoughh easileasilyy ableable ttoo rouroutt Kurdish,Kurdish, ArmenianArmenian,, anandd NestoriaNestoriann insurgents,insurgents, couldcould notnot containcontain them.them. AsAs a meanmeanss ofof settlingsettling thethe tribes,tribes, oneone ofof thethe keykey securitysecurity measuresmeasures thatthat thethe BritishBritish officialsofficials requiredrequired ofof thethe Ottomans,Ottomans, thethe PortePorte hadhad establishedestablished checkpointscheckpoints throughoutthroughout easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia throughoutthroughout thethe 1880s.1880s. OneOne ofof ththee mainmain problemsproblems withwith thethe checkpoints,checkpoints, however,however, waswas thatthat theythey werewere difficultdifficult toto maintainmaintain completelycompletely secure,secure, sincesince guardsguards werewere oftenoften venalvenal andand diddid littlelittle toto implementimplement properproper security.security. AgainAgain OttomanOttoman securitysecurity measuresmeasures couldcould onlyonly controlcontrol thethe activitiesactivities ofof thethe

189 Klein,Klein, "Power"Power inin thethe Periphery,"Periphery," 6.6. 9797

ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess toto thethe extentextent thathatt thetheyy visiblvisiblyy organizedorganized withiwithinn thethe Empire.Empire.

TheThe OttomanOttoman governmengovernmentt wawass muchmuch lessless capablcapablee ofof dealingdealing witwithh thethe well-organizedwell-organized networknetwork ooff ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess operatingoperating outsideoutside ththee EmpireEmpire andand infiltratinginfiltrating

ArmeniaAnneniann societysociety withiwithinn ititss bordersborders througthroughh undergroundunderground means.means.

TheThe HamidiyeHamidiye cavalrycavalry servedserved thethe ultimatultimatee purposepurpose ooff balancingbalancing thethe powerpower ofof thethe

ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionariesrevolutionaries,, whosewhose riserise ttoo greatergreater powepowerr isis thethe mosmostt likelylikely reasoreasonn whwhyy thethe sultansultan steppedstepped upup hishis policpolicyy ofof integratingintegrating thethe KurdsKurds intointo thethe OttomanOttoman militarymilitary systemsystem andand containingcontaining thethe centrifugalcentrifugal elementselements inin KurdishKurdish society.society.

ThThee fonnationformation ofof ththee HamidiyHamidiyee unitunit includedincluded severalseveral recruitmentrecruitment challenges.challenges. OneOne waswas thathatt beingbeing inin oror commandingcommanding a regimenregimentt wawass a covetedcoveted positionposition withwith a numbenumberr ofof advantages,advantages, includingincluding thethe rightright toto bearbear annsarms andand statusstatus inin thethe militarymilitary,, andand engenderedengendered rivalryrivalry betweenbetween tribestribes.. AsAs suchsuch thethe PortPortee secretlysecretly appointedappointed manymany ofof thethe tribestribes toto thethe cavalrycavalry inin orderorder ttoo stavestave offoff internalinternal disputes.disputes. NotwithstandinNotwithstandingg thethe advantagesadvantages thatthat membershipmembership inin thethe HamidiyeHamidiye offered,offered, manymany KurdisKurdishh tribatriball chiefschiefs initiallyinitially hadhad reservationsreservations aboutabout joininjoiningg up,up, suspectingsuspecting thatthat itit woulwouldd subduesubdue theitheirr freedom.freedom. TheThe

KurdishKurdish chiefschiefs inin thethe DersiDersimm regionregion sawsaw thethe OttomanOttoman initiativeinitiative asas a meansmeans ofof spreadingspreading

SunnismSunnism iinn theirtheir predominantlpredominantlyy AlevAlevii abode.abode. 190190

AlreadAlreadyy inin NovemberNovember 1891,1891, nonott longlong afterafter thethe creationcreation ofof ththee regiments,regiments, reportsreports surfacedsurfaced concerninconcerningg variousvarious problemsproblems surroundingsurrounding thethe Hamidiye.Hamidiye. ManManyy ofof thethe tribestribes,, itit wawass found,found, werweree muchmuch likelike thethe ba~lbozuksba§ibozuks inin thatthat theythey werweree insubordinateinsubordinate toto OttomanOttoman commandcommand andand abusedabused theirtheir militarymilitary powerpower.. TheThe BritishBritish ConsulConsul inin ErzurumErzurum wrote:wrote:

TheThe fonnationformation ofof ththee newnew KurdishKurdish cavalrycavalry appearsappears soso farfar ttoo havhavee butbut littlelittle restraininrestrainingg effeceffectt onon thesethese outrages,outrages, inin whichwhich manmanyy members,members, andand eveneven prominentprominent

190 190 KodamanKodaman,, "Hamidiyc"Hamidiye HafifHafif SiivanSiivan Alaylan,"Alaylan," 447.447. 9988

officerofficerss ooff ththee neneww force,force, araree accuseaccusedd ooff takintakingg part...part. . ... ItIt iiss saidsaid thathatt ththee KurdsKurds ofof ththee SibkanlSibkanluu tribetribe,, whwhoo areare membermemberss ooff ththee neneww cavalrcavalryy availavail themselvesthemselves ofof thatthat pretexpretextt ttoo taktakee forageforage,, foodfood,, etc.,etc., fromfrom ththee villagervillagerss ooff AlashgerdAlashgerd withoutwithout paymentpayment.. ThiThiss systesystemm ooff militarmilitaryy robberrobberyy hahass hitherthithertoo beebeenn ththee specialityspeciality ofof thethe policpolicee anandd regularregular cavalrcavalryy patrols. 191191

SeveralSeveral otheotherr consulaconsularr reportreportss detaildetail ththee involvemeninvolvementt ofof thosthosee whwhoo appearedappeared toto bebe membermemberss ofof ththee cavalrcavalryy regimentregimentss iinn criminacriminall activity.activity.

ThThee OttomansOttomans werweree particularlparticularlyy keekeenn onon recruitinrecruitingg ththee mormoree powerfupowerfull tribetribess intointo ththee HamidiyeHamidiye.. InIn ononee cascasee iitt eveneven offereofferedd amnestamnestyy ttoo MustafMustafaa PashaPasha,, a prominentprominent

KurdisKurdishh leadeleaderr ooff ththee MiraMirann tribtribee iinn ththee Bohtan-CizrBohtan-Cizree area,area, whwhoo wawass facingfacing chargescharges forfor stealingstealing hundredhundredss ofof sheepsheep frofromm a merchanmerchantt iinn UrfaUrfa,, inin exchangexchangee forfor hihiss participationparticipation inin ththee Hamidiye. 192192 MustafMustafaa Pasha'Pasha'ss appointmenappointmentt ttoo ththee HamidiyHamidiyee onlonlyy servedserved ttoo confirmconfirm thethe suspicionssuspicions ofof manmanyy localslocals,, includinincludingg ArmenianArmenianss anandd KurdKurdss alreadyalready angereangeredd oveoverr thethe acquittaacquittall ofof MusMusaa BeyBey,, thathatt ththee PortPortee woulwouldd turtumn a blinblindd eyeyee toto KurdisKurdishh criminacriminall activityactivity ttoo suisuitt itsits owownn socio-politicalsocio-political interestsinterests inin ththee region.region.

AnotheAnotherr issuissuee thathatt surfacesurfacedd iinn consularconsular reportreportss concerneconcernedd thethe actualactual strengthstrength andand sizesize ooff ththee regimentregiment.. TheThe FrencFrenchh ConsuConsull inin ErzuruErzurumm testifietestifiedd thatthat manmanyy ooff ththee KurdsKurds

"have"have neitheneitherr a horshorsee nonorr ththee meanmeanss ttoo bubuyy one.one."" ThThee OttomanOttoman prohibitioprohibitionn oonn ththee importimport ofof certaicertainn breedbreedss ooff horsehorsess intintoo eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa (perhaps(perhaps implementeimplementedd asas a meansmeans ofof preventinpreventingg ththee KurdsKurds from buildingbuilding a military)military),, accordinaccordingg ttoo ththee official,official, causecausedd ththee horsehorse breedersbreeders,, foforr lacklack ofof a marketmarket,, ttoo "abandon"abandon ththee industry.industry."" TheThe reporreportt goegoess onon ttoo saysay thatthat

ZekZekii PashPashaa wawass obligatedobligated ttoo contencontentt himselhimselff witwithh ththee amounamountt ofof horsehorsess provideprovidedd toto him,him, bubutt doubtedoubtedd hihiss abilitabilityy ttoo builbuildd a sustainablesustainable cavalry:cavalry: "In"In ordeorderr ttoo nonott gogo bacbackk oonn hishis

191 191 HampsoHampsonn ttoo WhiteWhite.. ErzurumErzurum,, NovNov.. 77,, 18911891 (FO(FO 19511729/F04241169),195/1729/F0424/169), citedcited inin Klein,Klein, "Powe"Powerr iinn ththee PeripheryPeriphery,, 5151.. 192 192 KleinKlein,, "Powe"Powerr inin ththee Periphery,Periphery,"" 5252.. 9999 promise.promise .... .t too raisraisee fortyforty oror fiftyfifty regiments.regiments .... .h hee hashas linedlined uupp regimentregimentss whicwhichh [in[in reality]reality] areare bubutt a mermeree smokescreen.,,193smokescreen."

ManManyy reportreportss iinn 18921892 andand 18931893 criticizcriticizee ththee HamidiyHamidiyee foforr ititss overaloveralll laclackk ofof trainingtraining,, organization,organization, andand reliablreliablee equipmentequipment.. ConsulConsul GravesGraves attendeattendedd a pageantpageant organizeorganizedd bbyy ZekZekii PashPashaa inin ErzuruErzurumm iinn whicwhichh ththee newlnewlyy createcreatedd regimentregimentss paradedparaded alongsidealongside ththee regularegularr troopstroops.. ThThee HamidiyHamidiyee cavalrycavalry,, whwhoo totaletotaledd approximatelyapproximately 1500,1500, marchemarchedd behinbehindd ththee regularegularr trooptroopss iinn thethe paradeparade.. "With"With ththee exceptionexception ofof somsomee ooff thethe chiefs,chiefs,"" observesobserves Graves,Graves, "the"the KurdishKurdish horsemehorsemenn hahadd madmadee littlelittle oorr nnoo attempattemptt atat uniformitunifonnityy iinn anyany respectrespect,, andand thethe greatgreat majoritmajorityy ofof theitheirr horsehorsess werweree ofof ververyy inferiorinferior qualityquality...... [M]os [M]ostt ooff thethemm carriedcarried MartiniMartini andand BerdaBerdann carbines,carbines, besidebesidess otherother veryvery miscellaneoumiscellaneouss weaponsweapons,, and.and .... .ther theree werweree a largelarge numbenumberr ofof elderlyelderly memenn anandd ververyy youngyoung boyboyss inin theitheirr ranks." 194194

ThThee irregulairregularr HamidiyHamidiyee CavalryCavalry RegimentRegimentss hahadd anan impacimpactt oonn KurdisKurdishh andand

ArmeniaAnneniann societsocietyy remarkablremarkablyy similasimilarr ttoo thathatt ooff ththee basibozuksba~lbozuks threthreee decadesdecades earlierearlier:: theythey weakenedweakened ththee powepowerr structurestructure inin KurdishKurdish societysociety anandd impededimpeded ththee fonnationformation ofof KurdishKurdish confederationconfederationss undeunderr thethe leadershipleadership ofof a powerfupowerfull bey oorr sheikh. VanVan BruinessenBruinessen capturecapturess ththee ongoinongoingg effecteffect thathatt ththee differentdifferent periodperiodss ofof OttomaOttomann policpolicyy hahadd onon ththee Kurds:Kurds:

TheThe tribatriball entitiesentities thathatt wwee seesee articulatingarticulating themselvethemselvess iinn eacheach consecutiveconsecutive phasphasee ofof administrativadministrativee centralizatiocentralizationn becambecamee correspondinglcorrespondinglyy smallersmaller,, leslesss complicated,complicated, anandd mormoree genealogicallgenealogicallyy homogeneous:homogeneous: emiratesemirates gavegave wawayy ttoo tribatriball confederacies,confederacies, confederacieconfederaciess ttoo larglargee tribestribes,, largeslarges tribetribess ttoo smallesmallerr ones. 195195

193 WigoreauWigoreauxx toto AmbassadorAmbassador Cambon,Cambon, NoNo.. 2121,, Dec.Dec. 55,, 1891,1891, citecitedd iinn KleinKlein,, "Power"Power iinn ththee Periphery,Periphery,"" 54-5554-55.. 194194 GraveGravess ttoo FordFord,, nono.. 38.38. ErzurumErzurum,, JunJunee 2222,, 18921892 (FO(FO 19511766;195/1766; FFOO 4241172),424/172), citecitedd inin Klein,Klein, "Power"Power inin ththee Periphery,Periphery,"" 58-59.58-59. 195195 vanvan BruinessenBruinessen,, "Kurds,"Kurds, States,States, anandd Tribes,Tribes,"" iinn Tribes and Power: Nationalism andand Ethnicity in the Middle East, ed.ed. FaleFalehh JabarJabar andand HoshaHoshamm DawodDawod (London(London:: SaqiSaqi Books,Books, 2002)2002).. " 100100

FroFromm TensionTension ttoo ConflictConflict

TheThe conflicconflictt betweebetweenn KurdKurdss andand ArmenianArmenianss iinn ththee mid-1890mid-1890ss cacann bbee understoodunderstood

asas ththee culminatioculminationn ooff conflictconflict betweebetweenn ththee OttomanOttoman statstatee anandd ththee ArmenianArmenian

revolutionariesrevolutionaries thathatt trickledtrickled dowdownn intointo ththee lowelowerr rankrankss ofof society.society. ItIt begabegann iinn JuneJune 18931893

inin MusMu~.. InIn a letteletterr ttoo SirSir ArthuArthurr NicolsonNicolson,, ConsulConsul GravesGraves reportereportedd thathatt ththee administrativeadministrative

districtdistrict ofof MuMu~s hahadd recentlrecentlyy comcomee undeunderr economiceconomic hardshiphardship,, "partly"partly owingowing ttoo ththee failurefailure

ofof ththee cropscrops laslastt yeayearr anandd ththee gloomgloomyy prospectprospectss oofthisf this year'year'ss harvestharvest,, andand partlpartlyy owingowing toto

ththee insecuritinsecurityy resultinresultingg frofromm KurdisKurdishh lawlessness.lawlessness."" DamadianDamadian,, a notoriounotoriouss HunchakHunchak

revolutionaryrevolutionary,, wawass residinresidingg inin SasunSasun andand reportedlreportedlyy encouraginencouragingg ththee KurdKurdss ttoo revoltrevolt

againstagainst ththee ArmeniansAnnenians,, althoughalthough hhee hahadd beebeenn capturedcaptured bbyy OttomaOttomann authoritieauthoritiess earlieearlierr inin

ththee monthmonth.. TheThe HunchakHunchakss werweree alsoalso beginninbeginningg ttoo spreaspreadd rumorrumorss ooff KurdisKurdishh massacremassacress ofof

ArmeniansAnnenians,, manmanyy ofof whicwhichh werweree foundfound ttoo bbee untrueuntrue.. NeverthelesNeverthelesss ththee rumorrumorss promptedprompted

governmengovernmentt officialofficialss ttoo intervenintervenee andand searcsearchh forfor weaponsweapons.. ThThee arresarrestt ooff ththee ArmenianArmenian

bishobishopp ofof MuMu~s onon chargescharges ofof sedition,sedition, forfor hihiss allegeallegedd communicatiocommunicationn witwithh Damadian,Damadian,

madmadee manmanyy ooff ththee ArmenianArmenianss iinn ththee regioregionn increasinglyincreasingly bittebitterr towardtowardss ththee Ottomans. 196196

IInn JulyJuly 18931893 ththee OttomanOttomanss liftedlifted restrictionrestrictionss onon ththee passagpassagee ofof ththee nomadicnomadic

KurdisKurdishh BekranBekran tribtribee througthroughh ththee SasuSasunn mountainsmountains,, whicwhichh hadhad alwaysalways passepassedd throughthrough

annuallannuallyy beforbeforee ththee newnew securitsecurityy measuresmeasures.. TheThe BekraBekrann reportedlreportedlyy metmet witwithh resistanceresistance

upouponn theitheirr entrancentrancee intointo a villagevillage inin thethe predominantlpredominantlyy ArmeniaArmeniann TalorTalorii region,region,

1 0*7 whereuponwhereupon thetheyy killekilledd thethe resisterresisterss anandd plundereplunderedd ththee villagevillage,197, leavinleavingg ninninee ArmeniansArmenians

196iyb ConsulConsul GravesGraves ttoo SiSirr AA.. NicolsonNicolson,, ErzurumErzurum,, JunJunee 2828,, 1893,1893, FFOO 424/1754241175,, 1893,1893, pp.pp. 138-139,138-139, nono.. 136,136, iinn British Documents, §imsir~im~ir,, 33:: 236-238236-238.. 197197 SaidSaid PashPashaa ttoo RusteRustemm Pasha,Pasha, SublimSublimee PortePorte JulyJuly 20,20, 1893,1893, inin DocumentsDocuments Diplomatiques Ottomans, $imsir~im~ir,, 355355.. 101101 anandd threthreee MuslimsMuslims dead.dead. SubsequentlySubsequently MustafMustafaa PashPashaa ooff ththee HamidiyeHamidiye regimentregimentss waswas sensentt toto restorrestoree orderorder ttoo ththee regionregion.. However,However, hehe endedended uupp arrestearrestedd a numbenumberr ofof

ArmenianAnnenianss whowhomm ththee BritishBritish ConsuConsull GravesGraves believebelievedd ttoo bbee ooff ththee "aggrieved"aggrieved party.party."" InIn otheotherr reportreportss officialsofficials suspectcdsuspected a governmengovernmentt conspiracconspiracyy whicwhichh secretlysecretly inciteincitedd thethe

MuslimsMuslims ofof BitliBitliss ttoo risrisee uupp againstagainst ththee ArmenianAnnenianss thuthuss puttingputting aann enendd ttoo ththee relativerelative autonomautonomyy ofof thethe region.region. 198

AccordinAccordingg ttoo OttomanOttoman documentsdocuments iitt wawass ththee ArmenianAnnenianss werweree regularlregularlyy accuseaccusedd ofof stirrinstirringg uupp activityactivity amongamong ththee tribestribes.. ZekZekii PashPashaa claimclaimss inin a telegratelegramm ttoo ththee PortePorte thathatt thethe armannyy wawass sensentt onlonlyy iinn orderorder ttoo keepkeep ArmeniaAnneniann separatistsseparatists frofromm incitinincitingg violencviolencee inin thethe

TaloriTalori andand MuMu~s regionsregions.. MilitarMilitaryy forcesforces werweree dispatchedispatchedd ttoo ththee MuMu~s regioregionn "to"to checkcheck illill-- intentionintentionss andand separatistseparatist activitiesactivities ofof Annenians"Armenians" whicwhichh werweree blockinblockingg thethe "annual"annual safesafe passagepassage"" ofof ththee BekraBekrann tribetribe,, whichwhich wawass "blocked"blocked bbyy ththee governorshipgovernorship ooff BitliBitliss forfor thethe paspastt couplcouplee ooff yearyearss duedue ttoo groundlessgroundless anandd misleadinmisleadingg complaintscomplaints ofof ththee saidsaid separatists."separatists."

TroopsTroops werweree dispatcheddispatched iinn orderorder ttoo prevenpreventt ArmeniaAnneniann misdeedmisdeedss (jesadat)(fesaddt) andand actactss ofof

199 hhostilit osh'1' Ity y (k(sekavet-i~e avet-l . mervlyemerviyeler). . I er ) . 199

ThiThiss incidenincidentt camecame iinn a particulaparticularr sorsoree spotspot inin easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia.. WhilWhilee thethe massacrmassacree ooff ArmenianAnnenianss bbyy KurdsKurds inin anotheanotherr regioregionn mamayy havhavee gongonee relativelrelativelyy unnoticed,unnoticed, thethe HunchaksHunchaks,, whwhoo hahadd gainedgained increasinglincreasinglyy popularitpopularityy inin ththee earlyearly 1890s,1890s, sesett uupp ononee ofof theirtheir basebasess iinn Sasun,Sasun, primarilprimarilyy becausbecausce ofof itsits relativrelativee remotenesremotenesss frofromm OttomanOttoman gendannes.gendarmes. SonyeSonyell writeswrites:: "the"the ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess operatedoperated bbyy preferencpreferencee inin areasareas

198iy* SonyelSonyel,, 156.156. 199199 ZekiZeki PashPashaa ttoo ththee OfficeOffice ooff GeneraGenerall Staff,Staff, JulyJuly 22,22, 1894,1894, inin Ottoman Archives: YzldlZYddiz Collection, The Armenian Question: The Talori Incidents, eded.. OkteOkte,, 1:1: 101-101- 103103.. 102102 wherwheree ththee ArmenianArmenianss werweree iinn a hopeleshopelesss minorityminority,, ssoo thathatt reprisalreprisalss woulwouldd bbee certain.,,200certain."200

ThThee incident,incident, althougalthoughh relativelrelativelyy small,small, fitfit ththee leitmotifleitmotif whicwhichh ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionariesrevolutionaries andand theitheirr sympathizersympathizerss soughsoughtt ttoo accentuataccentuatee regardinregardingg ththee situationsituation ooff ththee ArmenianArmenian peasantrypeasantry.. ThThee HunchakHunchakss deliberatelydeliberately inciteincitedd ththee OttomanOttomanss andand ththee HamidiyHamidiyee cavalrycavalry ttoo interveneintervene bbyy attackinattackingg gendarmgendarmee stationsstations,, cuttincuttingg telegraptelegraphh wireswires,, bombinbombingg governmentgovernment buildingsbuildings,, andand raidinraidingg KurdisKurdishh villagevillagess iinn ththee hophopee thathatt thithiss woulwouldd provokprovokee widespreadwidespread

ArmeniaArmeniann revolt.revolt. 201

AlthougAlthoughh actualactual membershimembershipp ooff ththee HunchaHunchakk partpartyy wawass smallsmall,, iitt gainedgained widespreawidespreadd supporsupportt frofromm ArmenianArmenianss abroad,abroad, anandd throughouthroughoutt eastemeastern Anatolia.Anatolia.

MavroyenMavroyenii BeyBey,, ththee OttomanOttoman EnvoyEnvoy aatt WashingtoWashingtonn (himsel(himselff aann Armenian)Armenian),, wrotwrotee toto

AmericaAmericann SecretarySecretary ooff StateState GreshamGresham iinn 1893,1893, callincallingg attentionattention ttoo a resolutioresolutionn drafteddrafted byby

ArmeniaArmeniann missionariesmissionaries iinn PennsylvaniPennsylvaniaa whicwhichh expressedexpressed sympathsympathyy witwithh ththee aimsaims ooff thethe revolutionaries.revolutionaries. ThThee resolutioresolutionn reiteratereiteratedd ththee provisionprovisionss ofof ArticlArticlee 6611 ofof ththee TreatTreatyy ofof

BerliBerlinn andand stressestressedd ththee OttomaOttomann government'govemment'ss failurfailuree ttoo complycomply witwithh it.it. AccordinAccordingg toto

Mavroyeni'Mavroyeni'ss statement:statement:

ThThee civilizecivilizedd worlworldd wawass justifiejustifiedd inin expectinexpectingg promppromptt ameliorationamelioration ooff thethe deplorabldeplorablee statestate ooff affairaffairss iinn ArmeniaArmenia,, bubutt insteainsteadd oppressiooppressionn anandd anarchanarchyy havehave sincesince increasinglyincreasingly prevailed...prevailed ..... [F]erocious[FJerocious anandd uncivilizeuncivilizedd KurdKurdss andand CircassiansCircassians...... continucontinuee witwithh impunitimpunityy ttoo robrob,, burbumn andand devastatedevastate,, ttoo torture,torture, violatviolatee andand murder.murder.202202

DurinDuringg thethe wintewinterr ooff 18931893 anandd ththee springspring ofof 18941894 ththee HunchaHunchakk revolutionariesrevolutionaries builbuiltt uupp theitheirr forcesforces iinn thethe mountainmountainss anandd ththee BekraBekrann KurdKurdss exactedexacted revengrevengee againstagainst thethe

ArmenianAnnenianss villagesvillages.. IInn JunJunee 18941894 ththee villagervillagerss ooff TalorTalorii refuserefusedd ttoo papayy taxetaxess unlessunless

20200Sonyel,0 Sonyel, 156-157.156-157. 202011 Ibid.Ibid.,, 157.157. 101033 propeproperr actioactionn wawass taketakenn ttoo prevenpreventt ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess frofromm attackinattackingg themthem.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo ththee ConsuConsull GravesGraves'' accounaccountt ththee kaimmakam oofMu~f Mus camcamee dowdownn ttoo TalorTalorii ttoo dissolvdissolvee ththee protestorprotestorss bbyy "abus[ing"abus[ing]] thethemm anandd maltreat[ingmaltreat[ing]] them.them."" ThThee TurkisTurkishh versionversion,, however,however, statestatess thathatt ththee kaimmakam wawass greetegreetedd bbyy a grougroupp ooff armearmedd HunchaHunchakk sympathizers.sympathizers.

SubsequentlSubsequentlyy ththee kaimmakam summonesummonedd militarmilitaryy helhelpp frofromm ththee mutessarifmutessariJofGence 'of Gence iinn ordeorderr ttoo dispersdispersee ththee ArmeniansArmenians.. ThThee arrivaarrivall ooff ththee armarmyy provokeprovokedd ththee ArmenianArmenianss ttoo stagstagee aann insurrectioinsurrectionn iinn whicwhichh thetheyy punishepunishedd ththee surroundinsurroundingg KurdisKurdishh villagesvillages.. KurdsKurds responderespondedd bbyy destroyindestroyingg ththee ArmeniaArmeniann villagevillagess ooff $eniSenikk anandd SemalSemal,, whicwhichh werweree HunchakHunchak strongholdsstrongholds.. ThThee HamidiyHamidiyee cavalrcavalryy wawass subsequentlsubsequentlyy ordereorderedd frofromm ErzincaErzincann ttoo pursupursuee a force of some 10,000 Armenians lodged in Mount Andok.203203 force of some 10,000 Armenians lodged in Mount Andok. According to the Ottomans the Hamidiye regiment was pulled back before it According to the Ottomans the Hamidiye regiment was pulled back before it entered Mount Andok. Vice-Consul Hallward in the consulate at Van relays the Ottoman entered Mount Andok. Vice-Consul Hallward in the consulate at Van relays the Ottoman verSIOn: version: The Bekiranli [Bekran] Kurds who come from Diarbekir to pass the summer on The Bekiranli [Bekran] Kurds who come from Diarbekir to pass the summer on the Antogh Dagh [Mount Andok] where there are several large Armenian the Antogh Dagh [Mount Andok] where there are several large Armenian villages, made a raid on the Armenians, and carried off cattle and other plunder. villages, made a raid on the Armenians, and carried off cattle and other plunder. The Armenians, in hope of recovering their property, made an attack on the The Armenians, in hope of recovering their property, made an attack on the Kurds, and in the encounter two or three persons on either side lost their lives. Kurds, and in the encounter two or three persons on either side lost their lives. The affair was greatly exaggerated by the Governor of Bitlis, who applied for a The affair was greatly exaggerated by the Governor of Bitlis, who applied for a large number of the troops in order to suppress the disturbance. About the middle large number of the troops in order to suppress the disturbance. About the middle of August seven battalions of troops and one Hamidieh Regiment arrived here. of August seven battalions of troops and one Hamidieh Regiment arrived here. The Hamidieh Regiment, however, never got as far as the Antogh Mountains, and The Hamidieh Regiment, however, never got as far as the Antogh Mountains, and left after ten days.204 left after ten days.204

However,However, thethe ArmenianArmenian revolutionariesrevolutionaries givegive a significantlysignificantly differentdifferent reportreport ofof thethe incident.incident. AccordingAccording toto thethe ArmenianArmenian historianhistorian Varandian,Varandian, thethe HunchaksHunchaks werewere "in"in a weakweak

202 MavroyeniMavroyeni BeyBey toto Mr.Mr. Gresham,Gresham, Washington,Washington, NovemberNovember 5,1893,5, 1893, No.No. 67161186716/18 inin Documents Diplomatiques Ottomans, ed.ed. Sim~ir,$imsir, 496.496. 203203 Sonyel,Sonyel, 158.158. 101044 positionposition"" anandd "anxiou"anxiouss ttoo ddoo somethinsomethingg aass quicquickk aass possiblpossiblee ttoo causcausee a stir.stir."" WhilWhilee ththee

ArmenianAnnenianss werweree equippeequippedd ttoo fenfendd ofofff aann onslaughonslaughtt bbyy ththee localocall KurdsKurds,, thetheyy werweree nonott stronstrongg enougenoughh ttoo overcomovercomee ththee OttomaOttomann troopstroops::

IInn AugusAugustt 18918944 ththee ArmenianAnnenianss annihilateannihilatedd ththee KurdKurdss afteafterr a successfusuccessfull onslaughtonslaught anandd werweree abouaboutt ttoo carrcarryy ofofff theitheirr flockflockss whewhenn thetheyy werweree suddenlsuddenlyy surroundesurroundedd oonn alalll sidesidess bbyy troopstroops.. NNoo ononee hahass eveeverr beebeenn ablablee ttoo givgivee eveevenn aann approximateapproximate numbenumberr ooff ththee ArmenianAnnenianss killedkilled.. SomSomee sasayy sisixx oorr sevesevenn thousandthousand,, otherotherss saysay around one thousand. Probably the latter is nearer the truth.205205 around one thousand. Probably the latter is nearer the truth. While the exact course of events will probably always be shrouded in nationalist While the exact course of events will probably always be shrouded in nationalist rhetoric, the Sasun incident ushered in widespread political and social chaos throughout rhetoric, the Sasun incident ushered in widespread political and social chaos throughout eastern Anatolia. Hunchak sympathizers throughout the major cities of eastern Anatolia eastern Anatolia. Hunchak sympathizers throughout the major cities of eastern Anatolia rose in rebellion against the government and the Kurds. Fearing an Annenian takeover, rose in rebellion against the government and the Kurds. Fearing an Armenian takeover, many prominent Kurdish leaders crushed Annenian villages. Likewise Annenian many prominent Kurdish leaders crushed Armenian villages. Likewise Armenian revolutionaries led Annenian militias to wipe out Kurdish villages. Overall, the conflict revolutionaries led Armenian militias to wipe out Kurdish villages. Overall, the conflict was predominantly between the Kurds and the Annenians, many of whom were was predominantly between the Kurds and the Armenians, many of whom were manipulated by the Ottomans and Hunchaks, respectively, to take military action and manipulated by the Ottomans and Hunchaks, respectively, to take military action and many of whom fought for sheer survival. While it is beyond the scope of this study to many of whom fought for sheer survival. While it is beyond the scope of this study to touch on the issue of culpability it is worth looking at a couple of instances of violence touch on the issue of culpability it is worth looking at a couple of instances of violence between Kurds and Annenians. between Kurds and Armenians. The Hunchaks had been amassing power around Diyarbakir quite rapidly during The Hunchaks had been amassing power around Diyarbakir quite rapidly during 1894. An outbreak of cholera in the region served the Hunchak's purposes of instigating 1894. An outbreak of cholera in the region served the Hunchak's purposes of instigating conflict, as they accused the Ottomans of failing to provide treatment for the Annenians conflict, as they accused the Ottomans of failing to provide treatment for the Armenians affected by the epidemic, thus gaining further sympathies with the Ottoman locals. The affected by the epidemic, thus gaining further sympathies with the Ottoman locals. The

204204 SirSir P.P. CurrieCurrie toto thethe EarlEarl ofof Kimberley,Kimberley, OctoberOctober 4,1897,4, 1897, FOFO 4241178,424/178, p.p. 213,213, no.no. 231231,, inin British Documents, ed.ed. ~im~ir,$imsir, 3:3; 384.384. 205205 MikaelMikael Varandian,Varandian, History of the Dashnaktsutiun (Paris,(Paris, 1932),1932), 146.146. 105105 poopoorr statestate ofof thethe economyeconomy iinn ththee rurarurall areaareass createdcreated anan influxinflux ofof ArmeniaArmeniann in-migratioin-migrationn toto

DiyarbakirDiyarbakir.. UnablUnablee ttoo finfindd workwork,, manmanyy ofof ththee migrantmigrantss werweree attracteattractedd ttoo ththee HunchakHunchak revolutionarrevolutionaryy messagemessage.. InIn OctobeOctoberr 18951895 ththee vali SunSim PasaPa~a,, whwhoo wawass regarderegardedd aass moremore benevolentbenevolent,, wawass replacereplacedd bbyy ththee infamouinfamouss EnisEnis PasaPa~a,, ththee formeformerr mutesmutesarr(f arr if of of MardinMardin,, whwhoo hahadd a yeayearr earlierearlier "shown"shown hostilithostilityy towardtoward ththee CapuchinCapuchin fatherfatherss andand especiallyespecially towartowardd FatheFatherr Salvadore,Salvadore, whwhoo woulwouldd bbee assassinatedassassinated inin NovembeNovemberr 1895.,,2061895." AccordingAccording toto Meyrier,Meyrier, EniEniss PashPashaa pressurepressuredd localocall ArmeniaAnneniann clergymenclergymen ttoo givgivee theitheirr allegianceallegiance toto hirhimn aass actinactingg vali. ThisThis gesturgesturee upseupsett ththee ArmeniaArmeniann populatiopopulationn whwhoo closedclosed theirtheir churches and bazaar in protest against the clergymen who complied with his orders.202077 churches and bazaar in protest against the clergymen who complied with his orders. Only spiritual and tribal leaders from among the Kurds were present at Enis Pasha's Only spiritual and tribal leaders from among the Kurds were present at Enis Pasha's inauguration ceremony in late October; "no non-Muslims were found.,,208208 inauguratioRiotingn ceremon broke yout in onlat eFriday, October November; "no non-Muslim 1, 1895. s Shopswere throughoutfound." the city were set ablazeRiotin andg fighting broke ou continuedt on Friday for, Novembethree days.r 1,A 1895 telegraph. Shop froms throughou Siileymant th eNazit: city wer an e administratorset ablaze and infightin Diyarbakirg continue carryingd for fourthre ehundred days. A signatures telegraph appealedfrom Suleyma for governmentn Nazif, an interventionadministrato rto i ncalm Diyarbaki down rthe carryin sceneg offou violencer hundre dthroughout signature sthe appeale vilayetd foandr governmen accused thet interventioArmeniansn of to pitting calm dow the nMuslims the scen againste of violenc each eother: throughou "We twant the vilayetjustice. an Thed accuse Armeniand the traitors'Armenian aims o fis pittin to breakg the the Muslim state'ss againssacredt bondeach betweenother: "W thee wan caliphatet justice and. Th thee IslamicArmenia n people,traitors ' whoaim areis to most brea bravek the state'and noble.,,209s sacred bon Furtherd betwee riotingn the and caliphat conflicte an spreadd the Islami throughoutc peoplethe countryside., who are mosAccordingt brave anto dOttoman noble." 20reports9 Furthe ther riotindeathg toll an dwas conflic approximatelyt spread throughou seventyt the countryside. According to Ottoman reports the death toll was approximately seventy

206 ClaireClaire MouradianMouradian,, "Gustave"Gustave MeyrierMeyrier anandd ththee TurmoiTunnoill inin DiarbekirDiarbekir,, 1894-1896,"1894-1896," inin Armenian Tigranaker/DiarbekirTigranakeriDiarbekir and Edessa/,EdessalUrfa, ed.ed. RichardRichard GG.. HovannisiaHovannisiann (Costa(Costa MesaMesa,, CACA:: MazdMazdaa PublishersPublishers,, 2006),2006), 215215.. 202077 Ibid.Ibid.,, 217217.. 202088 Sevket§evket Beysanoglu,Beysanoglu, KultiirumuzdeKUlturumuzde DiyarbakiirDiyarbaklir (Ankara:(Ankara: SanSan Matbaasl,Matbaasi, 1992),1992), 1212.. 209 Ibid., 14. 106106

MuslimMuslimss anandd threthreee hundrehundredd ArmeniansArmenians?IO. MeyrieMeyrierr estimatesestimates ththee deathdeath toltolll throughoutthroughout thethe vilayet ttoo bbee neanearr 15,000.211211

HunchakHunchakss alsalsoo penetratepenetratedd ththee regioregionn ooff ZeitouZeitounn durinduringg 18941894 anandd 1895,1895, armingarming thethe

AnnenianArmenian inhabitantsinhabitants anandd indoctrinatingindoctrinating thethemm witwithh revolutionarrevolutionaryy rhetoricrhetoric.. IItt waswas reportereportedd thathatt ZeitouZeitounn hahadd becombecomee a placplacee ooff refugrefugee foforr ArmenianArmenianss fleeingfleeing MaraMara~s andand iskenderun.Iskenderun. IInn NovembeNovemberr 18951895 a forceforce ofof somesome 4,0004,000 rebelrebelss ououtt ofof a populatiopopulationn ooff somesome

35,0035,0000 stagedstaged anan insurrectioinsurrectionn throughoutthroughout ththee regionregion whicwhichh resulteresultedd inin approximatelyapproximately

1,2501,250 casualties.casualties. ThThee OttomanOttoman forcesforces finallyfinally defeateddefeated thethemm inin DecembeDecemberr afterafter cuttingcutting offoff

212 100C d an d ammumtlOn . . supp 1·les. 212 food and ammunition supplies. Just as the conflict in eastern Anatolia was beginning to abate, however, a Just as the conflict in eastern Anatolia was beginning to abate, however, a rebellion broke out in Van in March 1896. Kurdish attacks on four Armenian villages in rebellion broke out in Van in March 1896. Kurdish attacks on four Armenian villages in March had prompted Ottoman officials to send Sadettin Pasha into Van to restore order. March had prompted Ottoman officials to send Sadettin Pasha into Van to restore order. Unlike other areas of eastern Anatolia, the Hunchaks were unpopular in Van. However, Unlike other areas of eastern Anatolia, the Hunchaks were unpopular in Van. However, the Dashnaks still played a revolutionary role. According to the British Consul in Van the Dashnaks still played a revolutionary role. According to the British Consul in Van the Dashnak revolutionaries managed to mobilize a force of some six hundred the Dashnak revolutionaries managed to mobilize a force of some six hundred Armenians, arm them with Russian rifles, and dress them in "distinctive uniforms.,,213213

ArmeniansThe revolutionaries, arm the mapparently with Russia usedn riflestactics, an similard dres sto the them Hunchaksin "distinctiv in thate uniforms. they sought,"

Theithere revolutionarie through directions apparentl instigationy used or tactic deception,s simila tor tprovokeo the Hunchak unrests inin orderthat the to ygain sought , internationaleither throug hattention. direction Ininstigatio his accountn or deceptionof Kurdish-Armenian, to provoke unresrelationst in ordein Van,r to Sadettingain

Pashainternationa writesl ofattention an incident. In hi ofs accoundeceptiont of inKurdish-Armenia the village of Klz1lta~n relation in thes in mountains Van, Sadetti southn

Pashof Van:a write s of an incident of deception in the village of Kiziltas in the mountains south of Van: 212100 Ibid.Ibid.,, 15-16.15-16. 212111 MouradianMouradian,, 219.219. 212122 UrasUras,750., 750. 107107

I sawsaw three-fourthsthree-fourths KurdsKurds inin allall ofof thethe villagesvillages inin thethe surroundings.surroundings. I askedasked whethewhetherr oror nonott thesthesee [Kurds][Kurds] werweree ooff ththee [village][village] peoplepeople.. TheyThey saidsaid thatthat thethe [Kurds][Kurds] werweree nonott ooff ththee villagvillagee anandd thathatt thetheyy werweree guardguardss hirehiredd bbyy ththee [local][local] ArmeniansArmenians.. NeverthelesNeverthelesss iinn ththee villagvillagee oofKlzllta~f Kiziltas approximatelapproximatelyy 404000 sheepsheep werewere stillstill stolenstolen eveevenn whilwhilee ththee KurdisKurdishh guardguardss werweree therethere.. SinceSince thithiss mattematterr caughcaughtt mymy attention,attention, I pursuepursuedd iitt furthefurtherr bbyy askingasking ththee kaimmakam ooff Vestan:Vestan:

HeHe saidsaid:: "this"this iiss a trictrickk ofof VaVann BishopBishop.. TheThe localocall VaVann KurdishKurdish beys alsalsoo benefitbenefit fromfrom this...this ..... TheThe BishoBishopp wantswants thathatt ArmenianArmenianss ttoo appearappear oppressedoppressed...... BByy givinggiving 30-430-400 liralirass ttoo ththee KurdKurdss thetheyy brinbringg thethemm ttoo ththee villagevillagess asas guards.guards. ThisThis sumsum mainlmainlyy comecomess fromfrom ththee VaVann elites.elites. ThThee thefttheftss thathatt occuoccurr inin ththee villagevillagess isis dondonee byby thesthesee guardguardss aatt ththee behesbehestt ooff ththee Armenians.,,214Armenians."214

ThThee conflicconflictt inin thethe mid-1890smid-1890s wawass nonott onlyonly a powerpower strugglstrugglee betweebetweenn thethe

ArmeniaArmeniann revolutionarierevolutionariess andand ththee OttomaOttomann EmpireEmpire,, bubutt amongamong anandd withiwithinn differentdifferent segmentssegments ofof KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaArmeniann society.society. OneOne ofof ththee maimainn problemproblemss withwith easterneastern

AnatoliAnatoliaa wawass thathatt SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IPII'ss administrationadministration hahadd neveneverr managemanagedd ttoo rearrangerearrange ththee sociasociall arrangementarrangementss inin eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa anandd integratintegratee ththee KurdsKurds anandd ArmenianArmenianss fullyfully intintoo ththee statestate.. AccordinAccordingg ttoo LynchLynch,, feudalismfeudalism andand serfdoserfdomm continuedcontinued ttoo existexist inin manymany ofof ththee mormoree rurarurall regions:regions:

SerfdomSerfdom iiss anan institutioninstitution whicwhichh iiss nonott unknowunknownn inin ththee countrycountry,, thoughthough itsits existenceexistence iiss softenesoftenedd oveoverr bbyy ththee TurkisTurkishh authoritiesauthorities,, whwhoo shrinkshrink frofromm dispensingdispensing a purelypurely nominalnominal sovereignty.sovereignty. TheThe serfs,serfs, whowho areare Armenians,Armenians, areare knownknown asas zerzer kurri, signifyinsignifyingg boughboughtt witwithh goldgold.. InIn factfact thetheyy araree boughboughtt andand soldsold iinn mucmuchh thethe samesame mannemannerr aass sheepsheep anandd cattlcattlee bbyy ththee KurdisKurdishh beybeyss anandd aghas.aghas. ThThee onlyonly differencedifference iiss thathatt thetheyy cannocannott bbee disposeddisposed ofof individuallyindividually;; thetheyy areare transferredtransferred witwithh ththee landlandss whicwhiehh thetheyy cultivate.cultivate. ThThee chiechieff appropriatesappropriates asas mucmuchh aass hhee wisheswishes fromfrom theitheirr yearlyearlyy earningsearnings,, capitacapitall oorr goodsgoods;; anandd inin returreturnn hehe provideprovidess thethemm withwith protectioprotectionn againsagainstt otheotherr KurdisKurdishh tribestribes.. ManManyy storiestoriess areare toltoldd ttoo illustrateillustrate thethe naturnaturee ooff ththee relationrelation.. A serserff wawass shotshot bbyy ththee servantservant ofof a KurdisKurdishh aghaghaa whowho possessepossessedd landlandss iinn ththee neighborhoodneighborhood.. ThThee ownerowner ofof ththee serfserf diddid nonott troubltroublee toto avengeavenge hihiss deatdeathh oonn ththee persopersonn ooff ththee murdermurder,, stilstilll leslesss upouponn thathatt ofof ththee agha,agha, hishis neighborneighbor.. HHee rodrodee oveoverr ttoo ththee agha'agha'ss landslands,, andand puputt bulletbulletss througthroughh twtwoo ofof hishis

213213 Ibid.Ibid.,, 757.757. 212144 SamiSami OnalGnal,, Sadettin PasaPa~a 'ntn'nin Anrfan:Antlan: Ermeni-Kurt OlaylariOlaylan (Van, 1896) [The[The MemoireMemoiress ofof SadettinSadettin PashaPasha:: Armenian-KurdishArmenian-Kurdish EpisodesEpisodes]] (Istanbul(Istanbul:: RemzRemzii Kitabevi,Kitabevi, 2003),2003), 148148.. 108108

2lS215 serfs,serfs, ththee firsfirstt thathatt hhee happenedhappened toto meet.meet.

BByy ththee mid-1890smid-1890s,, ArmenianArmenianss werweree eitheeitherr connecteconnectedd witwithh ththee revolutionarierevolutionariess oorr witwithh thethe clergyclergy.. TherTheree werweree representativerepresentativess iinn ArmeniaArmeniann societysociety onon bothboth sidessides thathatt guidedguided thethe behaviobehaviorr oofthef the ArmeniansArmenians,, bubutt OttomanOttoman policpolicyy kepkeptt sucsuchh a representativrepresentativee figurefigure fromfrom eveeverr emerginemergingg iinn KurdisKurdishh societysociety duringduring thithiss periodperiod.. SomSomee ofof ththee HamidiyHamidiyee cavalrycavalry regimentregimentss cooperatedcooperated witwithh OttomanOttoman militarmilitaryy commanderscommanders,, whereawhereass otherotherss werewere insubordinateinsubordinate.. TheThe nomadinomadicc KurdisKurdishh tribetribess tendetendedd ttoo plundeplunderr ArmeniaArmeniann villagevillagess andand killkill ththee inhabitantsinhabitants,, whereawhereass settlesettledd KurdKurdss tendetendedd ttoo havhavee bettebetterr relationrelationss witwithh ththee Armenians.Armenians.

ManyMany ooff ththee KurdKurdss appeareappearedd ttoo believbelievee thathatt ththee spreadspread ofof IslaIslamm amongamong thethe

ArmenianArmenianss wawass ththee besbestt methomethodd ooff achievingachieving powerpower.. ThThee nomadinomadicc OmerliOmerli tribetribe iinn thethe

DiyarbakiDiyarbakirr vilayetvi/ayet camecame dowdownn frofromm ththee mountainmountainss ttoo avengavengee thethe deathdeath ooff oneone itsits membersmembers.. UpoUponn reachingreaching ththee villagvillagee ofof ththee ArmenianArmenianss whowhomm thetheyy believebelievedd werewere responsibleresponsible,, thetheyy offereofferedd threthreee alternativealternativess thathatt ththee ArmenianArmenianss couldcould taketake ttoo avoidavoid beingbeing killedkilled:: "that"that allall ofof thethemm shouldshould tumturn Moslem,Moslem, thathatt foufourr virginvirginss shouldshould bbee surrenderedsurrendered toto ththee menmen ofof Omerli,Omerli, [or][or] thathatt paymenpaymentt shoulshouldd bbee madmadee ttoo ththee familyfamily ofof thethe murderemurderedd KurdKurd of25,000of 25,000 piasters."piasters.,,216216 UsinUsingg a numbernumber ofof GermaGermann sourcessources ttoo gathegatherr informatioinformationn aboutabout ththee conflicconflictt ofof 1894-1896,1894-1896, JohanneJohanness LepsiuLepsiuss compilecompiledd somsomee statisticsstatistics thathatt showshow thethe

KurdsKurds'' bibidd foforr powepowerr bbyy meanmeanss ooff IslamizationIslamization:: 2,492,4933 villagevillagess werweree forciblforciblyy convertedconverted toto

IslamIslam,, 454566 churchechurchess andand monasteriemonasteriess werweree desecrated,desecrated, andand 649649 churchechurchess werewere convertedconverted

212155 Lynch,Lynch, 430-431.430-431. 216 $imsirSim~ir,, British Documents, 44:: 255255.. 109109 intintoo mosques.221177

212 177 JohanneJohanness LepsiuLepsiuss andand J RendellRendell HarrisHarris,, Armenia and Europe; an Indictment (London:(London: HodderHodder andand Stoughton,, 1897),1897), 330-331.330-331. CONCLUSIONCONCLUSION

ThisThis studystudy ofof Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Anneniann relationrelationss hahass attemptedattempted ttoo reveareveall ththee networnetworkk ofof botbothh agency-basedagency-based andand structure-influencestructure-influencedd interactioninteractionss thathatt ledled ttoo instancesinstances ofof bothboth collaboratiocollaborationn anandd conflictconflict betweebetweenn KurdishKurdish anandd ArmeniaAnneniann groupgroupss iinn ththee latelate nineteenthnineteenth century.century. ThreeThree maimainn conclusionconclusionss cancan bebe reachereachedd througthroughh thithiss analysisanalysis.. FirstFirst,, trendtrendss iinn conflicconflictt anandd collaborationcollaboration andand collaborationcollaboration betweebetweenn ththee ArmeniansArmenians andand ththee KurdKurdss areare largellargelyy a producproductt ofof ththee asymmetryasymmetry iinn ththee KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaAnneniann socialsocial anandd powerpower structures.structures. WhilWhilee ththee socialsocial andand powepowerr structuresstructures ooff ArmeniaAnneniann societsocietyy gavgavee risrisee toto widespreawidespreadd politicapoliticall consciousnesconsciousnesss amonamongg ArmeniansAnnenians,, thosthosee iinn KurdisKurdishh societysociety dididd notnot generallgenerallyy awakeawakenn ththee KurdKurdss ttoo a consciousnessconsciousness ofof politicapoliticall identity.identity.

TheThe divisiodivisionn ooff ththee ArmeniaAnneniann millet durinduringg ththee 1840s1840s anandd 1850s1850s intointo thethe

ProtestantProtestant,, Catholic,Catholic, anandd GregorianGregorian millets, andand ththee ArmeniaAnneniann constitutioconstitutionn ofof 18611861,, severelyseverely weakeneweakenedd ththee powepowerr oftheof the ArmeniaAnneniann PatriarcPatriarchh anandd openeopenedd uupp spacspacee forfor thethe emergenceemergence ofof neneww representativrepresentativee elementselements ooff ArmeniaAlmeniann society.society. ItIt wawass ththee efforteffortss ooff thethe newlnewlyy emergingemerging AnnenianArmenian bourgeoibourgeoiss classclass durinduringg ththee 1860s1860s anandd 1870s,1870s, whicwhichh infiltratedinfiltrated ththee traditionatraditionall ArmeniaAnneniann powepowerr structurestructure,, ttoo drawdraw ththee attentioattentionn ofof ththee OttomanOttomanss anandd thethe

EuropeansEuropeans ttoo ththee plighplightt ofof AnnenianArmenian peasantpeasantss iinn eastereasternn AnatoliAnatoliaa thathatt gavegave risrisee ttoo thethe

ArmeniaAnneniann QuestionQuestion andand instilledinstilled ArmenianAnnenianss throughouthroughoutt ththee EmpirEmpiree witwithh aann increasedincreased sensesense ofof ethniethnicc anandd nationanationall consciousness.consciousness. ThThee failurfailuree ofof ArmeniaAnneniann politicapoliticall activistactivistss toto achieveachieve anan autonomouautonomouss ArmeniAnneniaa atat ththee CongresCongresss ooff BerlinBerlin,, inin additionaddition ttoo ththee subsequentsubsequent 111Ill failurefailure ooff thethe OttomanOttomanss ttoo implementimplement thethe necessarnecessaryy reformreformss forfor ththee ArmeniansArmenians,, leledd manymany

ArmenianArmenianss ttoo taktakee mormoree radicaradicall measuremeasuress ttoo gaingain independence.independence. WhilWhilee ththee OttomansOttomans werweree ablablee ttoo dissolvedissolve thethe powepowerr ofof ArmeniaArmeniann nationalisnationalistt groupgroupss withiwithinn theitheirr domain,domain, thesthesee groupgroupss gainegainedd uncheckeuncheckedd popularitpopularityy outsideoutside ooff ththee Empire.Empire.

ByBy contrastcontrast ttoo ArmeniaArmeniann society,society, thertheree wawass nnoo urban-baseurban-basedd bourgeoibourgeoiss clasclasss thatthat emergedemerged iinn KurdisKurdishh societsocietyy duringduring ththee latlatee nineteentnineteenthh century.century. DurinDuringg ththee 1860s1860s andand

1870s1870s ththee religioureligiouss clasclasss wawass ththee onlonlyy bodbodyy leftleft iinn KurdisKurdishh societsocietyy thathatt hahadd sufficientsufficient cloutclout ttoo unitunitee ththee KurdKurdss behinbehindd a singlsinglee politicapoliticall causecause.. HoweverHowever,, ththee religiousreligious classclass proveprovedd ttoo acactt mucmuchh likelike ththee beys inin thatthat thetheyy switchedswitched bacbackk anandd forthforth betweebetweenn loyaltieloyaltiess inin ordeorderr ttoo suitsuit theitheirr owownn politicapoliticall interests.interests. WhileWhile ShaykhShaykh 'Ubaydulla'Ubaydullahh madmadee claimsclaims ooff a

'Kurdis'Kurdishh question'question' andand eveneven calledcalled foforr thethe creationcreation ooff a KurdishKurdish state,state, hihiss politicapoliticall actionsactions werweree nonott groundedgrounded iinn anyany sorsortt ofof nationalisnationalistt ideologyideology.. RatherRather hehe appeareappearedd mainlymainly motivatemotivatedd outout ooff concemconcern thathatt ththee OttomansOttomans woulwouldd undertakundertakee thethe reformreformss foforr thethe

ArmenianAnnenianss thathatt woulwouldd leadlead ttoo ththee creationcreation ofof aann independentindependent ArmeniArmeniaa andand ththee subsequentsubsequent loslosss ofof hihiss powerpower.. HHee wawass compliancompliantt witwithh ththee OttomansOttomans ttoo ththee extentextent thathatt thetheyy grantedgranted hihimm certaincertain rulinrulingg privileges.privileges.

Second,Second, ththee factorsfactors thathatt influencedinfluenced thethe interactivinteractivee behaviobehaviorr ofof ththee KurdKurdss andand thethe

ArmenianArmenianss extendedextended wellwell beyonbeyondd individuaindividuall localitieslocalities.. TrendTrendss iinn conflicconflictt andand collaboratiocollaborationn betweebetweenn ArmenianArmenianss anandd KurdKurdss araree interconnectedinterconnected witwithh nonott onlyonly locallocal eastereastemn AnatoliaAnatoliann politicspolitics,, bubutt alsoalso regionaregionall andand globalglobal politicspolitics.. TheThe powepowerr strugglestruggle betweebetweenn RussiRussiaa anandd BritaiBritainn overover hegemonihegemonicc controcontroll ooff ththee OttomaOttomann EmpirEmpiree madmadee eastemeastern

Anatolia,Anatolia, a regioregionn thatthat wawass onceonce a hinterlandhinterland insignificantinsignificant ttoo outsideoutside interestsinterests,, intointo a zonezone ofof strategicstrategic interest.interest. TheThe politicapoliticall strategiesstrategies ofof BritaiBritainn andand RussiRussiaa ttoo co-optco-opt resistanceresistance 112112

movementmovementss throughouthroughoutt ththee OttomaOttomann EmpirEmpiree promptepromptedd ththee OttomanOttomanss ttoo reforrefonnm theirtheir

governingoverningg systemsystem anandd reinforcreinforcee theitheirr presencpresencee iinn areaareass oveoverr whicwhichh theythey hahadd previouslypreviously

hadhad tenuoutenuouss controlcontrol.. OttomansOttomans'' continualcontinual attemptattemptss ttoo centralizcentralizee controlcontrol oveoverr easterneastern

AnatoliaAnatolia,, botbothh durinduringg ththee tanzimat perioperiodd anandd ththee SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII periodperiod,, hahadd a

tremendoutremendouss impacimpactt oonn ththee traditionatraditionall powepowerr structuresstructures iinn KurdisKurdishh anandd ArmeniaAnneniann societysociety

whicwhichh hahadd kepkeptt eastereasternn AnatoliaAnatoliann societsocietyy relativelrelativelyy intacintactt duringduring earlieearlierr periodsperiods.. TheThe

dissolutiodissolutionn ooff ththee powepowerr ooff ththee KurdisKurdishh beys leledd ttoo ththee fragmentationfragmentation ooff KurdisKurdishh societysociety

andand fosteredfostered greatergreater competitioncompetition betweenbetween KurdisKurdishh tribetribess forfor powerpower.. IInn ththee midsmidstt ofof thethe

powepowerr strugglstrugglee betweebetweenn ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess botbothh KurdisKurdishh andand ArmeniaAnneniann peasantpeasantss sufferedsuffered

ththee most.most.

ThirdThird,, whilwhilee ththee structuresstructures limitelimitedd ththee availablavailablee choicechoicess from whicwhichh actorsactors couldcould

choosechoose,, conflicconflictt andand collaboratiocollaborationn betweebetweenn ththee KurdsKurds andand ArmenianAnnenianss wawass ththee resulresultt ooff a

complexcomplex networnetworkk ooff agency-drivenagency-driven decisiondecisionss thathatt actoractorss madmadee atat botbothh highighh andand lowlow

levels.levels. ActorsActors'' decisiondecisionss hahadd a direcdirectt impactimpact onon thethe arrangementarrangement ooff ththee powepowerr structuresstructures

iinn societysociety.. FoForr instanceinstance,, itit wawass ththee policiepoliciess anandd decisionsdecisions ofof SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII thatthat

eithereither promptepromptedd changechange iinn power-sharinpower-sharingg arrangementarrangementss oror perpetuateperpetuatedd alreadyalready existingexisting

arrangementsarrangements.. HiHiss decisiodecisionn ttoo forfonnm ththee HamidiyHamidiyee CavalryCavalry produceproducedd a power-sharingpower-sharing

environmentenvironment thathatt perpetuateperpetuatedd existinexistingg structurestructuress iinn KurdishKurdish society.society. TheThe HamidiyeHamidiye

cavalrcavalryy essentiallyessentially restorerestoredd ththee powepowerr ofof manmanyy influentiainfluentiall tribatriball chiefschiefs whoswhosee powepowerr hadhad begubegunn ttoo wanwanee aass a resulresultt ofof ththee tanzimat.tanzimat.

WhilWhilee somesome ooff ththee ArmeniaAnneniann revolutionarierevolutionariess werweree againstagainst ththee ideaidea ofof non­non-

ArmeniaAnneniann participatioparticipationn inin ththee nationalisnationalistt cause,cause, othersothers partiepartiess favoredfavored a Kurdish­Kurdish-

ArmeniaAnneniann alliancalliancee againsagainstt ththee OttomansOttomans.. LikewiseLikewise,, manmanyy ofof ththee KurdisKurdishh chiefchiefss sawsaw 113113 friendlfriendlyy relationrelationss witwithh thethe ArmenianArmenianss asas generallygenerally advantageousadvantageous ttoo theitheirr politicapoliticall cause.cause.

Therefore,Therefore, ththee conflictconflict betweebetweenn KurdKurdss andand ArmenianArmenianss iinn ththee 1890s1890s cannotcannot bbee seenseen asas a producproductt ofof ththee lacklack ofof optionsoptions foforr collaboration.collaboration. InsteadInstead,, conflicconflictt arosearose asas a producproductt ooff thethe growingrowingg influenceinfluence ofof ththee HunchakHunchakss iinn easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, ththee OttomansOttomans'' cooptiocooptionn ofof leadingleading KurdisKurdishh chiefchiefss ttoo guarguardd againsagainstt ththee revolutionariesrevolutionaries,, anandd ththee failurefailure ooff thethe SultanSultan

AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII ttoo providprovidee sufficientsufficient securitysecurity ttoo halhaltt internecininternecinee skirmishes.skirmishes. TheThe

HunchaksHunchaks'' espousaespousall ofof instigativinstigativee tacticstactics asas a meansmeans ofof gaininggaining anan autonomousautonomous ArmenianArmenian statstatee hahadd a markemarkedd effecteffect oonn ththee statstatee ofof relationrelationss betweebetweenn KurdsKurds anandd ArmeniansArmenians.. IItt waswas aass a resulresultt ooff theitheirr activismactivism iinn ththee earlearlyy 1890s1890s thathatt thertheree camecame anan upsurgupsurgee iinn violencviolencee iinn easterneastern AnatoliaAnatolia,, whicwhichh hadhad beebeenn increasinglincreasinglyy orderlorderlyy anandd calmcalm inin ththee latlatee 1880s1880s accordingaccording ttoo somesome reportsreports.. WhilWhilee ththee OttomansOttomans hahadd beebeenn attemptinattemptingg ttoo gaingain thethe allegiancallegiancee ooff ththee KurdisKurdishh tribetribess durinduringg ththee 1880s,1880s, ththee HunchakHunchak movemenmovementt wawass oneone ooff thethe maimainn reasonreasonss thathatt SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd IIII tootookk furtherfurther stepssteps toto integratintegratee ththee KurdsKurds intointo thethe statestate throughthrough ththee formatioformationn oftheof the HamidiyeHamidiye CavalryCavalry.. AlthougAlthoughh ththee HamidiyHamidiyee CavalryCavalry wawass establisheestablishedd witwithh ththee intenintentt ofof providinprovidingg securitysecurity,, iitt tendetendedd ttoo fafann ththee conflictconflict ratherrather thathann quellquell itit.. HamidiyeHamidiye chiefschiefs iinn essenceessence receivereceivedd a cartecarte blancheblanche frofromm thethe OttomansOttomans toto acquireacquire powerpower oveoverr rivarivall KurdishKurdish tribetribess andand ArmenianArmenianss bbyy whatevewhateverr meanmeanss possible.possible.

WhilWhilee oneone cancan onlonlyy speculatespeculate whethewhetherr oorr nonott KurdKurdss andand ArmenianArmenianss woulwouldd havehave assimilatedassimilated andand collaboratecollaboratedd ttoo a greategreaterr extenextentt werweree itit nonott foforr ththee OttomanOttoman Empire'sEmpire's policiepoliciess whicwhichh distinguishedistinguishedd betweebetweenn MuslimMuslim anandd non-Muslimnon-Muslim,, iitt isis cleaclearr thathatt suchsuch distinctiondistinctionss ooff identityidentity werweree perpetuateperpetuatedd througthroughh institutions,institutions, whethewhetherr ththee politicalpolitical institutioninstitutionss ofof ththee OttomanOttoman Empire,Empire, oorr ththee politicapoliticall andand socialsocial institutioninstitutionss ofof ththee KurdsKurds anandd ththee ArmeniansAnnenians.. CollectiveCollective interactivinteractivee behaviorabehaviorall trendtrendss betweebetweenn twtwoo groupsgroups cancan bebe 114114 largellargelyy explainedexplained asas a resulresultt ooff ththee powepowerr structurestructuress anandd ththee agencagencyy oofthosef those iinn powerpower ratheratherr thathann aass a consequencconsequencee ofof theitheirr primordiaprimordiall (ethnic(ethnic,, religious,religious, anandd cultural)cultural) identities.identities. REFERENCESREFERENCES

Abu-MannehAbu-Manneh,, Butrus.Butrus. "The"The SultanSultan andand thethe Bureaucracy:Bureaucracy: TheThe Anti-TanzimatAnti-Tanzimat ConceptsConcepts ofof GranGrandd VizierVizier MahmudMahmud NediNedimm Pasa.Pasa."" International Journal of Middle EastEast Studies 22,22, nono.. 3 (Aug.,(Aug., 1990):1990): 257-274.257-274.

Aghassi.Aghassi. Zeitoun: Depuis Les Origines Jusqu'a L'Insurrection de 1895. ParisParis:: EditioEditionn dudu MercureMercure dede France,France, 1898.1898.

Ahmad,Ahmad, KamaKamall MadharMadhar.. Kurdistan during the First World War. London:London: SaqiSaqi Books,Books, 1994.1994.

Ahmed,Ahmed, MohammaMohammadd Mulla.Mulla. Jama 'iyat Khoybun wa al- 'Alaqaat al-Kurdiyya al­al- Armaniyya [The[The KhoybunKhoybun SocietySociety andand Kurdish-ArmenianKurdish-Armenian Relations]Relations].. Bonn,Bonn, Gennany:Germany: KawaKawa PublishersPublishers,, 2000.2000.

Artinian,Artinian, Vartan.Vartan. The Armenian Constitutional System in the Ottoman Empire: A Study ofof Its Historical Development. IstanbulIstanbul,, 1988.1988.

AydmAydm,, Suavi.Suavi. : Asiret,A~'iret, Cemaat, Devlet. Istanbul:Istanbul: TiirkiyeTurkiye EkonomiEkonomikk ToplumsalToplumsal TarihTarih VakfiVakfl,, 2000.2000.

BarsoumianBarsoumian,, Hagop.Hagop. "The"The EasterEasternn QuestionQuestion andand ththee TanzimatTanzimat Era."Era." IInn The ArmenianArmenian People fromfrom Ancient to Modern Times, vol.vol. 2,2, editededited byby RichardRichard Hovannisian,Hovannisian, 175-201.175-201. NeNeww York:York: St.St. Martin'sMartin's Press,Press, 1997:1997: 175-201.175-201.

Berberian,Berberian, Houri.Houri. Armenians and the Constitutional Revolution 1905-1911. Boulder,Boulder, Colorado:Colorado: WestvieWestvieww Press,Press, 20012001..

BergerBerger,, PetePeterr L.L. andand ThomasThomas Luckmann.Luckmann. Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise on inin the Sociology of Knowledge. GardenGarden City,City, NeNeww YorkYork:: Doubleday,Doubleday, 1966.1966.

BeysanogluBeysanoglu,, Sevket.§evket. KulturumiizdeKiiltiiriimiizde Diyarbakir.Diyarbaklr. AnkaraAnkara:: SanSan MatbaasiMatbaasl,, 1992.1992.

Bliss,Bliss, EdwiEdwinn MunselMunselll etet al.al. Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities. EdgewooEdgewoodd PublicationPublication Co.,Co., 1896.1896.

Bulut,Bulut, Mehmet.Mehmet. Ottoman-Dutch Economic Relations: in the Early Modern Period 1571-1571- 1699. Hilversum:Hilversum: VerlorenVerloren,, 20012001.. 116116

CelilCelil,, Celile.Celile. XIX. YuzyzlYuzyil OsmanliOsmanlz imparatorluguImparatorlugu 'nda Kurtler.Kurt/er. TranslateTranslatedd fromfrom RussiaRussiann toto TurkisTurkishh bbyy MehmeMehmett DemirDemir.. AnkaraAnkara:: ()Z-Ge6z-Ge YayinlanYaymlan,, 1992.1992.

____. Intifadat al-Akrad 'Am'Am 1880 [The[The UprisingUprising ofof thethe KurdsKurds 1880],1880], translatedtranslated from RussiaRussiann ttoo ArabiArabicc bbyy SiramandSiramand Sirti.Sirti. BeirutBeirut:: DarDar al-Kitaal-Kitabb PressPress,, 1979.1979.

CrothersCrothers,, CharlesCharles.. Social Structure. LondonLondon:: RoutledgeRoutledge,, 1996.1996.

CruickshankCruickshank,, Justin.Justin. Realism and Sociology: Anti-foundationalism, Ontology and SocialSocial Research. LondoLondonn andand NeNeww YorkYork:: RoutledgeRoutledge,, 2003.2003.

Dadrian,Dadrian, VahaknVahakn.. The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict fromfrom the Balkans to the Caucasus. ProvidenceProvidence,, RIRI:: BerghahBerghahnn Books,Books, 1995.1995.

______. WarrantforWarrant for Genocide: Key Elements of Turko-Armenian Conflict,Conflict, NeNeww BrunswickBrunswick,, N.J.N.J.:: TransactionTransaction PublishersPublishers,, 1999.1999.

DuguidDuguid,, Stephen.Stephen. "The"The PoliticPoliticss ooff UnityUnity:: HamidiaHamidiann PolicPolicyy inin EasterEasternn Anatolia.Anatolia."" MiddleMiddle Eastern Studies 9, nono.. 2 (April(April 1973):1973): 139-156.139-156.

Erdost,Erdost, MuzaffeMuzafferr IlhaniIhan.. $emdinli§emdinli Roportaji.Roportajl. YenisehirYeni~ehir,, AnkaraAnkara:: OnuOnurr Yaymlan,Yayinlan, 19931993..

FuccaroFuccaro,, NelidaNelida.. "Kurds"Kurds anandd KurdisKurdishh NationalisNationalismm iinn MandatoryMandatory Syria:Syria: PoliticsPolitics,, Culture,Culture, anandd Identity."Identity." InIn Essays on the Origins of Kurdish Nationalism, editeeditedd bbyy AbbasAbbas ValiVali,, 191-218.191-218. CostCostaa MesaMesa,, CA:CA: MazdMazdaa PublishersPublishers,, 2003.2003.

Gaunt,Gaunt, DavidDavid.. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations DuringDuring WWI. NeNeww JerseyJersey:: GorgiasGorgias PresPresss LLC,LLC, 2006.2006.

Gellner,Gellner, ErnestErnest.. Culture, Identity,Identity. and Politics,Politics. CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1987.1987.

____ _ . Muslim Society. Cambridge:Cambridge: CambridgeCambridge UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1993.1993.

Giddens,Giddens, AnthonyAnthony.. Emile Durkheim, NeNeww YorkYork:: VikinVikingg Press,Press, 1979.1979.

______. The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration.Structuration. CambridgeCambridge:: PolitPolityy PressPress,, 1984.1984.

GokalpG6kalp,, ZiyaZiya.. Kurt AsiretleriA~iretleri HakkindaHakkznda ictimaiIctimai Tetkikler [Sociological[Sociological AnalysiAnalysiss ofof KurdisKurdishh Tribes]Tribes].. AnkaraAnkara:: KomalKomal,, 1975 ..

-----. and Western Civilization: Selected Essays ofZiyaof Ziya Gokalp.Gokalp, translatetranslatedd anandd editeeditedd bbyy NiyazNiyazii BerkesBerkes (Ne(Neww YorkYork:: ColumbiaColumbia UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1959),1959), 130-13130-131 1..

HalfmHalfin.. XIX. YiizyzldaYiizyilda Kurdistan Uzerinde Miicadeleler,Mucadeleler, CagalogluCagaloglu,, istanbul:Istanbul: KomalKomal 117117

BasIm-Basim- YaYIm-Yayim-DagitimDagItIm,, 1992.1992.

HambartsumyanHambartsumyan,, VictorVictor.. "The"The Russo-TurkisRusso-Turkishh WarWar,, 1877-1878."1877-1878." VolVol.. 1010 ooff SovietSoviet Armenian Encyclopedia, 93-94.93-94. YerevanYerevan,, 1984.1984.

HerzigHerzig,, EdmunEdmundd andand MarinMarinaa Kurkchiyan.Kurkchiyan. The Armenians: Past and Present in thethe Making of0/ National Identity. LondonLondon:: RoutledgRoutledgee PressPress,, 20052005..

HofmannHofmann,, TessTessaa andand GerayeGerayerr KoutcharianKoutcharian.. "The"The HistorHistoryy ofof Armenian-KurdisArmenian-Kurdishh RelationsRelations iinn ththee OttomaOttomann Empire.Empire."" Armenian Review 44,, nono.. 4-154-1566 (Winter(Winter 1986):1986): 1-45.1-45.

Hovannisian,Hovannisian, RicharRichardd GG.. Armenian VanlVaspurakan.Van/Vaspurakan. CostCostaa MesaMesa,, CACA:: MazdMazdaa PublishersPublishers Inc.Inc.,, 2000.2000.

------. "The"The HistoricalHistorical DimensionsDimensions ofof thethe AnnenianArmenian Question,Question, 1878-1923."1878-1923." IInn The Armenian Genocide in Perspective, editeeditedd bbyy RicharRichardd GG.. Hovannisian.Hovannisian. NeNeww Brunswick,Brunswick, NeNcww JerseyJersey:: TransactionTransaction PublishersPublishers,, 1986 ..

------. "The"The ArmenianArmenian QuestionQuestion inin thethe OttomanOttoman EmpireEmpire 18761876 toto 1914."1914." The Armenian People fromFom Ancient to Modern Times, volvol.. 22,, editcdedited bbyy RicharRichardd G.G. HovannisianHovannisian,, 203-238203-238.. NeNeww YorkYork,, St.St. Martin'Martin'ss PressPress,, 1997.1997.

Issawi,Issawi, CharlesCharles.. "The"The Tabriz-Tabriz-TrabzoTrabzonn Trade,Trade, 1830-1900:1830-1900: RisRisee anandd DeclinDeclinee ooff a Route."Route." International Journal o/Middleof Middle Eastern Studies 1,l,no no.. 1 (Winter(Winter 1970):1970): 18-27.18-27.

Jwaideh,Jwaideh, WadieWadie.. The Kurdish National Movement: Its Origins and Development.Development. Syracuse:Syracuse: SyracuseSyracuse UniversityUniversity PressPress,, 20062006..

Karal,Karal, EnveEnverr ZiyaZiya.. Osmanh Tarihi, VolVol.. VIIIVIII.. AnkaraAnkara,, 1962.1962.

KhrimianKhrimian,, MgrditchMgrditch.. "The"The PapePaperr Ladel.Ladel."" IInn Hayotz Hairig, "Navakogh vushditzvushditz haireniatz hayotz, bbyy HaigHaig AjemianAjemian,, 511-513511-513.. TranslateTranslatedd frofromm ArmeniaArmeniann toto EnglisEnglishh bbyy VazkeVazkenn MovsesiaMovsesiann (Tavriz:(Tavriz: AdurbadaganAdurbadaganii hayothayotzz temagatemagann dubaran,dubaran, 1929),1929), http://armenianhouse.org/khrimyan-hayrik/loving-father.htmhttp://armenianhouse.orglkhrimyan-hayriklloving-father.htmll (accessed(accessed AprilApril 2008).2008).

KilicKilic;,, MehmeMehmett FiratFIrat.. "Sheikh"Sheikh 'Ubaydullah's'Ubaydullah's Movement.Movement."" Master'Master'ss thesisthesis,, BilkentBilkent University,University, 2003.2003.

KirakossianKirakossian,, ArmanAnnan JJ.. andand ArmaArmann DzhonovichDzhonovich.. British Diplomacy and the ArmenianArmenian Question: From the 1830s to 1914, PrincetonPrinceton,, NeNeww JerseyJersey:: GomidasGomidas InsituteInsitute Books,Books, 2003.2003.

Klein,Klein, Janet.Janet. "Conflict"Conflict andand CollaborationCollaboration:: RethinkinRethinkingg Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann RelationRelationss iinn thethe HamidiaHamidiann Period,Period, 1876-1909."1876-1909." International Journal ofo/Turkish Turkish Studies 13,13, nosnos.. 1&21&2 (2007)(2007):: 153-166.153-166. 11811

_____. "Power"Power inin thethe Periphery."Periphery." PhDPhD dissertation:dissertation: PrincetonPrinceton University,University, 2002.2002.

KnappKnapp,, GraceGrace andand ClarencClarencee DouglaDouglass UssherUssher.. An American Physician in Turkey: A Narrative of Adventures in Peace and War. LondonLondon:: HoughtoHoughtonn MifflinMifflin Company,Company, 1917.1917.

KocasKoya~,, Sadi.Sadi. Tarih boyunca Ermeniler ve Turk-Ermeni Iliskilerijli~kileri [Armenians[Armenians andand Turco­Turco- ArmeniaArmeniann RelationRelationss ThroughouThroughoutt History]History].. AnkaraAnkara,, 1967.1967.

KodamanKodaman,, BayramBayram.. "Hamidiy"Hamidiyee HafiHafiff SiivariSuvari AlaylaAlaylann (II.(II. AbdulhamiAbdiilhamidd vvee DoguDogu Asiretleri),A~iretleri),"" iinn Tarih Dergisi 3232 (1979):(1979): 427-480.427-480.

Kodaman,Kodaman, BayramBayram.. OsmanlzOsmanli Devrinde Dogu Anadolu 'nun Idari Durumu. Kavakhdere,Kavakhdere, AnkaraAnkara:: AnadolAnadoluu BasiBasInn BirligiBirligi,, 1986.1986.

KrikorianKrikorian,, MesroMesrobb KK.. Armenians in the Service of the Ottoman Empire 1860-1908.1860-1908. LondonLondon:: RoutledgRoutledgee anandd KeaganKeagan PauPaull Ltd.,Ltd., 1977.1977.

Lepsius,Lepsius, JohanneJohanness andand J RendelRendelll HarrisHarris.. Armenia and Europe; an Indictment. London:London: HoddeHodderr anandd Stoughton,Stoughton, 1897.1897.

LibaridianLibaridian,, GerarGerardd JJ.. Modern Armenia: People, Nation, State. NeNeww BrunswickBrunswick,, NewNew JerseyJersey:: TransactioTransactionn PublishersPublishers,, 2004.2004.

LynchLynch,, HarryHarry FinniFinniss BlosseBlosse.. Armenia, Travels, and Studies. Beirut:Beirut: KhayatsKhayats,, 19651965,, originallyoriginally publishepublishedd inin 1896.1896.

Madden,Madden, Richard.Richard. Turkish Empire: Its Relations with Christianity and Civilization. Vol.Vol. 1.1. LondonLondon:: T.CT.C.. NewbyNewby,, 1862.1862.

MayewskiMayewski,, General.General. Rus General Mayewski 'nin Dogu Anadolu Raporu: Van ve BitlisBitlis Vilayetleri Askeri Istatistiki. VanVan,, TurkeyTurkey:: VaVann BelediyeBelediye BaskanligiBa~kanhgl,, KultiiKiiltlirr veve SosyalSosyal Islei~lerr MudiirlugiiMudurliigu,, 1997.1997.

McCarthyMcCarthy,, JustinJustin.. The Armenian Rebellion at Van. SaltSalt LakLakee CityCity:: UniversitUniversityy ooff UtahUtah PressPress,, 2006.2006.

McDowallMcDowall,, DavidDavid.. A Modern History of the Kurds. NeNeww York:York: Stst.. Martin'sMartin's Press,Press, 1996.1996.

MilgrimMilgrim,, MichaeMichaell RR.. "An"An OverlookeOverlookedd ProbleProblemm iinn Turkish-RussiaTurkish-Russiann RelationsRelations:: TheThe 18781878 WaWarr Indemnity.Indemnity."" International Journal of Middle East Studies 9,9, nono.. 44,, (October(October 1978):1978): 519-537.519-537.

MillingenMillingen,, FrederickFrederick.. Wild Life Among the Koords. LondonLondon:: HursHurstt andand BlackettBlackett PublishersPublishers,, 1870.1870. 119119

MinassianMinassian,, AnahidAnahidee Ter.Ter. "The"The RolRolee ofof ththee ArmeniaAnneniann CommunitCommunityy iinn ththee FoundatioFoundationn andand DevelopmenDevelopmentt ofof ththee SocialistSocialist MovementMovement iinn ththee OttomaOttomann EmpirEmpiree anandd Turkey,Turkey, 1876-1923,"1876-1923," iinn Social and Nationalism in the Ottoman Empire, editeeditedd bbyy MeteMete TuncaTun<;ayandy and EriErikk ZiircherZurcher,, 109-156.109-156. LondonLondon,, NeNeww YorkYork:: BritisBritishh AcademiAcademicc PressPress iinn associationassociation witwithh ththee InternationaInternationall InstitutInstitutee ooff SocialSocial HistoryHistory,, AmsterdamAmsterdam,, 1994.1994.

Molyneux-Seel,Molyneux-Seel, L.L. "A"A JourneyJourney iinn Dersim.Dersim."" The Geographical Journal 4444,, nono.. 1 (Jul.,(Jul., 1914):1914): 49-6849-68..

MouradianMouradian,, Claire.Claire. "Gustave"Gustave MeyrierMeyrier andand ththee TurmoiTunnoill iinn DiarbekirDiarbekir,, 1894-1896,"1894-1896," inin Armenian TigranakeriDiarbekirTigranaker/Diarbekir and Edessa/Urfa,Edessa/Urja, editededited bbyy RicharRichardd G.G. Hovannisian,Hovannisian, 209-250209-250.. CostaCosta MesaMesa,, CACA:: MazdMazdaa PublishersPublishers,, 2006.2006.

Nalbandian,Nalbandian, LouiseLouise.. The Armenian Revolutionary Movement: The Development of Armenian Political Parties Through the Nineteenth Century. BerkeleyBerkeley:: UnivcrsityUniversity ofof CaliforniaCalifornia Press,Press, 19631963..

NichanianNichanian,, Marc.Marc. Writers of Disaster: Armenian Literature in the Twentieth Century.Century. ReadingReading,, UniteUnitedd KingdomKingdom:: Taderon,Taderon, bbyy arrangementarrangement witwithh ththee GomidaGomidass Institute,Institute, 20022002..

NoeNoe,, LouiLouiss RoberRobertt JeanJean Souvenirs d'Afrique et d'Orient: Les Bachi-Bozouks et /esles Chasseurs d'Afrique: La Cava/erieCavalerie Reguliere en Campagne. ParisParis:: MM.. LevyLevy FreresFreres,, 18611861..

NonnanNonnan,, CharleCharless BoswellBoswell.. Armenia, and the Campaign of 1877, NeNeww York:York: Cassell,Cassell, PettePetterr & GalpinGalpin,, 1878.1878.

Okte,Okte, ErtugruErtugrull ZekaiZek§i. Ottoman Archives: YzldzzYildiz Collection, The Armenian Question.Question. Vols.Vols. 1 andand 3.3. IstanbulIstanbul,, Turkey:Turkey: HistoricaHistoricall ResearcResearchh FoundationFoundation,, istanbulIstanbul ResearcResearchh CenterCenter,, 1989.1989.

Olson,Olson, RobertRobert.. The Emergence of Kurdish Nationalism and the ,Rebellion, 1880-1925. AustinAustin:: UniversitUniversityy ooff TexaTexass PressPress,, 1989.1989.

Onal,Onal, SamiSami ed.ed. Sadettin PasaPa~a 'mn'nin Anilari:Am/an: Ermeni-Kurt OiayianOlaylari (Van, 1896) [The[The MemoireMemoiress ofof SadettinSadettin PashaPasha:: Armenian-KurdisAnnenian-Kurdishh Episodes]Episodes].. Istanbul:Istanbul: RemziRemzi Kitabevi,Kitabevi, 2003.2003.

Oshagan,Oshagan, VahVahee "Modem"Modern ArmeniaAnneniann LiteraturLiteraturee andand IntellectuaIntellectuall HistorHistoryy frofromm 17001700 toto 1915,"1915," inin The Armenian People fromfrom Ancient to Modern Times, editededited bbyy RichardRichard Hovannisian,Hovannisian, 139-175.139-175. LondonLondon:: MacmillaMacmillann PublishersPublishers,, 1997.1997.

Ozoglu,Ozoglu, HakanHakan.. Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, CompetingCompeting Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries. AlbanyAlbany:: StateState UniversitUniversityy ooff NeNeww YorYorkk Press,Press, 120120

20042004..

______. '''Nationalism'"'Nationalism' andand KurdishKurdish NotablesNotables inin thethe LateLate OttomanOttoman andand EarlyEarly RepublicaRepublicann Era.Era."" InternationalJournalInternational Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 33,33, no.no. 3 (August(August 2001)2001):: 383-409.383-409.

PapazianPapazian,, VahanVahan.. 1mIm Hushere, [My Memoires],Memoiresj, volvol.. l.1. BostonBoston:: Hairenik,Hairenik, 1950.1950.

PiercePierce,, JameJamess WilsonWilson.. Story of Turkey and Armenia. BaltimoreBaltimore,, MarylandMaryland:: R.H.R.H. WoodwarWoodwardd CompanyCompany,, 1896.1896.

QuataertQuataert,, DonaldDonald.. "The"The AgAgee ooff ReformReformss 1812-1914"1812-1914" inin The Economic and Social HistoryHistory of the Ottoman Empire, editeeditedd bbyy HaliHalill Inalciinalclkk anandd DonalDonaldd Quataert.Quataert. VolVol.. 2.2. LondonLondon:: CambridgeCambridge UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1997 ..

------. Ottoman Manufacturing in the Age of the Industrial Revolution.Revolution. Cambridge:Cambridge: CambridgCambridgee UniversitUniversityy PressPress,, 1993 .

------. The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922. Cambridge:Cambridge: CambridgeCambridge UniversityUniversity PressPress,, 20052005..

RafeqRafeq,, Abdul-KareemAbdul-Kareem.. "Craft"Craft OrganizationOrganization,, WorWorkk EthicsEthics,, andand ththee StrainsStrains ooff ChangeChange inin OttomaOttomann Syria."Syria." Journal oj^AmericanofAmerican Oriental Society 111,111, nono.. 3 (Autumn(Autumn 1991):1991): 495-511495-511..

ReidReid,, JamesJames JJ.. Crisis in the Ottoman Empire: Prelude to Collapse: 1839-1878 (Franz(Franz SteinerSteiner VerlaVerlagg Stuttgart,Stuttgart, 2000)2000),, 159.159.

RubenRuben,, AramAram.. Hai Heghapokhakani Me Hishataknere [Memoirs[Memoirs ofof anan ArmenianArmenian Revolutionary]Revolutionary].. VolVol.. 22.. LoLoss AngelesAngeles,, 1952.1952.

Salzmann,Salzmann, ArielAriel.. Tocqueville in the Ottoman Empire: Rival Paths to the Modern State.State. LeidenLeiden,, BostonBoston:: E.JEJ.. BrillBrill,, 2004.2004.

Sarkissian,Sarkissian, ArshaArshagg OhanOhan.. History of the Armenian Question to 1885. UrbanaUrbana:: UniversityUniversity ofof IllinoiIllinoiss PressPress,, 1938.1938.

Sasuni,Sasuni, Garo.Garo. Kurt ulusal hareketleri ve Ermeni-Kurt iliskileriili.;kileri (J(15.yy 5.yy 'dan gunumiize)guniimuze) [Th[Thee KurdisKurdishh NationaNationall MovementMovementss anandd Kurdish-ArmeniaKurdish-Armeniann RelationRelationss (from(from thethe fifteentfifteenthh centurycentury ttoo ouourr day)]day)].. TranslateTranslatedd fromfrom ArmeniaArmeniann toto TurkishTurkish bbyy BedrosBedros ZarataryaZarataryann anandd MemMemoo YetkinYetkin.. CagalogluCagaloglu,, Istanbulistanbul:: MeMcdd YayineviYaymcvi,, 1992.1992.

SevgenSevgen,, NazmiNazmi.. Dogu ve Guneydogu Anadolu 'da Turk beylikleri: OsmanlzOsmanh belgeleri Heile Kurt Turkleri tarihi. AnkaraAnkara:: TurTurkk KulturiiniKulturuntii ArastirmAra~t1rmaa EnstitiisiiEnstitUsti,, 1982.1982.

ShawShaw,, Stanford.Stanford. History of the Ottoman Empire. VolVol.. 22.. CambridgeCambridge:: CambridgeCambridge 121121

UniversitUniversityy Press,Press, 1977.1977.

Shields,Shields, Sarah.Sarah. Mosul Before Iraq: Like Bees Making Five-Sided Cells. AlbanyAlbany,, NY:NY: StateState UniversitUniversityy ofof NeNeww YorYorkk Press,Press, 2000.2000.

§hnsir~im~ir,, BilalBilal.. British Documents on Ottoman Armenians. 4 volsvols.. AnkaraAnkara:: TurkTurk TarihTarih KurumKurumuu BasimeviBaslmevi,, 1982.1982.

_____. Documents Diplomatique Ottomans: Affaires Armeniennes. Vol.Vol. 1.1. Ankara:Ankara: TurkTurk TarihiTarihi KurumKurumuu BasimeviBaslmevi,, 19851985..

Smith,Smith, AnthonAnthonyy DD.. The Ethnic Origins of Nations. OxfordOxford:: BlackwellBlackwell Publishing,Publishing, 1988.1988.

Sonyel,Sonyel, SalahiSalahi RamsdanRamsdan.. The Ottoman Armenians: Victims of Great Power Diplomacy.Diplomacy. LondonLondon:: K.K. RusteRustemm & BrotherBrother,, 1987.1987.

SultanSultan AbdulhamiAbdulhamidd IIII,, Sultan Abdulhamid'inAbdiilhamid'in Hatira Defteri, Ismeismett BozdagBozdag edcd.. Istanbul:Istanbul: PinarPinar,, 1986.1986.

Svajian,Svajian, StephenStephen GG.. A Trip Through Historic Armenia, GreenhilGreenhilll PublishersPublishers,, 1977.1977.

UrasUras,, EsatEsat.. The Armenians in History and the Armenian Question. Sirkeci,Sirkeci, Istanbul:Istanbul: DocumentaryDocumentary Publications,Publications, 1988.1988. vavann BruinessenBruinessen,, MartinMartin.. Agha, Shaikh, and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan. LondoLondonn andand NeNeww Jersey:Jersey: ZeZedd BooksBooks,, 1992.1992.

VarandianVarandian,, MikaelMikacl.. History of the Dashnaktsutiun. ParisParis,, 1932.1932.

WalkerWalker,, ChristopherChristopher JJ.. Armenia: The Survival of a Nation. NeNeww YorkYork:: St.St. Martin'Martin'ss Press,Press, 1990.1990.

Wendt,Wendt, AlexanderAlexander.. "Collective"Collective IdentitIdentityy FormatioFonnationn anandd ththee InternationaInternationall State."State." The American Political Science Review 88,88, nono.. 2 (June(June 1994):1994): 384-396.384-396.

YalmanYalman,, NurNur.. "On"On LanLandd DisputesDisputes iinn EasterEasternn Turkey,"Turkey," iinn Islam and its CulturalCultural Divergence: Studies in Honor ofo.fGustave Gustave E. von Grunebaum, editededited bbyy GirdhariGirdhari L.L. TikkuTikku,, 180-218.180-218. Chicago:Chicago: UniversitUniversityy ooff ChicagChicagoo PressPress,, 19711971..

Yllmazyelik,Yilmazcelik, Ibrahimibrahim.. XIX.XIX YiizyzlznYuzyilin Ikinciikinci YarisindaYarzsznda Dersim Sancagi:Sancagl: Idari,Mari, iktisaditktisadi ve Sosyal Hayat [The[The DersiDersimm SancakSancak iinn ththee SecondSecond HalHalfofthef of the NineteentNineteenthh Century:Century: AdministrativeAdministrative,, EconomicEconomic,, andand SocialSocial Life]Life].. ElazigElazlg,, 1999.1999.

ZarzeckiZarzecki,, S.S. "La"La questioquestionn kurdo-armenienne,kurdo-annenienne,"" La Revue de Paris 2121,, nono.. 12,12, (March­(March- ApriAprill 1914):1914): 873-894873-894