Socio-Economic Effects of Human Trafficking: the Case of Meta Woreda, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF HUMAN TRAFFICKING: THE CASE OF META WOREDA, EAST HARARGHE ZONE, OROMIA REGIONAL STATE, ETHIOPIA

M.A THESIS

KITILA TULI CHALI

MARCH 2021 HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY, HARAMAYA

Socio-Economic Effects of Human trafficking: The Case of Meta Woreda, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Geography and Environmental Studies, Postgraduate Program Directorate, HARAMYA UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Art in Geography and Environmental studies

Kitila Tuli CHali

March 2021 Haramaya University, Haramaya

HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY POSTGRADUATE PROGRAM DIRECTORATE

We here by certify that we have read and evaluated this thesis entitled “Socio-Economic Effects of Human trafficking: The Case of Meta Woreda, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia” prepared, under our guidance, by Kitila Tuli Chali we recommend that it be submitted as fulfilling the thesis requirement.

Dr.Tegegne Sishaw ______Major Advisor Signature Date

Dr.Solomon Tekalign______Co-Advisor Signature Date

As a member of the Examining Board of the Final M.A. Thesis Open Defense, we certify that we have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by Kitila Tuli Chali and examined the candidate. We recommend that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement for the Degree of Master of Art in Geography and Environmental Studies.

______Chairperson Signature Date

______Internal Examiner Signature Date

______External Examiner Signature Date

Final approval and acceptance of the Thesis is contingent upon the submission of its final copy to the Council of Graduate Studies (CGS) through the candidate’s department or school graduate committee (DGC or SGS).

iii

DEDICATION

With Love and sincere appreciation, I dedicate this thesis to my dear family and friends for their support.

STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR

By my signature below, I declare and affirm that this Thesis is my own work. I have followed all ethical and technical principles of scholarship in the preparation, data collection, data analysis and compilation of this Thesis. Any scholarly matter that is included in the Thesis has been given recognition through citation.

This Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for M.A degree at the Haramaya University Library and is made available to borrowers under the rules of the Library. I solemnly declare that this Thesis has not been submitted to any other institution anywhere for award of any academic degree, diploma or certificate.

Brief quotation from this Thesis may be made without special permission provided that accurate and complete acknowledgement of the source is made. Requests for permission for extend quotations from or reproduction of Thesis in whole or apart may be guaranteed by the head of school or department when in his or her judgment the proposed use of the material is in the interest of scholarship. In all other instance, however, permission must be obtained from the author of the Thesis.

Name: Kitila Tuli Chali

Date of submit: March, 2021

School: Geography and Environmental studies

Signature: ______

BIOGRAPHYICAL SKETCH

The author was born September 11, 1988 in Wera-Bera Kebele, Amuru Woreda, Horro Guduru Wellega Zone, and Oromia National Regional State of Ethiopia. He attended his elementary education from grade 1-6 at Wera-Bera Primary School from 1994-1999 and Secondary education at Amuru secondary and Preparatory School from 2000-2005. In September 2006, he joined at Mekelle University in the regular program and in August, 2008 graduate with a B.Ed. degree in Geography and Environmental Studies. Since September 2009, he served as secondary school teacher at Boke Tiko Woreda in West Hararghe and East Hararghe for 8 years. Finally, he joined Postgraduate Program of Haramaya University in 2016 to pursue his postgraduate studies in the School of Geography and Environmental Studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and for most would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my Almighty God for giving me the courage and strength all through the course of my studies and writing this paper. Next, my heartfelt appreciation goes to my advisors Tegegne Sishaw (PhD) and Co-advisor Solomon Tekalign (PhD) for their professional guidance, timely response, constant constructive comments and their tireless motivation and moral support to accomplish this study, which would have been impossible without their assistance.

I am grateful to my families specially my wife Ayantu Motuma and child Firaol Kitila for their support and immeasurable scarifies that they paid while I was away for the study.

My special thanks also go to Ministry of Education (MoE), for fully sponsoring overall cost of the postgraduate study at Haramaya University. I would to give maximum respect and thanks to all staff members of School of Geography and Environmental Studies for their devotion to support me.

My genuine appreciation and heartfelt thanks go to all participants in this study. Without them, this study might not be possible. Last, but not least, my sincere appreciation and thanks go to my friend Mr, Ajeba Kenenisa, Usmail Amiye and Biranu Sori for their constant support and advice.

Also never forget incalculable contributions of my parents: Ato, Fiqadu Tuli and W/o, Zenabu Tuli, W/o, Ayyantu Dereje, W/o, Melkayehu Gerbi, Ato, Diriba Tuli, Jemana Tuli, Ato, Desalegn Tuli and for all data enumerators and to all who contribute for the completion of the thesis

vii

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AEZs Agro Ecological Zones

AU African Union

IOM: International Organization for Migration

NGO Nongovernmental Organizations

PCI: Project Concern International

RMMS Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat

SPSS Statistical Product and service solutions

STDs: Sexual Transmitted Diseases

TIP Traffic in Person

UNICEF United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund.

UNODC United Nation’s Office of Drug and Crime.

WFF Walk Free Foundation

viii

TABLES OF CONTENTS DEDICATION iv STATEMENT OF THE AUTHOR v BIOGRAPHYICAL SKETCH vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS vii ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS viii LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xiii ABSTRACT xiv 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. Background of the Study 1 1.2. Statement of the Problem 2 1.3. Objectives of the Study 4 1.3.1. General objectives 4 1.3.2. Specific objectives 4 1.4. Research Questions 5 1.5. Significance of the Study 5 1.6. Scope of the Study 5 1.7. Limitation of the Study 6 1.8. Definition of Key Terms 6 1.9. Organization of the Thesis 7 2. REVIEW LITERATURE 8 2.1. Concepts of Human Trafficking 8 2.2. Empirical Evidences of Human Trafficking 9 2.2.1. Human trafficking in World 10 2.2.2. Human trafficking in Africa 11 2.2.3. Human trafficking in Ethiopia 13 2.2.3.1. Internal trafficking 13 2.2.3.2. External trafficking 13 2.3. Major Factors of Human Trafficking 14 2.3.1. Push Factors 14 2.3.2. Pull Factors 14 2.4. Major Socio-Economic Effects of Human Trafficking 15 2.4.1. Social effects of human trafficking 15 ix

2.4.2. Health effects of human trafficking 15 2.4.3. Economic effects of human trafficking 16 2.5. Conceptual Framework of Human Trafficking 17 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 19 3.1. Location and Size 19 3.1.1. Topography and soil 20 3.1.2. Climate and drainage 20 3.1.3. Vegetation and wild life 21 3.1.4. Population characteristics 21 3.1.5. Economic Activities 22 3.2. Research Design 22 3.3. Sources and Types of Data 22 3.4. Sampling Procedure and sample size determination 23 3.5. Instruments of Data Collection 24 3.5.1. Questionnaires 24 3.5.2. In-depth Interview 24 3.5.3. Focus group discussions 24 3.6. Methods of Data Analysis 25 4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 26 4.1. Background of the Sample Respondents. 26 4.1.1. Sex and age structure of the respondents 26 4.1.2. Educational and marital status of the respondents 28 4.1.3. Religious and ethnicity of the respondents 28 4.1.4. Income of the respondents 29 4.1.5. Occupation Status of Respondents before Trafficking 29 4.2. Major Features of Human Trafficking 29 4.2.1. Major routes of human trafficking 29 4.2.2. Major reasons of human trafficking 31 4.2.3. Destinations of human trafficking 33 4.2.4. Source of Finance for trafficking 34 4.2.5. Duration of stay in Middle East 35 4.2.6. Occupation in the Middle East 35 4.2.7. Remittances 36 4.2.8. Methods of remittance transfer to Ethiopia 38 4.3. Major Factors of Human Trafficking. 38 4.3.1. Push factors 38 4.3.2. Pull factors of human trafficking 40 4.4. Major Socio-Economic Effects 41 4.4.1. Social effects of human trafficking 41 4.4.2. Health effects of human trafficking 43 x

4.4.3. Economic effects of human trafficking. 45 4.5. Major Features of the Returnees 46 4.5.1. Housing condition of the Returnees 46 4.5.2. Economic Status of the Returnees 47 4.5.3. Future Plans of the Returnees’ 48 4.5.4. Respondents’ intention towards needs for support 48 4.5.5. Kind of Support requested by returnees 49 4.5.6. Assistance provided and stake holder who provided the support 50 4.6. Experiences and Challenges faced returnees 51 4.6.1. Major challenges faced trafficked returnees 52 4.6.2. Challenges Affecting Reintegration of Returnees. 54 5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 57 5.1. Summary 57 5.2. Conclusions 59 5.3. Recommendations 60 6. REFERENCES 62 7. APPENDICES 74

LIST OF TABLES

Table page 1. Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of Respondent 27 2. Routes of human trafficking 30 3. Length of stay in Middle East 35 4. Respondents Remittances send back home in meta woreda 37 5. Social effects of human trafficking 42 6. major Health effects of human trafficking 44 7. Major Economic effects of human trafficking 45 8. Residence status of the returnees 47 9. Future plan of the returnees 48 10. Intention of the respondents towards need for support 49 11. Returnees respondents who received support 50 12. Stakeholders who provided support for returnee 50 13. Support provided by the government 51 14. Support provided by the community/family of the returnees 51 15. Returnees experience related trafficking 52

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page 1. Conceptual framework of socio-economic effects of human trafficking 18 2. Location Map of the study area 19 3. Climograph of Meta woreda 21 4. Map of Eastern trafficking route 31 5. Reasons of preferring illegal trafficking route 32 6. Destination areas of human trafficking 34 7. respondents source of finance for trafficking in Meta woreda 34 8. Occupation of the returnees while in Middle East 36 9. Returnees Means of Remittance transfer to Ethiopia 38 10. Push factors of Human Trafficking 39 11. Pull factors of Human Trafficking 40 12. Current source of income of the returnees 47 13. Support requested by returnees respondents 49 14. Major challenges faced trafficked returnees 52 15. Major challenges affecting the reintegration of the returnees 54

xiii

Socio-Economic Effects of Human Trafficking: The Case of Meta Woreda, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

Human trafficking remains a prime global concern due to its multifaceted causes and horrible consequences continue to be experienced by millions of people. The main focus of this study was to assess the Socio-economic effects of human trafficking by examining experience of abuse faced by Ethiopian trafficked and returned from Arab countries. Both primary and secondary data sources were used including questionnaires, in-depth interview and focus group discussions and field observations. The tools used to gather the primary data were questionnaires, In-depth interview and FGDs. A total of 150 respondents were selected for survey questionnaire by applying purposive sampling technique. Moreover, five (5) and twelve (12) were selected purposively for in-depth interview and FGDs respectively. Findings of the study showed, lack of job opportunities, family economic crises, limited income, shortage of farm land and lack of access to social services as push factors of human trafficking in the study areas. On other hand, demand for domestic workers and cheap uncompensated labor were cited as major pulls risk factors that drove returnees towards trafficking. The study also showed human trafficking was associated with poor health, social and economic outcomes for returnees in Meta woreda. This was because of different factors related to illegal trafficking route, unaccomplished trafficking goal, harsh treatment and abusive working condition in destination country, poor interpersonal relationship with family due inabilities to fulfill resource and financial expectation, lack of sufficient capital and material resource for their successful reintegration at the place of origin .Thus recommended local government should pay attention to increase awareness of the community through extensive and continues information campaign concerning the threats and effects of human trafficking on health, social structure of the community and economies. It is important for future research studies to systematically and comprehensively assess sociocultural factors and intervention to address risk together with resilience to promote survivor recovery.

Keywords: Human Migration, Human Trafficking, involuntary returnees, Meta woreda, Rehabilitation, Reintegration, Socio-economic effects.

xiv

1. INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background of the Study

Human trafficking is defined as the extreme form of human exploitation for forced labor, slavery, prostitution, debt bondage or want of human organs. The means used in trafficking are abduction, coercion, deception and threats (Williamson, 2017). Human trafficking is always fundamental offense against human rights violating such as the right to freedom, personal autonomy and in some cases the right to life (Gacinya, 2019). Human trafficking is recently become a highly prioritized issue of international, regional and national political agenda due to its multifaceted causes and horrible consequences continue to be experienced by millions of people including men, women and children for a range of purposes, including forced and exploitative labour in factories, farms and private households (Schapendonk, 2018). Human trafficking is now one of the fastest growing criminal industries in the world that generates 150 billion US dollars of profit each year, and all among illicit businesses, human trafficking is second after drugs dealings (Warria, 2017).

Human trafficking is a complex phenomenon that is often driven or influenced by social, economic, cultural and others. It affects every country of the world, as countries of origin, transit or destination or even a combination of all (Edwards and Mika, 2017). Africa has a significant population of communities vulnerable to human trafficking. Lack of public awareness about the horrors of human trafficking and the extent to which organized criminal groups involved are common problems in Africa (Oyekanmi and Okunola, 2017). Discrimination against women and children, corruption and organized crime, political instability, extreme poverty, communication technologies and transport advancements; have all contributed to a recent increase in sales of people (Collins, 2018). Though the intensity of human trafficking varies from region to region and from one country to another country, Sub-Saharan Africa is the largest of the regions measured for the Global Slavery Index (Gacinya, 2019).

Even though, Ethiopia had ratified major international and regional agreements related to human trafficking and enacted its own anti-human trafficking laws. Nonetheless, human trafficking is increasing in an alarming rate in Ethiopia and the government has failed to fulfill the minimum standards to eliminate human trafficking (Van Reisen et al., 2019). According the study of Gezie 2 et al. (2019) stated that approximately 75,000 (over 78 %) of new arrivals in Yemen in 2014 were from Ethiopia and most of them were victims of human trafficking. In 2015, 92,446 persons arrived in Yemen from the Horn of Africa of which 89% (82,276 persons) were Ethiopian nationals, and in 2016 it continued at a similar pace. It is estimated that 146,000 Ethiopians transit through Djibouti every year, between 18,000 and 37,000 Ethiopians per year begin their journey on the western/northern route. Ethiopian migrants who cross to Sudan reach 50-100 persons per day (Oyekanmi and Okunola, 2017).

Similarly the community in the Meta woreda, which is located in East Hararge zone of Oromia regional state of Ethiopia, had experienced a number of sticky effects of human trafficking such as deaths, physical and psychological harms, detentions and inhuman treatment at different stage of trafficking are frequent news in the Woreda. However, illegal migration is increasing and continues to expose many people to be victims of human trafficking and negatively affected social structure of the societies and economies. Many students drop out their schools, married men and women breakdown their families; teachers and health extension workers are frequently trafficked. In view of this, it is worthwhile to assess the major features, causes, challenges that faced the victims at different stage of trafficking and socio-economic effects of human trafficking in the study areas.

This research aimed at to assess socio-economic effects of human trafficking, causes of human trafficking, treats, consequences and multilayered challenges facing trafficked returnees in Meta woreda at different stage of trafficking including destination areas.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Human trafficking is linked, inter alia, to nation’s social and economic problems, organized crime, migration, gender based discrimination and violence (Gacinya, 2019). There are also broad effects of human trafficking on the society such as splintering of families and communities, distortion of global markets and growth of transnational organized criminal network (Ibrahim and Mukhtar, 2016). According to Jones et al. (2014), about 95% of the victims of human trafficking experience negative physical, mental, and sexual health problem have been noted among trafficking victims internationally, especially those trafficked for sexual and labour. The extent of these health problems and their prevalence among victims is unclear;

3 however, it is clear that trafficking victims experience cumulative harm from the time they are recruited, throughout the time period of exploitation, with long term consequences that persist during reintegration (Busza et al, 2017). Furthermore, as a vulnerable population trafficking victims experience a multitude of social stressors during the exploitation and reintegration stage of trafficking that make it extremely difficult for them to reintegrate into their home countries. These stressors may include economic insecurity, occupational hazards, and legal uncertainties (Jibriel, 2014).

Trafficking in human beings is to a large extent caused because of unemployment and lack of opportunity which force millions of people to look for a better life by moving away from the places they call home(Osezua, 2016). Human trafficking appears to be the worst human development outcome linked to increasing global mobility. It is a form of modern day slavery that deprives people of their human rights and freedoms. Trafficking affects all regions and most countries of the world. (Kovacic, 2018).

As the United Nations Office on Drug and Crime disclosed that no nation is free from human trafficking problem (Davy, 2016). Ethiopia has recently been identified as a country with a beginning to grow in human trafficking problem, although accurate rates of the number of trafficking victims are difficult to find because of its hidden nature. The exact size and extent of the problem is not known, but media, government, and advocacy groups have increasingly raised concerns over human trafficking in Ethiopia in recent years, as reports of human rights violations have emerged (Kristen, 2016). The study of Hailemichael (2014) stated that Ethiopia is making an effort to prevent human trafficking. However, Many Ethiopians had been exploited, and in several instances end up being killed in transit as well as destination countries. Likewise, Saudi Arabia’s crackdown on illegal migrants and expulsion of thousands of Ethiopians are some of the severe consequences of human trafficking (Beck et al., 2016)

At present, crossing the transit states and the routes is highly endangered, and the situations in the destination countries become unattractive. The perilous journeys through the war-torn Yemen, the state of impunity in which armed groups, criminal gangs and traffickers control the flow of irregular migrants through Libya, and the military operations in the route of North Africans deadly tunnel (the Sinai desert) are horrific. Furthermore, xenophobic sentiments in Saudi Arabia and South Africa have been devastating effects for many vulnerable people in

Ethiopians. Nevertheless, many Ethiopians are still trafficked illegally and fail at the hands of ruthless traffickers.

Most of the existing literatures highly concerned on the investigation of causes; challenges and different kinds of right violations that Ethiopian domestic workers experience in Middle East for labor exploitation. For instance, Reda (2012) conducted the study on causes and facilitating factors with issue of human trafficking. Similarly, Selamawit (2013) also employed research on Vulnerability of trafficked women domestic workers experiences in Middle East: Wakgari (2014) also conducted survey on causes and consequences of human trafficking. However, they did not state the factors that affecting successful reintegration of trafficked returnees to the community without accomplishing trafficking goal. Therefore, this study is tried to fill the gap by providing alternative geographical knowledge on the factors affecting successful reintegration of trafficked returnees and socio-economic effects of human trafficking in Meta woreda. It is also important that this research conducted in such a critical period, when human trafficking is increasing in an alarming rate and worst condition in the Meta woreda.

Therefore, these situations necessitated research work to assess the issues in the study area in order to give clear description about major features, causes, multifaceted challenges facing the victim’s and effects of problems and propose solutions to reduce socio-economic effects of human trafficking in Meta woreda.

1.3. Objectives of the Study

1.3.1. General objectives The main purpose of this study is to identify the socio-economic effects of human trafficking in Meta woreda.

1.3.2. Specific objectives The specific objectives of the study are given as follow:

1. To assess’ major features of human trafficking

2. To identify major driving factors for human trafficking.

3. To investigate major socio-economic effects of human trafficking on the community.

1.4. Research Questions

Based on the objective of the research, the study comes up with answering the following basic question.

1. What are the major features of human trafficking?

2. What are the major driving factors for human trafficking?

3. What are major socio-economic effects of human trafficking on the local community?

1.5. Significance of the Study

The information generated from this study can provide valuable information for concerned government and non-government bodies about the seriousness of socio-economic effects faced by trafficked returnees. This study provide an alternative a geographical conceptualization of the nature; cause; multifaceted challenges and socio-economic effects of human trafficking in Ethiopia by utilizing both quantitative and qualitative research methods. It also contributes in creating awareness and share lighter information for local community about social and economic effects of human trafficking. Finally, this research can be used as a reference to those who might be interested to conduct studies on the area of human trafficking.

1.6. Scope of the Study

This study was specifically conducted in Meta woreda, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia regional state, in three purposively selected kebeles, namely: Chelenko 01, Goro Muti Kutir Hulet and Kulubi. This specific Woreda was selected because it is one of the most affected and vulnerable Woreda regarding human trafficking. Though the issue of human trafficking is very broad and multidirectional, the central attention of this study was focused to assess causes, major features, challenges experienced by trafficked victims and socio-economic effects of human trafficking to community. Furthermore, human trafficking can take place within and outside a country; nonetheless, this research has limited on the responses of trafficked returnees, families of the returnees, local residents and governmental officials who are related with the issue.

1.7. Limitation of the Study

The major problems which were faces the researcher in the course of conducting this research work includes: The absence of consistent data on current socio-economic effects human trafficking in the study area. Lack of well-organized and current data that showing the full picture of the trafficking patterns of considerable number of years to make a trend analysis in the study areas. Though the employed techniques were diverse and fair to triangulate the data. Insufficient budget and the shortage of local research for references and well documented evidences in the study areas. However, confronting or with standing these limitations the researcher came up with this research work

1.8. Definition of Key Terms

Human Migration is the movement by people from one place to another with the intention of settling temporarily or permanently in the new location. The movement is typically over long distances and from one country to another, but internal migration is also possible. Migration may be individuals, family units or in large groups (Davies and Isakjee, 2015).

Human Trafficking is a process of people being recruited in their community and country of origin and transported to the destination areas where they are being exploited for purposes of forced labor, prostitution, domestic servitude, and other forms of exploitation (Gabriel, 2014)

Involuntary Returnees: these are usually individuals with no legal residence status, whose economic and social integration failed, and who are deported back to home. Most are unable to mobilize resource such as social capital, network or know how up on their return to the country of origin, where their reintegration will be determined by individual circumstances, including changing or unstable economic situation, limited access to labour market, and recognition of foreign qualifications(Marianne and Pia, 2016).

Rehabilitation: is a set of interventions needed when a person is experiencing or is likely to experience limitation in every day functioning due to health condition including chronic diseases, disorder, injuries or trauma (Scheirs, 2016).

Reintegration: A process which enables individuals to re-establish the economic, social and psychosocial relationships needed to maintain life, livelihood and dignity and inclusion in civic life (Aslam and Rosili, 2016).

Socio-economic effect: in the technical sense of the word is goal level change in the level of target population asset, capabilities, and standard of living. It can be positive or negative, intended or unintended, temporary or sustainable over time. Positive and sustainable effect is to development community what sustainable profit is to the business community, it is the end goal and ultimate measure of success (Shillcutts et al., 2012)

Woreda: is the second smallest unit of political administration in Ethiopia, further subdivided into a number of peasant associations (Mehari, 2014)

1.9. Organization of the Thesis

This thesis is organized into five chapters. The first chapter includes background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, scope of the study, significance of the study, limitation and organization of the study. The second chapter deals with review of related literature and conceptual frameworks. The third chapter focuses on research methodology including description of the study area, methods of data collection and sampling techniques and methods of data analysis. Chapter four comprises results and discussions of the study. The last chapter deals with summary, conclusions and recommendations of the study. References and appendices are attached at the end of the thesis following the last chapter.

2. REVIEW LITERATURE

2.1. Concepts of Human Trafficking

Slavery has been commonplace throughout recorded history of human being and has been a generally unquestioned institution in many of earlier civilizations, most notably perhaps in the world of classical antiquity. In the 19th century slavery was made illegal throughout the world – though making something illegal doesn’t mean it vanishes (Ondieki, 2017). It is possible to conclude that slavery has gone through history as a result of humans being deprived of work and being under the control of another person. When talking about slavery, it is not about race or ownership, but the most important features are the management of violence, economic benefit of people and freedom of agency. When examining trafficking, it is good to be aware of the concept of slavery and to understand its meaning in history (Bales, 2016).

In human trafficking, criminals use human beings as objects for their own profit by use of force, deception, coercion and violence. ILO (2017) has concluded that today, illegal profits generated by human trafficking are significant, estimated at USD 150 billion a year. Unlike smuggling of migrants, which generates a one-time profit, trafficking includes a long-term exploitation, which translates into continuous income (UNODC, 2016). Every country in the world is affected by human trafficking and even though reliable global data is limited, it is believed that the number of victims is reaching epidemic proportions (U.S. Department of state, 2016). Despite sustained measures taken at the international, regional and national levels, trafficking in persons remain one of the severe challenges facing the international community (United Nations General Assembly, 2014).

Yet, the vast majority of countries has passed or modified their domestic legislation so as to criminalize human trafficking, the criminal justice system’s response, however, appears to be stagnating at a low level. In addition, there are still countries without proper legislation on human trafficking and gaps in legislation leave at least two billion people around the world without adequate legal protection against human trafficking (UNODC, 2016). Human trafficking is a complex problem that violates human rights of millions of men, women and children. According to UNODC (2016) the human and social consequences of trafficking are compelling; from the physical abuse and torture of victims to the psychological and emotional trauma and to the economic and political implications of unabated crime. The impact of human trafficking on

9 individuals and society is destructive (Ibid) and the consequences are diverse. The impacts of human trafficking are felt both in the destination countries and countries of origin. Common development dimensions, such as unemployment, poverty, gender inequality, lack of education, weak rule of law, and poor governance accompanied by socio-economic factors are strongly linked to vulnerability towards trafficking (World Bank, 2009) and ending human trafficking has become one of the targets of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (United Nations, 2015); the aim is to end all forms of forced labour, human trafficking, modern day slavery and child labour by 2025.

2.2. Empirical Evidences of Human Trafficking

According to rational choice theory of human trafficking, criminals are rational beings who make decisions to commit crime based on the costs and benefits involved in the process of crime perpetration. Structural theories of human trafficking assert divisive legal perspectives, such as criminal treatment of those who exploit human rights or facilitate others into exploiting human rights for money (Gerassi, 2015). There are three main scenarios which facilitate the process of human trafficking. First, victims incur debt from the traffickers and when fail to repay after going abroad are exploited at destination country. Seconds, victims are deceived by accepting the job offer, whole process from recruitment to reaching destination country is valid but they are deceived at destination. Third, victims are kidnapped and exploited (Hernandez and Rudolph, 2015).

Chilufya and Chit pila (2011) consider globalization as the root cause of human trafficking. They argue that efforts to control the crime of human trafficking are not promising without down playing the endogenous factors at play. The leading argument of their study is that human trafficking is fed by processes and effects of globalization. Globalization negatively influences sovereignty of the domestic governments and border control (Zhidkova, 2015). Argues that globalization has brought about lack of border control and the demise of state sovereignty which have caused human trafficking. Moreover, they argue that globalization is also causing other types of transnational security threat likes, terrorism, nuclear proliferation and drug trafficking

Cho et al. (2013) pointed out that legal prostitution is an important factor that promotes women trafficking. They emphasize on the scale and substitution effect of legal prostitution on women

10 trafficking. The scale effect of legal prostitution increases the demand of prostitutes and fosters women trafficking. The substitution effect of legal prostitution offsets the demand of trafficking because legal prostitution does not need the trafficked prostitution. They used cross sectional data of 150 countries from 1996 to 2003 and tested the relationship between legal prostitution and human trafficking. They showed that legal prostitution also drives human trafficking and scale effect of legal prostitution is dominant than substitution effect. Furthermore, democracy has a positive influence on human trafficking while the rule of law offsets this monster.

Hernandez and Rudolph (2015) have investigated the factors that drive Trafficking in person (TIP) from source to 13 European countries using an unbalance panel data set of 120 countries. They argue that it is not legal prostitution that fosters human trafficking but these are well defined refugee routes that facilitate it. The dire financial condition of people in developing countries and cheap transportation and communication system incite them to travel towards rich countries for better earning. The sever border control and lack of opportunities of work in foreign country enable the human trafficker to spread their network and use people as a commodity. They proposed that human trafficking can be controlled by strengthening the institutions (Hernandez and Rudolph, 2015).

2.2.1. Human trafficking in World The trafficking of persons around the world is a serious violation of human rights and a manifestation of social injustice. Although valid and reliable data are scarce a recent report estimated that 40 million individuals around the world are currently victims of forced labor (ILO, 2017).These individuals are exploited in economic activities such as agriculture, fishing, domestic work, construction, manufacturing and the commercial sex industry. Although the majority of detected victims are trafficked across international borders, 42% are victimized within their own countries. Among these detected victims, 71% are female and 28% are children (UNODC, 2016). According to the same report, though the age of the victims vary significantly by region. For example, countries in Sub-Saharan Africa have detect, by far, more child victims (64 %) than adult victims (36 %). According to Global Slavery Index (2018) study estimates that 89.000 people live in modern slavery in Greece due to its geographical position that offers smugglers a lucrative ground for their illegal activities to thrive.

Currently, a number of advocacies, initiatives and think tanks have been launched to combat human trafficking. The biggest inter-governmental collaborations, government strategies and the smallest community projects, urge to combat human trafficking. More than 90%countries of the world ratified the 2000 Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children, and committed to counter human trafficking. However, counter trafficking strategies and programs have been ineffective to stem its expansion. Countries inability to formulate enabling legislations and failure to implement the existing anti-human trafficking laws are basic reasons to their ineffectiveness (U.S. Department of state, 2018).

Human trafficking generates large illegal profits which, combined with the perceived low risk of arrest and prosecution for traffickers, help to fuel trafficking (Dank et al., 2014). It is estimated that human trafficking globally generates $150 billion in illegal profits a year—$99 billion from sex trafficking and $51 billion from labor trafficking (ILO, 2014). The report also estimated annual profits generated per victim: were $21,800 for sex trafficking and $4,800 for victims trafficked for construction, manufacturing, mining, and utilities globally (Busch-Armendariz et al., 2016). The most common means of control the traffickers use are physical, psychological and sexual abuse, threats and restrictions of free movement (Greta. 2017). Some human trafficking cases are facilitated by sophisticated criminal syndicates and others by loose networks, families or individuals operating independently (U.S. Department of State, 2018).

2.2.2. Human trafficking in Africa Over the past few years, there has been an increase in all kinds of human trafficking to and from Africa, as well as within the continent. Though the intensity of human trafficking varies from region to region and from one country to another country, Sub-Saharan Africa is the largest of the regions measured for the Global Slavery Index. 16.36% of the estimated total 29 million people in modern slavery are in Sub-Saharan Africa (Thipanyane, 2015).Trafficking in person has been a reported problem in Africa for several years. Many states in Africa have adopted legislative, administrative and institutional measures to combat trafficking in human beings. These measures include the formulation and implementation of both national and regional action plans by African states to provide comprehensive and coordinated interventions.

Many African countries have also enacted an anti-trafficking legislation at the country level. Despite these measures, African women, men and children have been trafficked annually

12 worldwide for the purposes of forced labor in agriculture and domestic servitude. Additionally, women and children are trafficked within their countries from rural to urban area for reasons of exploitative labour (Thipanyane, 2015). Contributing factors involved in human trafficking that have been identified include, poverty, unemployment, internal and external conflict, lack of access to social services, porous borders, cultural misconceptions as push factors of human trafficking in Africa (Adesina, 2014). Africa has a significant population of communities vulnerable to human trafficking and though some African countries have legal instruments and mechanism in dealing with human trafficking (Polaris, 2015).

Three major types of trafficking in persons have been identified in Africa. These are: trafficking in women and young persons for sexual exploitation, mainly outside the region; trafficking in children primarily for farm labor and domestic work within and across countries; and trafficking in women from outside the region for the sex industry (Makinde, 2015). Human trafficking for the purpose of sexual exploitation is not only the most documented type of trafficking both locally and internationally, but also saturated with ideological tensions between abolitionist and preservationist positions on the nature of prostitution and human trafficking in Africa. Those that adopt an abolitionist stance have often been accused of sensationalizing the issue of human trafficking for sexual exploitation and fueling moral panic (Skosana and Wilkinson, 2017).

Whilst preservationist perspectives diminish the estimations about the scope of the problem and call for the decriminalization of the sex trade (Gould, 2014). Preservationist-slanted research about the nature of the South African sex trade and its ‘disputed’ intersection with human trafficking have also been accused of truncating the scope of the definition of human trafficking and even excluding cases involving the use of force (Dempsey, 2017). According to Warria (2017); actors in the African trafficking industry are a group of people who in certain cases, are supported by prominent national figures within a government or outside of it. The result of trafficking includes; domestic servitude, organized begging, enslavement, commercial labor, prostitution and pornography and their inability to make report issues of this nature and its health implications on them makes them vulnerable (Msuya, 2017).

2.2.3. Human trafficking in Ethiopia

2.2.3.1. Internal trafficking Internal trafficking is all about the movement of labor from one place to another, especially from rural to urban areas within the same national boundary. It is a common phenomenon in Ethiopia these days. Although exact figures are difficult to find studies suggest that large numbers of women and children are brought from rural to urban areas, deceived or forced by traffickers for different purposes (Kassa and Abebe, 2014). In-country trafficking included women, girls, and boys aged 10–24. Rural Ethiopian children and adults are trafficked to urban areas for domestic servitude and less frequently for commercial sexual, exploitation and forced labor such as in street vending, begging traditional weaving or agriculture situations of dept. bondage have been reported (Woldemichael, 2017).

The study of Alemu (2018) suggests poverty and limited access to social services are among the major “push” factors while the demand for domestic workers, the prevalence of prostitution and a demand for cheap labor in urban areas are major pull factors. Internal trafficking victims suffer from labor exploitation physical and emotional abuse as well as sexual abuse. Relatives, friends, acquaintances of the victims or the victims’ family as well as illegal employment agents, bar and restaurant owners and long range vehicle drivers are the usual traffickers in the internal trafficking process (Kassa and Abebe, 2014). Human trafficking in these vulnerable sections of society, with in the national border has kept on growing. All indications show that it is getting worse. Therefore, it needs to be addressed in integrated manner. For example, a campaign has to be launched at local and regional level to raise awareness (Azage et al., 2014).

2.2.3.2. External trafficking External trafficking of women and girls occurred among those aged 13–35 for labor exploitation as domestic servants; caretakers to children, the disabled, or elderly; commercial sex work; and waitressing. The main destination for female migrants from Ethiopia is countries in the Middle East (Yonas and Abera, 2015). Local brokers in collaboration with facilitators, who can be neighbors, relatives or friends of the victims, play the major role in the trafficking process: (Woldemichael, 2017). Women who were trafficked experienced physical disabilities, refusal of salary, denial of rest and leaves, sexual harassment and rape, emotional abuse, imprisonment and even death as a result of inhumane working conditions (Jibriel, 2014). Men were trafficked

14 externally to countries in the Middle East for labor as drivers, factory workers, mechanics, laborers, farmers, guards, waiters, drafters, accountants, and engineers (Belay, 2014).

2.3. Major Factors of Human Trafficking

2.3.1. Push Factors Push risk factors for human trafficking in and out of Ethiopia were cited high prevalence of poverty, Environmental problems; lack of employment opportunities, the growing economic imbalances among regions of the world, decline of border controls, gender and ethnic discrimination, corruption, and political instability and conflict (Asnake and Zerihun, 2016). Being orphaned also result in displacement as children migrate to live were extended family members and cope with less adult protection against exploitation including by those meant to care for them dream of both parents is linked to more intense poverty, increased pressure on children to work and dropping from school this lead to trafficking (Jibriel, 2014). Sociocultural factors such as early child marriage, lack of access to social services in rural areas, limited access to education, limited parental education, family discord, dissatisfaction with traditional ways of life, the attraction of paid work to support natal families, pregnancy outside of marriage and associated stigma, leaving school at an early age, and large family size were identified as push factors leaving women and children vulnerable to trafficking in Ethiopia (Kassa and Abebe, 2014).

2.3.2. Pull Factors Demand for domestic workers and cheap uncompensated labor were cited as major pull risk factors that drove the trafficking industry in Ethiopia. Multiple studies mentioned the influence of deceptive information about the description and conditions of work abroad from brokers and family members as factors that drove the decision to human trafficking (Minaye and Zeleke, 2015). Women and girls who were trafficked reported sending some or all of their earnings as remittances to their families (Jones et al., 2014). On the other hand, study state that large numbers of people have been deceived by false promise of traffickers of attractive jobs, towering salaries as well as promises of marriage and comfortable life and this numbers among the major pulling factors for trafficking (Selamawit, 2013). Jobs it requires low educational background and other amount of human power the other pulls factors of trafficked labor. Because of this

15 reason on Ethiopia urban and rural linkage are strong which may facilitate less formal forms of trafficking for domestic bound internal trafficking for the domestic sex industry has also been identified in Ethiopia (Estifanos, 2017).

2.4. Major Socio-Economic Effects of Human Trafficking

2.4.1. Social effects of human trafficking In addition to the foregone benefits in terms of remittances and human capital, there are others human and social costs to development attributable to trafficking the direct effect on the family and community left behind cannot be easily quantified but nevertheless should not be ignored trafficking undermines extended family tries and in many cases the forced absence of woman use to the breakdown of families and neglect of children and the aged (Surtees, 2017). The involvement of criminal groups on migration means that smuggling leads to trafficking and thus to victimization and the violation of human right (UNODC, 2016). Children trafficking in to forced labor or sexual exploitation have their development as a person irreparably damaged, survivals often suffer multiple traumas.

Disrupted social identity, entrapment, religious discrimination, and cultural isolation among survivors of trafficked victims are common (Jones et al., 2014). In communities with high expectations about the economic outcomes of trafficking, the shame of returning empty-handed can be intense. Thus, some involuntary returnees choose to isolate themselves to avoid gossip and social degradation (Haase and Honerath, 2016). Furthermore, trafficked person who were marginalized in the destination country often face stigmatization and marginalization in their country of origin after return. As a result, many deportees suffer from health problems, post- traumatic stress, and depression, which may deteriorate if their families and communities do not understand or believe their negative experiences (Ali, 2018).

2.4.2. Health effects of human trafficking There are significant health effects for victims while both they are being transported and when they have reached their destination. Perilous journey expose trafficked victims to injury and even death, while overcrowded and unsanitary condition, shortage of food and water increase the risk of spreading infection disease (IOM, 2017). Trafficked person experience, physical, sexual and emotional violence at the hands of traffickers, pimps employers and others. They also exposed to

16 various work place wealth and environmental hazards. Individual trafficked for sex industry also; experience increased the risk of contracting HIV and other Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs). Frequently denied the choice to use condoms, sex trafficking victims can introduce HIV to the broader population (Ottisova, 2016).

Trucking routes served by protrusion rings along trucking routs can cause HIV/AIDS and other STDs to be spread even more widely including across international borders. Health effects are not limited only to those trafficking for sexual exploitation but also it extends the origin the destination areas (Ottisova, 2016).Women who were trafficked experienced physical injuries, malaria, diarrheal disease, physical disabilities, and even death as a result of inhumane working conditions (Jibriel, 2014). High prevalence of emotional, physical, and sexual abuse including assault, harassment, and rape, were also common among trafficked women and mental health disorders and psychological trauma as a result of labor trafficking (Jones et al., 2014).

Few studies identified specific mental health disorders but recognized clear patterns of stress, emotional problems, and psychological distress among survivors. Health disorders among child laborers. In addition, psychological distress occurred in the form of role frustration, shame, stigma, disrupted social identity, entrapment (Jones et al., 2014). Many victims also struggle with alcohol and drug addiction, either as a result of traffickers’ control or as a coping mechanism, and need treatment programs to recover (Office for Victims of Crime and Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2017).

2.4.3. Economic effects of human trafficking Trafficking represents lost opportunities domestically including an irretrievable loss of human resources and future productivity. It also results in huge loss of remittance to development countries, because trafficked person often have to pay off debt they incur for being trafficked in addition to the forgone benefits in terms of remittance and human capital, there are other human and social costs to development attributable to trafficking. The direct impact on the family and community left behind cannot be easily quantified (U.S. Department of State, 2016). The lack of remittances from trafficked victims could imply a loss to development. Economic effect of human trafficking not end with the process of trafficking but also it continue because the trafficked victims’ back to their home land with victim they spend so many money for treatment (Barnard, 2014).

On the other hand, there economic effects on destination countries, costs include the cost of ant trafficking measures. For example US government approximately US $ 325 billion foreign assistance to Non-Governmental Organization, Internal Organization and other government to compact and help eliminate human trafficking since 2001 (U.S. Department of the State, 2016). Families and communities were disappointed when survivors returned to Ethiopia without having achieved economic success and viewed them as worthless members of society who could not be rehabilitated (Zewdu, 2018). Low help-seeking behavior was also another problem face survivors (Estifanos, 2017). The economic problems among trafficked victims includes, debt, unpaid wages, joblessness, and loss of identification documents. These victims are particularly vulnerable to debt bondage, where they perform labor or services to repay debt to traffickers who often impose high interest rates, withhold payment, and charge for housing, food, transportation, and other basic supplies (Litam, 2017).

Most of Ethiopians become victims of human trafficking in their process of trafficking to earn a better livelihood. Traffickers receive huge amount of money from trafficked victims and their families. In most cases this money comes from selling of movable and immovable properties, such as cattle and land (Azage et al., 2014). Also they take credit from siblings and neighbors. Person who get trafficked in most cases get back to their country empty handed, because they do not have legal permit for employment and their employers do whatever they like to exploit them. Hence, let alone getting their life improved, they get into long lasting trouble in their life. Therefore, the economic effect of human trafficking is capital as it not only affects the victims’ of human trafficking who get back empty handed, but also their family and the country as a whole (Nisrane et al., 2017).

2.5. Conceptual Framework of Human Trafficking

Figure 1 demonstrates that human trafficking is a multi-facetted and complex global issue which affecting almost all countries of the world. In spite of its complexity, numerous root causes have been responsible for the existence of human trafficking and these numerous causes must be examined in terms of the factors that push people from countries of origin and the factors that pull people into destination areas. These push factors include high prevalence of poverty, lack of employment opportunities, population pressure, low income, family economic crises, decline of border controls, gender and ethnic discrimination, political instability and conflict. On other

18 hand, the availabilities of job opportunity, towering salaries and better life are among a major pull risk factors that drove the trafficking industry. Generally, the combined causes of this encourage people towards vulnerabilities of human trafficking that negatively affect human health and safety, social structure of the societies and economies.

Population Low income Accessible Job pressure social services opportunity

Poverty Better life

Socio-cultural Push factors Human factors Of human Trafficking Pull factors False promises trafficking For Of human of traffickers Family exploitation trafficking pressure High income

Political Unemployment Political instability stability

Consequences of human trafficking

Low self-esteems Increase

and lack of trust Social and health Economic effects unemployment effects

Poor interpersonal Dependency for Relationship necessity need

Physical disabilities Family Loss of productive Helpless elders and injuries disintegration labour force and children’s

Figure 1. Conceptual frame work: Socio-economic effects of human trafficking Source: Habte Haile, 2015.

3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. Location and Size

Meta woreda is one of the Districts in Oromia region of Ethiopia. It is within East Hararghe Zone, situated at about 417 kilometers east of Addis Ababa and about 91Km west of Harar town. Astronomically, Meta woreda stretches between 0900'0"N to 9030'0"N Latitudes and 41020'00"E to410 45'30"E Longitudes (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Location Map of the Study Areas Source: Satellite Map of Meta woreda, 2020

3.1.1. Topography and soil On a coarser scale, the land form of the Woreda is dominantly a plateau. The major landforms vary from valley floors around river courses, plain and plateaus to extremely undulating and dissected rugged topography with many hills. The slope forms are very complex, but generally vary between straight, concave straight and convex concave (Kibebew, 2014).

The soil resources of Meta woreda, due to complex interaction of soil forming factors and processes, are extremely diverse in their nature. Within a short distance, both lateral and horizontal, different types of soils can be found. Furthermore, the majority of these soils, due to continuous intensive cultivation for many years, are highly degraded, being degraded, and prone to degradation. Soils failed to give goods and services to the expected level means the livelihood of these communities is put under threat. As a result of this heinous degradation and soil fertility depletion, significant number of households, from woredas, has been moved to new settlement areas in other parts of the country. Still many others residing on steep and highly degraded areas are begging for the same program (Kibebew, 2014).

3.1.2. Climate and drainage The rainfall pattern in Meta Woreda is bimodal. The small rainy season starts around February/March and extends to May, whereas the main rainy season stretches from end of June to September. There are some permanent rivers in the Woreda. Notable among these is the river that supplies water to the town of Chelenko and Kulubi. Besides, there are many perennial springs originating from below the mountains and crossing the valleys. Ground water resources are always there (Meta Woreda Administrative and Communication office, 2020)

CLIMOGRAPH

Figure 3. Climograph of Meta woreda Source: Meta woreda Meteorological Station, 2020

3.1.3. Vegetation and wild life In Meta woreda, there is sparsely distributed vegetation cover. Small coniferous trees (Tid), podocarps (zigba), woodland, acacia, shrubs and bushes as well as man-made forests are found in the woreda. Because of their scattered nature, obtaining the area coverage is very difficult (Eyerusalem, 2009). However about 5.2% of the total area of the Meta woreda was covered by natural and manmade forests. There are no natural and man-made forests that are protected by the government and other organizations in the woredas. Similarly there are no parks, game reserves, sanctuaries and wildlife conservation area in the woreda. However, there are also some wild animals such as Tiger, spotted hyena, duiker and monkey in Meta woreda (Eyerusalem, 2009).

3.1.4. Population characteristics The 2007 national census agency reported that the total population of Meta Woreda is about 252, 269, of whom 127,371 were men and 124,898 were women (CSA, 2007). About 93.97% of the

22 population lives in rural areas and about 6.3% of the population were live in urban areas. The majority of in habitants said they were Muslim with 93.2% of the population reporting they observed this belief, while 6.26% of the population practiced Ethiopian orthodox Christianity and the rest are protestant (CSA, 2007).

3.1.5. Economic Activities The main economic activities in the area is agriculture. Land uses in the area include agricultural, residential, open spaces, forest, and pasture land. The agricultural activity in the woreda is characterized with peasant farming system and dependent on rainfall. There are also social services including primary and secondary schools, technical and vocational education institute, hospital, clinics, bank, telephone, and postal services, and so on. Wood work, metal works and mills are among small industries in the town. Cash crops such as chat, fruits and coffee cultivated widely. Cereals crops including maize, sorghum and the like are produced in the area widely (Meta woreda Administrative and Communication office, 2020)

3.2. Research Design

To obtain appropriate information the investigator employed descriptive research design. Descriptive research design is used for describing the existing situation, narrating facts, characteristics and also for obtaining the current information about the issues (Creswell, 2014). In addition to this, it able to provide a bigger overview as compared to other forms of research designs. As Creswell (2017) stated, the concurrent triangulation approach is probably the most familiar of the mixed methods available and then it is selected as a model when a researcher uses two different methods in an attempt to confirm cross-validated findings within a single study. Accordingly, this method used both quantitative and qualitative methods as a means to offset the weakness inherent within one method with the strength of the other method. The researcher attempted to triangulate different data sources by examining the evidences from the sources and used them to build a coherent justification for themes.

3.3. Sources and Types of Data

The study used both primary and secondary data sources to investigate the socio-economic effects of human trafficking. Is more advantageous than single data collection strategy in a research work. Primary data sources was collected through the primary data collection

23 instruments of questionnaires, in depth interview and focus group discussion from sampled trafficked returnees and local resident respondents of three purposively selected kebeles from 54 kebeles of Meta Woreda, namely: Chelenko, Goro Muti Kutir Hulet, and Kulubi due to this kebeles located geographically in the center of the woreda were main actors of human trafficking resides in this area and the presence of returnees. The secondary data were collected from different published and unpublished materials which mainly collected from in the form of working papers, journals/articles, Reports, Books, newspapers, magazines and other documented materials from government and NGOs. Hence the entire data collection process was completed from February 21, 2020-March 08, 2020. In addition other relevant official document had been referred from the study kebele and woreda in the study areas.

3.4. Sampling Procedure and sample size determination

The fact that victims of human trafficking are a “hidden group” that are difficult to access due to the clandestine and sensitive nature of trafficking in person and the negative attitude people have toward failed trafficking experience, restricted the researcher from employing reliable (non- probability) sampling technique. According to Kothari (2004) Purposive sampling technique is most important to generate the primary data of the research, this is to have those who can yield the most relevant and plentiful data to the topic under study. Researchers use their special expertise about some group to select subjects who represent the population to avoid any appearance of bias (Yin, 2011). Therefore, purposive sampling technique was employed to approach study participants in the study area. The researcher selected 150 returnees and local residents for questionaries’ from three purposively selected kebeles of Meta woreda namely: Chelenko 01, Goro Muti Kutir Huleti and kulubi, 30 returnees and 20 local resident in each kebele. Similarly five (5) key informants for in-depth interviews and 12 FGD discussants were selected using purposive sampling technique. Each FGD consists of six (6) participants. The Composition of the discussant groups includes trafficked returnees, family members of returnees, local elders and police officers. The criteria used in the selection process are participants’ accessibility, relevance to the proposed objectives and governmental officials who related with the issues.

3.5. Instruments of Data Collection

3.5.1. Questionnaires The survey instrument was designed on the basis of the research objectives. The questionnaire consisted both close and open ended questions. All in all, the questionnaire contained question items on the personal characteristics of returnees, living circumstances of trafficked returnees, socio-economic effects of human trafficking and the various forms of abuse they encountered. Moreover, to avoid language barriers between the enumerators and the respondents the current researcher was first prepared questionnaires in English and then it was directly translated into local language (Afaan Oromoo) for data collection and also, the collected data back translated into English for data analyses. Hence, the researcher administered 150 questionnaires for returnees and local residents (community) selected from Chelenko 01, Goro Muti 02 and Kulubi. This, questionnaires was administered based on the schedule starting from February, 21-26/2020 for six consecutive days. Upon completion the researcher collected 150 questionnaires.

3.5.2. In-depth Interview In-depth interview with individual returnees allows the researcher digging into a certain issue until the required information is obtained from participants of a research. In this particular study the method is helpful for the researcher to acquire significant information about the structural vulnerability context and personal circumstance returnees went through in their place of origin, before their trafficking. Equally the entire journey of victim returnees through the process of trafficking and the abuse and exploitation they faced at the place of destination is discovered. In the context of this study a total of 5 purposively selected trafficked returnees (3 female and 2 male) were interviewed. The interviews were conducted in Chelenko 01, Goro Muti 02 and kulubi where the interviewees reside. Each of the interviews with returnees has consumed on average 30 minutes. These interviews were conducted for three days (February 27- 29, 2020) in the study area. It was carried out by the researcher and the whole processes of interviewing were made based on the questions listed down in the interview guide.

3.5.3. Focus group discussions According Bhattacherjee (2012) Focus groups discussion allow deeper examination of complex issues than other forms of survey research, because when people hear others talk, it often

25 generate responses or ideas that did not think before. Therefore, considering the advantage of FGD, the investigators were employed this method to generate qualitative data to supplement data investing through questionnaires and in-depth interviews. Totally, 2 FGD were conducted at Chelenko 01 and Kulubi and each FGD was held for 2:00 hours in two consecutive Sunday morning (March, 01/03/2020 and 08/03/2020). The day chosen based on the willingness of the participants in the discussion. Furthermore, the participants in FGD were selected purposively with collaboration of kebele officials. The total number of participant for each group is 6(3 female and 3 male).

The composition of the discussant groups includes trafficked returnees, family members of returnees, local elders and police officers. On the other hand the diversity of the group in terms of their status helped to have deep and broad insight on the issues. All the discussions were held with the help of checklists and guidelines to facilitating the discussion. Key and important question were provided, directed and redirected by the researcher as moderator, so as to smooth the progress of the discussion. The researcher has benefited a lot, from the FGD, in acquiring indispensable information about victim’s pre departure vulnerability contexts, the entire process of human trafficking and the abuse and exploitation victims faced at various point during the process of transportations and finally in the place of destination.

3.6. Methods of Data Analysis

The raw data which were collected from both primary and secondary sources analyzed, summarized and presented by means of quantitative and qualitative methods of data analysis because the objectives of the study and the nature of the data to generate relevant information. More specifically, the quantitative data gathered through closed ended questions were analyzed using the descriptive statistics techniques like (average, frequency and percentage) by using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 and Microsoft excel software. On the other hand the qualitative data collected through FGD and in-depth interview were analyzed and transcribed through qualitative techniques in the form of narration and content analysis to determine that satisfies the researcher’s questions and the general purpose of this study. Finally, to make the findings easily understandable for the reader’s tables, figures, charts, photos and maps were used.

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This chapter is a constituent of presentation, analysis and interpretation of data which were collected through questionnaires, in-depth interviews, FGDs and document.

4.1. Background of the Sample Respondents.

The socio-economic structure of a given society is the most pertinent issue to understand the perception of the community towards human trafficking and the major features or characteristics of human trafficking (Kubai, 2016). As a result assessing the demographic and socio-economic variation is very crucial to point out baseline information. The information includes sex, age, education level, marital status, income level, religious affiliation and respondent’s ethnicity. The information summarized in Table 1.

4.1.1. Sex and age structure of the respondents As indicated in Table 1, out of one hundred fifty respondents participated in the study, 60% female and the remaining 40% male. Even though it is not suitable to conclude female are at high level vulnerable than man for human trafficking depending on data obtained through purposive sampling, the information obtained from key informant and Focus group discussion with residents of Meta woreda is similar with the survey result regarding the gender dimension of human trafficking in the study area. Regarding the age distribution of study participants, a large percentage 70(46.67%) of the respondents were between the ages of 20-24, followed by the younger age groups 41(27.33 %), followed by the age group between (25-29) 14(9.33 %) and followed by returnees with the age group between (30-34) 12(8%), followed by returnees with the age group between 35-39 9(6%) and fewer number trafficked after the age of 40 4(2.67%). This data showed that around 27.33 % of the respondents were under the age of 19 indicating the high prevalence of child trafficking in the study area.

Table 1. Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics of the Respondents

Variables Alternatives Frequency Percent

1.Sex Female 90 60.0 Male 60 40.0 Total 150 100.0 15-19 41 27.33 20-24 70 46.67 25-29 14 9.33 2. Age 30-34 12 8 35-39 9 6 Above 40 4 2.67 Total 150 100.0 Unable to read and write 2 1.33 Able to read and write 15 10.0 Primary school (1-8) 47 31.33 3.Educational level Secondary school (9-10) 73 48.67

Preparatory school (11-12) 9 6.0 10/12+3 (Diploma) 4 2.67 Total 150 100.0 Single 26 17.33 Married 60 40.0 4. Marital Status Divorced 49 32.67 Widowed 15 10.0 Total 150 100.0 Orthodox Christianity 5 3.33 Muslim 142 94.67 5.Religious affiliation Protestant 2 1.33 Catholic 1 0.67 Total 150 100.0 Oromo 139 92.67 Amhara 8 5.33 6. Respondents ethnicity Gurage 3 2.0 Total 150 100.0 Below1000 51 34.0 1001-2000 39 26.0 2001-3000 28 18.67 3001-4000 12 8.0 7. Average monthly 4001-5000 14 9.33 income Above 5000 6 4.0 Total 150 100.0 Farmer 6 4.0 Unemployed 82 54.67

Self-employed 34 22.67 8.Status of respondents Governmental employed 9 6.0 Prior to trafficked Micro business 8 5.33 Services providers 6 4.0 Student 5 3.33 Total 150 100.0 Source: own survey, 2020

4.1.2. Educational and marital status of the respondents The education level of respondents as indicated in Table 1, 73(48.67%) are attended secondary school (9-10th grade level), followed by 47(31.33%) of returnees with primary school (1-8 grade level),15(10.0%) were able to read and write (basic education), 9(6.0%) and 4(2.67%) of respondents were those who attend preparatory school and diploma graduated respectively, while 2(1.33%) of the respondents were included under unable to read and write. This data showed that more 57% of the respondents were attended secondary school and above. Based on this result, one can understand that the most exposed groups for human trafficking were the secondary education level respondents (see Table 1 above).

With regard to marital status of the participants, 60(40.0%) of the respondents said married, followed by those who were divorced 49(32.67%). A little greater than 17% and 10 % of respondents said unmarried and widowed respectively. Out of 90 female respondents, more than 81% of female respondent said they married, those who were not married constituted less than twenty percent of the female respondents. This figure indicates the existence of early marriage in girls in the study area.

4.1.3. Religious and ethnicity of the respondents The religions composition of respondents confirmed that 142(94.67%) are Muslims, followed by orthodox Christianity 5(3.33%). The remaining 2(1.3%) and 1(0.7%) of respondents are those who follow protestant and catholic religion respectively from the total respondents as it can indicated in Table 1 above. The result of the study confirms more than 94% of respondents were the Muslim religion followers among the others religion based on the data obtained from the respondents in the study area.

On the other hand, concerning ethnic background of the respondents, 139 (92.7%) of respondents were Oromo. 8(5.3%) 3(2%) and 3(2%) of respondents were Amhara and Gurage. This figure

29 indicates the Oromo ethnic groups is the most exposed ethnic groups to human trafficking in the study area when we compare the Oromo with others ethnic groups.

4.1.4. Income of the respondents Regarding to monthly income of sampled trafficked returnees, majority of the respondents 51(34.0 %) earned less than 1000 ETB per month, 39(26.0%) of them earned “between”1001- 2000 ETB per month, 28(18.67%) of the respondents earned 2001-3000 ETB per month. A little greater than 9% and 8 % of the respondents earned 3001-4000 and 4001-5000 ETB respectively, While, 4 % of them were included under those who earned greater than5000 ETB. This implies that a considerable number of trafficked returnees depended on a low income. So this can affects socio-economic of trafficked returnees. The average monthly total trafficked returnees’ income for the sample was ETB 1454.28 with minimum of ETB 755 and maximum of ETB 8500.

4.1.5. Occupation Status of Respondents before Trafficking Concerning the occupation type of the respondents, the largest percentage of the respondents, 82(54.67%) were unemployed before their trafficking, 34(22.67%) of respondents were self- employed, 9(6%) of the respondents were government employed, 8(5.33%) of respondents were engaged in micro business, 6(4%)and 6(4%) of respondents were farmers and services providers respectively, while, 5(3.33%) of respondents said student as generated from respondents of trafficked returnees in the study area. This is true as the researcher confirmed through personal interview and focus group discussion made with selected trafficked returnees and local residents respectively. This is an indication of motives for the majority of trafficked returnees in the study areas other than employment opportunity for better payment. The findings of the study also indicates some of the returnees tried to improve their life and escape poverty without leaving the country by doing some domestic works and involving in the informal sector. However the low payment which characterizes the informal labor market sectors and those domestic works in Ethiopia make them to look for other Job opportunities in a different country (Ayalew, 2017).

4.2. Major Features of Human Trafficking

4.2.1. Major routes of human trafficking The majority of Ethiopians use Djibouti and Somaliland (Eastern route) as transit hubs for their trafficking to the Middle East. This route takes youths from the Horn of Africa into Yemen and

30 then to Saudi Arabia and other Gulf States and the Middle East. According to Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat (RMMS) (2017), “A total of 813, 6832 youths have trafficked through the Eastern Route within a decade’s time (between 2006 and 2016) and 72 percent are Ethiopians”. Thus, over half a million (585,852) Ethiopians trafficked to the Middle East irregularly from 2006 to 2016. Estimates by the RMMS reveal that as of December 2013, 65,319 migrants and refugees arrived in Yemen, among which 54, 213(83%) were Ethiopians and 11,045 (16.9%) were Somalis and the remaining 0.1% were from other countries.

Table 2. Routes of human trafficking Alternatives Frequency Percent Somalia 42 28 Djibouti 108 72 Total 150 100.0 Source: returnee respondents and community in Meta woreda, 2020

The survey results also confirmed that all trafficked returnees respondents in Meta woreda, 150(100%) said they used eastern and south eastern trafficking route to reach destination countries as Table 2 shows above. Out of 150 trafficked returnees who participated in this study, 108(72%) of respondents said they used Djibouti route for their trafficking to the Middle East primarily to Saudi Arabiya and 42(28%) of the respondent said they used Somalia land route. This also supported by the study of Habtamu et al (2017) Most of the migrants that follow the eastern route from the horn of Africa leave from Obock at the coast of Djibouti this because of smugglers have started to use less populated cities in the vicinities to avoid police patrols. Departures from Bossaso in Somalia are also increasingly recognized and migrants seem to prefer it as departure point due to more recorded incidents of abuse and exploitation during the Red Sea crossing, while no such incidents have been recorded for the Arabian Sea route (Beck et al., 2017).

Figure 4. Map of Eastern Trafficking Route Source: Marchand et al., 2017

4.2.2. Major reasons of human trafficking Regarding the reasons of preferring illegal trafficking route, as it is seen from Figure 5, majority of the respondents 56% said the process of legal requirement take time, 33(22%) of respondents confirmed that they said because of no requirement of legal documents, like birth certificate,

32 education certificate, passport and other documents, 21(14%)respondents confirmed that said they prefer illegal trafficking route due to absence of real legal travel agencies in the study areas and surrounding Zonal towns, 12(8%) of respondents said they interested in illegal trafficking avenue because of its cheap.

Figure 5. Respondents Reasons of preferring illegal trafficking route in Meta woreda

Similarly, the result of in-depth interview and FGD conducted with individual returnees, family of the returnees and local residents also confirmed that majority of trafficked returnees in the study areas used illegal trafficking route of Djibouti and Somaliland to reach Saudi Arabiya because of lack of legal agencies, non-requirement of legal document, its cheapness, and lack of processes. In addition they also added the expansion of local traffickers and geographical proximity encourage trafficked returnees for preferring illegal trafficking route to reach Saudi Arabiya in the study areas. According to the RMMS (2016); due to different factors many people prefer illegal trafficking route in Ethiopia such as restrict immigration policies, it is perceived to be less bureaucratic and time consuming, cheaper and more likely to be successful, lack of legal means of trafficking, wage differential between illegal and legal works (average monthly income for illegal works range from 2000-3000 Riyal as opposed to 500-1000 for migrants hired legally. Due to limited options for regular migration or the administrative challenges associated with it, many migrants choose irregular channels of migration, many being well aware of the risks and vulnerabilities associated with this type of migration (Marchand et al., 2017). Due to the vulnerable position of Ethiopian migrants in the Gulf States, between October 2013 and January 2018 Ethiopian legislation forbade Ethiopian nationals travelling to the Gulf States in search of

33 low-skilled work. However, this is believed to have contributed to higher rates of irregular migration to the region (Feqadu et al, 2016).

4.2.3. Destinations of human trafficking The national surveys shows that the popular destination for 76 percent of potential trafficked Ethiopians men, women and children is Saudi Arabiya due to its geographical proximity, high demand for domestic workers, large number of Ethiopian community living there and also traveling under the pretext of annual religious pilgrimages (Carter and Rohwerder, 2016). In addition Saudi Arabia was seen as an attractive destination for trafficking for a number of reasons, such as the relative easiness of accessing a residence permit (iqama), the minimum requirements of educational qualification and skills, the availability of free-visa or visa on demand (visa that can be collected with no other pre-condition) and the role of traffickers and smugglers in artificially creating demands (Beck et al, 2017). Similarly the results of this survey confirmed that the majority of trafficked returnees, 114(76%) of the respondent were said Saudi Arabia is the major preferable destination in the study areas as it shows from Figure 6 below, this is related with the highest role of local brokers and travel agencies coordinate extensively religious pilgrimages especially during the period just before the religious ceremony to send victims. About 19(12.67%) of the returnees respondents were confirmed Yemen as the final destination of their trafficking. According to RMMS (2016) stated Approximately 75,000 (over 78 %) of new arrivals in Yemen in 2014 were from Ethiopia and most of them were victims of human trafficking (In 2015, 92,446 persons arrived in Yemen from the Horn of Africa of which 89% (82,276 persons) were Ethiopian nationals, and in 2016 it continued at a similar pace (RMMS, 2016). Another 12(8.0 %) confirmed that popular destination is Djibouti because of large number of Ethiopian community living in there. According RMMS (2016) pace (RMMS, 2016). It is estimated that 146,000 Ethiopians transit through Djibouti every year. Djibouti not only destination but also the major route to reach the Middle East it serve as transitional Zone. The remaining percentage, 3(2%) and 2(1.33%) of respondent preferred Beirut and Lebanon as destination areas respectively (see Figure 6)

Destination areas of human trafficking Frequency Percent 100% 76.00% 8.00% 1.33% 2% 12.67% 100% 114 12 2 3 19 99% Saudi Djibouti Lebanon Beirut Yemen Arabia

Figure 6. Destination areas of human trafficking

4.2.4. Source of Finance for trafficking Regarding the source of finances for trafficking, as one can see from Figure 7, majority of the respondents 72(48%) said their trafficking expenses covered by family/relatives. This was done by selling of family assets, exhausting family savings, or loans, followed 50(33.33%) of respondents said they used loans from informal sources to cover their trafficking costs, 28(18.67%) of respondents said they covered their expenses by using their own savings. The data showed that the majority family’s ‘of returnees were involved in instigating and ﬁnancing the cost of trafficking. However potential trafficking, informal lenders and family members/relative are the main sources of finance for trafficking in Meta woreda. The data also identified all of returnees used illegal trafficking route they needed to raise funds to pay for traffickers.

Figure: 7. Respondents source of finance for trafficking in Meta woreda

4.2.5. Duration of stay in Middle East Among sampled trafficked returnees and community in Meta woreda, some of the respondents were deported immediately after arriving in Middle East while others had worked and lived there for up to 11 years.

Table 3. Length of stay in the Middle East

Female respondents Male respondents Month(s) Frequency Percent Month Frequency Percent 0-6 3 2.0 0-6 8 5.33 7-24 6 4.0 7-24 27 18.0 25-48 27 18.0 25-48 12 8.0 49-72 41 27.33 49-72 10 6.67 73 and above 13 8.67 Above73 3 2.0 Total 90 60.0 Total 60 40.0 Source: own survey, 2020

As the above Table 3 shows, respondents spent on average 15 months (1 years and 3 months) in the Middle East and a median duration of 11 months. As shown in above Table 5, the length of stay by gender, female respondents had stayed relatively longer than male respondents had. Female respondents stayed for about 18 months while male respondents spent approximately 12 months in Middle East before deportation.

4.2.6. Occupation in the Middle East Regarding to the occupation of returnees in middle east as Figure 8 shows, majority 73(48.67%) of the returnees respondents said they engaged in domestic work, followed 30(20%) of the respondents were daily laborers mostly in construction sites, 26(17.33%) of respondents said they engaged in agricultural activities, 9(6.0%) and 8(5.33%) of the respondents said unskilled services sector and skilled services sectors respectively. While an insignificant, 4(2.67%) of the respondents were worked at parking sites.

Figure 8. Occupation of the returnees while in Middle East in Meta woreda According to international labour migration of Ethiopia, the bilateral agreements on labour migration between Ethiopia and countries such as Saudi Arabia focus on supply of labour for domestic work (Mehari, 2014). However, the result of this study showed, the share of occupation other than domestic work is significant. More than 50 percent of respondents were engaged in other occupations such as daily laborers, agriculture, and construction in the destination country. This shows there is room for negotiations to diversify the scope of bilateral agreements on labour migration. This also supported by the previous work of De Regt and Tafesse (2016) stated that in Middle East, women almost exclusively undertake domestic work, whereas men work as guards, day laborers and in agriculture. In addition the study of Minaye and Zeleke (2015) Stated that Male were trafficked externally to countries in the Middle East for labour such as drivers, factory workers, mechanics, laborers, farmers, guards, waiters, drafters, accountants, and engineers. External trafficking of women and girls occurred among those aged 13–35 for labor exploitation as domestic servants; caretakers to children, the disabled, or elderly; commercial sex work; and waitressing (Belay, 2014 and Jibriel, 2014)

4.2.7. Remittances As shown in the Table 4 below, 137(91.33%) of trafficked returnees respondents in meta woreda said they sent remittances to support their families members and relatives back home from the income they earned while abroad, while 13(8.7%) of the respondents said they are not sent remittances back home to support their families members or relatives while abroad because of

37 lack of legal working condition and unexpected deportation of returnees without accomplishing trafficking goal. As shown in Table 4 below, 137(91.33%) of trafficked returnees respondents those who send remittance back home to support their family members and relatives, 83(92.22%) respondents were female, 54(90%) of respondents are males. In general the majority of the returnees in the study area send remittances back home to support their family members/ relative while they are abroad.

Table 4. Shows respondents’ remittance send back home in Meta woreda

Respondents Female respondents Male respondents remittance send Alternative Frequency Percent Alternatives Frequency Percent Back home Yes 83 92.22 Yes 54 90.0 No 7 7.78 No 6 10.0 Total 90 100.0 Total 60 100.0 Source: returnee respondents and community of Meta woreda, 2020

Similarly the result of in-depth interviewees and FGD conducted with the individual returnees, family of the returnees, local residents in meta woreda confirmed that the majority of returnees respondents was supporting their families members and relatives back home from the income they earns while abroad. However, as the result of FGD indicated by the families of returnees and local elders in the study areas, the support they obtained was not as life changing as they expected; it was allocated mainly to daily household consumption and repaying debts. They also added for some of the trafficked returnees’ the goal and plan of trafficking was not success. Even worse, there were unfortunate families whose investment in the trafficking of their family member was lost. One of the participants of FGD mentioned as follow:

Some lucky families have been benefiting from the trafficking of their family members, mostly the families of early trafficking. However, currently, many families becoming destitute because trafficking has wiped out their meager resources. For instance, when my son repeatedly nag me to let him trafficked, I spent 20,000 Ethiopian birr for his trafficking expenses. Unfortunately, he returned empty handed after he had stayed four months in Yemen before reach Saudi Arabiya.

As it indicated above both the result of in-depth interviews and FGD showed that sending a family member abroad constitutes a major investment on the part of the family, who may sell household assets on the assumption that they will be repaid one day. However, as indicated by participants of FGD for some family members’ of returnees their expectations and goals of

38 trafficking are often not realized. This indicates that human trafficking not only disrupts individual returnees’ hopes and plans but also those of the trafficked returnees family members. On the other hand, the returnees’ respondents who had sent remittances were asked ways of remittances transfer to Ethiopia (see Figure, 9).

4.2.8. Methods of remittance transfer to Ethiopia As one can see from Figure 9 below, out of 137 (91.33%) trafficked returnees respondents those who sent remittances to their families and relatives back home from the income earned while they are abroad, majority 64(46.71%) respondents said through other Ethiopians with legal status or Saudi Arabia citizens. Whereas 44 (32.12%) and 29 (21.17%) of respondents said they used agents and other Ethiopians travelling back home to send remittances respectively. Here, the term ‘agents’ as used by respondents includes traffickers and legal employment agents. As all of the respondents indicated, the trafficked returnees did not have full or direct access to banking services in destination countries due to either their status or the arrangements they had with their employers.

Figure 9. Returnees’ means of Remittance transfer to Ethiopia

4.3. Major Factors of Human Trafficking.

4.3.1. Push factors As one can be seen from Figure 10 below, 73% of respondents were cited economic motives as push factor for trafficking, majority 71(47.33%) of trafficked returnees respondents said because they were unemployed, followed 45(30%) of the respondents said low income, 25(16.67%) of

39 respondents said family economic crisis, 5(3.33%) and 4(2.67%) of the respondents said shortage of farmland (population pressure) and lack of access to social services respectively.

Figure 10. Push factors of human trafficking Source: Meta woreda trafficked returnees and community, 2020 Similarly the result of in-depth interviewees and FGD conducted with individual returnees,’ family member of returnees and local residents in Meta woreda, also confirmed that lack of employment opportunity, low income, family economic crises, population pressures and lack of access to social services as push factor for trafficking of the returnees by leaving the place of origin in study areas. In addition they also added a strong positive perception of the community as a push factors that have been contributing for trafficking of returnees. This indicates majority of the family members of the returnees still consider trafficking abroad as the only way to achieve a better standard of living in the study areas. According to the study of Maru (2016) Stated that limited employment opportunities for educated people in urban areas and the dwindling share of resources in the rural areas of Ethiopia have pushed numerous youth, and their families, to perceive trafficking as a short cut to liberation from poverty. Due to an inability to satisfy the basic needs of their family members and the (perceived) better living conditions of the families with trafficked children abroad, parents often encourage their children to trafficking (Estifanos, 2017). In addition the study of Tadelle (2016) stated that poverty, peer, neighbors; and family pressure, inducement by traffickers and smugglers, oppressive political contexts, and insecurity and internal conflicts, and rampant corruption are the key drivers of human trafficking in Ethiopia. Limited development of the industrial and service giving sectors in urban areas,

40 mismatch between education and training skills and the requirements of the labour market are some of the factors given for the high level of youth and adults trafficking in Ethiopia (Mulugeta and Makonnen, 2017).

4.3.2. Pull factors of human trafficking As one can see from Figure 11, 51(34%) of the sampled respondent in Meta woreda were said availabilities of employment opportunity, 45(30%) of the respondents said towering salaries to support their natal family, 39(26%) of the respondents said comfortable life, 12(8%) and 3(2%) of the respondents said false promises of local traffickers and social network respectively. Even though the pushing factors played a pivotal role for trafficking of the majority of the returnees in the study areas, the data also showed pulling factors from the destination areas also contributed a lot for trafficking of returnees. The availabilities of employment opportunity in destination countries contributed the highest proportion for trafficking of the returnees in the study areas. Data also showed towering salaries and High living standard (comfortable life) as a significant pull factors that attract individual returnees to trafficking.

pull factors of human trafficking

Social network 2% False promise of traffickers 8% comfortable life 26% Towering salaries 30% Employment opportunity 34% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% percent .

Figure 11. Pull factors of human trafficking Source: Meta woreda trafficked returnees and community, 2020 This also similarly supported by the study of Asnake and Zerihun(2016); stated that the demand for cheap labour with lower educational level in destination countries is the main pulling factor for majority of Ethiopians trafficking to Middle East primarily to Saudi Arabiya. On the other hand deceived by false promises of traffickers of attractive jobs, towering salaries as well as

41 promises of marriage and comfortable life among the pull factor for some of Ethiopians trafficked to Middle East in the form of domestic labour workers (De Regt and Tafesse, 2016). Economic transformations in Saudi Arabia created a shortage of labor in low paying, informal and dangerous sectors such as domestic work, construction, agriculture, and sex work is also another pull factors of human trafficking in Ethiopia (Kruger, 2016)

4.4. Major Socio-Economic Effects

Human trafficking has a destructive effects on health and safety, humanity, economic and social systems of the society. On the first place trafficking is a crime against human beings, and its consequences are more directly felt by those individual victims. Human trafficking is a global phenomenon which knows no international border. However, the pervasive and far-reaching consequences of the problem are more experienced by individual victims, societies and countries (Gebre-Egziabher et al., 2017). Though trafficking has social and economic consequences on countries and societies, it is the individual victim that felt the most pervasive effects of trafficking.

The human and social consequences of trafficking are compelling from physical abuse and torture of victims to the psychological and emotional trauma to the economic and social implications of unabated crime; the effects of trafficking on individuals and society is clearly destructive and unacceptable. Human trafficking has an effect on the individuals it victimizes in all areas of their life, every stage of the trafficking process can involve physical, sexual and psychological abuse and violence, deprivation and torture, the forced use of substances, manipulation, economic exploitations and abusive working and living conditions(Reda, 2018).

4.4.1. Social effects of human trafficking Regarding to respondents understanding toward social effects of human trafficking, the dominant trafficked returnees in the study areas, 116(77.33%) of respondents said they understand about the negative social effect of human trafficking, whereas 34(22.67 %) of respondent said they did not understand about the social effects of human trafficking on the community or on the individual trafficked returnees. Trafficked returnees’ respondents those who understanding about the social effects of human trafficking on the community or individual returnees were also asked: what are the major social effects of human trafficking (see Table 5).

Table 5. Social effects of human trafficking

Alternatives Frequency Percent Difﬁculty developing healthy relationships 36 31.04% Feelings of isolation ,Helplessness and loneliness 16 13.79% Mistrust of others 21 18.10% Loss of self-esteem 31 26.72% Social withdrawal 4 3.45% Spouse betrayal 8 6.90% Total 116 100.0 Source: Trafficked returnees and community in Meta woreda, 2020 As it could be seen from Table 5, out of 116(77.33%) of respondents those who understanding the social effects of human trafficking on individual returnees or on the community, the majority of the respondents in the study areas 36(31.04%) said difﬁculty developing healthy relationships, 31(26.72%) of respondents said loss of self-esteem, 21(18.10%) of respondents said mistrust of others, 16(13.79%)of respondents said feelings of isolation, helplessness and loneliness, 8(6.90%) and 4(3.45%) of respondents said spouses betrayal and social withdrawal respectively. Similarly the result of in-depth interview and FGD conducted with individual returnees, family members of the returnees and local residents in the study area also confirmed that low sense of belonging in the family and community, conflict with close family members, guilt and shame associated, negative perception, very stressful experience and Spouse betrayal as social effects of trafficking. They also added there is a strong conception (safuu) in their locality community that people who trafficked to abroad come back with a lot of money and are expected to bring financial and material gifts, not only for nuclear family members, but also for members of their extended family, close neighbors and friends. However Most of the returnees in the study areas cannot meet this expectation, at least at the level that satisfies their relatives, neighbors and friends because of negative trafficking experience or because of unexpected deportation due to lack of legal statues in destination countries. As well as conflict with close family members, this study found that social expectations associated with working abroad also negatively affect the interpersonal relationships of trafficked returnees with unaccomplished trafficking goal because of unexpected deportation of the returnees and lack of legal working condition in destination countries. They also said that the majority of returnees live with the, guilt and shame associated with an unaccomplished trafficking goal to the community in the study areas.

In general as the result of survey and FGD indicated above for majority of trafficked returnees who participated in the study, the trafficking experience did not bring about personal economic gains and improved social status, as expected. Instead they incurred social costs that cannot be measured in monetary terms. The study found that although the family of the trafficked returnees experienced some positive economic and social changes, however, the majority of returnees who participated in this study as indicated during in-depth interviews and FGD they did not have any savings of their own from their trafficking, making them economically dependent on their family upon returnee. This also supported by previous research work as follow: According to the study of Gezie et al. (2019) stated that the conventional understanding in Ethiopia is the women who worked in the Middle East were exploited and sexually abused, and therefore they are not seen as suitable marriage partners. In addition, married women’s long-term absence may lead to divorce and separation. The study of Ali (2018) stated that the end of remittances creates social tension between the returnees and their families and can lead to estrangement. The divergence between the high expectations of the families of trafficked, on the one hand, and the accumulated negative trafficking experiences of the returnees, on the other hand, can create unpleasant relationship between returnees and their families (Schuster and Majidi, 2015). In communities with high expectations about the economic outcomes of trafficking the shame of returning empty- handed can be intense. Thus, some involuntary returnees choose to isolate themselves to avoid gossip and social degradation (Gyamfi, 2016). Furthermore, returnees who were marginalized in the destination country often face stigmatization and marginalization in their country of origin after returnee (Haase and Honerath, 2016). As a result, many deportees suffer from health problems, post-traumatic stress, and depression, which may deteriorate if their families and communities do not understand or believe their negative trafficking experiences (Williamson, 2017).

4.4.2. Health effects of human trafficking

There are significant health effects on trafficked returnees while both they are being transported and when they have reached their destination. Perilous journey expose trafficked victims to injury and even death, while overcrowded and unsanitary condition, shortage of food and water increase the risk of spreading infection disease (IOM, 2014). Trafficked person experience, physical, sexual and emotional violence at the hands of traffickers, pimps employers and others.

They also exposed to various work place wealth and environmental hazards. Individual trafficked for sex industry also; experience increased the risk of contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). Frequently denied the choice to use condoms, sex trafficking victims can introduce HIV to the broader population (Ottisova et al., 2016). Regarding returnees’ experiences related to health effects of human trafficking in the study areas, the dominant trafficked returnees those who participated in this study, 141(94%) of respondents said they had experienced health related effects because of trafficking incidents in the study areas, whereas 9(6%) of the respondents said they had not experience any health related effects because of trafficking. Returnees’ respondents those who experienced health effects due to traffickingwere also asked: what are the major health effects of human trafficking experience by trafficked victims’ (see Table 6)

Table 6. Major Health effects of human trafficking

Alternatives Frequency Percent Experienced diarrheal disease 42 29.79 Mental health 15 10.64 Malaria, 41 29.08 They experienced physical injuries 36 25.53 Experienced STDs 4 2.84 Disabilities 3 2.12 Total 141 100.0

The result of these survey also confirmed, out of 141(94%) respondents those who had experience health effects of trafficking as Table 6 above shows, 42(29.79%) of respondents said they had experienced diarrheal disease, 41(29.08%) of respondents said they infected by malaria, which is related with mode of transport majority of victims from study areas to travel through arid area of Somalia region and Djibouti. Most of the time people travel in lorry and by foot absence of basic needs and lack of medical services it increase the risk of infected in malaria especially during transition, 36(25.53%) of respondents were said they experienced physical injuries, 15(10.64%) of respondents said they had experienced mental health, 4(2.84%) and 3(2.12%) respondents said they had experienced STD and disabilities respectively. This also supported by the study of Habtamu et al.(2017) Stated that the trafficked returnees also admitted that many returnees from the Arabian Gulf suffer from mental health problems and attribute the

45 cause to ill treatment, the poisoning of trafficked victims by employers (to keep them for longer or to avoid paying their salary), isolation and other traumatic experiences in the host country.

4.4.3. Economic effects of human trafficking. Regarding returnees understanding about economic effects of human trafficking, the dominant sampled respondents in the study areas 114(76%) said they believed that human trafficking had negative economic effects on the individual victims or local community, whereas about 36(24%) of the respondents said they didn’t understand about economic effects. Trafficked returnees respondents those who believed about negative economic effects of human trafficking also were asked: what are the major economic effects of human trafficking (see Table 7)

Table 7. Major economic effects of human trafficking as perceived by respondents

Alternative Frequency Percent Create economic inequalities among the people 9 7.90 Lack of interest to create job 30 26.32 Dependency on remittance 39 34.21 Loss of human resource and assets 18 15.78 Increase unemployment 15 13.16 Make elders and children helpless 3 2.63 Total 114 100.0

With regard to the major economic effects of human trafficking on the victims or community, as it could be seen from Table 7 above, 39(34.21%) respondents said make people dependent on remittance to lead their livelihood, 30(26.32%) of respondents said loose of interest to create jobs, 18(15.79%) of respondents said loss of human resource and asset (productive labour force), 15(13.16%) and 9(7.90%) respondents said increase unemployment and create economic inequalities among people respectively. While insignificant 3(2.63%) of respondents said make elders and children helpless Similarly, the result of in-depth interviewees and FGD also consistent with the result of the survey, they also added majority of parents of the returnees send one of their family members by investing huge amount of money to finance trafficking cost. In most cases this money comes from selling of movable and immovable properties, such as cattle and land. Also they take credit from siblings and neighbors. However, in most cases the trafficked returnees get back to their country empty handed, because they do not have legal permit for employment in destination

46 areas. Hence, let alone getting their life improved, they get into long lasting trouble in their life. Therefore, the economic effects of human trafficking is capital as it not only affects the individual trafficked returnees, who get back empty handed, but also their family and the country as a whole. Trafficking which was thought to respond to the economic crisis of the family and the trafficked victims becomes a heavy burden to the entire household. These also supported by previous research work of Gashaw (2014) stated that the trafficked returnees create additional burden to their families’ members and community. According to this view, the trafficked returnees become dependent on their family for their basic necessity and other needs, become jobless, contribute to the retardation of the socioeconomic development at the place of origin. Trafficking represents lost opportunities domestically, including an irretrievable loss of human resources and future productivity (Kuschminder, 2016) ‘According to the Trafficking In Persons (TIP) report of United States of America Department of the State (2015) stated that trafficking also results in a huge loss of remittances to developing countries, because trafficked persons often have to pay off the ‘debt’ they incur for being trafficked (which they may never do). According to the study of Greenbaum (2018) Stated that the annual level of remittances to developing countries is an estimated US$ 325 billion, the lack of remittances from trafficked victims could imply a loss to development. Many returnees are elementary or high-school dropouts, which makes it difficult for them to find even low-skilled jobs upon their returnees, high inflation and lack of savings and marketable skills makes it difficult for returnees to participate in income-generating activities in their home country (Peerapeng, 2017).

4.5. Major Features of the Returnees

4.5.1. Housing condition of the Returnees Securing shelter after returning to a place one had left several years before with limited or no resources is one of the significant challenges faced by the returnees during their reintegration to the community. Returnees experienced problems with housing due to limited financial capacity to pay monthly rent. Housing for returnees with families is important. In such cases joining and living with families, relatives or friends becomes unviable.

The result of the study confirms as it could be seen from Table 8, 75(50%) of respondents are living with their families and close relatives, followed by 33(22%) of respondents were said renting using the limited amount of money they had and family support, 21(14%) and 18(12%)

47 of respondents are said they own their places and public house respectively. Most of those who own houses had land before trafficked and built or renovated using income generated from Middle East, while insignificant 3(2%) of the respondents are living with their friends.

Table 8. Residence Status after returnees

Alternatives Frequency Percent With family/relatives 75 50.0 Rent house 33 22.0 My own 21 14.0 Public 18 12.0 With friends 3 2.0 Total 150 100.0 Source: returnees’ respondents and community in Meta woreda, 2020

4.5.2. Economic Status of the Returnees Generating income enables returnees to cover their living costs and reintegrate successfully to the community. Most of the trafficked returnees those who participated in this study said they have no income. The results from Figure 12 shows that only a less than half of returnees said they are currently earning income. This can push returnees to deplete savings without investing it in sustainable income generating activities, and become indebted by accepting unreasonable loan arrangements, sell assets, and so on. Concerning the income of trafficked returnees in the study areas, 69(46%) of the respondents currently earning income, whereas the majority, 81(54%) of the returnees respondents said they are not currently earning income. The returnees’ respondents those who currently earning income also were asked: what their sources of income were since their returnee to Ethiopia (see Figure 12 below).

Returnees source of income

14% Self-employment micro business Self-employment agriculture

13% Income generating support package from government Earning from employment

3% 61% From properties such as rent 9%

Figure 12. Current source of income of the returnees

Out of 69(46%) the returnees’ respondents those who currently earning income as Figure 12 above shows, 42(61%) of the respondents were said self-employed through micro- businesses, 14% of the respondents said they earn income from rental properties, 13% of the respondents said earn income from employment. 9% and 3% of the respondents said agricultural activities and income generating support packages from government respectively.

4.5.3. Future Plans of the Returnees’ As the results of the survey in Table 9 shows, 87(58%) of respondents said they plan to start their own micro-businesses, Most of them aim to open convenience stores or small retail shops and restaurants. Many of them mentioned that they have faced financial constraints, but they remain optimistic that government support will help them to achieve their goals. 27(18%) of respondents were said look for employment in their field of expertise though many of them will do any type of work as long as they generate income to support themselves and their families. Some of the jobs mentioned include construction, 24(16%) of the respondents said they have no specific plan yet, but want to stay and work in Ethiopia, about 9(6%) and 3(2%) of respondents said they plan back to agriculture and animals breeding and continue education respectively.

Table 9. Future plans of the returnees in Meta woreda Alternatives Frequency Percent Look for employment opportunities 27 18.0 back to agriculture and animals breeding 9 6.0 No specific plan yet, but want to stay and work in Ethiopia 24 16.0 Continue education 3 2.0 Set up micro-business 87 58.0 Total 150 100.0 Source: trafficked returnees and community in Meta woreda, 2020

4.5.4. Respondents’ intention towards needs for support As the result of these survey shows in Table10 below, 135(90%) of respondents said they needed support to achieve their future plan, while the 15(10%) of the respondents said they do not need any support. In addition the trafficked returnees’ respondents those who needed support also were asked: what kind of support do think needed to achieve your future plan or for your successful reintegration (see Figure 13).

Table 10. Intention of respondents towards need for support

Respondents intention towards need for support Frequency Percent Yes 135 90.0 No 15 10.0 Total 150 100.0

4.5.5. Kind of Support requested by returnees The returnees also had various needs that they needed meet upon return. To support themselves and their families, returnees already engaged themselves in economic activities or, as mentioned above, intend to start some type of business. To succeed in their endeavors’, respondents mentioned specific types of support that they thought would assist them in resettling successfully. The results from Figure 13 shows, that 51(37.78%) of respondents said they need financial support, 39(28.89%) of respondents said they provision of working premises, 30(22.22%) of respondents said skills and technical training, 6(4.44%) of respondents said they need material support. 5(3.70%) and 4(2.96%) respondents said they need business skills trainings and Technical assistance respectively

Figure 13. Support requested by returnees’ respondents

4.5.6. Assistance provided and stake holder who provided the support Table 11 shows that over 103(68.67%) of returnees respondents said they had not received any type of support after joining their community while 47(31.33%) of respondents said they received some assistance. In addition returnee’s respondents those who provided assistance were asked: what are the major stake holders provided assistances for their reintegration (see Table12)

Table 11. Number of respondents who received support in Meta woreda

Respondents received support Frequency Percent Yes 47 31.33 No 103 68.67 Total 150 100.0 Source: returnees’ respondents and community in Meta woreda, 2020 Regarding the stake holders provided assistances for returnees, out of 47(31.33%) of returnees respondents those who received support for their reintegration, 37(78.72%) of respondents cited local governments as the main stakeholders providing support, while 10(21.28%) of respondents said local community provided some support towards their reintegration as it indicated in Table 12 below. Generally as the result of these survey showed that local government is the major stakeholders who provided support for reintegration of trafficked returnees in the study area. The data also showed some trafficked returnees supported by community for their integration.

Table 12. Stakeholders who provided support for returnees

Stakeholders who provided support for returnees Frequency Percent local Government 37 78.72% Local Community 10 21.28% Total 47 100.0 Source: sampled returnees and community in Meta woreda, 2020 The assistance provided to returnees is/are very important in rehabilitating and reintegrating the returnees. Based on the interviews and FGD, service gaps exist in job creation, and provision of microcredit. As Table 13shows, out of 37(78.72%) of trafficked returnees respondents those who had supported by the government, 15(40.54%) of respondents said they accessed microcredit, 11(29.73%) of the returnees respondents said job placement, 6(16.22%) and 5(13.51%) of returnees respondents were said working premises and counselling respectively

Table 13. Support provided to returnees by government

Alternatives Frequency Percent Working premises 6 16.22 Micro- credit 15 40.54 Job placement 11 29.73 Counselling 5 13.51 Total 37 100.0

As results of the survey shows in Table 14, trafficked returnees respondents asked in what way they supported by the community, out 10(21.27%) of trafficked returnees respondent those who had supported by local community, 5(50%) of respondents said they mentioned basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, furniture and other immediate needs, 3(30%) of respondents said they provided financial support to cover basic expenses and a few set-up micro-businesses. While about 2(20%) respondents said Advice and moral support for their reintegration.

Table 14. Support provided by community/ families members of the returnees

Types of support provided by community Frequency Percent Providing basic necessities 5 50.0 Financial Support 3 30.0 Advice and moral support 2 20.0 Total 10 100.0 Similarly the result of FGD also confirmed that the local community in Meta woreda supported returnees in their social and economic reintegration. However, returnees and community members stated that although families of returnees and community members support returnees morally and physically, efforts so far have been disorganized. Community response is scattered and based on individual’s initiatives. Majority of the FGD respondents said they lack capacity to provide basic assistance to the returnees but make returnees feel welcome by giving moral support and advice.

4.6. Experiences and Challenges faced returnees

The majority of returnees in the study areas as Table 15 shows, 123(82%) of respondents said they had faced challenges during their trafficking process starting from origin to the destinations areas, while the 27(18%) of respondents said they had not faced any challenges during their trafficking. Inline to this returnees respondents who faced challenges or difficulties also were

52 asked: what are the major challenges faces trafficked victims from the origin to the destination (see Figure 14)

Table 15. Returnees’ experiences related to trafficking Alternatives Frequency Percent Yes 123 82.0 No 27 18.0 Total 150 100.0 Source: returnees’ respondents and community in Meta woreda, 2020

4.6.1. Major challenges faced trafficked returnees The result of this study confirms as showed from Figure 14, 39(31.71%) of respondents said that overwork or excessive work, 30(24.40%) of respondents said absences of daily consumes, followed by 21(17.07%) of respondents said lack of freedom to make decisions, followed 18(14.63%) of respondents said faced difficulties with frequently beaten, raped and threaten, 15(12.19%) of respondents were they said lack of social services.

Figure 14. Major Challenges faced Trafficked Returnees Similarly the result of in-depth interviewees conducted with individual returnees in the study areas also confirmed challenges that face by the returnees. For instance couple of the returnees mentioned as follow. The reflection of one of the informants: Informants II

I took Somalia land route. In my route, I have encountered a lot of bad things. I also have a friend who lost his unchangeable life due to malaria in Yemen. I had to see dead bodies left behind, people handicapped, died out of starvation and shortage of water. We (me and my friends) were forced to stay in hiding camps during

day times, to walk during night times on foot with limited food and with no water. During these times, our friends have left behind. The traffickers doesn’t care about who is following, who is left behind. He just leads whosoever could follow him. His only worry is not to be caught by security force. Not only had the traffickers, even friends not cared about each other. They would not look backward to see whether their friends could follow them or left behind. You know, in trafficking, everybody becomes selfish. The reflection of one of the informants: Informants III “…My employer had large family and I was expected to do all the house work. Every day I Wake up before the sun rise first to start work and do all the domestic chores- washing clothes and floors, dusting and washing carpets, making beds, and looking after the children- until midnight without rest. When relatives and gusts came home I was expected to work more. Let alone day rest, I never got enough time to sleep. I go to bed in the midnight sometimes even late and wake up early in the morning…” Denial of day-off from work and Restriction of movement is not only the experiences of female trafficked domestic workers, trafficked men working in the construction site and keeping cattle and other jobs are also under the same oppression, abuse and exploitation.

As indicated above both the result of the survey and in-depth interviews confirmed that the dominant trafficked returnees those who participated in the study faced by various problem at different stage of trafficking. Among other things victims psychologically harassed by their employers, they are often left to work for long hours within dangerous working conditions. However working places in destination countries or destination places in general are not the only venues where victims of human trafficking face multifaceted problems and exposed to inhuman treatments, the result of this study also indicated trafficked victims are experience similar inhuman treatments before reaching the destination either by the traffickers themselves or other individuals in the transit places. According to the study of Murugan and Abebaw (2014) stated that yet, in most cases they are unprepared for the work they have to do, they are unfamiliar with modern household equipment, and they do not speak Arabic. Upon arrival they are often confronted with heavy workload and no day off, they face emotional, physical, and sexual abuse, their passports are withheld as part of the kafala system and sometimes they are denied their salaries. Trafficked domestic workers are vulnerable to a range of abuses, including the withholding of wages or important documents, such as passports, food deprivation, and psychological, physical or sexual abuse (Kuschminder, 2016). In the Arabian Gulf suicide rates

54 are high among trafficked workers (Choi, 2015). Overcrowded boats are the norm and violence, rape as well as forced disembarkation at sea are often reported (Horwood, 2015). Although the trafficked victims experience countless forms of abuse at the hands of their employers and other actors in destination countries, they are seldom in a position to tell their families about these negative experiences. Rather, they prefer to tolerate the undignified and abusive treatment in order to achieve their trafficking goals (Ali, 2018), which includes remitting the money they earn back home to improve the lives of their families.

4.6.2. Challenges Affecting Reintegration of Returnees. Nisrane et al. (2017) argues that the successful reintegration of returnees requires mobilizing financial, social and human capital in the host countries. However, domestic migrants in the Arabian Gulf have limited options for accruing such capital. This directly affects their economic reintegration upon return. Structural barriers associated with the kafala system such as inability to change employer, financial exploitation by employers, and inability to access financial institutions constrain the economic reintegration of returnees.

The survey results also confirmed that the vast majority of the returnees, 87(58%) faced challenges that constrain the reintegration and rehabilitation of returnees to the community in Meta woreda. Returnee’s respondents those who face challenges also were asked an open ended question: what are the major challenges that affecting the reintegration of the returnees (see Figure 15 below)

Figure: 15. Major challenges affecting the reintegration of the returnees

Regarding the major challenges affecting the reintegration of the returnees as Figure 15 above shows, the majority of respondents, 26(29.89%) said economic problems and inability to get a job after returnees, followed,25(28.73%) of respondents were said sociocultural feeling of shame associated with negative trafficking experience because of un expected deportation due to lack of legal working condition in destination country, 21(24.14%) of the respondent said inabilities to fulfill individual and family expectation of because unaccomplished trafficking goal. While about 8(9.20%) and 7(8.04%) of the respondents were said unable to repay cost of trafficking debt and the marginalization and stigma respectively.

Similarly the result of in-depth interview and focus group discussion with returnees, families of the returnees and local residents in the study areas revealed that when families and communities had high expectations of trafficking, returning empty-handed created anxiety and feelings of shame about failure in returnees. In addition, key informants explained that in communities where trafficking has become the norm, the inability of returnees to fulfil families’ expectation regarding the economic outcomes of trafficking resulted in the development of feelings of shame, loss, failure and stress on the part of returnees, which hindered reintegration of the returnees to the community in their locality. This shame is not only felt by the returnees, but by the whole family. In addition, members of local communities stereotyped all returnees as having mental problems, having been raped, and as disobedient to their families and the community at large. This skewed perception of returnees made them feel ashamed and hindered their reintegrating into the community. In addition, many interviewees said that the assumption by family members and relatives that the returnees had money, when the reality was different, made them nervous. All these sentiments made returnees feel inferior and uncomfortable living in their place of origin and hindered their reintegration. Most of the returnees said that they spent most of their time with other returnees in other areas. Furthermore, the involuntary returnees and interruption of hopes not only made the returnees feel like failures, but also made them behave badly towards family members. This behavior also negatively affected relationships with family members and hampered the social and emotional reintegration of returnees. This also supported by the study of Nisrane et al (2017) stated that returnees suffer isolation, have poor social interaction and a low sense of belonging is that 80% of returnees reported staying home most of the time and only going out for weddings and funerals; the rest mentioned going to churches or mosques, in addition to mandatory social engagements such as funerals. This limited social

56 interaction also relates to their limited economic resources. However, shame associated with unachieved trafficking goals, stigma and negative social perceptions contributes to this behavior. Inability to meet expectations was frustrating for most returnees. Having no or few financial resources was a shameful experience and often made returnees restrict their social engagements. This strengthens other findings that postulate that being poor restricts people’s desire for relationships and sense of belonging (Konzett, 2016). Being financially dependent on their families after return is common among the returnees. In general, the above findings indicate that the social expectations on returnees create a low sense of belonging because of rejection, shame and doubts about fitting into the environment. Not meeting people’s expectations results in rejection by society in the home country and self-isolation by the returnees. This may affect the social and economic reintegration of returnees and their re-trafficking intention.

To sum up, using primary and secondary data source, findings related to socio-economic effects of human trafficking in Meta woreda was analyzed based on the condition of returnees, causes of human trafficking, factors that affecting reintegration of the trafficked returnees and effects of human trafficking on human health, social and economies were discussed. The result indicated that human trafficking negatively associated with health, social structure of the societies and economies.

5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1. Summary

This research has attempted to assess the socio-economic effects of human trafficking and challenges of trafficked returnees in Meta woreda. The study used the data collected from a total 167 trafficked returnees, family of the returnees and local residents by employing questionnaires, in-depth interview and FGDs respectively. Reviewing published and unpublished documents were also employed. Finally, based on the results and discussion of the study, the conclusion and recommendation are summarized as follows.

The result of this study confirmed that all trafficked returnees who participated in the study used trafficking route to reach destination countries in Meta woreda. Eastern and Southeastern trafficking route of Djibouti and Somaliland is the main illegal trafficking root used by dominant returnees to reach destination country. The finding of this study also identified many reasons why the trafficked returnees’ respondents in Meta woreda, preferring illegal trafficking route to reach destination countries. This reasons that are showed include lack of legal agencies in the study areas and their surroundings, non-requirement of legal documents, its cheapness and lack of processes. The data also indicated the expansion of local traffickers and geographical proximity to Middle East are among others reasons for preferring eastern and south eastern trafficking route in the study areas.

The majority of the returnees in Meta woreda send remittances back home to support their family members/relative from the income they earned while abroad. However, as the result of FGD indicated by the families of returnees the support they obtained was not as life changing as they expected; it was allocated mainly to daily household consumption and repaying debts. The result of this study also indicated for some of the trafficked returnees’ the goal and plan of trafficking was not success due to unplanned deportation and lack of legal working condition in destination countries. Even worse, there were unfortunate families whose investment in the trafficking of their family member was lost. This indicates that human trafficking not only disrupts individual returnees’ hopes and plans but also those of the trafficked returnees family members.

The result of this study confirmed that the causes of human trafficking in Meta woreda have been fueled by a variety of “Push-pull” factors. The result of the study also indicated lack of job

58 opportunities, low income, family economic crises, and lack of accessible to social services and Population pressure as push factors of human trafficking. Even though a combination of different factors are responsible for trafficking of returnees in Meta woreda, However lack of employment opportunities are the major push factors that responsible for majority of the returnees trafficking. The results of in-depth interviews and FGD conducted with individual returnees, family members of returnees and local residents in the study areas also confirmed that majority of community in their locality have positive attitudes towards trafficking. They saw trafficking as enabling people to generate more income than local employment. Consequently, parents often encourage their children to trafficking by telling success stories of some pioneer trafficked returnees in their neighborhood. On the other hand finding of this study indicated accessible of employment opportunities and towering salaries in destination countries as pull factors that attract individual returnees to trafficking.

The finding of this study also showed that community and family expectations associated with working abroad negatively affect the interpersonal relationships of the returnees and their sense of belonging. The data also showed that the majority of returnees live with high stress, betrayals, hopelessness and low sense of belonging associated with an unaccomplished trafficking goal and inabilities to fulfill social expectations.

Majority of trafficked returnees in the study areas was also experienced health related negative effects during their trafficking. This health effects of human trafficking experienced by the trafficked returnees includes diarrheal disease, malaria, physical injuries, mental health, STDs and disabilities. The finding of this study also indicated dependency on remittance, lack of interest to create job, increasing unemployment problems, loss of human resource and productive labour, helpless children and elders; and economic inequalities among the people as economic effects of human trafficking. The result of this study also indicated absence of post-returnees employment, inability to pay back loans taken to finance trafficking, lack of sustainable source of income, the deteriorating health status of returnees and returnees experienced problems with housing affect the successful reintegration of trafficked and involuntary returnees to the community without accomplishing trafficking goal.

The finding of this study also showed that government and local community was supported some involuntary returnees in their social and economic reintegration and rehabilitation in study areas.

However, as returnees and community members stated during FGD although local government and community support returnees morally and physically, efforts so far have been disorganized. The local Community response is scattered and based on individual’s initiatives. Therefore, they need support with social and economic reintegration and psychological preparation to resettle.

It could be summarized that Effective method to combating human trafficking need participation from all stakeholders as no single institution/department is being able to fight human trafficking alone. Human trafficking involves international criminal networks. Therefore, the strategies to combat the criminality also need networking from all stakeholders such as NGO, Federal and local government Agencies, and professionals, migrant workers union, communities, media and government institutions at all levels including international, regional, bilateral and national level.

5.2. Conclusions

Human trafficking is being a serious agenda in the world since it is a major cause for violation of human right, human health effects, social and economic problems. Similarly, Ethiopia has recently been identified as a country with a burgeoning human trafficking problem, although accurate rates of the number of trafficked victims are difficult to find. This research aimed at to assess socio-economic effects of human trafficking at local level particularly, in Meta woreda. It also sought to explore the causes and consequence of human trafficking; and challenges that affect the reintegration and rehabilitation of trafficked returnees to the community and suggest possible solutions for improvement.

The finding of this study indicated unemployment as major push factor promoting risky movement of the returnees by leaving the place of origin in study area. The study also indicated low income, family economic crises as other significant push factor of human trafficking. On other hand the finding of this study also indicated availabilities of employment opportunity in destination country and towering salaries as pull factors of human trafficking. The finding of this study also indicated that Social expectations associated with working abroad negatively affect the interpersonal relationships of the returnees and their sense of belonging in Meta woreda. The data also showed that the majority of returnees live with high stress, betrayals, hopelessness and low sense of belonging associated with an unaccomplished trafficking goal.

Furthermore, the result of the assessment revealed trafficked victims faced challenges that hinder their successful reintegration to the community. Regarding challenges affecting successful reintegration of the returnees in the study areas significantly identified various factors. Among those factors absence of post-returnee employment, inability to pay back loans taken to finance trafficking, lack of sustainable source of income, the deteriorating health status of returnees and unexpected deportations of the returnees without accomplishing trafficking goal.

In general, it can be concluded that, unless the structural problems (poverty and unemployment) that cause people to trafficking in Meta woreda, involuntary returnees without meeting personal and family hopes exposes returnees to an unwelcome reception by families and feelings of shame about failure, which lead to depression, hindering the successful reintegration and rehabilitation of returnees to the community. Thus, for returnees who are returned and who have negative trafficking experiences, the mere provision of post-return material and financial support may not lead to their successful reintegration. Hence, improving the prevailing structural problem and the provision of psychosocial, moral and emotional support from family members, relatives, friends and communities at large are imperative.

5.3. Recommendations

The following strategically points should be taken into account to reduce the socio-economic effects and challenges that faced victims’ of human trafficking in Meta woreda.

 The Meta woreda administration should increasing income generating opportunity to the community including job opportunities, provision of microcredit and job placement to alleviate the root causes of unemployment problem for effective anti-human trafficking.  Extensive and continues information campaigns could be done in order to promote community awareness concerning threats and consequence of human trafficking through Local radio station, seminars, workshops and conferences. Universities and schools will also contribute towards prevention.  The local government enhancing the capacity of police, local community, prosecutors, and judges through regular training on investigation, prosecution and prevention of human trafficking and create strong coordination and partnership in countering human trafficking

 The meta woreda administration should give due attention to these evidences to initiate and enhance public participation in combating human trafficking to reduce the socio-economic effects and challenges face victims’ of human trafficking either by the stake holders, government agencies, private sector or some kind of partnership between them.  Encouraging and strengthening Coordination of government authorities within and between woreda and between authorities, community and NGOs is crucial in Meta woreda. Therefore, where local border cooperation exists, coordinated operations are vital to the success of efforts to detain traffickers and support victims.  Federal government provide Training and equipping border patrol police and social workers and the provision of anti-trafficking laws, publicizing and enforcing these are also likely to contribute towards the prevention of human trafficking  The meta woreda administration should Encouraging and initiate people to expose such crimes to police or any legal system by creating favorable conditions such as introducing short digit phone numbers which may help to expose the perpetrators and protect people from vulnerabilities of human trafficking  Other suggested solution to reducing the socio-economic effects of human trafficking in Meta woreda, enforcement of existing law and create collaboration among stake holders and strengthening the special police unit to handle human trafficking.

6. REFERENCES

Adesina, O.S. 2014. ‘Modern day slavery: poverty and child trafficking in Nigeria. Journal of African Identities, 12(2): 165–179.

Alemu, E. 2018. Ethiopian returnee women from Arab countries: Challenges of successful reintegration. African and Black Diaspora: An International Journal, 11(1), 33–50.

Ali, D. 2018. The bright hopes and desolated dreams of Ethiopian women: A study of circular trafficking to Middle East and the Gulf States. MA Thesis, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.

Aslam, M.M. and Rosili. N.K. 2016. De-Radicalization Programs in South-East Asia: A Comparative Study of Rehabilitation Programs in Malaysia, Thailand, Indonesia and Singapore. Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 4:154-160.

Asnake Kefale and Zerihun Mohammed. 2016. Ethiopian labour Migration to the gulf and South Africa. Forum for social studies (FSS), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Atnafu, A. and Adamek, M.E. 2016. The return migration experiences of Ethiopian women trafficked to Bahrain for richer or poorer, let me be on the hands of my people…‟. African and Black Diaspora. An International Journal, 9(2): 243-256.

Ayalew, T. 2017. Struggle for mobility: Risk, hope and community of knowledge in Eritrean and Ethiopian migration pathways towards Sweden. Doctoral dissertation, Stockholm University Stockholm, Sweden.

Azage Muluken, Gedefaw Abeje and Alemtsehay Mekonnen. 2014. Sex trafficking awareness and associated factors among youth females in Bahir Dar town, North-West Ethiopia: A community based study. BMC Women’s Health, 19(11):21-28

Bales, K .2016. Ending Slavery: How we free today’s Slaves. Berkeley: University of California Press

Barnard, M. 2014. The second chance they deserve: vacating convictions of sex trafficking victims. Columbia Law Review, 114(6): 1463-1501.

Beck, D.C., Choi, K.R., Munro, M.L. and Lori, J.R. 2017. Human trafficking in Ethiopia: a scoping review to identify gaps in service delivery, research, and policy. Journal of Trauma Violence Abuse, 18(5):532–543.

Belay Daniel. 2014. Migration and state responsibility: Ethiopian domestic workers in Lebanon. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4(5):120.

Bhattacherjee, A. 2012. Social Science Research: Principles, Methods, and Practices, 3rd Edition. University of Southern Queensland, Australia.

Bravo, E. 2015. Human Trafficking Identification and service provisions in the medical and services sectors. Health and human rights journal, 18(1):181-192

Busch, A., Bruce, K.S., Melissa, I.T. and John, N. 2016. Human Trafficking by the Numbers: The Initial Benchmark of Prevalence and Economic Impact for Texas, University of Texas at Austin. Institute on Domestic Violence and Sexual Assault, Texas, United States of America

Busza, J., Teferra, S., Omer, S. and Zimmerman, C. 2017. Learning from returnee Ethiopian migrant domestic workers: A qualitative assessment to reduce the risk of human trafficking. Globalization and Health, 13(71), 1–9.

Carpenter, A. and Jamie, G. 2016. The nature and extent of gang involvement in sex trafficking in San Diego County, United States of America. The professional counselor, 1:45–61.

Carter, B. and Rohwerder, B. 2016. Rapid fragility and migration assessment for Ethiopia: Rapid Literature Review. University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom.

Chilufya, C.B. and Chitupila, C.V. 2011. Globalization and the Growing Phenomenon of Human Trafficking. Hekima Review, 44: 139-152.

Cho, S.Y. 2013. Does Legalized Prostitution Increase Human Trafficking? World Development, 41: 67-82.

Choi, K.R. 2015. Risk factors for domestic minor sex trafficking in the United States: a Literature review. Journal of Forensic Nursing, 11(2):66–76.

Collins, F. L. 2018. Desire as a theory for migration studies: temporality, assemblage and becoming in the narratives of migrants. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(6):964-980.

Creswell, J. 2017. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches; 4th. Editions. Sage Publications, California, united states of America.

Creswell, J.W. 2014. Research Design: qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. 4th editions. Thousand oaks: SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-1-4522-2609-5.

CSA (Central Statistics Agency). 2007. Population and housing Census of Ethiopia result for Oromia region. Static Agency, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Davies, T. and Isakjee, A. 2015. Geography, migration and abandonment in the Calais refugee camp. Political Geography, 49: 93-95.

Davy, D. 2016. Human Traﬃcking and Slavery in Australia: Pathways, Tactics, and Subtle Elements of Enslavement. Women and Criminal Justice, 26(3):180-198.

De Regt, M. and Medareshaw Tafesse.2016. Deported before experiencing the good sides of migration: Ethiopians returning from Saudi Arabia. African and Black Diaspora. An International Journal, 9(2): 228-242.

Dempsey, M.M. 2017. What Counts as Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation? How Legal Methods can Improve Empirical Research. Journal of Human Trafficking, 3(1): 61-80.

Edwards, L. and Mika, K. 2017. Advancing the eﬀorts of the macro level social work response against sex-traﬃcking. International Social Work, 60 (3).

Ellrod, J. 2015. Filling the Gap: Refining Sex Trafficking Legislation to Address the Problem of Pimping. Vanderbilt Law Review, 68(3): 961-996.

Eresso, M.Z. 2018. Sisters on the move: Ethiopia’s gendered labour migration milieu. Canadian Journal of African Studies, 53(1):27-46.

Estifanos, Y. 2017. Social networks, dreams and risks: Ethiopian irregular migrants into South Africa. Social Development Policy Division. United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Eyerusalem Fithawok. 2009. The Challenges and Opportunities of Multiple-Use water systems: A Case Study from Goro Gutu and Meta Woredas of East Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State. MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Fekadu, A., Hanlon, C., Medhin, G., Alem, A., Selamu, M., Giorgis, T., Shibre, T., Teferra, S., Tegegn, T., Breuer, E., Patel, V., Tomlinson, M., Thorneycroft, G., Prince, M. and Lund, C. 2016. Development of a scalable mental healthcare plan for a rural district in Ethiopia. BMC Psychiatry, 14(1):1-12.

Gabriel Temesgen. 2014. Root causes and solution to human trafficking in Ethiopia. International Journal of sciences and research, 3(8):1578-1585. Gacinya J. 2019. Poverty as a Factor in Human Trafficking in Rwanda. American Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(1): 188-201.

Gashaw Muhammad. 2014. Young Women’s Emigration from Borena Woreda to the Arab World and its Impact on Socio-Economic Development of the Area: The Case of Mekane Selam Town. MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Gerassi, L. 2015. A Heated Debate: Theoretical Perspectives of Sexual Exploitation and Sex Work. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 42(4):79-100.

Gezie, L.D, Yalew, A.W. and Gete, Y.K. 2019. Human trafficking among Ethiopian returnees: its magnitude and risk factors. BMC Public Health journal, 19(1):104.

Global Slavery Index. 2018. Estimates of modern Global slavery: Forced labour and forced marriage. International labour migration, Geneva, Switzerland.

Gould, C. 2014. Sex Trafficking and Prostitution in South Africa: the annals of the American Academy. Journal of Political and Social Science, 653:183-201.

Greenbaum, J. 2018. Global Human Trafficking and Child Victimization. American Academy of Pediatrics, 140(6):217-313.

GRETA. 2017. Report concerning the implementation of the Council of Europe Convention on Action against Traﬃcking in Human Beings by Greece. doi:10.1111/j.1680-1752. 2017.07526. X

Gyamfi, G.D. 2016. International responses to human trafficking: The Ghanaian experience. International Journal of Peace and Development Student, 7(7): 62–68.

Haase, M. And Honerath, P. 2016. Return Migration and Reintegration Policies: A primer. Integration Strategy Group. The German Marshall fund of the United States.

Habtamu, K., Minaye, A. and Zeleke, A. 2017. Prevalence and associated factors of common mental disorders among Ethiopian migrant returnees from the Middle East and South Africa. BMC Psychiatry, 17(1):144

Habte Haile. 2015. Socio-Economic Impacts of Migration of Ethiopians to the South Africa and its implications for ETHIO-RSA Relations: The case of Kembata-Tembaro and Hadiya zones. MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Hailemichael Nigusu. 2014. Causes and Consequences of Human Trafficking: A Case Study in Metema Town. MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Harwood, H. 2015. Irregular Migration Flows in the Horn of Africa: Challenges and implications for source, transit and destination countries research Program in Kenya. IOM, Geneva.

Hernandez, D. and Rudolph, A. 2015. Modern Day Slavery: What drives human trafficking in Europe? European journal of political economy, 38:118-139.

Ibrahim, B. and Mukhtar, J.I. 2016. Changing patterns of prostitution: An assessment of transnational commercial sex work by Nigerian women. European Scientiﬁc Journal, 12 (2):1-10

ILO (International Labor Organization). 2017. Global estimates of modern slavery: Forced labour and forced marriage. ILO, Geneva, Switzerland.

IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2014. External Situation Report on Emergency post arrival assistance: to vulnerable Ethiopian migrants returning from Saudi Arabia. IOM, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

IOM (International Organization for Migration). 2015. Human Trafficking and Smuggling of Migrants in the Context of Mixed Migration Flows 6th IGAD Regional Consultative

Process on Migration in Ethiopia, October 2015. State of Play in the IGAD Region. IOM, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Jibriel, B. 2014. A human rights based approach to counteract trafficking in women: the case of Ethiopia. Oromia law journal, 3(3): 212-259.

Jones, N., Presley Marshall, E., Tefera, B., Emirie, G., Gebre, B. and Gezahegne, K. 2014. Rethinking girls on the move. Overseas Development Institute, London, England.

Kassa shanyalew and Tatek Abebe. 2014. Qenja: Child fostering and relocation practices in the Amhara region, Ethiopia. Children’s Geographies, 14: 1–17.

Kibebew Kibret. 2014. Characterization of Agriculture soils in CASCAPE intervention Woredas in eastern region. Doctoral Dissertation, Haramaya University, Haramaya, Ethiopia.

Knife Gebre-Egziabher. 2016. Youth migration dynamics to the Middle East: Causes and consequences. MA Thesis, Mekelle University, Mekelle, Ethiopia.

Konzett-Smoliner, S. 2016. Return migration as a ‘family project’: Exploring the relationship between family life and the readjustment experiences of highly skilled Austrians. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(7):1094–1114

Kothari, C.R. 1990. Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques. International Limited, Ltd., publishers, New Delhi, India.

Kovacic, D. 2018. Using the content validity index to determine content validity of an instrument assessing health care providers’ general knowledge of human traﬃcking. Journal of Human Traﬃcking, 4(4):327-335.

Kristen R. Choi. 2016. Human Trafficking in Ethiopia: A Scoping Review to Identify Gaps in Service Delivery, Research, and Policy. Department of Systems, Populations, and Leadership, University of Michigan School of Nursing, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.

Kruger, B. 2016. Towards a sharp prosecution sword to combat human trafficking: Comparing the new South African counter-trafficking law with international prosecution standards. The Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa, 49(1): 53–84.

Kubai, A. 2016. Trafficking of Ethiopian Women to Europe–Making choices, taking risks, and implications. African and Black Diaspora: An International Journal, 9(2):166-183.

Kuder Rchardson. 1937. The theory of the estimation of test reliability. Psychometrician, 2(3):15 1-160.

Kuschminder, K. and Hercog, M. 2016. Diaspora engagement policies and the Power of the Strong State: India and Ethiopia. pp. 353-372. In: Besharov, Douglas; Lopez, Mark H. (ed.), Adjusting to a World in Motion: Trends in Global Migration and Migration Policy. Oxford university press, New York.

Litam, Stacey Diane A. 2017. Human Sex Trafficking in America: What Counselors Need to Know? The Professional Counselor, 7 (1): 45–61.

Makinde, O.A. 2015. Infant Trafficking and Baby Factories: A new tale of child trafficking in Nigeria. Child Abuse Review, 24(5): 242.

Marchand, K., Reinold, J. and Raphael, D. 2017. Study on Migration Routes in the East and Horn of Africa. Maastricht Graduate School of Governance (MGSoG) Maastricht University, Maastricht, Holland.

Marianne Haase and Pia Honerath. 2016. Return migration and reintegration policies: a primer strengthening transatlantic cooperation. The German Marshall fund of the United States, Berlin, German.

Maru, M. 2016. Migration profile report of Ethiopia: Preliminary assessment. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Mensah, E.A. 2016. Involuntary return migration and reintegration. The case of Ghanaian migrant workers from Libya. Journal of International Migration and Integration, 17(1): 303–323.

Meta woreda Administrative and Communication Office. 2020. Annual report of current issue of types of economic activities in Woreda, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia.

Milki Getachew. 2014. The Roles of Family members and Friends in Youth International Migration Decision: the Case of Returned Migrant Youth in Wore-Illu Woreda- South Wollo. MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Minaye, A. and Zeleke, W. 2015. Re-conceptualizing human trafficking: The experiences of Ethiopian returnee migrants. Journal of Trafficking, Organized Crime and Security, 1:9–23.

Minaye, A. and Zeleke, W. 2017. Attitude, risk perception and readiness of Ethiopian potential migrants and returnees towards unsafe migration. African Human Mobility Review, 3(1): 702–731.

Msuya, N.H. 2017. Tradition and culture in Africa: Practices that facilitate traﬃcking of women and children. Dignity, 2, 1, Article 3. DOI: 10.23860/dignity.2017.02. 01.03.

Mulugeta, M. and Makonnen, T. 2017. Illicit cross-border migration in Ethiopia: Causes, patterns and policy responses. Ethiopian Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities, 13(2), 53–80.

Murugan, P. and Abebaw, B. 2014. Factors Contributing to Human Trafficking, Contexts of Vulnerability and Patterns of Victimization: The case of stranded victims in Metema, Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of the Social Sciences and Humanities, 10(2): 75–105.

Nisrane, B., Morissens, A., Need, A. and Torenylied, R. 2017. Economic reintegration of Ethiopian women returned from the Middle East. International Migration, 55(6):112- 133.

Office for victims of crime and Bureau of Justice Assistance. 2017. Human trafficking task force Guide: substances abuse Needs. U.S. Department of justice’s office for victims of crime and Bureau of justice Assistance, Washington, DC, United State of Amerika.

Omer, S. and Zimmerman, C. 2017. Learning from returnee Ethiopian migrant domestic workers: A qualitative assessment to reduce the risk of human trafficking. Globalization and Health, 13(1):71.

Ondieki, J. 2017. Human trafficking and its impact on national security in East Africa: A case study of the vice in Kenya. MA Thesis, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya.

Osezua, C. O. 2016. Gender issues in human traﬃcking in Edo State, Nigeria. African Sociological Review, 20 (1): 37- 63

Ottisova, L., Hemmings, S., Howard, L., Zimmerman, C. and Oram, S. 2016. Prevalence and risk of violence and the mental, physical, and sexual health problems associated with human trafficking: an updated systematic review. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 25(4):317–341.

Owens Colleen, Meredith Dank, Justin Breaux, Isela Banuelos, Amy Farrell, Rebecca Pfeiffer, Katie Bright, Ryan Heitsmith and Jack McDevitt. 2014. Understanding the Organization, Operation, and Victimization Process of Labor Trafficking in the United States. Urban Institute and Northeastern University, Washington DC, United State of America

Oyekanmi, B. and Okunola, T. 2017. African enslaving Africans: Human sex traﬃcking as a trans-national crime: The Edo-Italy relations. Global Journal of Human Social Science, 17(3):1–10.

Peerapeng, S.R. and Chaitip, P. 2014. Impact of Economic Globalization on the human trafficking in the Greater Mekong Sub-region countries. Journal on computing, 3(1):53- 55.

Reda, A.H. 2012. An investigation into the experiences of female victims of trafficking in Ethiopia. African Black Diaspora. International Journal, 11(1):87–102.

Reitano, T., Adal, L. and Shaw, M. 2014. Smuggled futures: The dangerous path of the migrant from Africa to Europe. Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime Series on Human Trafficking. The European review of organized crime, 2(1):1-23.

RMMS (Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat). 2014. The Letter of the Law: regular and irregular migration in Saudi Arabia in a context of rapid change. IOM, Nairobi, Kenya.

RMMS (Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat). 2016. Horn of Africa and Yemen: Ethiopia country profile. Danish Refugee Council and Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat Horn of Africa and Yemen.

RMMS (Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat). 2017. Ethiopia country profile. Danish Refugee Council and Regional Mixed Migration Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya.

Schapendonk, J. 2018. Navigating the migration industry: migrants moving through an African- European web of facilitation/control. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(4): 663-679.

Scheirs, V. 2016. Doing Reintegration? The Quest for Reintegration in Belgian Sentence Implementation. European Journal of Probation, 8(2):82–101.

Schuster, L. and Majidi, N. 2015. Deportation Stigma and Re-migration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 41(4):635-652

Selamawit Bekele. 2013. The Vulnerability of Ethiopian Rural Women and Girls: The Case of Domestic Workers in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. MA Thesis, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden

Setrana, M. and Tonah, S. 2014. Return migrants and the challenge of reintegration: The case of returnees to Kumasi Ghana. The journal of development studies, 52(4):549-560

Shillcutts, S., Morel, C., Goodman, C., Coleman, P., Bell, D. and Whitty, C., Mills, A. 2012. Cost effectiveness of malaria diagnostic methods in the sub; Saharan Africa in an era of combination therapy bulletin of the world health organizations. Journal of systemic review, 86(2):101-110.

Skosana, I. and Wilkinson, K. 2017. Fact-checked: 2 claims about slavery and ‘child prostitutes’ in south Africa. Claims-slavery-child prostitutes, Johannesburg, South Africa.

Smith, K., Smith, M. and Martin, H. 2016. Human trafficking: A global multi-billion dollar criminal industry. SSRN Electronic Journal, 4(3), 293 - 308.

Surtees, R. 2017. What’s home? Re integrating youth born of trafficking. Journal of Women and Therapy, 40(2): 73-100.

Tseliso Thipanyane. 2015. Human Trafficking: African Perspective, TURIST Academic Commentary, Mar. 23, 2015.

United States of America Department of the State. 2015. Trafficking in Persons Report July 2015.USDS, Washington, DC, United State of America.

United Nations. 2015. Transforming our worlds: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/70/1). Available at https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/212 52030%20Agend a%20for%20Sustainable%20Development%20web.pdf.

UNODC (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime).2016.Global Report on Trafficking in Persons. United Nations publication. UNODC, Vienna, Austria.

USDS (United State Department of State). 2014. Trafficking in person’s report 2014: Office to monitor and combat trafficking persons in Ethiopia. USDS, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

USDS (United State Department of State). 2016. Trafficking in Persons Report on Meeting the Global Challenge in US: Effective Strategies to Prevent Human Trafficking. USDS, Washington DC, United State of America.

USDS (United State Department of State). 2017. Traﬃcking in persons report. Government Publishing Oﬃce. 2016. Washington, DC, United State of America.

USDS (United State Department of State). 2018. Traﬃcking in Persons Report, June 2018. Government Publishing Oﬃce. Washington, DC, United State of America.

USEG (United State Embassy in Greece). 2018. Traﬃcking in Persons government Report. 2018 Greece. USEG, Athens, Greece.

Van Reisen, M. and Estefanos, M. 2017. The exodus from Eritrea and who is benefiting. In: Van Reisen, M. and Mawere, M. 2017. Human Trafficking and Trauma in the Digital Era: The Ongoing Tragedy of the Trade in Refugees from Eritrea. Bamenda, Cameroon: Langaa RPCIG.

Van Reisen, M., Stokmans, M., Mawere, M. and GebreEgziabher, K. A. 2019. Roaming Africa: A social analysis of migration and resilience. In: Van Reisen, M., Mawere, M., Stokmans, M. and Gebre-Egziabher, K. A. (eds), Roaming Africa: Migration, Resilience and Social Protection. Langaa Research and Publishing Bamenda, Cameroon.

Wakgari, G. 2014. Causes and Consequences of Human Trafficking in Ethiopia: the case of women in the Middle East. International journal of gender and Women’s Studies, 2(2):233–46.

Warria, A. 2017. Forced child marriages as a form of traﬃcking. Children and Youth Services Review, 79: 274-279

WB (World Bank). 2009. Human trafficking; a brief overview of social development resource of human trafficking. Effective antihuman trafficking strategies for sustainable economic development of the world

Williamson, S.H. 2017. Globalization as a racial project: Implications for human trafficking. Journal of international women studies, 8(2):74–76.

Woldemichael Abera. 2014. Psycho-social Conditions of Migrant Returnees from Middle East Countries up on Arrival at Bole International Airport: Implication for Intervention. MA Thesis, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

Woldemichael Zelalem. 2017. Prevention of Human Trafficking in Ethiopia: Assessing the Legal frame work. Hasannuddin law review, 3(3):208-217.

Yin, R.K. 2011. Qualitative research from start to finish. Guilford Publications, New York.

Yonas, B. and Abera, K. 2015. Assessment of health hazards and associated factors: among the returned migrants living at Bati Woreda, Oromia Zone, and Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia. Journal of Health Development, 27: 55–63.

Zewdu Girmachew. 2018. Irregular migration, informal remittances: Evidence from Ethiopian village. Geojournal: Spatially Integrated Social Sciences and Humanities, 83(5):1019– 1034.

Zhidkova, T. 2015. Globalization and the Emergence of Violent Non-state Actors: The Case of Human Trafficking. New Global Studies, 9(1): 1-25

7. APPENDICES Appendix I. Questionnaires for sampled Trafficked Returnees and local community Dear respondents: My name is KitilaTuli and I am a candidate for a Master’s degree at Harmaya University, College of Social Sciences and Humanities, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies. I cordially invite you to participate in a study which aims to analyze and examine the socio-Economic effects of human trafficking in Ethiopia, particularly in Meta woreda, East Hararghe Zone, Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia. Findings of this study will help to identify the causes, challenges and socio economic effects of human trafficking and the result of this questionnaire is quite important to the success of the study. The purpose of this study is for academic achievement and your views will be kept confidential. Therefore, you are kindly requested to provide accurate information as much as possible. Instruction. 1. This questionnaire was filled by human trafficked returnees and local community 2. No need of writing name on the questionnaires 3.Mark or make tick in the box prepared in front of choices listed below for each question to indicate your appropriate responses for each question and for items that ask your view or suggestions please respond by writing on the space provided in a short and precise ways Part I. The demographic and socio-economic characteristics of sample respondents. 1. Sex of the respondent 1. Male 2. Female 2. Age: How old are you? ______3. What is your marital status? 1. Single 2. Married 3. Divorced 4. Widowed 4. What is your level of education? 1. Cannot read and write 2. Read and write 3. Primary school (1-8) 4. Secondary school (9-12) 5. 10/12 +3(Diploma) 5. What is your religion? 1. Protestant 2.Orthodox Christianity 3.Catholic 4. Muslim 6. What is your ethnicity? 1. Oromo 2. Amhara 3. Gurage 4. Harari 7. Average monthly income 1. Below 1000 2. 1001-2000 3. 1001-2000 4. 2001-3000 5. 3001-4000 6. 4001-5000 7. Above 5000 8. What kind of job were you engaged in your areas before trafficked to abroad? 1. Farmer 2. Governmental employed 3. Self-employed 4. Unemployed 5. Micro business 6. Service providers Part II. Questions related to perceptions and practices of human trafficking.

1. Do you which trafficking route used to abroad? 2. Why the majority of the people prefer illegal trafficking route in your area to abroad? 3. Where is the dominant destination areas for trafficked Ethiopians? 1. Djibouti 2. Yemen 3. Lebanon 4. Saudi Arabia 5. Oman 4. Where do you get the money to cover the payment cost (to finance) your trip to abroad? 1. Borrowing 2. Covered by families/relatives 3. Micro credit 4. Selling asset’ 5. Own saving 5. How long have you stayed in Middle East (abroad)? ______6. What type of work were you engaged in, while you were in Middle East? ______7. Have you been sending remittance back home while working abroad? 1. Yes 2. No 8. If ‘yes’, for question number 7, what means were you using to remit money? ______Part III. Questions Related to Causes of Human Trafficking

9. What are the major push factors that make people vulnerable to human trafficking? ______10. What are the major pull Factor encourage people to human trafficking? ______Part IV. Questions related to destinations area and effects of human trafficking 11. Did you think there is/are any negative Social effects of human trafficking on the Community? 1. Yes 2. No 12. If say yes for question number 11, what are social effect of human trafficking? 13. In your personal experiences did you have any health problem facing related to trafficking? 1. Yes 2. No 14. If say yes for question number 13, what type of health effects faced you? ______15. In your personal opinion there is/are any negative economic effects of human trafficking on local community in your kebele? 1. Yes 2. No

16. If yes for question number fifteen (15), what are these economic effect of human trafficking affect the local community? ______

17. What are the challenges that the trafficked persons faced in the trafficking process

Part V. Questions related to status after Return.

18. The housing condition you live in know? 1. with family 2. Rent house 3.With friends 4. Public 5. My own house 19. Did you have debt to repay on returnees? 1. Yes 2. No 20. If yes for question 19, what are the source of your income? ______21. What is the ideal occupation you want to engage in the future? 1. Farmer 2. Civil servant 3. Livestock breeder 4. Craftsman 5. Go back to school 6. Merchant other’s please specify______22. Do you think there is/are any need of support for trafficked returnees? 1. Yes 2. No 23. If yes for question twenty two (22), what type of support do you think help victims to achieve their future plan? ______

24. Have you got support so far? 1. Yes 2. No

25. If yes for question number twenty four (24), from whom did you get support? ______26. In what way the assistance provided for you?

27. What are the challenges that the trafficked persons faced during their reintegration to the community without accomplishing trafficking goal?

Appendix II. Interview Guide A for interview with trafficked and returned victims of human trafficking III. Respondent’s Profile

1. Name (Optional) ______4. Educational Background______2. Sex: Male ___ Female ____ 5. Marital status______3. Age: _____ 6. Location/kebele: ______IV. Interview Questions 1. Could you please tell me in what conditions you lived before trafficked?

2. What was your reason for trafficking? 3. What are the reasons for you to prefer illegal trafficking route via Djibouti?

4. What country is your choice of destination?

5. How did you finance your trip?

6. Are there any challenges facing you while travel to the destination?

7. Have you ever seen or heard any challenges faced other trafficked victims on their Travel?

8. If yes for question 7, what are the major challenges faced by trafficked victims?

9. What type of exploitation were most of trafficked Ethiopians engaged in Middle East?

10. Do think that trafficking has any socio-economic effects on local community? If yes how?

11. In your personal experience who is the most vulnerable sections of the society? And Why?

12. How did you come back to your country?

13. Are there any difficulties you faced during reintegration to the community?

14. How do you generally describe the conditions in your family following your returnees?

15. Now that you are back in your area of origin, what do you, say about effects of trafficked Returnees without accomplishing trafficking goal on your family and the community at large?

16. Is there anything else you would like to add before we end?

Appendix III. Interview Guide B: for FGD with Residents (Returnees, Familie s/Relatives of returns and Elders)

Greeting, Introducing myself, and my work The ultimate purpose of this FGD is to generate an evidence based information from the grass root society with regard to the causes, multifaceted challenges and socioeconomic effects of human trafficking in Meta Wereda. The attitudes of the community, factors that affecting the successful reintegration of returnees to the community and What type efforts are community and local government bodies making to help trafficked returnees integrated back into the community or family are also part of the discussion. With regard to this issue please feel free to narrate your experience or your families, relatives and neighbors‟ phenomenology. Any comment or opinion related to the issue under discussion is welcomed and it is confidential that will be used only for academic research purposes. You are also welcomed to ask for clarification of any concept.

1. What is your opinion towards human trafficking? 2. Can you discuss a bit about the root causes of human trafficking in your locality? 3. Can you discuss the possible reasons why individuals choose illegal trafficking routes? 4. Which group of people are more vulnerable to human trafficking in your kebeles? And why? 5. How do evaluate the success of returns in terms of remittances send to support family? 6. What are the factors that affect the successful reintegration of involuntary returnees to the Community without accomplishing trafficking goal? 7. Can you mention the problems which are repeatedly faced the trafficked victims with respect to reintegration to the community? 8. What type efforts are community and government bodies making to help trafficked returnees reintegrated into the community or family? 9. How do you explain effects of trafficked and involuntary returnees without accomplishing? Trafficking goal on the family and local community? 10. Do you have anything to add or discuss which is relevant to the topics we have raised so far?

Thank you very match for your cooperation!

Appendix VI. Table 1: General Background of Interviewed trafficked Returnees

No Code Se Age Educational Marital Living Kebele Date of the x status status conditions interview 1 #1 F 25 10th Single unemployed Chelenko 01 27/02/2020 2 #2 M 28 Graduate Married Self employed Goro Muti 02 27/02/2020 3 #3 F 22 10th Married Unemployed Kulubi 28/02/2020 4 #4 M 27 9th Divorced Self employed Chelenko 01 29/02/2020 5 #5 F 25 8th Married Self employed Kulubi 29/02/2020

Appendix VII. Table 2: General Background of FGD Participants

No Informants Sex Age Status Place of FGD/ Date of FGD code Kebele 1 FGD Ku.1 F 45 Resident Chelenko 01 01/03/2020 2 FGD Ku.2 F 27 Returnees Chelenko 01 01/03/2020 3 FGD Ku.3 F 48 Resident Chelenko 01 01/03/2020 4 FGD Ku.4 M 54 Resident Chelenko 01 01/03/2020 5 FGD Ku.5 M 30 Returnees Chelenko 01 01/03/2020 6 FGD Ku.6 M 46 Resident Chelenko 01 01/03/2020 7 FGD Me.1 F 29 Returnees Kulubi 08/03/2020 8 FGD Me.2 F 44 Resident Kulubi 08/03/2020 9 FGD Me.3 F 38 Resident Kulubi 08/03/2020 10 FGD Me.4 M 50 Resident Kulubi 08/03/2020 11 FGD Me.5 M 45 Resident Kulubi 08/03/2020 12 FGD Me.6 M 32 Returnees Kulubi 08/03/2020