The Metamorphosis of Ovid's Medea

Home , Aeson, Antoninus Liberalis, Medea, Medea (Seneca)

earlier earlier

424 424

lost lost

myth, myth,

Corinth Corinth

Apollonius Apollonius

narrative narrative

final final

nature nature

of of

four four

children children

ther ther

venation venation

Euripides Euripides

Ovid's Ovid's

Apollonius Apollonius

time time

comic comic

from from

murderess.

us us

have have

In In

Medea Medea

1 1

2 2

as as

represents represents

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On On

Thus Thus

predictable predictable

departure departure watched watched

lines lines

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a a

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interaction interaction

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a a

and and

witch: witch:

account account

poetry'-with poetry'-with

of of

linear linear

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sympathetic sympathetic

and and

opening opening

(7.394-97), (7.394-97),

Anderson Anderson

that that

(159-293) (159-293)

in in

MEDEA MEDEA the the

place. place.

in in

to to

here, here,

of of

2 2

in in

earlier. earlier.

"The "The

the the

Medea.

which which

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lost lost

the the

narrative narrative

literature, literature,

Rhodes, Rhodes,

runs runs

individual individual

book book

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his his

in in

THE THE

young young

Metamorphoses Metamorphoses

tragedy tragedy

nor nor

with with

Medea Medea

unlike unlike

events events

essay essay

Instead, Instead,

disgrace disgrace her her

1972:262 1972:262

Now Now

third third

from from

1 1

and and

3 3

Medea's Medea's

of of

he he

portrayal portrayal

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career career

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METAMORPHOSIS METAMORPHOSIS

Carole Carole

who who

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we we

she she

see see

lacks lacks

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treats treats

OVID'S OVID'S

Medea Medea

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at at

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rich rich

see see

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treatment treatment

in in

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Corinth, Corinth,

Argonautica Argonautica Metamorphoses Metamorphoses

focus focus

an an

major major

as as

murder murder

also also

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at at

volume, volume,

final final

tradition tradition

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accomplished accomplished

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letter letter

accomplished accomplished

at at

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exacerbates exacerbates

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length length

psychological psychological

Medea Medea

has has

8 8

meeting meeting

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of of

Colchis, Colchis,

respectively respectively

New New

MEDEA MEDEA

the the

Greek Greek 1985:383-87. 1985:383-87.

instance, instance,

attempt attempt

of of

including including

very very

interplay interplay

of of

to to

first first

powers powers

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material material

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achieve achieve

of of

lands lands

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as as

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predecessors predecessors

witch, witch,

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he he

7 7

love-sick love-sick

demonstrates demonstrates

that that

to to

is is

while while

to to

pharmaceutria pharmaceutria

are are tells tells

is is

(297-349). (297-349).

that that

on on

unity unity

with with

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elucidate elucidate

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do do

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delighting delighting

with with

life. life.

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dearly dearly

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murder murder

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result result

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mature mature

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story story

passes passes

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suppressed suppressed

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in in

author's author's

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refers refers

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focus focus

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12 12

(witch) (witch)

of of

in in

treatment treatment

Medea Medea

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to to

powers powers

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abruptly abruptly

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to to

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reju

7.7-

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nei

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implicit, implicit,

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interpretation. interpretation. Medea Medea

myth myth 7.100ff." 7.100ff." the the

3 3

rather rather

Medea, Medea,

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and and

children. children.

frameworks frameworks

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letter letter

bares bares

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revulsion. revulsion.

character. character.

traditionally traditionally

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4 4

the the

3 3

seem seem

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youthful youthful

12 12

(71). (71).

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sympathize sympathize

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wishes, wishes,

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youthful youthful

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7. 7.

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autonomous autonomous

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us us

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epistle epistle

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literary literary

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play play

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or or

narrative narrative

Medea Medea

mature mature

her, her,

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dreadful dreadful

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1974:109-23 1974:109-23

each each

of of

mature mature

suffers" suffers" hypocritical. hypocritical.

12, 12,

AM AM

view view

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presenting presenting

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as as

7 7

history history

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because because

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speaks speaks

combines combines skillfully

s s

sees sees

figure figure

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(119). (119).

start start

Ovid Ovid

so so

poem poem

marked marked

£allure £allure

A~son, A~son,

figure figure 0 0

a a

Jason's Jason's

Medea, Medea, passionate passionate

see see

we we

1974 1974

"throughout "throughout

many many

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Jason.

and and

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to to

poem poem

of of

absent absent

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Rhodes' Rhodes'

Medea Medea

(79-80). (79-80).

inconsistencies inconsistencies

preserved preserved

and and

PH PH

see see

is is

in in remain

Rosner-Siegel1982:231-43. Rosner-Siegel1982:231-43.

Verducci Verducci

of of

past past

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plagued plagued powers powers

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to to

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complex complex

supernatural supernatural

of of

odds, odds,

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for for

4 4

from from

keep keep

wife wife

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events events

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accomplished accomplished

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the the

evil evil

a a

love love

letter letter Argonautica. Argonautica.

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is is

a a

accepting accepting

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on on

succeeded. succeeded.

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unjustly unjustly

1985:66-Sl,whocomments: 1985:66-Sl,whocomments:

momentary momentary

from from

by by

Heroides Heroides

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second second

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one. one.

dull dull

antiquity antiquity

a a

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1985 1985

esp. esp.

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voice voice

0 0

the the

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powers powers secondary secondary

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eve eve

futile futile

12 12

career career

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character character

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9-21, 9-21, ·the ·the

injured injured

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have have

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we we

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half half

plays plays

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explains explains

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entirely entirely

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12 12

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attempted attempted

MEDEA MEDEA

neither neither

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world world

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temporal temporal

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young, young,

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narrative, narrative,

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myth myth

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slaughter slaughter

unified unified and and

epistle's epistle's

the the

of of to to

of of

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relates relates

7.9-99, 7.9-99,

the the

moral moral

of of

different different

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to to

point point

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between between

cover cover

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surprising surprising

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the the

of of

contrast contrast

with with

marvel marvel

and and

sympathy sympathy

mature, mature,

engage engage

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sympathetically sympathetically

in in

what what

retrospective retrospective

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girl, girl,

resists resists

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past, past,

what what

Medea Medea

depends depends

12 12

179 179

is is

reconciliation reconciliation

which which

3 3

deterioration:· deterioration:·

and and

of of

composition, composition,

children children

of of

relationship relationship

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her her

up up

to to

so so

notion notion

lover, lover,

divides divides

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own own

· · Apollonius Apollonius

The The

responses responses

Ovid Ovid

view, view,

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created created

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she she

Corinth Corinth

suffused suffused

of of

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memory memory

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detract detract

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spatial spatial

remain remain

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in in

matu

epistle epistle

single single

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upon upon

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does does

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tells tells

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did, did,

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nor nor

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of of

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is is is is

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as as

resenting resenting Ovid Ovid strong strong

ued ued

reconciled reconciled drugs? drugs? fact fact

~eress, ~eress,

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in in vantage, vantage,

herself. herself.

marginal marginal infanticide. infanticide.

on on bad bad

women women does does

in in

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tions tions

Recurrent Recurrent 676), 676),

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ment. ment.

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concerns-that concerns-that

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the the

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structurally structurally such such

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thus thus

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rewriting rewriting

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tradition tradition

humanization humanization

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as as

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questions, questions,

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with with

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literary literary

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tradition, tradition,

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concerning concerning

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between between

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cardboard cardboard

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(6.677-721) (6.677-721)

of of

removes removes

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can can

Met. Met.

12. 12.

to to

trembling trembling

a a

that that

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allowing allowing

(8.1-151), (8.1-151),

a a

tales tales

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to to

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myths myths

figure figure

branches branches

does does

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woman's woman's

tradition tradition

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12 12

woman, woman,

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180 180

By By

conveniently conveniently

2.549-835 2.549-835

who who

discuss discuss

are are

the the

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from from

of of

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engulfed engulfed

violent violent

structural structural

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does does

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about about

juxtaposing juxtaposing

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branch branch

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elided elided

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figure figure

myth myth

controls controls

marriage, marriage,

undertaken undertaken

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protagonists, protagonists,

urgent urgent

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maiden maiden

are are

Procris Procris

sympathetic sympathetic

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Procne, Procne,

evil: evil:

of of

sequence sequence

not not

as as

a a

are are

physical physical

arouse arouse full full

by by

marriage marriage

1966:chap. 1966:chap.

crime, crime,

sympathetic sympathetic

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evil evil

filial filial

a a

to to

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difficulties difficulties

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Keith Keith

in in

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square square

whole whole

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relationship relationship

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be be

explore explore

moral moral Medea Medea

and and

tradition tradition

the the

and and

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become become

evil evil

supernatural supernatural

closely closely

Philomela, Philomela,

in in

the the

love, love,

duty, duty,

as as

strong strong

S S

foreign foreign

moral moral

called called

1992 1992

and, and,

and and

by by

even even

Medea Medea

the the

biases biases

a a

tradition, tradition,

control control

Cephalus Cephalus

6, 6,

is is

does does

in in

horror horror

and and

well, well,

formative formative

girl girl

issues issues

story story

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Apollonius Apollonius

with with

argues argues

problematic, problematic,

betrayal, betrayal,

in in

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psychological psychological marriage, marriage,

the the

and and

connected connected

related related

the the

elegiac elegiac

pressure pressure

in in alters alters

a a

emotions. emotions.

their their

and and

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enchantress enchantress

not not

groups groups

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of of

"marriage "marriage

however, however,

to to

the the

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her her

other other

and and

of of

murderess? murderess?

has has

dangers dangers

for for

that that

Metamorphoses Metamorphoses

powers. powers.

principle principle one one

as as

invite invite

(7.694-862), (7.694-862),

the the

shared shared

nature nature

Metamorphoses, Metamorphoses,

result result

Medea's Medea's

own own

the the

to to

Tereus Tereus

type, type,

and and

one one

together together

Ovid Ovid

are are

betrayal, betrayal, myths myths

from from

wicked wicked

and and

another, another,

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ways ways

to to

importance importance

for for

nature nature

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reflection reflection

woman's woman's

involved involved

clear clear

with with

involved involved

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displace

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all all

thematic thematic

group."

and and

the the

myth myth

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contin

has has

how how

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( (

the the

Ovidian Ovidian

6.424-

act act

about about

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ques

Ovid Ovid

these these

rep

sor two two

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7. 7.

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5 5

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marry marry

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love love moral moral soliloquy soliloquy

presented presented

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surrounding surrounding

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As As

to to

father father

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tions tions

Through Through

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phoses phoses

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that that

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Procne Procne

woman woman

engaging. engaging.

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motivates motivates

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generic generic

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"resolution" "resolution"

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himself himself

end. end.

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however, however,

surrounding surrounding

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first first

of of

tter tter

paper paper

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metamorphosis, metamorphosis,

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1990) 1990)

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trust: trust:

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n. n.

T H E E H T

husband. husband.

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in in

offers offers

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acts acts

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7: 7:

affiliations affiliations

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Tereus-Procne Tereus-Procne

is is

39. 39.

G. G.

often often

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others. others.

Scylla Scylla

the the

part part

first first

but but

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is is

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removed removed

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story story

Jacobsen Jacobsen

will will

dissonant dissonant

desires desires

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classify classify

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The The

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myths myths

violently violently

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revealed. revealed.

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conveyed conveyed

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tales tales

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1984 1984

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tales" tales"

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myth myth

group group

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7 7

resists resists

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because because

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Young Young

with with

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narrative narrative

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In In

character. character.

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home home

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0 0

aspects aspects

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dispassionate dispassionate

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her her

center. center.

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family family

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pathos, pathos,

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a a

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in in

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martial martial

form form

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were, were,

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traditional traditional

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the the repetition repetition

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similarities similarities

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to· to· a a 198 N E W lANDS THE MET AM 0 R PH 0 SIS 0 F 0 VI D'S MEDEA 199 from a Tarpeia to an Ariadne, herself the daughter of Minos, whose to take the purple lock as a pledge of love from Scylla, Minos expresses story of abandonment directly follows Scylla's (8.169-82).33 his horror at the thought that such an abomination as this girl should When Scylla addresses Minos directly as he sails away from her, we touch Cretan soil: are invited to view her with some sympathy. She is as frighteningly isolated as if, like Ariadne, she were abandoned on a desert island. di te submoveant, o nostri infamia saecli, She has nowhere to go to, nobody to turn to. Her homeland hates her; orbe suo, tellusque tibi pontusque negetur! the neighboring lands fear her example (113-18). She is cast out, an certe ego non patiar Iovis incunabula, Creten, orphan of the world, exponimur orbae/terrarum (117-18). She reveals at qui meus orbis est, tan tum contingere monstrum. last a moral sensibility, for she openly admits her guilt and expresses (97-100) repentance for her crime (125-30). Like Ariadne's, Scylla's speech is a mixture of special pleading and abuse. Indeed, several of Scylla's 0 infamy of our age, may the gods remove you complaints against Minos-her abandonment by her lover, her social from their world, and may earth and sea be refused you! Of course I shall not allow Jupiter's birthplace, Crete, ostracism and geographical isolation, his ingratitude and inhumanity which is my world, to touch such a monstrosity. are found in Heroides 10, the letter of Ariadne written supposedly as Theseus speeds away from the shore of Naxos.34 However, Scylla The climactic noun monstrum (100) used to describe Scylla lends irony emphasizes to a greater extent her beloved's obligation to her. In this to Minos' seemingly high-minded refusal to take her home, for Minos' .., important regard she comes closer to the Medea of Heroides 12, whose •. home is famous for its family monsters-as Scylla will remind him letter, a litany of reminders to Jason that his successes are due to her, with her taunting references to Pasiphae's perverse mating with a bull leads to the expected conclusion that he should not abandon her. Scylla (131-37). Indeed, the next occurrence of the word monstrum refers calls herself meritorum auctor, the agent of Minos' success (108), for, to the Minotaur itself (156). The phrase with which Scylla describes· in her view, he owes his military conquest of Megara to her. He has herself, meritorum auctor, somewhat ironically recalls the description of exploited her action while expressing the utmost distaste for it. We are the victorious Minos as iustissimus auctor (the excellent agent of justice, thus offered a different, more sympathetic perspective on Scylla when 101), for the traditional view of Minos as judge is counterbalanced by the she appears in the role of abandoned heroine, who, through the speech reminder of the different tradition about Minos as king of perversions.36 that Ovid gives her, vents her feelings about Minos' departure without Minos' high-minded position can hardly be sustained by his own ugly her (108-42). history of family betrayal, of which we are amply reminded in the Of course, like the deserted heroines' complaints in the Heroides, following story of the Minotaur (152-82). By letting Scylla speak her Scylla's words are not to be accepted uncritically. Her speech serves to thoughts about what she perceives as her betrayal by Minos, Ovid opens show that her story is not a simple one of right and wrong, however. certainly removed the charge of murder from Minos. It is in his artistic interests, of Ovid prepares the way for the substance of Scylla's complaints by course, to conclude the tale with a metamorphosis, one moreover of a female whose hinting at the moral ambiguity of Minos' own position.35 Refusing rejection of civilized norms is symbolized, as with Procne and Medea, in her departure from the earth. Rather than presenting Minos as a callous murderer, Ovid skillfully 33 On the links of Ovid's Scylla with Catullus' and Ovid's own Ariadne and Vergil's suggests the moral complexity of his rejection of Scylla. Cf. Anderson 1972:ad 101-3: Dido, see Anderson 1972:333. "Ovid _consistently retains our sympathy with Minos, who undertook a just war, treated 34 Each heroine addresses her departing beloved from the shore; each anguished speech Scylla JUStly,and now deals with the Megarians with just conditions." begins with the despairing cry quo fugis? (Her. 10.34, Met. 8.108); each woman complains 36 Minos lurks in a more unsavory role in the background of the preceding story of of her banishment from her father (Her. 10.65, Met. 8.115-16) and from all the world Procns and Cephal us. According to Apollod. 3.15.1 and Antoninus Liberalis Met. 41.4-5, (Her. 10.93-98, Met. 8.113-18); each reminds her lover of the service she has performed Procris cured Minos of unusual sexual problems, in return for which he gave her a javelin. on his behalf (Her. 10.99-110, Met. 8.108-13); and each accuses her hard-hearted lover of In Ovid~sversion Procris' loving husband Cephalus does not tell this story, telling only an inhuman birth (Her.10.131-32, Met. 8.131-33). 35 quae patrtur pudor (what decency allows, 7.687), a hint of the less reputable material that is Earlier versions of the Scylla myth make Minos drown Scylla as she clings to the suppressed in his account. Note that Ovid refers to the donor of the javelin as muneris prow (Apollod. 3.15.8) or drown herself (Hyg. Fab. 198), a possible misunderstanding, auctor (agent of the gift, 686). The phrase auctor is not used again until book 8, with according to Anderson 1972:334, of Minos' throwing her into the sea. Ovid then has reference there to Minos. See Anderson 1972:ad 7.687; Ahl1985:204-11. 200 N E W LA N D S THE MET A M 0 R PH 0 SIS 0 F 0 VI D'S MEDEA 201 up to moral uncertainties a story of a rather conventional type, the girl woman, who has lost his object of desire.39 In addition, this story tells of who betrays her country for love. Like Medea, Scylla is both the betrayer a marriage that results from a father's arrangement and the mutual love of her father and the betrayed. We find here the same slippage of moral of a couple, as the narrator Cephalus is at pains to say: pater hanc mihi categories as in the myth of Procne. Ovid thus adds complexity to the iunxit Erechtheus,lhanc mihi iunxit amor (her father Erechtheus united theme of betrayal by woman and by man. Although Scylla betrays her her with me, I love united her with me; 697-98). For once, the two father, moral perfection is by no means all on the side of Minos, who necessary ingredients for a marriage come together. Scylla and Medea cannily takes advantage of her betrayal. In Ovid's hands the theme had amor but not the father's consent; Procne had the father's consent of betrayal, like that of infanticide in Metamorphoses 6, resists moral but we hear nothing of amor. absolutes. Like the marriages of Medea and Procne, however, the marriage of Lacking special powers and status, Scylla is a more open and po Procris and Cephalus is severely tested when Cephalus is abducted tentially a more sympathetic vehicle than Medea for the exploration of by the dawn goddess Aurora shortly after the wedding (700-713). the moral implications of betrayal. Presented at the end as a victim of Different versions of this story tell of a series of complications that her passion and naivete rather than as a mere traitor, she is a forceful result from this abduction, among them Procris' own sexualliaisons.40 example of the woman condemned and ostracized for an impious crime In his account of his married life, Cephalus, presumably respectful of for which society allows no extenuating circumstances. Her metamor .his royal audience and protective of his wife's memory, tells only what phosis into a bird is a form of solution to her tragic displacement-at the modesty permits (687) and emphasizes his wife's chastity (734--36). The expense of her human identity. Like Procne she ends her life as a bird presence of Procris in the text is carefully controlled by Cephal us' words, hunted by a vengeful male relative, for her father is also transformed through which she appears as the honorable object of his desire, not as into a bird, the predatory sea eagle (145-47). Scylla's one powerful act the angry, sexually independent woman portrayed by other writers. condemns her to both perpetual victimization and perpetual guilt, for Cephalus' self-representation in his narrative is likewise carefully she becomes a bird that bears its name from the cutting of the fatal controlled. Although he betrayed Procris with Aurora, he argues that lock (150-51). Scylla is suspended in an endless cycle of pursuit and throughout his enforced abduction he remained faithful to Procris in flight, without hope of forgiveness from her father or of respite. The his heart: Procrin amabam:lpectore Procris erat, Procris mihi semper in ore marginalization of the woman who disobeys social norms and attempts (I stayed in love with Procris: I Procris was in my heart, Procris was to seize power for herself is here displayed in an extreme and unre always on my lips; 707-8). Unlike the marriage of Jason and Medea, solved form, with the cycle of paternal vengeance and filial rejection the marriage of Procris and Cephalus survives its first betrayal, the first endlessly repeated.37 assault upon the necessary trust .between man and wife, for the couple are eventually reconciled. This first testing of their trust, however, leads to a second testing that proves fatal to Procris. After hunting Procris in the woods, Cephalus calls in a sensually evocative manner upon a breeze, aura, to visit him. Procris' suspicions are aroused by the On the surface, the story of Procris and Cephalus, which concludes name aura, so resonant of Aurora. Like the other women discussed book 7, is of a very different type from the three I have discussed thus by Ovid in the "marriage tales," she decides to act for herself and find far. 38 The story is told from the male perspective, and it is a man, not a out the truth of her suspicions by spying upon him in the woods. But 37 Anderson 1963:15 shows how Scylla's metamorphosis as ciris, literally "the cutting bird," is psychologically related to her desires as lover to plunge down into the Cretan 39 Poschl 1959 likens Cephalus as narrator to the elegiac love poets, particularly camp (39-40) and to glide on wings to Minos to confess her ardor (51-52): "When her Propertius and Catullus in their most deeply felt poems. metamorphosis takes place, then, her bird-shape commemorates her love and the crime 40 According to Apollod. 3.15.1, Procris achieves an independence comparable to to which it led (150-51)." Medea's through her success at sexually ensnaring a royal male and concocting a magical 38 Otis 1966:176ff. discusses the story and its departure from Hellenistic sources; potion, in this case a beneficial one used to cure Minos of ejaculating deadly serpents. Anderson 1990 discusses its relationship to the version in Ars Am. 3.687ff. See also Antoninus Liberalis Met. 41; Hyg. Fab. 89; Anderson 1972:adMet. 7.687.

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wife's wife's

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lover lover

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708). 708).

202 202

inequality inequality

Scylla's Scylla's

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Cephalus Cephalus

Scylla, Scylla,

on on

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self-destructive. self-destructive.

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dent dent

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wife. wife.

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lationship lationship

lovers lovers

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Aegina Aegina

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43 43

41 41

42 42

In In

sharp sharp

See See

Apollodorus Apollodorus

Cf. Cf.

Ars Ars

his his

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Orythia Orythia

story story

way way

attempts attempts

final final

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of of

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feelings feelings

Ars Ars

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difference difference

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Ahl1985:204-ll. Ahl1985:204-ll.

Am. Am.

realm, realm,

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story story

in in

and and

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us us

act act

these these

36 36

While While

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displaced. displaced.

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THE THE

love love

Cephal Cephal

forms forms tale tale

grief grief

military military

continues continues

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Amatoria Amatoria

1.269-350. 1.269-350.

above. above.

cannily cannily

the the

with with

has has

feelings. feelings.

his his

victims victims

(6.675-721), (6.675-721),

military military

and and

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women women

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METAMORPHOSIS METAMORPHOSIS

Medea, Medea,

provides provides

remains remains

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Minos Minos

prevent prevent

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Antoninus Antoninus

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Scylla, Scylla,

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marginalized, marginalized,

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a a

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assuming assuming

redound redound

private private

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of of

men men

pessimistic pessimistic

observes observes

upon upon

violent violent

ostracized ostracized

43 43

against against

different, different,

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with with

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own own

sorrow sorrow

any any

love. love.

41 41

His His

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modifiesthatof modifiesthatof

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Orythia Orythia

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Ahl Ahl

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Minos.

feelings feelings

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I I

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wish wish

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diplomatic diplomatic

OF OF

fail fail

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42 42

view view

are are

role role

enemy, enemy,

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persuasively persuasively

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killing killing

OVID'S OVID'S

women women

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Poschl1959, Poschl1959,

his his

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product product

temporciry temporciry

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Minos Minos

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details details

means means

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Cephalus' Cephalus'

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MEDEA MEDEA

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Cephalus Cephalus

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empowerment. empowerment.

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destroyed destroyed

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women women

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sees sees

make make

sorrow sorrow

nature nature

his his

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of of

at at

of of

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203 203

living living

he he

that that

Cephal Cephal

of of

Cephalus' Cephalus'

of of

Cephalus Cephalus According According

tales," tales,"

lover lover

love love true true

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upon upon

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Procris' Procris'

shaped shaped

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Ovid's Ovid's

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as as

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Tereus, Tereus, courtship courtship

are are

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invited invited

makes makes

that that

approval approval (6.681--83, (6.681--83,

an an (6.675-80); (6.675-80);

genetrix genetrix

forcefully forcefully

tragic tragic

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murder murder told, told, for for

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to to approached approached

Ovid Ovid

blandishments blandishments

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44 44

45 45 vis vis

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their their

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lighthearted lighthearted

Anderson Anderson

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Anderson Anderson

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Itys' Itys'

(6.711-12). (6.711-12). the the

him him

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courtship, courtship,

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abducts abducts

offers offers

7.694-97). 7.694-97).

Orythia's Orythia's

divine divine the the different different

civilized civilized

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other other

force) force)

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Tereus' Tereus'

on on

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1972:ad 1972:ad

a a

(621-22).

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1972:237 1972:237

the the

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comically comically

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myth myth

690-701 690-701

a a

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44 44

male male

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7, 7,

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204 204

Ovid's Ovid's

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NEWLANDS NEWLANDS

6.689-90), 6.689-90),

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fea~ing_all fea~ing_all

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8 8

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45 45

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sisters, sisters,

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(713), (713),

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(682). (682).

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The

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By the

of of

UNDER

PHILOSOPHICAL

PART

III

INVESTIGATION

J J

MYTH, MYTH,

PRINCETON PRINCETON

ESSAYS ESSAYS

LITERATURE, LITERATURE,

PRINCETON, PRINCETON,

1 1

Sarah Sarah

ames ames

MEDEA MEDEA

AND AND

Iles Iles Editors Editors

1. 1.

ON ON

UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY

Clauss Clauss

NEW NEW

1 1

MEDEA MEDEA

ART ART

ohnston, ohnston,

JERSEY JERSEY PHILOSOPHY, PHILOSOPHY,

and and

PRESS PRESS IN IN