CORPORATE LEADERSHIP AND THE PERCEPTIONS OF CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFFICER COMPUTER-MEDIATED COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS

Mark C. Zeller

A Dissertation

Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

May 2006

Committee:

Melissa M. Spirek, Ph.D., Advisor

Karen D. Johnson-Webb, Ph.D. Graduate Faculty Representative

Donald J. Jung, Ph.D.

Canchu Lin, Ph.D.

John J. Makay, Ph.D.

© 2006

Mark C. Zeller

All Rights Reserved iii

ABSTRACT

Mark C. Zeller

Melissa M. Spirek, Ph.D., Advisor

Chief executive officers (CEOs) spend the majority of their time in organizations

communicating. Mintzberg’s (1973) seminal work reported that CEOs spend up to 80%

of their time communicating. It is not surprising then to find that selecting the most

appropriate media channel to communicate to internal and external constituencies in the

media rich environment of the 21st century is one of the greatest challenges CEOs

currently face (Zeller & Spirek, 2003). Although Rice noted in 1984 that the

CEO is an actor interacting and providing leadership utilizing computer-mediated

communication channels with varying media rich channels, the complexity of this use for

the CEO and his or her organization has increased exponentially over the past two decades. Specifically this investigation responds to this predicament. This

dissertation explores when, where, what and how CEOs utilize multimedia channels across a media rich continuum.

The results generated with the CEOs demonstrate that media richness theory (Daft

& Lengel, 1984) is a fruitful framework. Findings indicate that the CEOs are stressed and

these leaders seek information to conduct this communication effectively given the host

of media-rich channels now available. The majority of the 60 CEO interviewees

emphasized computer-mediated communication was important or absolutely necessary

as a powerful communication channel. Adding to this complexity is the CEOs’ personal

communication needs as well. Put simply, the effective and efficient use of computers

across a host of scenarios is difficult. When, where, and how to utilize iv

computer-mediated communication in combination with other communication channels

was recognized as a difficult decision-making process with salient implications for

selecting one medium over another. The self-reports repeatedly document that CEOs’

medium choices were associated with the degree of success in creating a shared meaning with his or her intended audience.

Based upon the current investigation’s findings, future research should consider

responding to media richness theory’s contribution to the field of communication. The findings underscore Rice (1984) and Williams, Rice, and Rogers’ (1988) challenge that the skills of leadership utilizing new media communication channels must include an

understanding of the user’s attitude and experience, be it CEO, stakeholder, or employee.

v

I would like to dedicate this dissertation to my wife, Deborah, who is close to my heart.

She not only is the woman of my dreams but she made my dream of a doctoral degree

possible with her love and support.

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I’d like to recognize Dr. Melissa M. Spirek, to whom I shall be ever grateful for

the opportunity to enter into and complete the communication program at Bowling Green

State University. My first encounter with Dr. Spirek was in 1995, when Dr. Spirek

opened the door for a group of chief executive officers (CEOs) to understand the

phenomena of the World Wide Web. As one of those CEOs, I had been experiencing

first-hand the frustrations of communicating with multiple stakeholders globally, while

trying to understand the turn of technology and the sharing of meaning. She

recommended that I come to the university and study communication. Dr. Spirek has not

only been an advisor, but an inspiration, a friend, and a part of our family. Her guidance

and support throughout the dissertation brought it all together.

I owe a debt of gratitude to the CEOs that I have known in my past 32 years in

business and those I have met through my research. These individuals shared their lives with me because I had been one of them. The CEOs not only shared their answers scientifically with me, but continue to be entrepreneurially curious. Their passion for learning is apparent, with the CEOs’ enthusiastically volunteering to be a part of further research.

I thank my dissertation committee members for their guidance. Dr. John J.

Makay, a great teacher and researcher. This elite scholar taught me that the study of

communication is really the study of misunderstanding. His wisdom helped me to better

understand academe. Dr. Donald J. Jung, whose approach to the study of communication

gave me a whole new insight on how to look at the values and interactions of CEOs.

Dr. Canchu Lin added to my knowledge of organizational communication and opened the vii

door for my references in areas of organizational structure for future research. It is

exciting to realize I shared a connection with Dr. Lin. My business team was building in

China and then was pulled back because of Tiananmen Square. Dr. Lin was at Tiananmen

Square. Dr. Karen D. Johnson-Webb made it exciting to study the demographics of

economics of global trade. She encouraged me to apply this new knowledge to

communication. It was an honor to coauthor a regional research study with

Dr. Johnson-Webb.

It would be remiss of me to not acknowledge Purdue University’s influence on

my research program. First, I thank those members of the Purdue mafia who were Dr.

Spirek’s colleagues, Dr. John Weispfenning, Dr. Christine Kelly, Dr. Rose Campbell, and

Dr. Beth Goering welcomed me and encouraged me to pursue my passion of research. It

was a special honor to meet and discuss communication research with Dr. Glenn Sparks,

Dr. Spirek’s advisor at Purdue University. Dr. Spark’s visit to BGSU was a milestone

during my graduate education.

I’m grateful to Drs. Julie Burke, Lynda Dixon, Victoria Smith-Ekstrand, Dennis

Hale, Kathryn Hoff, Sung-Yeon Park, and John Warren for their contributions to my education. My appreciation to my fellow graduate students Ike Brunner, Michael McGill, and Kris Medford. Their assistance, support, and friendship is substantial.

My deep appreciation goes to Carroll Ashley, Al Caperna, Dave Francisco, Frank

Kistler, and Neil Marko for their friendship and continued support. I am grateful to Ed

Reiter for his encouragement of my postdoctoral research. His insights were and are invaluable.

Most of all, I thank my family: my now 12-year old son, Andrew, for his advice viii and competitive nature. Andrew has directed my studies since first grade and now at seventh grade, continues to challenge my academic pursuits. My son, Matthew, who through the completion of his graduate business and law degrees, is thanked for our ongoing conversations that strengthen our shared belief that education is necessary to improve mankind. My brother, Kevin, provided continuous encouragement and financial support. I also thank my son David. Last but not least, I thank my wife’s family for their many kind words and often humorous remarks. My two favorite observations are:

(1) “What are you going to do with all those books?” and (2) “Do you suppose this is going to make you more employable?”

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

CHAPTER I. LITERATURE REVIEW...... 1

Introduction...... 1

Media Richness Theory ...... 2

Organizational Research ...... 10

Interpersonal Research...... 11

Institutional Research...... 13

Computer-Mediated Communication ...... 15

Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) ...... 19

Description of Media Richness Continuum...... 23

Development of Media Richness Continuum...... 24

Figure 1. Media Richness Theory Communication Channels Continuum ..... 26

Current Investigation ...... 30

CHAPTER II. METHOD...... 33

Survey ...... 33

Participants ...... 33

Procedure ...... 34

Materials and Equipment ...... 34

Content Analysis...... 35

Sample ...... 35

Procedure ...... 35

Materials and Equipment ...... 35 x

CHAPTER III. RESULTS...... 37

Overview ...... 37

Descriptive Sample Statistics...... 37

CEOs’ Organizations...... 37

Organizations' Web Pages...... 43

Hypotheses and Research Question...... 60

Hypothesis 1 ...... 60

Hypothesis 2 ...... 65

Hypothesis 3 ...... 66

Hypothesis 4 ...... 80

Research Question 1 ...... 84

Figure 2. Extended Media Richness Theory Continuum...... 92

CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION ...... 94

Conclusion ...... 94

Discussion ...... 96

Study’s Theoretical Contributions...... 96

Strengths ...... 96

Limitations ...... 98

Study’s Methodological Contributions...... 99

Strengths ...... 99

Limitations ...... 100

Future Directions...... 101

Short-Term...... 101 xi

Long-Term ...... 102

REFERENCES ...... 106

APPENDIX A. SURVEY...... 118

APPENDIX B. CODING WEB PAGES...... 126 xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1 CEOs’ Organizations...... 38

2 CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Pages...... 45

3 CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Page Overall Appearance ...... 51

4 CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Page Communication Options ...... 56

5 CEO Sources to Identify New Computer Communication Applications ...... 62

6 CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Page Media Richness Description ...... 67

7 Explication of Individual Computer-Mediated Communication Use...... 81

8 CEO Reasons for Not Using Computer Communication as a Tool...... 82

9 What Scholars Need to Know About CEOs’ Computer Use...... 88

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 1

Corporate Leadership and the Perceptions of Chief Executive Officer

Computer-Mediated Communication Effectiveness

CHAPTER I. LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Computer-mediated communication exponentially increased chief executive officers’

(CEOs) channel choice for communicating effectively in the 21st century. CEOs began utilizing computer-mediated channel sources for their communication at the opening of the twenty-first century to meet the demand brought about by the information highway (Zeller & Spirek, 2003).

CEOs were challenged to organize work tasks, decision patterns, and interacting with colleagues in a new paradigm of computer-mediated communication. These leaders were faced with the demands from expanding and varying audiences, boards of directors, customers, employees, and an emerging network of new stakeholders. These diverse audiences expected fluency, structure, and understanding of the use of this media and corresponding technology (Warner, 2005). The

CEOs were now required to communicate in virtual networks with a new type of interactivity.

The array of audiences now ranged in size and scope from an individual employee two offices away from the office of the CEO to a diverse global audience (Nadesan, 2001). The

CEOs’ leadership is confronting a new network community with a shift in communication processes and social boundaries that emerged with computer-mediated technology (Wellman,

1999). The importance of the CEO as an effective communicator is apparent (Barnard, 1968;

Mintzberg, 1973; Geneen, 1984; Bass, 1990) but how she or he experienced this important paradigm shift in communicating with constituencies (Tetzeli, 1994) has not been rigorously studied. In fact, academic studies with CEOs as participants are severely limited in number despite the CEOs’ power to influence change (Rogers, 2003). This dissertation responds to this CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 2 void in the literature with a survey of CEOs, where the CEOs’ assessment of media channels is examined from the framework of media richness. The completion of this dissertation will provide a systematic investigation of CEOs’ use of computer-mediated communication tools and the CEOs’ perceptions of communication effectiveness of a media continuum in a multimedia environment.

Media Richness Theory

Media richness is the effect a medium has on shared meanings and understanding between the sender and receiver when “each medium utilizes differences in feedback, cues and language variety” (Daft & Lengel, 1984, p. 198). Daft and Lengel, media richness’ creators, examine information processing and the effects of different communication channels or media on the meaning of information shared within organizations. These two scholars define two information tasks: (1) equivocality reduction, and (2) the communicative interaction designated as processing of a sufficient quantity of information.

The importance of the media channel is highlighted also in the work of communication scholar Dr. Ronald Rice. Rice’s (1984a) research indicates that the communication channel effects may be due to the restrictive abilities of the human use of the medium or channel when communicating. Rice asserts the use of new media technology as part of human communication.

This scholar considers three levels of research: (1) interpersonal, (2) organizational, and (3) institutional. Rice states, “One of the issues on the personal level of communication is that the new media are often claimed to be impersonal or depersonalized relationships among users”

(p. 57).

The importance of the channel for effective communication becomes all the more apparent with the ongoing evolution of new communication technologies. Rice (1984b) calls for CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 3

additional scholarly inquiry targeting new media. Rice describes communicators as actors or

stakeholders, interacting and utilizing mediated communication channels. The communicator’s

perception of the sender or receiver in the communication interaction process is influenced by

the different media utilized, based on the user’s skills, attitude, and experiences.

With additional studies, Daft and Lengel (1986) expand the media richness definition as

the ability for media to increase capacity, and this increased capacity allows for understanding in

a shorter period of time. Daft and Lengel propose that people in organizations process

information to manage uncertainty and equivocality through the use of personal and impersonal

mechanisms. For example, managers reduce uncertainty and equivocality through their

interaction and interpretation with the information. Daft and Lengel maintain that task

performance will be improved when task needs are matched to the channel’s media richness. The

two scholars also propose that technology, interdepartmental relationships, and organizational environment have common themes in everyday communication when managing uncertainty and

equivocality. Uncertainty is “the absence of information” whereas equivocality means

“ambiguity, the existence of multiple and conflicting interpretations” (Daft, Lengel, & Trevino,

1987, p. 357).

In their organizational study, Daft, Lengel and Trevino (1987) found a positive

relationship where rich media is preferred in instances of high equivocality, such as oral media

(e.g., telephone or teleconference). Face-to-face is the preferred form of communication when it is difficult to achieve understanding in communication situations. The scholars reported that media selection is related to manager performance. The highest performing managers had a pattern of utilizing richer media where necessary. These highest performing managers also used leaner media where understanding is less subjective, such as formal reports, letters, and standard CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 4

computer reports. Highly rated managers demonstrate sensitivity to different media requirements

when communicating to other managers in a variety of situational circumstances.

Lengel and Daft (1988) then connected the CEO and her or his interpersonal communication in extending relational communication activities by highlighting the importance of interpersonal skills for choosing the right medium. CEOs who understood and developed sensitivity to different media choices and the varying media channel’s capacity to convey information could maintain and improve their relational communications. Huber and Daft (1987) supported that different media channel choices limit the amount of information conveyed.

Lengel and Daft further maintain the more instruction, knowledge, and understanding that can be moved through a media channel, the richer the mediated channel. The scholars establish a hierarchy of media richness: (1) face-to-face, (2) interactive media (telephone, electronic media),

(3) personal static media (memos, letters, tailored computer reports), and (4) impersonal static media (e.g., flyers, bulletins, generalized computer reports).

The scholars consider face-to-face communication as the richest medium for it allows

concurrent communication using multiple cues of body language and voice. Interactive media is

the second richest medium because rapid feedback is provided, but lack eye contact, heads nods,

posture or other body language. Third, personal static media can be personally focused, but

limited cues are conveyed and feedback is slow. Impersonal static media is the leanest because

there is no personal focus on a single receiver, information cues are limited, and no feedback is

possible. Huber and Daft (1987) maintain “(e)ach medium is not just an information source but is

also a complex information-conveying channel” (p. 153).

Daft and Huber (1987; Huber & Daft, 1987) propose that meaning may be influenced or

changed through various media channel capacity and can be organized into a richness hierarchy. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 5

This hierarchy consists of four features: (1) the opportunity or circumstances allowing feedback in an opportune period of time, (2) the ability to impart multiple cues, (3) the ability to adjust messages to situations or particular circumstances, and (4) the power to convey ambiguous or subjective material, or “language variety” (p. 14). An example of circumstances allowing

feedback in an opportune period of time is that a communicator (during interaction) can adjust her or his language and subject material as information is exchanged between individuals. The ability to impart multiple cues is demonstrated in situations where individuals can interact

face-to-face and obtain immediate feedback, not just with language but also with facial cues or expressions, voice tone, and body language. The ability to adjust messages to particular situations or circumstances is demonstrated by tailoring documents and subject matter specifically to an individual’s concerns or interests rather than documents to a general audience.

Representative of this is personally addressing letters. The power to convey ambiguous or subjective material is tailoring the words and content to specific idioms and social constructs unique to the sender and receiver’s situation and subject matter.

The origin of media richness theory was developed from the work of Shannon and

Weaver (1963). These two scholars hold that both source and channel affect human

understanding and shared meaning. Shannon and Weaver defined communication “in a very

broad sense to include all of the procedures by which one mind may affect another” (p. 3). This

broad definition included written, electronic, telephone, telegraph, radio, and other media, such

as art, music, and theatre. Shannon and Weaver presented a unified theory of information

exchange. Although Shannon and Weaver’s work was to be an overall theory of communication,

this framework was later labeled information theory because of its mechanistic presentation of CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 6

mathematical models supporting the movement of information in the form of data signals

transmitted from sender to receiver.

Shannon’s (1993) explanation of information theory emphasized the randomness of

multiple meanings at the point of coding and sending messages and decoding and receiving

information messages, resulting in the uncertainty of information shared and the meaning of

intended behavior change. A key factor supported by Shannon’s mathematical model was the

limited capacity of the channel used when sending and receiving information. Shannon found a

limit on the rate of information transfer or capacity of the channel and that the channel would

have an effect on the meaning of what could be communicated.

Rogers (1986) emphasized that Shannon and Weaver’s information theory, with its

mathematical models, demonstrated how messages take on a probability of choice in what the message means. MacKay (1969) also underscores this point. Further, Rogers explained that in information theory, the probability of multiple meanings are generalized for both sender and receiver. However, in most mediated communication research, this probability of choice in meaning that Shannon demonstrated was not historically studied by communication scholars from both the sender and receiver’s point of view.

Bodensteiner (1970) is credited with introducing the concept of channel (media) richness, borrowing the term rich channels from Shannon. Bodensteiner posits four media channels for his research study: (1) written correspondence, (2) teletype/telegram messages, (3) telephone

conversations, and (4) face-to-face interactions. This scholar found that channel utilization was

affected by uncertainties in the meaning of information shared. He views these channels of

communication as having an affect on communication meaning and understanding. Each channel

is viewed differently based on its hosting capacity of information cues. Bodensteiner used the CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 7

term rich information and the varying capacity of different channels together to convey that there

was a relationship that needed further study between the coding of complex information and

different channel capacities. Bodensteiner found that complex information and channel capacity

were two factors that related to uncertainty between communicators and channel choice.

Bodensteiner’s research explicated that there may be a continuum or difference and possibly a

hierarchy of channel choice when uncertainty arose between communicators.

The communication channel’s value for the exchange of information was underscored in

the seminal work of Mintzberg (1973). In defining job activities of five CEOs and surveying top

management in several organizations, Mintzberg concluded that the CEOs and top managers spent 80% of their total time on the job communicating. Mintzberg’s study demonstrated that these managers used “five basic media: (1) the mail (documented communication), (2) the telephone (purely verbal), (3) the unscheduled meeting scheduled (informal face-to-face), (4)

meeting (formal face-to-face), and (5) the tour (visual)”

(p. 38). Lengel (1983), Daft and Lengel (1984), Trevino, Lengel, and Daft (1987), and Markus

(1994) support the value of Mintzberg’s research in the gathering, processing and disseminating

of information.

Scholars such as Daft and MacIntosh (1978) wrestled with the use of complex information (sometimes referred to as rich information) and information systems within organization structures. These two scholars introduce concepts or models for the matching of the information to different media channels for transmission. Media richness theory brings together

Bodensteiner’s and Shannon and Weaver’s concept of the capacities of different media channels and its possibility of a hierarchy of media channel use, along with the complex or rich information and uncertainty brought about by unanalyzable tasks. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 8

Daft and Wiginton (1979) attempted to explain and understand the complexities and

ambiguity of information processing utilizing a language continuum. The emphasis is on

complex and ambiguous processes to simple and precise information sharing. This pair of

investigators found support for Shannon and Weaver’s information theory and the need to define

information as a sharing of meaning, understanding, and behavioral change on the part of senders

and receivers. Daft and MacIntosh (1981) conclude that the amount of information conveyed or

received is the amount of information which is understood. This is also supported by MacKay

(1969).

Lengel’s (1983) research outlined for the first time the whole of media richness theory in

1983. Lengel utilized Bodensteiner’s concept of a media richness continuum, and Shannon and

Weaver’s communication theory of information transmission to determine the effectiveness of

matching the medium to task translations of communicators between managers in organizations.

Lengel’s research found that information translation matched with certain media in certain

situations may be more effective in achieving understanding between communicators. The

scholar’s study concluded that matching the medium and the translation concerns of managers

communicating (in this case, uncertainty between communicators about the meaning of

information) was more effective. Lengel’s research called for future studies on how and what media should be matched to information complexity levels when communicating.

Daft and Lengel (1984) went on to argue that more complex information, when being

communicated, generates a need for richer media. Further, Daft and Lengel found that simpler

information (routine) uses leaner media and that the types of information may provide roles and rules for media matching. In their research defining what managers do when processing CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 9

information, Daft and Lengel (1986) maintain that managers spend their time reducing

uncertainty and equivocality with their interaction and interpretation of information.

Trevino, Lengel, Bodensteiner, Gerloff and Muir (1990) emphasize the strong influence

on equivocality on media choice processes and provide quantitative support for the media

matching hypothesis. Trevino, Lengel, Bodensteiner, Gerloff and Muir’s 1990 study built upon

Daft, Lengel, and Trevino’s 1987 study. This study reports that managers might exercise

personal media messages in low equivocality decision-making situations. Witherspoon (1997) underscores the importance of media richness theories hierarchy of different channel capacities to carry information. Witherspoon describes organization leaders in the environment of

decision-making. Witherspoon maintains that leaders are most effective gathering information

utilizing rich channels of face-to-face or interactive media from trustworthy resources and

opinion leaders and leaner channels for routine data collecting.

Daft and Lengel’s (2000) research may be used as an examplar of the benefits of

face-to-face communication in the medium richness continuum. The scholars’ work links CEOs, leadership, and relationship (trust) building with communication behavior. Daft and Lengel propose that traditional hierarchies and authoritarian processes are less efficient and abusive.

Daft and Lengel support face-to-face communication as part of the media richness theory being the most supportive and beneficial type of behavior on the part of leaders and managers within organizations. The authors emphasize the media richness continuum for relationship building and lay the groundwork for network relationship resulting from communication interaction.

Therefore, to communicate the large amount of quality information, there is a need for the most effective channel to be selected. Utilizing Rice’s (1984a) three levels of research for media channel, the scholarly literature on media richness theory may be organized by (1) organizational CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 10

research on media richness channel choices for information flow, (2) interpersonal research and

media richness channel choices, and (3) institutional research media channel choices on the

social or public use of mass mediated information.

Organizational Research

The preponderance of scholarly literature utilizing media richness theory addresses organizational information gathering, processing, and disseminating constructs in situational communication interactions. Rice calls this the organizational level of new media research.

These research studies revolving around organizational information flow or communication have endeavored to manifest a logical and valid order of factors influencing or relating to the matching of media channel choice with the information being shared for effective communication.

Multiple examples of organizational level scholarly literature on media richness apply to

develop an understanding of organizational media channel matching. When trying to accomplish

tasks within an organization, Daft and Lengel (1984) find that information that is easier to

analyze and shared as communication is better matched to lower levels of media such as memos,

written reports, and instructions. Tasks that are less analyzable utilize higher levels of media

richness such as one on one, face-to-face meetings, group meetings, telephone, or interactive

email. Tyler, Bettenhausen, and Daft (1989) describe the contemporary environment for senior

management in organizations. These scholars found that top management use more high rich sources to gather information, while top management uses less rich sources in turbulent situations in the organization.

Rice and Shook (1990) found that job position and hierarchy was a key predictor in

media selection. The scholars’ research supported the concept that the media channels of CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 11

communication in organizations may be chosen on their capacity to carry information. Rice and

Shook’s findings support the context and symbolic uses as influences on media choice. Russ,

Daft and Lengel’s (1990) study indicate that upper level management selects rich media for

communication characterized by equivocal message content; more specifically, the relationship

was stronger for managers in higher-level positions.

Daft (2004) emphasizes that information flow is delineated by organizational structure

and influences the different mediated channel choices for information sharing. Sheer and Chen

(2004) expand the relevance of media richness theory by adding the supervisor and subordinate

goals of relational and presentational reasons influencing media choice. The scholars emphasize

that these goals expand media choice based on task, complexity, and equivocality when

supervisors and subordinates communicate. The scholars summarize their research that complexity of information shared is sensitive to potential goal conflicts, and found significance in relational and presentational goal conflicts over equivocality when choosing richer media channels for communicating. In a similar vein, Daft, Bettenhausen, and Tyler (1993) maintain that organizations can be thought of as information producing and processing systems. Their research describes how communication that is sent and received defines relationships, and influences an organization’s results and design.

Interpersonal Research

Rice’s explanation of research at the interpersonal level of analysis emphasizes what Daft

and Lengel (1986) describe when establishing the media richness continuum, from rich to lean

medium. Daft and Lengel emphasize that the more personally interactive the media is during the

communication episode, the richer the media is when used. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 12

Baym (2002) explicates media richness theory from the perspective of interpersonal

communication research specifically applied to computer-mediated communication channels of

communication, such as the Internet, email, web site information portals and chat rooms. Baym

concludes there are no simple media characteristics or effects from Internet use. Burgoon and

Hoobler’s (2002) research describes areas that non-verbal cues influence in interpersonal

communication. The scholars maintain that the absence of non-verbal communication cues in

mediated communication channels affect understanding and meaning when utilized in

interpersonal communication.

Palmer (1995) connects media richness theory and challenges researchers to study

human interaction utilizing new technologies such as virtual reality and computer-mediated

communication. Palmer states, “Conducting personal and private relationships with others via

computer-based channels is not a remote possibility, but a reality” p. 277. Steuer (1995) agrees

and defines virtual reality as the technological presentation of mediated communication between

sender and receiver. In an earlier study, Trachtman, Spirek, Sparks and Stohl (1991) emphasize

the complexity and relative advantage necessary to adopt and use new electronic mediated technology. Biocca and Levy (1995) maintain that human communication and interchange is

migrating from physical space into mediated mental space. In addition, Palmer maintains that

when people meet in cyberspace, a relationship will be formed. Palmer posits that virtual reality

may yield more freedom of expression than face-to-face communication.

Carlson and Zmud (1999) found that individuals using media will change their

perceptions on use over time as their knowledge expands. The Pew Internet and American Life

Project (2000) study provided “(c)lear evidence that email and the Web have enhanced users’

relationships with their family and friends” (p. 20). Nohria and Eccles (1996) argue that the more CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 13

electronic mediated communication is used, the more face-to-face communication is needed.

Nohria and Eccles maintain that the less face-to-face interaction, the more the electronic

mediated communication is deteriorated. The scholars call for additional research in this area.

Copher, Kanfer, and Walker (2002) found that heavy email users communicated with more messages through email and face-to-face more often than light email users who also communicated face-to-face.

Institutional Research

Rice’s third level literature analysis is what Rice calls the institutional level. That is, the

social and public adoption and use by individuals of new media content and technology for the

sharing of information. Rice argues that media channels affect social behavior patterns of

communication. As new media technologies are diffused in society, the media channel and its

effectiveness will influence communication interaction episodes. Rice views the new media

channels adopted or used by an individual become a part of the media richness theory continuum

of channel choices. Rice argues that the social use of mass mediated communication channels

affects all communication and ultimately changes social behavior when sharing information.

Rice maintains that this is what is called the information society.

Rice, McCreadie, and Chang (2001) emphasize that users of media channels and designs

of media technology and content need to keep communication theories in mind, including media

richness theory. The scholars argue that media characteristics by different media channel choices

have both direct and interaction effects. Research of new patterns of social behavior brought

about through the use of new media channels, such as interactive and web based information

sources, or new to user media channels changing social behavior, are identified in this

institutional public mass media level of research. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 14

A historical example of media channel choices changing social networks and

communication behavior patterns is the impact of the telephone and its use (Reid, 1977). Rice

and Katz (2001) present multiple examples of interactive mediated communication. An example,

web based communication with face-to-face communication for interaction in health care

situations, demonstrates the change brought about by the psychology and sociology surrounding

the healthcare environment in communication behavior patterns. While little evidence was found

to assist medical personnel, the active involvement of patients communicating with other patients

demonstrated new social patterns of behavior.

Biocca and Levy (1995) examine how mediated information is trying to find a way to

transport information from one mind to another. The authors maintain that mediated

communication, including virtual reality, is the way to transport information between people.

Katz, Rice, Acord, Dasgupta, and David (2004) find an individual’s worlds are not limited by

geographical space. The social networks built by the individual’s interactions and successive relationships built by their interactions are the limiting factors of the individual’s social system interactions. The scholars maintain that various communication circumstances influence the

effectiveness of the media richness continuum. Katz et al further identify that community equals

relationships, and that relationships are brought about by communicative interaction. Mediated

communities mimic face-to-face communication.

Markus (1994) maintains the social processes such as sponsorship, socialization, and

social control surrounding media use may determine communication patterns. The social processes also influence the media used. Markus finds that even lean media can be used in rich ways if rich use is encouraged and supported by the existing social structure.

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 15

Computer-Mediated Communication

Computer-mediated communication channels emerge as a factual addition to media

richness theory, utilizing the constructs of symbol signals and media channel capacities of

Shannon and Weaver (1963) and Shannon (1993). Scholarly research supports the addition of

media channels to the communication pattern of a continuum of different mediums and their

capacities to transmit information (Bodensteiner, 1970; Lengel, 1983; Daft & Lengel, 1984; Daft

& Lengel, 1986; Lengel & Daft, 1988).

Rice (1984a; 1984b; 1987) lays a foundation for computer-mediated communication as

part of the media richness continuum. Rice (1987) emphasizes representational change, (i.e., the

use of computer-mediated communication) with its interactivity, may influence and symbolize

change in social behavior patterns of communication. Rice finds in organizational level research

that content can now be viewed separately from media when using computer-mediated

communication such as the connectedness with other individual computers and email users. That

is, computer-mediated communication may be viewed as an innovation, not just a processor and

disseminator of information, but rather a source of content. This is supported on the

organizational level by the research of Daft and Marcic (2004), who state that electronic messages are now being handled by email where telephone messages for both sending and receiving were once used.

Panteli (2002) finds that email, as part of the media richness continuum, has a higher

capacity for social cues than previously thought. Panteli finds that email is a potentially richer

medium than reflected on the media richness scale. Walther’s (1992) research found that

nonverbal cues exist in the computer-mediated communication channel, and that in situations

where there is distance, despite the lack of nonverbal cues, individuals can communicate. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 16

Through accumulated computer-mediated communication messages, individuals can develop

individuating impressions of one another. Walther further maintains that

computer-mediated communication will have limiting effects on communication because of the

lack of cues. Markus (1994) found email to be a leaner medium. Markus’ findings may have been influenced by the mixing of information richness or complexity of information and social presence theory with mediums rather than a comparison of media channels applying media richness theory.

Katz and Rice (2002) emphasize the social consequences of the Internet, utilizing

computer-mediated communication. The scholars argue there are both negative and positive

consequences of new media usage, specifically computer-mediated communication. Katz and

Rice maintain a positive consequence is this new media can be used to extend relationships, thus building social capital. The negative consequences are the misuse and non-understanding of this media. Katz and Rice argue that utilization of computer-mediated communication extends and improves an individual’s daily routines, including links to social networks, meeting more people, allowing face-to-face meetings, and may improve social interactions and expressions of identity.

The positive consequences of computer-mediated communication are echoed in the research of

Katz, Rice, Acord, Dasgupta, and David (2004).

Rheingold (1999) describes the use of computer-mediated communication as a place of

social interaction. The environment is not unlike any public place where human interaction takes

place. Rheingold cautions that any individual utilizing computer-mediated communication must

be aware of the social consequences similar to face-to-face social situations. Rheingold’s (2000)

findings support a paradigm shift in communication behavior patterns between individual and

social network power versus institutional and organizational monopoly power. The scholar CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 17

maintains that users are not taking advantage of the network ability, such as individual

relationships, new ways of information seeking, dealing with the transparency of organizational

hierarchy, or building of social capital. Further, Rheingold emphasizes that individuals and

institutions have not yet figured out how to manage or benefit from the many to many

communication that the Internet allows. Rheingold’s description of the electronic mediated

environment and its social influences are supported by Meyrowitz (1985, 1999), echoing

Goffman’s (1974) emphasis on the social situation influences on an individual’s worlds of

interpretation and active communication.

Morris and Ogan (1996) argue that it is time to study computer-mediated communication,

specifically the Internet as a mass medium. The scholars identify the Internet as a structure that is

part of a media continuum. Morris and Ogan group the Internet into four categories:

(1) one-to-one asynchronous communication, (2) many-to-many synchronous communication,

(3) synchronous communication, and (4) asynchronous communication. They further describe

that synchronous communication can be one-to-one, one-to-few, or one-to-many, and may be

topic organized. The two further state asynchronous communication may involve many-to-one,

one-to-one, or one-to-many, and is usually characterized by a need of the receiver to seek out the

Internet site for information. Morris and Ogan point out that communication scholars are addressing something new, and that mass media theories, particularly media richness theory, should be applied to research in this new area.

Webster and Trevino (1995) call for additional research with media theories and find that

rational and social theories complement media choices. The findings of Leh (2001) maintain

computer-mediated communication produced immediate benefits for distance learning.

Leh’s study found that even though there was a lack of social cues, the users saw the technology CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 18

use as positive. Street and Piziak (2001) found that there were benefits with computer-mediated

support groups, but concluded it was too early to tell if there were any benefits for medical

research personnel using the computer-mediated web based system. The research of Martz and

Reddy (2005) supports the assumptions of media richness theory. Martz and Reddy maintain that

the more media used in a distance education environment, the higher the student satisfaction. In

addition, the Pew Internet and American Life Project (2000) findings that women’s relationships

with family and friends were positively influenced, along with the findings of Rice and Katz

(2001), that the positive experiences of users of a medical based support group using computer-

mediated communication, underscore this new area of study.

Workman, Kahnweiler, and Bommer (2003) find that certain combinations of media

sharing utilizing computer-mediated communication enhances virtual teams and working

relationships. Utilizing media richness theory and computer-mediated communication, Kahai and

Cooper (2003) report that the richer the media, with more cue multiplicity and feedback

immediacy, the more positive the impacts on decision quality. In Copher, Kanfer, and Walker’s

(2002) study of communication patterns, heavy email users communicated more with

face-to-face and email than light email users. The research supported that more information

processing occurred through the utilization of email, and that email made it easier to handle

group communication coordination. Copher, Kanfer, and Walker also found some indication that

email is considered close in media richness to face-to-face communication.

Baym (2002) calls for more research focusing on interpersonal computer-mediated

communication. Baym’s research concludes that there are no simple media characteristics

affecting computer-mediated communication (e.g., Internet use). The scholar argues that the CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 19 medium is far more complex and diverse than originally thought, and that future research should be completed, examining different contexts.

Chief Executive Officers (CEOs)

Little research on media channel choice for efficient communication has investigated

CEOs. Black (2002) defines a CEO as the officer of a company or organization responsible for implementing decisions by the board of directors in day-to-day operations. In comparison, the legal historical origins of chief executive or president representing a community to act as a single unit of trade for private or public capacity stems from the early Middle Ages (Gierke, 2002).

Frequently, the CEO is also chairman or president of the organization.

Zeller and Spirek (2003) found that the channel choice of computer-mediated communication, such as email, file sharing, and web or Internet information seeking, was driving

CEO communication accessibility within each CEO’s community of responsibilities. The CEOs were more accessible socially, although the CEOs viewed this new communication media channel as not mutually exchangeable with their stakeholders. The six-year longitudinal panel study of interviews conducted with 36 CEOs highlighted the change in use of this single channel of communication. The focus was on the longitudinal adoption of a single channel, that of computer-mediated communication. A total of 33 males and three females completed the questionnaire about their computer use for communication. The theoretical approach of diffusion of innovations was utilized (Zeller and Spirek, 2003). The diffusion of innovations is described by Rogers (2003) as communication of an innovation over a period of time within a social system. Diffusion of innovation has its roots in the laws of imitation (Tarde, 1903). Tarde found that an individual either concurs or counters an idea socially, adopting or opposing a new idea.

Zeller and Spirek (2003) framed Rogers’ (2003) attributes of the rate of adoption and adopter CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 20

categories of innovativeness for future studies correlating CEOs’ perceptions of computers as a

communication channel, focusing on how CEOs utilize some computer options and reject others.

The communication of innovation causes the adoption or rejection of the new idea and resulting

social change in behavior. Five attributes predict the rate of adoption with the diffusion of

innovation: (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3) trialability, (4) observability, and

(5) complexity.

Rogers’ (2003) states the “criterion for adopter categorization is innovativeness” (p. 280).

Rogers classifies the innovativeness or acceptance of new ideas and resulting behavior change

into five adopter categories: (1) innovators, (2) early adopters, (3) early majority adopters, (4)

late majority adopters, and (5) laggards or late adopters. Innovators are able to take risk and

uncertainty, and are adventuresome. Early adopters follow innovators, dealing with less

uncertainty than innovators, and are opinion leaders about the new ideas. Early majority adopters

are neither the first to adopt, nor the last to put aside an old method. Late majority adopters are

skeptical and cautious, and wait until the social system favors the adoption. Late adopters, or

laggards, reflect a resistance to innovation and in many cases, do not favor new ideas. These

categories form a normal statistical frequency distribution.

Hambrick (1998) references Mintzberg’s (1973) roles of a CEO, and underscores that

social and historical documentation of CEOs have been on the effects the CEO has had on the

destiny or fate of their organization. Hambrick sets forth that the chief executive officer is the one person responsible for the entire organization, its management, and execution of its mission.

Hambrick further explicates that the CEO’s actions and behaviors are of consequence to the enterprise’s stakeholders.

CEOs utilize media channels to perform their job. Mintzberg (1973) found that CEOs CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 21

spend 80% of their time communicating. Although Mintzberg’s study did not utilize media richness theory, Mintzberg did document the media channels being used by CEOs at that time.

The scholar identified the five channels as: (1) mail, (2) telephone, (3) informal meeting, (4) formal meeting, and (5) visual organization tour. However, the 1973 media choices for CEOs lacked email and electronic communication.

Barnard (1968) states, “The executive function is to develop and maintain a system of

communication” (p. 226). Lengel and Daft (1988) stress the matching of media utilizing the

media richness hierarchy. The scholars’ research introduced a pattern of media representation

utilizing the term interactive media for telephone and electronic media adding to the media

richness continuum. Lengel and Daft proposed that this new electronic media offered potential

opportunities and recognized it as part of the developing new computer mediated based systems

for CEOs’ systematic information exchange, but may not be suited for the entire range of top

management communication.

Several research studies referenced CEO media choice. Daft, Sormunen, and Parks

(1988) studied how senior management looked at the environment by scanning information

sources through different media channels. The three scholars reported that interviews were

conducted with 41 CEOs and nine vice presidents of midsize manufacturing organizations.

Although the media channels consisted of scanning written sources and personal sources, it is not

clear if the personal sources were limited to face-to-face. In terms of channel choices, the

findings confirmed that richer, personal sources were preferred in uncertain situations needing

more information than less uncertain, needing leaner written information. Daft, Bettenhausen,

and Tyler (1993) interviewed senior management of 29 Texas firms; eight of the interviewees

were CEOs. The study was an examination on media choices used to collect and disseminate CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 22

information when making strategic decisions. The scholars found that the richness of the media

channel when collecting the information actually influences the decision process, and the richness of the media channel disseminating the information during implementation affects key factors.

Daft and Lengel (2000) argue that face-to-face channels utilized by CEOs facilitate trust

among their constituencies, and that in today’s fast changing society, media with richer cues is

needed. Recognizing a fully digitized electronic information and computer-mediated addition to

the media richness continuum, Anand, Glick and Manz’s (2002) research stresses that today’s

complex world, ambiguous information is best acquired and processed by managers who are

media sensitive. The scholars call for training for managers to be sensitized to the media richness

continuum. Anand, Glick, and Manz maintain new media technology should be provided to

managers for uses in acquiring, processing and disseminating information, allowing a matching

of the best application of media to get the most efficient communication. The scholars further

suggest that the CEO harness the new media technology and media capabilities by managing the

knowledge in her or his organization with media sensitivity. The scholars contend that this will

build a community of relationships in a knowledge network utilizing different interactive medias

resulting in social capital that is necessary in today’s complex world.

The purpose of this dissertation is to study the new media choice of computer-mediated

communication by CEOs. Numerous scholars have empirically studied media choice but not

CEOs as subjects and the new technology of computer mediated communication. These studies

evolved around large amounts of information to be shared in what Rice (1984) calls

organizational level, interpersonal level, and institutional or public mass media level of

communication research. The entire process of transmitting or sharing rich complex information CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 23 or lean routine information in varying social situational contexts utilizing the best perceived media choice to generate the most efficient communication causing a change in understanding is what Daft and Lengel (1984, 1986) call information richness theory. The importance of media richness theory is that it allows for the recognition of a continuum of different types of media with various media channel capacity (Daft & Huber, 1987; Huber & Daft, 1987), allowing for a hierarchy of richer to leaner media channels. Media richness is the actual concept of different media channels being richer or leaner in transmission capacity when utilized in combination with information or encoded messages (Shannon & Weaver, 1963) during the communication episode.

Description of Media Richness Continuum

The capacity of various media channels to carry different amounts of information forms a hierarchy from rich to lean channels. Lengel and Daft (1988) rank the hierarchy of channel capacity in four categories: (1) physical presence as the richest channel, (2) interactive media, (3) personal static media, and (4) impersonal media as the leanest channel. Complex information using rich channels dealing with equivocality and uncertainty (Daft, Lengel, & Trevino, 1987) are the best use of channels of communication high in media richness and information carrying capacity. Channels high in richness, such as visual, verbal, and textual cues yielding feedback, support more individualized or one-on-one shared meanings. The more personal and individualized the dialogue, with the higher the richness or information capacity-carrying channels, the better the learning on shared meaning or understanding. Channels lean in richness are utilized for routine and simple information and gravitate toward impersonal communication and little to no interactivity or one-on-one dialogue. Lengel and Daft stress that the higher the interactivity of the media channel, the more its capacity to carry information. Steuer (1995) and CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 24

Rheingold (2000) confirm the capacity and interactivity of computer-mediated communication

channels approaching the media richness value of face-to-face communication.

Rice (1984, 1987) emphasized the organization of the emerging new media of

communication research in the areas of interpersonal, organizational/group, and institutional/mass media communication, and places the interactivity of computer-mediated communication high on the media richness continuum. Research confirms the continuum’s placement. Interactive use of the Internet or World Wide Web along with the organizational network allows for interactive media approaching high physical presence utilizing email, chat rooms, web page, information file sharing, and a multitude of software systems for sharing information as shown in Figure 1.

Development of the Media Richness Continuum

The challenge and contribution of media richness theory to the field of communication is

the concept that different types of media channels possess various amount of information

carrying capacity (Daft & Lengel, 1984; 1986). Media may be viewed and used as technology or

a manner of accomplishing a task through use when communicating. Information is shared

through the use of a media channel between and among individuals for the accomplishment of a

goal or task. Communication research has established that different media channels, utilizing

different technology, have different effects on the amount of understanding that is achieved.

Communication channels may be ranked according to their capacity on a continuum of media

richness (Daft, Lengel, and Trevino, 1987). The higher the capacity of the channel, or the higher

the richness of the channel, the higher the channel is placed on the continuum.

Shannon and Weaver (1963) first identified that the media channel utilized had an effect

on the understanding of the message of information sent. Shannon and Weaver’s model was CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 25

intended to be an overall theory of communication. Shannon and Weaver further expanded

information theory to emphasize the difference in understanding that may occur when

information is shared between coder and encoding of the intended message. The scholars

established the capacity of a channel described as rich, meaning more capacity, and lean, or less

capacity. Feedback between the sender’s intended information and the receiver’s understood

message further improved future information sharing by adjusting the message or information. In

short, Shannon and Weaver found that the channel has an effect on understanding.

Building upon Shannon and Weaver, Bodensteiner (1970) utilized the concepts of

different channel capacity with four mediated technology channels: (1) written correspondence,

(2) teletype/telegram messages, (3) telephone conversations, and (4) face-to-face interactions.

Bodensteiner found that each channel’s capacity was viewed differently based on the channel’s

information cues. Bodensteiner further identified written correspondence as the leanest medium, followed by teletype or telegram messages. Bodentsteiner identified telephone conversations as richer in capacity, with face-to-face interactions as the richest medium.

Lengel (1983) built upon Shannon and Weaver and Bodensteiner, adding the concept of channel and media to task translation and understanding matching certain media channels.

Certain media channels were determined to be more effective in accomplishing understanding when information was more complex and when information was more routine or simple (Daft &

Lengel, 1984, 1986). Emphasizing representational change, or the concept that content may be viewed separate from the media channel choice, Rice (1987) lays a foundation for the channel of

computer-mediated communication as part of the media richness continuum. Individuals may

choose to use computer-mediated communication or other media channels.

Daft and Huber (1987) found that meaning may change through the use of different CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 26

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 27

media channels. Huber and Daft (1987) write “Each medium is not just an information source

but is also a complex information-conveying channel” (p. 153). Huber and Daft identify

additional channels employed in the media richness continuum, including face-to-face,

videophone, telephone, electronic mail (email), documents such as letters and memos, flyers,

bulletins, and computer reports.

Trevino and Webster (1992) report that the complexity of adopting the different

computer-mediated communication channels was related to its perceived ease of use of the

technology. Steuer (1995) describes the emerging computer-mediated communication

technology, including electronic conferencing, teleconferencing, email, and personal digital assistants (PDAs), as communication technology’s realness with face-to-face communication interactivity. Steuer maintains the emerging technologies act as new communication channels of

interactivity between sender and receiver.

Jones (1995) also emphasizes the organization as a community, and that the organization

should utilize interactive communication, such as the Internet and the World Wide Web, to

improve the boundaries for social relations within the organization. Jones’ findings were

supported by the research of Baym (1995). Further, Porter and Millar (1996) emphasized the

importance of top management to create plans to embrace computer-mediated technology,

allowing for improved organizational social system through the electronic communication

channels. Additionally, Etzel and Thomas (1996) emphasized that the computer communication

technologies improved individual effectiveness by facilitating communication

interconnectedness.

Newhagen and Rafaeli’s (1996) work called for more research in communication using

the Internet, web, computer-mediated communication, interpersonal and mass media. Further CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 28

examining Internet communication networks for organizations, Rafaeli and Sudweeks (1998) found that the interactive nature of emerging communication channels of computer-mediated communication came close to face-to-face communication in organizations. Rheingold (1999,

2000) stressed the use of computer-mediated communication as social interaction, and maintains that the network of the Internet enables users to take advantage of the interactivity of one-to-one and many-to-many communication, seeking information and building relationships. Ramirez, Jr. and Burgoon (2004) underscored the importance of the use of richer media such as

computer-mediated communication in forming interpersonal relationships, duplicating

face-to-face interaction.

Baltes, Dickson, Sherman, Bauer, and LaGanke (2002) concluded that

computer-mediated communication channels are a rapid means of disseminating information and

that computer-mediated communication is not as effective as face-to-face in group

communication. However, Johnson and Keil (2002) did not find any significant differences

between the media of voicemail and email when comparing it directly to face-to-face

communication. Hollingshead and Contractor (2002) emphasized that the computer-mediated

communication channel as an emerging new media facilitated communication in groups by

saving time in the sharing of information. Sevinc and D’Ambra (n.d.) applied media richness

theory utilizing computer-mediated communication to group decision-making. Sevinc and

D’Ambra report that computer-mediated communication was rich enough to make collective

decisions.

Wellman (2001) maintains that computer networks eliminate geographic place and

establish communal groups through the globalized connectivity. Wellman also indicates that

social networks are developed through the computer-mediated communication network. Stokols CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 29

and Montero (2002) emphasize that the Internet fosters social contacts through forms of

computer-mediated communication. The scholars found that virtual places or electronic

simulated communication allows for the equivalent of geographic proximity. An individual’s

communication is no longer limited by spatial and temporal constraints. Further, Katz and Rice

(2002) identified that shared interests within an institutional organizational online network might

otherwise not be connected without the Internet as a new computer-mediated communication channel.

The research of Anand, Glick, and Manz (2002) urges CEOs to harness the new media

technology and media capabilities, managing the knowledge in their organizations with media

sensitivity. In their study of communication in organizations, Sheer and Chen (2004) examine

the supervisor and subordinate goals influencing media choice. The scholars found that

complexity of information shared is sensitive to potential goal conflicts when choosing richer

media channels for communicating. Daft and Marcic (2004) placed computer-mediated

communication on the media richness scale between memos and letters and the telephone.

Many factors emerge as media richness theory or its archetype, information richness

theory (sometimes used synonymously) when examining media channel choices. A multiplicity of theoretical approaches to determine media choice have been utilized by scholars, such as

Timmerman’s (2003) model using media richness and social influence, concluded that the

rational pragmatic use of these theories helped in planned organizational change. Workman,

Kahnweiler, and Bommer (2003) utilize both media richness and cognitive styles, and find that a

commitment with virtual media (computer-mediated communication) or telework was best

utilized with shared cognitive styles. Fulk, Steinfield, Schmitz and Power (1987) embraced the

media richness continuum as part of media richness theory and social influence theory, finding CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 30

that coworkers’ choices and norms will influence media choices within a social structure.

Baym (1995) states communication patterns utilizing computer-mediated communication

are complex and dynamic, and more research on human interaction needs to be done to

understand the influences and consequences. Baym (2002) maintains that there are no simple

media choice explanations, while others state that there can be both rational and social factors

(Webster & Trevino, 1995) that help to determine and understand media choice. What emerges

from the scholarly studies is that the media richness continuum is a resource for understanding

the transmission and sharing of information effectively through different media channels.

Current Investigation

Computer-mediated communication has defined itself as a major part of the media

richness continuum. This research will focus on whether CEOs are using computer-mediated

communication. Specifically, it will investigate to what extent CEOs are using

computer-mediated communication. In addition, it will examine for what reasons CEOs use

computer-mediated communication. The study will also examine for what reasons CEOs would

not use computer-mediated communication. What media or channel CEOs would use when not using computer-mediated communication will also be investigated.

Salient to this dissertation is that media richness theory defines a communication channel

as shared meanings and understandings between sender and receiver when “each medium utilizes

differences in feedback, cues and language variety” (Daft & Lengel, 1984, p. 198). Daft and

Lengel (1986) further define the media channel as richer when the channel has the ability to

change minds or achieve understanding in shorter time periods. Media is leaner when it requires

longer periods of time to achieve understanding. Richer media clarifies ambiguity because it has

better feedback cues and interactivity with sender and receiver. Leaner media has less CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 31

interactivity, fewer feedback cues, takes longer, and may not achieve understanding. Daft and

Lengel maintain that the richer the channel, the more increased capacity of shared meaning when communicating. This increased channel capacity or rich media reduces the learning time between senders and receivers.

CEOs should be studied academically because of their significant social influence, select

social position and presence. The importance of studying the communication patterns

(specifically, the media richness channel continuum) is that the CEOs are using different

mediated channels to communicate. The CEOs’ organizations, and internal and external

networks, are using different mediated channels as the organizations are gathering, processing,

creating and disseminating large amounts of information. There is a need to increase scholarly

understanding about communication in this area because of a lack of literature about CEOs and

CEOs’ use of computer-mediated communication.

Based upon the above literature review, a survey with CEOs and a content analysis of the

web pages of the CEOs’ organizations is proposed. Hypotheses are selected for the four areas of

study because the phenomena of interest are theoretically grounded in the media richness theory

and because the literature review provides a rational for their explanatory purpose (Singleton, Jr.

& Straits, 2005). Four hypotheses and one research question are advanced:

H1: CEOs are actively pursuing the channel of computer-mediated communication to

influence their environment, perform their roles in their position, and to create

structure and vision through their presence.

H2: CEOs view computer-mediated communication as a necessary, integral part of

their organization communication network. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 32

H3: CEOs view their own individual use of computer-mediated communication as a

necessary, integral communication tool.

H4: CEOs view computer-mediated communication as the least preferred method of

communication within their organization communication network.

RQ1: How do CEOs view computer-mediated communication relative to the media

channels used for communication?

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 33

CHAPTER II. METHOD

Survey

Participants

Participants in this study consisted of female and male CEOs in a variety of organizations

in northwest Ohio, northeast Indiana, and southeast Michigan. All of the CEOs met the criteria of being in charge of at least 50 employees. In addition to these requirements, each CEO’s organization either produces annual gross sales of at least $6 million or produces annual assets of

$120 million or the organization produces commissions of $4 million. The organizations include profit and non-profit institutions of different sizes and industries. These criteria for operationalizing the key concept of CEOs were generated based upon subjective validation and construct validation.

Validity concerns were key issues in generating the sample. Face validity is one type of

subjective validation. “On the face of it” (Singleton, Jr., & Straits, 2005, p. 98) the two criteria of

a minimum number of employees and an established positive indicator of the CEO’s

organization’s economic health are acceptable criteria for identifying the population of interest

for this dissertation. Construct validation was also employed for operationalizing who qualified

for inclusion in this study. Convergent validity is one form of construct validation and

convergent validity was employed for operationalizing the concept of CEOs.

The criteria of combining profit earned and corporation size as identified above are used

by the CEOs themselves when identifying other CEOs. Specifically the same criteria are used

with two clubs whose membership is limited to that of CEOs. The economic vitality and a

minimum number of employees are necessary but not sufficient factors for membership in the

Young Presidents’ Organization and the World Presidents’ Organization. These two independent CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 34

organizations’ membership is distinct. Nevertheless both require that members document their

title as CEO in addition to demonstrating their organization’s employees numbering over 50 and

the organization’s economic vitality. Letters of support for membership and other requirements

must be met for YPO or WPO membership. Put simply, these two organizations comprised of

CEOs converge, or agree, as to the importance of the two factors used to qualify as a participant

for this study. A salient point for this study is that less than 60% of the sample is a member in

either of these organizations. Although there is similar criteria for inclusion in this study and to

join YPO and WPO, the three groups are distinct.

Procedure

CEOs were asked to complete a questionnaire designed by the researcher and is provided

in Appendix A. The purpose of this questionnaire was to obtain information about the CEOs’ perceptions of their communication in their organizations. Specifically, the questionnaire gathered the CEOs’ perceptions regarding the use of mediated communication tools utilized for communication in a variety of organizational circumstances and task activities. The CEOs’ messages to gather and disseminate information and direct employees in diverse simple and difficult situations was examined.

Materials and Equipment

The questionnaire consisted of four sections as shown in Appendix A. The first section

began with queries about the CEO’s name, their organization affiliation, and where she or he

turns to identify new communication applications, systems and equipment. These were close-

ended and open-ended questions. The second section consisted of Likert scales, asking the CEOs

to rank sources for their information about computers. The categories of an innovator, early

adopter, early majority adopter, late majority adopter, and late adopter were utilized in Zeller and CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 35

Spirek’s 2003 study of CEOs and the diffusion of innovations. These were drawn from Rogers’

(1986) seminal work. The third section of close-ended questions queried the CEOs about their organization’s adoption of new communication technology, including her or his role in the adoption. The third section also questioned the CEOs about their personal adoption of new communication technology, including computer use at work and at home, computer information services personally used, and their perception of the value of communication technology use.

The fourth section of the survey consisted of open-ended questions, and included asking the

CEOs to elaborate for what reason she or he would not want to use computer communication as a tool.

Content Analysis

Sample

The CEOs’ organizations’ web sites were also analyzed for this study. A total of 48 of the

60 or 80% of the CEOs’ organizations had web pages posted on the World Wide Web. These 48

web sites comprised the sample.

Procedure

The web site for each CEO’s organization was first identified. The entry portal page was

then printed before seven questions were answered for each web site. These entry web pages

were reviewed as an independent means of reviewing the CEO’s organization’s technological

sophistication or media richness.

Materials and Equipment

The web page coding form is provided in Appendix B. Basic questions for a general

descriptive overview of the CEOs’ organizations’ web pages comprised this form.

The form first indicates if any reference is made of the CEO. The second asked if an CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 36 organization catalogue is identified on the web page whereas the third question asked if it was apparent that a third party created the web page. The third party meant that individuals outside of the organization were the web site’s creators.

A description of the web page’s physical attributes comprised the fifth question’s elements that queried the coder to describe the web page’s graphics, text and photographs. The goods and services sold were then identified by the coder before the coding form concluded with identifying the organization’s nonprofit or profit status. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 37

CHAPTER III. RESULTS

Overview

The results chapter consists of two sections. The first section highlights the descriptive statistics. The second section investigates the relationship between the variables identified with

the hypotheses and the research question. All statistics were computed using the statistical software package of SPSS 11.0.

Descriptive Sample Statistics

CEOs’ Organizations

The initial step of the statistical procedures for the analysis of the data for CEOs’

organizations was to code the CEOs’ organization according to the current NAICS Code. The

NAICS code is an abbreviation for the North American Industry Classification System. The

classification system was implemented by the United States, Canada and Mexico to provide comparable business statistics across the 3 countries in 1991 (North American Industry

Classification System [NAICS], 2002). The CEOs’ organization affiliations are listed in Table 1.

Table 1 shows that the 60 CEOs who responded represented 46 different industry

groups. The NAICS group represents the North American Industry Classification System, an

industry classification system that groups organizations into industries based on their primary

activities. This comprehensive system covers the entire field of economic activities (NAICS,

2002). NAICS employs a six-digit coding system to identify industries and their placement in its

hierarchical classification system. The first two digits of the code designate the sector, the third

digit designates the sub sector, and the fourth digit designates the industry group. The fifth digit

designates the NAICS industry and the sixth digit designates the national industry. To protect

the identities of the CEOs and their organizations as indicated in the Human Subjects Review CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 38

Table 1

CEOs’ Organizations

ID NAICS Group Heading NAICS Organization

Code Type

001 Nursing Care 6231 National

002 Non-residential building construction 2362 National

003 Food manufacturing. Grain and oil seed milling 3112 National

004 Other Wood Product Manufacturing 3219 National

005 Printing and Related Support Activities 3231 International

006 Chemical and Allied Products Merchant 4246 National

Wholesalers

007 Vocational Rehabilitation Services 6243 Regional

008 Management of Companies and 5511 National

Enterprises

009 Steel Product Manufacturing from Purchased 3312 National

Steel

010 Foundries 3315 National

011 Forging and Stamping 3321 International

012 Boiler, Tank and Shipping Container 3324 National

Manufacturing

013 Metal Window and Door Manufacturing 3323 International

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 39

Table 1 (continued)

ID NAICS Group Heading NAICS Organization

Code Type

014 Museums, Historical Sites, and Similar 7121 Regional

Institutions

015 Commercial and Service Industrial Machinery 3333 International

Manufacturing

016 Motor Vehicles Parts Manufacturing 3363 National

017 Other Miscellaneous Manufacturing 3399 International

018 Services to Buildings and Dwellings 5617 Regional

019 Electrical and Electronic Goods Merchant 4236 Regional

Wholesalers

020 Other Financial Investment Activities 5239 International

021 Automobile Dealers 4411 Regional

022 Automobile Dealers 4411 Regional

023 Grocery stores 4451 Regional

024 General Freight Trucking 4841 National

025 Management, Scientific and Technical Consulting 5416 Regional

Services

026 Depository Credit Intermediation 5221 Regional

027 Depository Credit Intermediation 5221 Regional

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 40

Table 1 (continued)

ID NAICS Group Heading NAICS Organization

Code Type

028 Securities and Commodity Contracts and 5231 National

Brokerage

029 Agencies, Brokerages, and Other Insurance 5242 Regional

Related Activities

030 Architectural, Engineering, and Related Services 5413 International

031 Specialized Design Services 5414 National

032 Advertising and Related Services 5418 National

033 Other Financial Investment Activities 5239 National

034 Travel Arrangement and Reservation Services 5615 National

035 Nursing Care Facilities 6231 National

036 Limited-Service Eating Places 7222 Regional

037 Other Professional, Scientific, and Technical 5419 International

Services

038 Nonresidential Building Construction 2362 Regional

039 Motor Vehicle Parts Manufacturing 3363 National

040 Ventilation, Heating, Air-Conditioning, and 3334 International

Commercial Refrigeration Equipment

Manufacturing

(continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 41

Table 1 (continued)

ID NAICS Group Heading NAICS Organization

Code Type

041 Depository Credit Information 5221 National

042 Investigation and Security Services 5616 Regional

043 Depository Credit Information 5221 Regional

044 Special Food Services 7223 Regional

045 Plastic Products Manufacturing 3261 International

046 Colleges, Universities and Professional Schools 6113 International

047 Depository Credit Intermediation 5221 National

048 General Medical and Surgical Hospitals 6221 Regional

049 Professional and Commercial Equipment and 4234 International

Supplies Merchant Wholesalers

050 Nonresidential Building Construction 2362 Regional

051 Accounting, Tax Preparation, Bookkeeping, and 5412 National

Payroll Services

052 Offices of Physicians 6211 Regional

053 Depository Credit Information 5221 Regional

054 Specialized Design Services 5414 National

055 Household and Institutional Furniture and Kitchen 3371 National

Cabinet Manufacturing

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 42

Table 1 (continued)

ID NAICS Group Heading NAICS Organization

Code Type

056 Lumber and Other Construction Materials 4233 Regional

Merchant Wholesalers

057 Independent Artists, Writers, and Performers 7115 International

058 Nonresidential Building Construction 2362 Regional

059 Junior Colleges 6112 Regional

060 Nonresidential Building Construction 2362 Regional

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 43

Board’s informed consent participation letter, the NAICS code was limited to four digits and the

corresponding group heading for this study.

In addition to the NAICS descriptor, the CEOs’ organizations are identified by

organization type. Three categories were used to describe each organization’s geographic

business focus. These categories were regional, national and international.

A regional organization conducts business in a region such as the Midwest or Southwest.

A national organization does commerce within the United States. A national organization may

have some occasional exports and imports outside of the U.S., but not more than 10% of the total

organization cost-revenue. An international organization conducts commerce within the United

States and with other countries outside of the U.S. An international organization specifically

imports and exports materials and/or products; an organization affiliate or corresponding

subsidiary are located outside of the U.S. Of the 60 respondents, there were 24 regional

organizations, 23 national organizations and 13 international organizations. These two

categorizations highlight the diversity of the CEOs’ organizations and the variation in size of

these same organizations.

Organizations’ Web Pages

The web pages of the CEOs’ organizations are described to assist in describing the degree of media richness of the CEOs’ organizations’ image. Almost all of the CEOs, with 90%, reported her or his organization had a corporate web page. CEOs totaling 3% reported having a personal web page in addition to the corporate web page. Corporate web pages with 80% were found on the World Wide Web. The personal web pages were also found where 48% replied the web sites were maintained in-house, and 43% replied the web sites were contracted to an outside source. The CEOs were queried about who was responsible, maintained, developed the CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 44

communication processes, and the content on her or his corporate web site. The CEOs’ answers

were varied and are presented in Table 2. For example, 5% of the CEOs stated she or he did the

work with their consultants or staff, whereas 27% of the CEOs identified an information systems

(IS), information technology (IT), management information systems (MIS), or chief information

officer (CIO) professional as the responsible individual. In contrast, 14% CEOs used the label marketing or marketing manager. CEOs with 8% were not sure who was responsible, maintained the content or developed the communication processes, but did know her or his organization maintained a web site that the CEOs utilized.

The web portal pages of the CEOs’ organizations are described with three categories: (1)

graphics, (2) text, and (3) dedicated photographs. Graphics included clip art, drawings and maps.

An approximate percentage dedicated to each of these three categories was assigned to each

CEO’s organization web portal page. Table 3 highlights the similarities and differences that

emerged. The majority of the web home pages consisted of text. Dedicated photographs was the

second most likely category to appear and their graphics was the third most likely.

Table 4 highlights the CEOs’ organizations’ web pages options for communication. In

other words, what multiple channel options are provided to the receivers of the CEOs’

organizational messages? The majority, with 65%, of the web pages allowed for purchasing or

online shopping of the organization’s goods and services. Overall 90% of the sites offered

customer support through email with 12% of the sites offered chat rooms for customers and

employees, and 80% offered catalog and product information. CEO responses varied again when

the CEOs were questioned about the services offered on the web site and where she or he stated

they were not sure, the services (such as purchasing, online shopping, customer support,

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 45

Table 2

CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Pages

ID Self-Report Web Page Printed In-House Web Page Contracted / Done

Company Web Off (Yes/No) Position (Yes/No) By (Yes/No)

Page (Yes/No)

001 Yes Yes No Not Sure No Not Sure

002 Yes Yes No Yes IT

Matrix Technology

003 Yes Yes Yes Network Yes Network

Administrator Administrator

004 Yes No No Yes IT

005 Yes Yes Yes IS Yes IS

006 Yes Yes Yes Marketing Yes Marketing

Manager Manager

Hart & Associates

007 No No No No

008 No Yes No No

009 No No No No

010 Yes Yes No Yes IS

011 Yes Yes No Yes American

Eagle Chicago IL

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 46

Table 2 (continued)

ID Self-Report Web Page Printed In-House Web Page Contracted / Done

Company Web Off (Yes/No) Position (Yes/No) By (Yes/No)

Page (Yes/No)

012 Yes Yes Yes IT No

013 Yes Yes No Not Sure No Not Sure

014 No Yes No Yes

Ohiomedia.com

015 Yes Yes Yes Network No

Manager

016 Yes No Yes No

017 Yes Yes No Yes

Marketing IT

Alphalogic

018 No No No No

019 Yes Yes Yes IT Yes IT

020 Yes No Yes ? No

021 Yes Yes Yes Aramark Yes Aramark

022 Yes Yes No Yes AW of

Columbus

023 Yes Yes No ? No ?

(continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 47

Table 2 (continued)

ID Self-Report Self-Report Self-Report Self-Report

Company Web Company Web Company Web Company Web

Page (Yes/No) Page (Yes/No) Page (Yes/No) Page (Yes/No)

024 Yes No No Yes CEO

Orwig

Communications

025 Yes No No No

026 Yes Yes Yes VP No

Marketing

Communication

027 Yes Yes Yes IS No

028 Yes Yes Yes IT No

029 Yes Yes No Yes Marketing

Coordinator

Hart Associates

030 Yes No Yes IS No

031 Yes Yes No Yes Not Sure

032 Yes No Yes Marketing No

Department

033 Yes Yes Yes IS No

(continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 48

Table 2 (continued)

ID Self-Report Web Page Printed In-House Web Contracted / Done Page Company Web Off (Yes/No) By (Yes/No) Position (Yes/No) Page (Yes/No)

034 Yes Yes Yes CEO No

035 Yes Yes Yes IS No Human

Resource

036 No Yes No No

037 Yes Yes No Yes Marketing

Manager

038 Yes Yes No Yes CEO

Fort Wayne?

039 Yes No Yes IT No

040 Yes Yes No Yes Network

Administrator

Not Sure

041 Yes Yes Yes Not Sure No

042 Yes Yes No Yes Service and

Tech Manager

Totalink

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 49

Table 2 (continued)

ID Self-Report Web Page Printed In-House Web Page Contracted / Done

Company Web Off (Yes/No) Position (Yes/No) By (Yes/No)

Page (Yes/No)

043 Yes Yes Yes Data No

Processing

Corporation

044 Yes Yes No Yes

Administrative

Assistant

045 Yes Yes Yes Marketing No Not Sure

046 Yes Yes Yes Webmaster No

047 Yes Yes No Yes Webmaster

Not Sure

048 Yes Yes Yes IS No

049 Yes Yes Yes IS No

050 Yes Yes No Yes IT

051 Yes Yes Yes IT No

052 Yes Yes Yes IT No

053 Yes Yes No Yes Not Sure

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 50

Table 2 (continued)

ID Self-Report Web Page Printed In-House Web Page Contracted / Done

Company Web Off (Yes/No) Position (Yes/No) By (Yes/No)

Page (Yes/No)

054 Yes Yes No Yes Marketing

Manager

055 Yes Yes Yes IS No

056 Yes Yes No Yes MIS

Consultants

057 Yes Yes Yes IT No

058 No No No No

059 Yes Yes No Yes CIO

060 Yes Yes Yes IS No

Local Consultant

Total Total Frequency Total Frequency Total Frequency Total Frequency

Yes 54 Yes 48 80% Yes 29 48% Yes 26 43%

90% No 12 20% No 31 52% No 34 57%

No 6

10%

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 51

Table 3

CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Page Overall Appearance

ID Web Page Catalogue Percentage Percentage Percentage

Description Graphics Web Page Dedicated

Text Photographs

001 Rehabilitation, Assisted Living, and 10% 80% 10%

Nursing Homes

002 National Construction Company 10% 80% 10%

003 Blended Wheats and Flours 10% 90% 0%

005 Labels and Labeled Promotional Items 10% 40% 50%

006 Supplier of Chemicals, Equipment, 15% 60% 25%

Programs, and Processes for

Institutional Cleaning

008 Management Services 10% 90% 0%

010 Docks 10% 30% 60%

011 Skateboard Ramps 20% 20% 60%

012 Tool Boxes and Cabinets 20% 20% 60%

013 Door Systems 15% 35% 50%

014 Classic Car Museum and Services 15% 35% 50%

015 Commercial Floor Care Equipment 25% 30% 45%

017 Toys 25% 25% 50%

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 52

Table 3 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Percentage Percentage Percentage

Description Graphics Web Page Dedicated

Text Photographs

019 Electrical and Electronic Goods 10% 25% 65%

Merchant Wholesalers

021 Automobile and Truck For Sale 10% 20% 70%

Vehicle Services and Scheduling

022 Automobile and Truck For Sale 25% 35% 40%

Vehicle Services and Scheduling

023 Food Items Specials 50% 30% 20%

Developing Shopping Lists for Pickup

026 Banking, Financial Services 15% 75% 10%

027 Banking, Financial Services 10% 80% 10%

028 Investment Services 20% 75% 5%

029 Insurance and Financial Services 5% 90% 5%

031 Engineering, Geologists, Scientists, 5% 90% 5%

Planners Services

033 Investment Capital Terms and 10% 90% 0%

Conditions

034 Travel Services, Trips, Cruises, Travel 10% 65% 25%

Packages, Entertainment Adventures (continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 53

Table 3 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Percentage Percentage Percentage

Description Graphics Web Page Dedicated

Text Photographs

035 Rehabilitation, Assisted Living, and 10% 80% 10%

Nursing Homes

036 Management Services for Burger King 15% 75% 10%

Restaurants

037 Research Services and Products for 10% 80% 10%

Market Needs

038 Building, Construction Services 25% 50% 25%

040 Tubing and Refrigeration Coil 15% 65% 20% Manufacturing

041 Banking, Financial Services 10% 80% 10%

042 Residential and Commercial Electronic 15% 60% 15%

Security Services

043 Banking, Financial Services 10% 70% 20%

044 Catering Services 10% 75% 15%

045 Wall Base, Floor Tile 20% 30% 50%

046 Medical Services, Bookstore, Pharmacy 10% 75% 15%

047 Banking, Financial Services 10% 80% 10%

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 54

Table 3 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Percentage Percentage Percentage

Description Graphics Web Page Dedicated

Text Photographs

048 Health Care Services 20% 60% 20%

049 Cleaning and Safety Supplies 10% 75% 15%

050 Construction Management and General 15% 65% 20%

Contractor Services

051 Payroll Services 20% 75% 5%

052 Retina Disease Treatment 5% 95% 0%

053 Banking, Financial Services 15% 80% 5%

054 Packaging Services for Automotive 20% 80% 0%

Industry

055 Furniture 10% 50% 40%

056 Construction Products, Concrete, Face 30% 50% 20%

Brick, Sewer and Water Supplies

057 Motivational Speaking 20% 60% 20%

Communication

Literature and Seminars

059 Academic Programs and Classes 30% 50% 20%

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 55

Table 3 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Percentage Percentage Percentage

Description Graphics Web Page Dedicated

Text Photographs

060 Specializes in Managing Investments in 10% 75% 15%

New Design, Construction, and

Maintenance

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 56

Table 4

CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Page Communication Options

ID Online Shopping Company Customer Chat Catalogue Room on Web Page Customers’ Support (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No)

001 No Yes No Yes

002 No Yes No Yes

003 No Yes No Yes

004 No Yes No Yes

005 Yes Yes Yes Yes

006 Yes Yes No Yes

007 No No No No

008 No No No No

009 No Yes No No

010 No Yes No Yes

011 Yes Yes No Yes

012 No Yes No Yes

013 Yes Yes Yes Yes

014 No No No No

015 No Yes No Yes

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 57

Table 4 (continued)

ID Online Shopping Company Customer Chat Catalogue Room on Web Page Customers’ Support (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No)

016 Yes Yes No Yes

017 Yes Yes No Yes

018 Yes Yes No No

019 Yes Yes No Yes

020 Yes Yes No Yes

021 Yes Yes No Yes

022 Yes Yes No Yes

023 No Yes No No

024 No Yes No Yes

025 No Yes No No

026 Yes Yes Yes Yes

027 Yes Yes No Yes

028 Yes Yes Yes Yes

029 No Yes No Yes

030 Yes Yes Yes Yes

031 Yes Yes No Yes

032 Yes Yes No Yes

(continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 58

Table 4 (continued)

ID Online Shopping Company Customer Chat Catalogue Room on Web Page Customers’ Support (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No)

033 Yes Yes No Yes

034 Yes Yes No Yes

035 No Yes No Yes

036 No No No No

037 Yes Yes No Yes

038 Yes Yes No Yes

039 Yes Yes No Yes

040 No Yes No Yes

041 Yes Yes Yes Yes

042 No Yes No Yes

043 Yes Yes No Yes

044 Yes Yes No Yes

045 Yes Yes No No

046 Yes Yes No No

047 Yes Yes Yes Yes

048 Yes Yes No Yes

049 Yes Yes No Yes

(continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 59

Table 4 (continued)

ID Online Shopping Company Customer Chat Catalogue Room on Web Page Customers’ Support (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No) (Yes/No)

050 No Yes No Yes

051 No No No No

052 Yes No No Yes

053 Yes Yes No Yes

054 Yes Yes No Yes

055 Yes Yes No Yes

056 Yes Yes No Yes

057 Yes Yes No Yes

058 Yes Yes No No

059 Yes Yes No Yes

060 Yes Yes No Yes

Total Total Frequency Total Frequency Total Frequency Total Frequency

Yes 39 65% Yes 54 90% Yes 7 12% Yes 48 80%

No 21 35% No 6 10% No 53 88% No 12 20%

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 60

customer email, catalog, and product information) were reported as “no”. Overall, the CEOs’

organizations’ contribute to an image of offering multiple channel choices for communication.

These channel options ranged from email to telephone to postal mail and the accessibility to the

CEO himself or herself, although rare, was at times possible.

Hypotheses and Research Question

Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 were supported. Although not robust, support was found for

Hypothesis 4 as well. Overall, CEOs were perplexed on when and how to use

computer-mediated communication as a channel for the greatest impact to create meaning with

the targeted audience members. The research question garnered a rich response as well with an

expanded version of the media richness continuum presented in the literature review of Chapter I

as Figure 1.

Hypothesis 1

Hypothesis 1 stated that CEOs are actively utilizing the media rich channel of

computer-mediated communication to influence their environment, perform their roles in their

position, and to create structure and vision through their presence. All 60 CEOs actively choose

computers as a mediated communication tool for interpersonal, organizational, and mass

mediated levels. Their organizations represent over 47,000 workers, of which more than 31,000 workers had integrated computer use at interpersonal, organizational, and mass mediated levels.

Many CEOs reported that their entire organization utilized computer-mediated tools in

their daily work and personal activities. The majority of CEOs utilized more than two personal

computers, and some of the CEOs reported using as many as five personal computers to serve as

an effective leader. Most of the CEOs reported that computers had changed their lives, CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 61

organizations, and had increased the pace of interactions with publics internal and external to

their organizations.

All of the CEOs reported utilizing computer-mediated communication through email and

the World Wide Web, and only a few still delegated their initial work in text documents utilizing

word processing. Many of the CEOs had achieved a personal understanding of online services to

utilize such services as Lexus Nexus and Delphi. CEOs raised concerns as a result of their use of

such services. In particular, the question as to how one identifies what is reliable and accurate

online information and what is not reliable or accurate information was a question raised by

many of the CEOs.

More than two-thirds of the CEOs found themselves utilizing their information technicians and information service personnel to help them define their organization’s structure and vision utilizing computer-mediated communication technology. As documented in Table 5, the CEOs turned to friends for personal computer-mediated communication and advice.

The majority of the CEOs surveyed participated in social networks and developed events so that they could themselves understand the use of personal computers. A comment by CEO

042 in the interview related to the depersonalization of the use of computer-mediated

communication and her/his reluctance to utilize the medium in his personal, longstanding

relationships. An extreme example of the recognition of the need to develop social capital and

the networks to solve problems was related by CEO 013 who reflected on the necessity of her/his

own child’s education and the child’s resistance to attend prep school prior to Ivy League

College. The CEO was concerned that the child would not achieve these social contacts, and the

network relationships that the CEO was now utilizing. The CEO further described how valuable

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 62

Table 5

CEO Sources to Identify New Computer Communications Applications

Category Frequency Percentage

IT/IS/MIS Manager/Department 34 54.83%

(Information Technology, Information Systems,

Management Information Systems)

Trade or Company Industry 6 9.67%

Friends or Personal Network 8 12.90%

Online or Internet 5 8.06%

Current Suppliers 3 4.83%

Don’t Know or No Answer 6 9.67%

Total 62 98.96%

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 63

the developed friendships had been to understand and find solutions for leadership and situational problems, both personal and organizational, these many years later.

The CEOs ranked important information sources for computer-mediated communication

as: (1) their information technicians and service personnel as the highest reference source, (2) customer requests, and (3) observing others in their own industry or trade group as their method to integrate the interactive medium of computer-mediated communication.

Rice, McCreadie, and Chang (2001) found that levels of media richness have both direct

effects and interaction effects when acquiring information. Rice’s (1984) research found that the

communication channel effects may be due to the skill level or abilities of the human use and

choice of the media. Therefore, Rice’s (1984) three levels of communication research, (1)

interpersonal, (2) organizational, and (3) institutional, were explored with each of the survey

participants. During all interviews, the CEOs identified little if any differentiation among the

levels of interpersonal communication, organizational communication, or institutional mass

mediated communication messages.

Most CEOs surveyed believed that they were communicating to everyone as best they

could to accomplish their own and organizational goals although the majority of CEOs asked

“what is mediated communication?”. Defining interpersonal communication as the dialogue

between two individuals, developing shared meanings and relationship sensitivity was also met

with confusion. Organizational communication was understood by many CEOs as

communicating what had to be done and separating what had to be done into tasks. The CEO’s

information technology professional was seen as most valuable with new computer system

technology because all information could be readily separated and reprocessed into tasks. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 64

Several examples of failure to differentiate interpersonal, organizational and mass mediated

communication follow.

CEO 046 related that all a CEO does is communicate. The CEO then expressed personal

frustration with emails sent by staff and employees that were perceived as long and not to the

point, and most times unnecessary. The CEO went on to say that her/his spouse stated that she/he

never took the time to really read the emails the spouse would send her/him because of their

length and ambiguity. This CEO asked if better training in discourse and linguistics would be the

answer.

During another interview, CEO 055 displayed her/his organization’s newsletter and

stated that the employee team just was not getting it. Frustrated, the CEO stated that she/he

accepted a proposal from a local university business school intern project, which placed the CEO

in front of her/his employees on a regular basis. The number of employees exceeded 4,000, and

the group meetings were with approximately 450 employees in each meeting sequentially for

two days every quarter. The CEO felt that these meetings would help the employees relate to

her/him and the organization’s needs.

CEO 043 stated that the computer had made it easier to do more work and that she/he

need not visit employees face-to-face anymore. The only time she/he would consider a one-on- one would be for discipline or to deliver bad news. The CEO stated that she/he sees most everyone face-to-face in the organization’s staff meetings. The CEOs failed to see the necessity for the combination of multiple channels to be used to convey messages. A second failure in understanding interpersonal and organizational feedback was given by CEO 037 who stated that she/he got plenty of feedback from group meetings and developed relationships with disgruntled employees in the group meetings when she/he publicly answered them with the facts. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 65

In each of the interviews, Rogers’ (2003) attributes of innovation were also explored. The attributes of innovation are (1) relative advantage, (2) observability, (3) compatibility, (4)

complexity, and (5) trialability. The CEOs reported that relative advantage or the cost savings

and temporal benefits of increased productivity for their personal communication and work

communication was the highest reason for utilizing computer-mediated communication. The

second highest-ranking reason for employing computer-mediated communication technology

was its ease of use, or lack of complexity. The CEOs ranked trialability as the third highest-

ranking reason, followed by compatibility. Observability was the final reason identified in the

CEOs’ rankings.

Numerous examples of the computer-mediated interactions eliminating travel time and

work process sharing were given as reasons to use computer interactions. Although these

observations were outside the survey and were volunteered, there were usually questions

following by the CEOs regarding when and how to use email, or that others did not understand

messages sent or received. In one instance, CEO 043 identified that her/his organization utilized

Goleman’s (1997) emotional intelligence as an employee program to deal with the rapid

organizational change influenced by these new computer-mediated communication channels.

The CEOs did not see themselves as having to adopt the technology first in their organizations;

although the CEOs acknowledged their adoption of computer-mediated communication

technology in the organization as important, the CEOs did not view it as their highest leadership

role. In summary, the CEOs prioritized their roles as (1) institutional leader, (2) champion of the

new computer-mediated technology, and (3) sponsor.

Hypothesis 2

Hypothesis 2 stated that CEOs view computer-mediated communication as a necessary, CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 66 integral part of their organization communication network. Support for hypothesis 2 emerged as well. Each of the CEOs described computer-mediated communication as a tool causing interactions with others to be more rapid, activities to process faster, and as a reduction to the barriers of spatial distances within their organization. All of the CEOs’ organizations actively use computers as communication tools. None of the organizations were rated by the CEOs as late adopters of computer-mediated communication technology, in contrast to several CEOs who rated themselves as late adopters. More than two-thirds of the organizations were rated by the

CEOs as innovators, early adopters, or early majority adopters of computer-mediated communication technology. Again, all of the CEOs were using their computer technology for text documents, email, file sharing, and information retrieval through the Internet or their organization’s networks. These leaders reported that they used their organization’s software for appointment scheduling, network file and email sharing from multiple geographic locations and these locations included home and different work sites, various distant or normally unattainable global locations. The importance of an array of media channels being made available to potential customers is highlighted in Table 6.

Many of the CEOs reported that their organizations had a new mobility into new global opportunities not available previously, brought about by the new computer-mediated communication channels. For example, CEO 031 stated that for the first time, she/he could run the office from Europe, accessing her/his email in the United States and coordinating office work with colleagues. A second CEO (005) now had global communication with customers and employees from remote locations internationally.

Hypothesis 3

Hypothesis 3 stated that CEOs view their own individual use of computer-mediated CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 67

Table 6

CEOs’ Organizations’ Web Page Media Richness Description

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

001 Rehabilitation, Assisted Email Email block with questionnaire 5

Living, and Phone numbers

Nursing Homes Street address locations

Microsoft Outlook

Mailing address

002 National Construction Email Email block 4

Company Phone numbers

Mailing address

Street address locations

003 Blended Wheats and Email Microsoft Outlook 4

Flours Phone numbers

Mailing addresses

Street address locations

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 68

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

005 Labels and Labeled Email Microsoft Outlook 5

Promotional Items Phone Numbers

Email block with questionnaire

Mailing address

Street address locations

006 Supplier of Chemicals, Email Email block with questionnaire 5

Equipment, Phone numbers

Programs, and Interactive distributor locator

Processes for Street addresses

Institutional Cleaning Mailing addresses

008 Management Services Email Microsoft Outlook 2

Phone number

010 Docks Email Microsoft Outlook 3

Phone and Fax number

Dealer street address

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 69

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

011 Skateboard Ramps Email Web shopping cart 5

Mailing address

Street address

Phone numbers

Microsoft Outlook

012 Tool Boxes and Email Interactive distributor locator 5

Cabinets Email block with questionnaire

Mailing address

Street address

Phone numbers

013 Door Systems Email Interactive distributor locator 5

Email block with questionnaire

Phone numbers

Web shopping cart for logo items

Street addresses

014 Classic Car Museum Email Microsoft Outlook 3

and Services Contact list

Phone numbers (continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 70

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

015 Commercial Floor Care Email Microsoft Outlook 5

Equipment Interactive salesman locator

Mailing address

Street address

Phone numbers

017 Toys Email Web shopping cart 5

Microsoft Outlook

Mailing address

Street address

Phone numbers

019 Electrical and Email Web shopping cart 4

Electronic Goods Phone numbers

Merchant Wholesalers Email block with questionnaire

Street addresses

021 Automobile and Truck Email Email block with questionnaire 3

For Sale Vehicle Phone numbers

Services and Street addresses

Scheduling (continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 71

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

022 Automobile and Truck Email Email block with questionnaire 3

For Sale Phone numbers

Vehicle Services and Street addresses

Scheduling

023 Food Items Specials Email Microsoft Outlook 3

Developing Shopping Phone numbers

Lists for Pickup Street addresses

026 Banking, Financial Email Email block with questionnaire 4

Services Interactive locator for branch

offices

Phone numbers

Street addresses

027 Banking, Financial Email Email block with questionnaire 4

Services Interactive locator for branch

offices

Phone numbers

Street addresses

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 72

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

028 Investment Services Email Email block with questionnaire 3

Phone numbers

Street addresses

031 Engineering, Email Microsoft Outlook 3

Geologists, Scientists, Phone numbers

Planners Services Street addresses

033 Investment Capital Email Microsoft Outlook 1

Terms and Conditions

034 Travel Services, Trips, Email Microsoft Outlook 3

Cruises, Travel Phone numbers

Packages, Street addresses

Entertainment

Adventures

035 Rehabilitation, Assisted Email Email block with questionnaire 5

Living, and Phone numbers

Nursing Homes Street address locations

Microsoft Outlook

Mailing address (continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 73

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

036 Management Services Email Microsoft Outlook 4

for Burger King Phone numbers

Restaurants Restaurant address and locations

Email block with questionnaire

037 Research Services and Email Email block with questionnaire 3

Products for Market Phone numbers

Needs Contact location address

038 Building, Construction Email Microsoft Outlook 2

Services Email block with questionnaire

040 Tubing and Email Microsoft Outlook 2

Refrigeration Coil Phone numbers

Manufacturing

041 Banking, Financial Email Email block with questionnaire 4

Services Interactive locator for branch

offices

Phone numbers

Street addresses

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 74

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

042 Residential and Email Microsoft Outlook 3

Commercial Electronic Phone numbers

Security Services Street addresses

043 Banking, Financial Email Email block with questionnaire 4

Services Interactive locator for branch

offices

Phone numbers

Street addresses

044 Catering Services Email Email block with questionnaire 3

Phone numbers

Street addresses

045 Wall Base, Floor Tile Email Email block with questionnaire 4

Interactive distributor locator

Phone numbers

Street addresses

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 75

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

046 Medical Services, Email Email block with questionnaire 4

Bookstore, Pharmacy Directories

Phone numbers

Street addresses

047 Banking, Financial Email Email block with questionnaire 4

Services Interactive locator for branch

offices

Phone numbers

Street addresses

048 Health Care Services Email Microsoft Outlook 3

Phone numbers

Street addresses

049 Cleaning and Safety Email Microsoft Outlook 4

Supplies Phone numbers

Mailing addresses

Interactive locator for sales

representatives

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 76

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

050 Construction Email Microsoft Outlook 4

Management and Phone numbers

General Contractor Mailing addresses

Services Street addresses

051 Payroll Services Email Interactive locator for sales 4

representatives

Phone numbers

Mailing addresses

Street addresses

052 Retina Disease Email Location addresses 2

Treatment Patient login

053 Banking, Financial Email Email block with questionnaire 3

Services Phone numbers

Contact location address

054 Packaging Services for Email Phone numbers 4

Automotive Industry Street address

Mailing address

Email block with questionnaire (continued) CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 77

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

055 Furniture Email Microsoft Outlook 2

Phone numbers

056 Construction Products, Email Phone numbers 4

Concrete, Face Brick, Street address

Sewer and Water Mailing address

Supplies Email block with questionnaire

057 Motivational Speaking Email Microsoft Outlook 4

Communication Phone numbers

Literature and Street address

Seminars Mailing address

059 Academic Programs 30% Phone numbers 4

and Classes Street address

Mailing address

Email block with questionnaire

(continued)

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 78

Table 6 (continued)

ID Web Page Catalogue Contact Contact Number of

Description Description(s) Contact

Description(s)

060 Specializes in Email Microsoft Outlook 3

Managing Investments Street address

in New Design, Mailing address

Construction, and

Maintenance

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 79

communication as a necessary, integral communication tool. Each CEO rated herself or himself

using Rogers’ (2003) adopter categories on the basis of innovativeness when adopting

computer-mediated communication technology. In contrast to the CEOs’ ratings on the adoption

of computer-mediated technology within their organizations, the CEOs’ self-ratings were more

evenly spread over Rogers’ five characteristics of technology adoption: (1) innovator, (2) early

adopter, (3) early majority adopter, (4) late majority adopter, and (5) late adopter. However, the

CEOs self-ratings were skewed revealing that more than three-fourths of the CEOs rated herself

or himself as an innovator, early adopter, or early majority adopter.

This is contrary to the notion that the CEO’s organization’s expertise would influence the likelihood of the CEO viewing her or himself as a leader in terms of computer technology.

Specifically a CEO of a computer software industry would be more likely to identify her or himself as an early adopter as compared to a CEO of an organization whose expertise is in banking or manufacturing. Put simply, organization expertise did not influence CEOs’

identifying themselves as on the fast track to utilizing media rich channels.

Nearly two-thirds of the CEOs reported utilizing personal digital assistants (PDAs) with

their personal and organizational computer-mediated communication networks. These handheld devices often incorporated cell phones, calendar schedulers, web and Internet connections for email and occasional file sharing within the same device. The majority of the CEOs acknowledged PDA information synchronizing with their personal computer-mediated technology at work. In addition, one-third of these same CEOs synchronized or shared with more than one computer system.

Home offices were reported by the overall majority of CEOs, as to where they perform

personal or work related tasks. Most of these CEOs reported that they utilized their CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 80 computer-mediated technology to telecommute, or as an office for work related computer-mediated communication when it was convenient to do so. The preponderance of this work related computer-mediated communication was to interact with email messages, text documents, and information gathering. The CEOs were specifically asked about their personal use and family use of computer-mediated communication. The CEOs reported that the majority of personal use was for email (both personal and family), and as an educational source to gather information. More than three-fourths of the computer-mediated communication uses were for word processing and file sharing. More than half of the CEOs reported that they utilize the computer most of the day or all of the day. The majority of the CEOs utilize the computer as a communication tool during the day. The issues foremost in the minds of the CEOs in regards to their individual computer-mediated communication use are presented in Table 7. All of the items revolved around stressful encounters in terms of keeping current with software, keeping the organization competitive through communication channels and keeping computer-mediated communication legal, effective and efficient.

Hypothesis 4

Hypothesis 4 stated CEOs view computer-mediated communication as the least preferred method of communication within their organization communication network. CEOs described strong computer-mediated communication use within their organizations. Caveats emerged with the limitations of computer-mediated communication. The variance of the communication situation and computers is presented in Table 8.

The majority of the CEOs also expressed heavy personal use of computer-mediated communication technology from home to interact with and through their organization’s computer-mediated networks. Many of the CEOs reported they would not use the computer as a CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 81

Table 7

Explication of Individual Computer-Mediated Communication Use

Category Frequency Percentage

Coping with Technology or Frustrated Learning 15 23.43%

CEO Directing Future Plans 17 26.56%

Attitude Toward Computer Mediated Communication 13 20.31%

No answer 19 29.68%

Total 64 99.98%

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 82

Table 8

CEO Reasons for Not Using Computer Communication as a Tool

Category Frequency Percentage

Relationship with Others 31 35.63%

Security, Privacy or Confidentiality 16 18.39%

When Needing Feedback 22 25.28%

Technology Control of Communication Ability 6 6.89%

Need Face-to-Face Communication 8 9.19%

None 4 4.59%

Total 87 99.97%

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 83

communication tool in situations where (1) relationships with others was critical, (2) when

security, privacy or confidentiality is necessary, (3) when needing feedback, (4) when

communication ability cannot be controlled by technology, and (5) when face-to-face

communication is needed. Many of the CEOs reported that their organizations and stakeholders demanded that the CEO have strong skills and ability to be computer literate for communication.

Several of the CEOs reported their frustration of not being as skilled when communicating utilizing computer networks. CEO 053 stated that her/his training to use the computer as a

communication tool was not adequate and came “on the job”, and that anyone starting out today

would have to begin with training. CEO 016 stated she/he had to be “force fed” to use

computer-mediated communication, particularly email. The CEO continued that getting

proficient at computer skills takes time, and that she/he was going too fast, trying to do too much.

A continuum of media rich channels were made available to customers to encourage

sales. Multiple methods of contact, such as mail addresses, street addresses, telephone numbers,

fax numbers, and email contact, were available on the web sites. In terms of media richness,

these range from the least to the most rich with: (1) mail addresses, including street addresses,

(2) fax numbers, (3) email contact, (4) email block with questionnaires, (5) telephone numbers,

and (6) an interactive web site which bundles mail addresses, street addresses, fax numbers,

email contact, email block with questionnaires, and telephone numbers.

The majority of the CEOs’ organization web sites indicated that computer-mediated

communication was the organization’s dominant internal and external communication channel.

Most of the CEOs stated that computer-mediated communication was absolutely necessary for CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 84

their organization, and more than three-fourths of the CEOs stated that it was very important and

absolutely necessary for them personally and professionally.

Research Question 1

Research Question 1 asked how CEOs view computer-mediated communication relative

to the media channels used for communication. The study found that the CEOs view

computer-mediated communication as an absolutely necessary part of their organization’s

information creation, processing, and sharing. Computer-mediated communication technology

has changed the way the CEOs and their organizations interact. For example, when asked if

computers had changed her/his performance as president of the organization, CEO 030 responded positively, explaining that computer-mediated communication had made her/him much more mobile and able to work and communicate other than from the office. Computer- mediated communication increases the amount of information available to the CEOs and their organizations. Computer-mediated communication channels promote increased interactivity, allowing quicker requests and responses. There is also a reduction of distance between sender

and receiver, and faster communication and document exchanges. Case in point is when CEO

010 replied it was now possible to send information faster; CEO 009 stated computer-mediated communication made it possible to communicate more information in writing. CEO 031 replied computer-mediated communication allowed more mobility, making it possible to work and communicate other than from the office. CEO 050 stated computer-mediated communication enhanced verbal communication through email documentation. Email is viewed as a better communication tool by CEO 044, with the result that the CEO no longer used telephone voicemail. Another CEO (056) replied that computer-mediated communication was more productive, reducing the amount of face-to-face contact necessary in some instances. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 85

The majority of the CEOs viewed computer-mediated communication as an important and absolutely necessary communication channel with variance between the media channel options being substantial. However, the CEOs expressed reluctance to use this communication channel overall in the areas of building and maintaining relationships, privacy and confidentiality, and the lack of feedback cues in contrast to face-to-face communication. One

CEO (011) emphasized that she/he would not use computer-mediated communication if the

message needed a personal touch.

Such an instance would be when CEO 012 emphasized one-on-one, or face-to-face

communication, so the message is not misinterpreted. CEO 040 stated that only certain messages

are appropriate, especially when the message has complexity, and another CEO (029) stated

she/he would not use computer-mediated communication when it was an emotionally charged

issue. Many of the CEOs expressed their feeling of being uncomfortable with the use of computer-mediated technology, and their past experiences with the failure and complexity of computer-mediated communication. For example, more than one-third of the CEOs emphasized computer crashes with loss of information and messages as being a major problem. However, only a few CEOs viewed their lack of skills with the computer-mediated technology as a barrier which in turn limits the number of channel option on the media rich continuum.

Despite the support available to utilize the media channels available with computers, the

CEOs expressed frustration. The CEOs struggle with not having adequate knowledge and

understanding of communication technology and its ongoing impact on the people within their

organization. The CEOs emphatically questioned identifying the difference between

communication and information channels. The CEOs sought insights from this investigation’s

interviewer as to when computer-mediated communication tools should be used. The CEOs also CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 86 asked when and what amount of training should be required of users of computer-mediated communication, such as employees, customers, and suppliers. CEO 008 emphasized that with all the demands by others using the computer as communication tools, how could a CEO or any organization not use computer-mediated communication?

An area that repeatedly emerged in this study was the need to match communication channels, mediated or not, with the communication situation. For example, one CEO (013) emphasized that scholars need to try to focus on the motivation for this technology and determine why organizations are utilizing more computer-mediated communication. The CEO described an experience where the technology champion had struggled for more than a year within the organization to implement new computer-mediated communication technology and became a corporate joke. CEO 025 questioned where computer communication technology should be used and not used. Several CEOs emphasized there are personal touches and one CEO

(031) emphasized there are human moments and CEOs should not hide behind computers.

Several CEOs found themselves coping and frustrated. Additional CEOs viewed themselves as directing structure and vision for their organizations. This distinction between the importance of computer-mediated communication and the CEOs’ identification of their organizations as compared to themselves emerged with two one-way ANOVAs.

Two one-way ANOVAs were run between the self-identified adoption style of media rich computer communication channels and the degree of importance of computer-mediated communication as compared to other media channels. A statistically significant difference emerged between the relationship of how the CEO described her or his organization in terms of its adoption style to the importance of computer-mediated communication. Scheffe’s post hoc test was calculated when a significant difference was found. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 87

The CEOs who identified their organizations as early majority adopters (M = 4.84) were

significantly more likely to identify the importance of computer-mediated communication as

compared to other media communication channels as compared to the relatively earlier

(M = 4.62) or the later adopters (M = 4.58). This relationship was significant at the p = .04 level

with F = 3.55 at 2 degrees of freedom.

A significant difference did not emerge with the ANOVA for the CEOs’ self

identification in terms of their computer-mediated communication adoption rate and the importance of computer-mediated communication as compare to other media channels, F = 2.29 with 2 degrees of freedom with p =.111.

At what times with what restrictions with what, if any, effect was an ongoing theme when

the CEOs were asked about their computer-mediated communication. This response was

apparent when the CEOs were asked what scholars need to know about CEOs and their

communication use. The CEOs were passionate when sharing their 89 points as identified in

Table 9.

Four themes emerged from the query to the CEOs, asking what scholars need to know

about computers and CEOs. These themes were: (1) demands on the CEO to be computer

communication literate, (2) frustration utilizing computer-mediated technology, (3) the need to

match media and communication channels, and (4) how to use mediated technology and

information.

The first theme that emerged was the perception by the CEOs that there was a demand

on them by their boards of directors and all stakeholders to be literate with the

computer-mediated technology. One-third of the sixty CEOs interviewed expressed the pressure

of the need to be skilled and to plan for expanding the area of computer-mediated CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 88

Table 9

What Scholars Need to Know About CEOs’ Computer Use

Category Frequency Percentage

Demands on CEO to be Computer Communication Literate 30 32.60%

Frustration Utilizing Computer Mediated Technology 27 29.34%

Need to Match Media and Communication Channels 17 18.47%

How to Use Mediated Technology and Information 15 16.30%

No answer 3 3.26%

Total 92 99.97%

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 89

communication for themselves and their organizations. CEO 044 stated that scholars need to

know that the computer-mediated communication is a “dominant form of communication”. CEO

53 anguished that the speed of interactions was an increased challenge from ten years ago and

makes operations different, especially for her/his adoption of the needed computer-mediated

interaction skills. CEO 045 stated scholars need to know that computer-mediated communication

is an absolutely necessary evil, a “must have”. CEO 035 stated scholars need to know CEOs

must learn to use computer-mediated communication efficiently. CEO 022 exclaimed skill to use

and improve using computers. This theme is similar Martin’s (2003) explanation of new breed of

CEO who must utilize, understand and apply computer-mediated technology for her or his

organization. Warner (2005) confirms the CEOs’ job expectations that, in contemporary times

CEOs’ need to have the skills to utilize the new technology for themselves and their

organizations. This echoes the research of Martin, Batchelder, Newcomb, Rockart, Yetter, and

Grossman (1995), who emphasized the CEO could no longer delegate involvement in

understanding the core issues of information technologies.

The second theme emerging from more than one-fourth of the CEOs interviewed was

their anxiety and frustration with the unfamiliar, new situations utilizing computer-mediated technology. For example, CEO 017 observed that most CEOs were out of school before the pc

was invented, while CEO 040 stated that age has an effect on technology use and leadership.

Many of the CEOs thoughts were fragmented on the subject of what scholars need to

know about CEOs and computers. The fragmentation revealed almost incongruous statements of

frustration. Perplexed, CEO 018 stated there is a difference between communication and

information sharing, and CEO 024 emphasized that applicable skills need to be taught. In a

reflective manner, CEO 060 responded that she/he did not know what scholars need to know, but CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 90

that she/he now can see the value of the information she/he is sharing and dealing with as a CEO,

and the difficulty in handling it. Many of the CEOs interviewed expressed their frustration with

being forced to embrace this new computer-mediated situation. This viewpoint is reflected in

electronic popular media which claims CEOs must adapt to computer-mediated communication

technology, such as “CEOs Being Forced to Adapt to Internet Reality” (n.d.).

The third theme that emerged was a recognition by the CEOs of the need to be literate in matching media and communication channels with the situation. The CEOs wanted better understanding of how to match media to situations. CEO 025 stated that scholars need to know where computer communication applications are used and not used and why. Then, CEO 025 stated, scholars can help improve applications and education of potential users. Puzzled, CEO

030 questioned a comparison of face-to-face communication and computer-mediated communication, and is there a difference? CEO 030 stated computer-mediated communication can be more unpleasant, and that email and file sharing isn’t enough compared to face-to-face.

CEO 030’s statement, although fragmented, demonstrated the confusion of when and how to use the emerging communication technology. CEO 031 expressed frustration with the difference between face-to- face and computer-mediated communication, and conveyed that it is not clear when to use many different channels. This perplexity of many of the CEOs interviewed that there was a need to understand, and more importantly be aware of different media, is evidenced in print popular media such as Forbes’ “A Day in the Life of C-Level Executives Research Series”

(2004). Although the Forbes article only references corporate level emerging computer-mediated communication use, evidence of awareness of materials such as newspapers and file sharing was specified.

The fourth theme that emerged in this study was how the CEOs and their organizations CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 91 can use computer-mediated technology and information. CEO 006 stated that scholars need to know how CEOs might use computer-mediated communication to increase their effectiveness.

CEO 059 wanted to know what the effectiveness was for CEOs’ use of computer-mediated communication with other individuals. CEO 059 specifically asked what emotional effect would computer-mediated communication have in contrast to other communication channels. CEO 059 asked whether the investigator of this study was familiar with Goleman (1997), and how would this apply to the use of the computer-mediated communication channel effectiveness. CEO 016 stated all this computer-mediated communication must be user friendly, and the majority of the users are not developed utilizing this technology versus other communication channels. CEO 013 stated CEOs need to focus on the motivations of why and how individuals use computer-mediated communication technology. “The UCLA Internet Report: Surveying the

Digital Future” (2003) presents an understanding of what is happening with the use of computer-mediated technology. Many of the CEOs interviewed would benefit from the UCLA report findings of how computer-mediated communication is being used in organizations, socially, and with consumers.

Overall in response to the analysis generated with the review of the interview data and the analysis of media rich environment contributes to the reconceptualization of the media richness continuum presented in Figure 1 found in Chapter 1. These additions are presented in

Figure 2, which adds the column of Social Interactive Place and Spatiality and the column of

Network Social Spaces.

The High Relationship Sensitivity Shared Community column in Figure 1 is expanded in

Figure 2 as well. As rich communication channels are utilized at the top of the media rich continuum, the opportunity for better understanding through feedback and shared understanding CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 92

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 93 of values and behaviors develop what Lin (2001) and Lin, Cook, and Burt (2001) identify as social capital between and among interactive communicators. The media channel choices as a result of feedback cues and shared meanings develop into shared social capital, leading toward community and more rich channel interaction.

The new column of Social Interactive Place and Spatiality in Figure 2 emphasizes that the more interactive the communication, the greater the necessity of more rich media. The space of interactivity may be looked at as spatial or having a character of space and place, although not necessarily physical. This addresses the interactivity and vividness of the Internet and World

Wide Web spatiality.

The added column of Network Social Spaces in Figure 2 explicates the importance of shrinking spatial geographic and social distances with the rich communication channels brought about by the interconnectivity of the Internet. The distance from the CEO to the customer or employee, as well as the geographical distance globally, are now easily connected with the emerging computer-mediated communication channels. Social networks of the one-to-many and many-to-many contacts of rich communication interaction are facilitated by the emerging computer-mediated communication channel use.

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 94

CHAPTER IV. CONCLUSION

Conclusion

As noted in this dissertation’s introduction, Mintzberg’s (1973) seminal work reported

that CEOs spend up to 80% of their time communicating. It is not surprising then to find that selecting the most appropriate media channel to communicate to both internal and external

constituencies in the media rich environment of the 21st century is one of the greatest challenges

CEOs currently face (Zeller & Spirek, 2003). Although Rice noted as early as in 1984 that the

CEO is an actor interacting and providing leadership utilizing computer-mediated communication channels with varying media rich channels, the complexity of this use for the

CEO and his or her organization has increased exponentially over the past two decades.

Specifically the current investigation responded to this predicament. This dissertation explored

when, where, what and how CEOs utilize multimedia channels across a media rich continuum to

communicate by generating support for four hypotheses and one research question grounded in

media richness theory.

The results demonstrate that media richness theory (Daft & Lengel, 1984) is a fruitful

framework for responding to the status quo. This dissertation’s findings indicate that the CEOs

are stressed and seek information how to conduct this communication effectively given the host

of media-rich channels now available. These channel options included but were not limited to

postal mail, fax, voicemail, text messages, email and the web. The majority of the 60 CEOs

interviewed emphasized computer-mediated communication was important or absolutely

necessary as a powerful communication channel for their organizations, and for their own

personal communication although the effective and efficient use of computers across a host of

scenarios is difficult when faced with an array of mediums in a global multimedia environment. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 95

In other words, when, where, and how to utilize computer-mediated communication in

combination with other communication channels was recognized as a complex process with salient implications for selecting one medium over another. The self-reports repeatedly document that CEOs’ medium choices were associated with the degree of success in creating a shared meaning with his or her intended audience.

Overall, the CEOs described that there were internal and external organization pressures

for the CEOs to provide structure and vision for their organizations with the use of media rich

computer-mediated communication. The CEOs stated that there was demand put upon them by

their organization’s stakeholders to be literate with this technology. An example of this situation

described by the CEOs was that the study found that more than half of the CEOs depended on

their information technology systems or management information systems personnel to provide

them with the latest information and proposed computer-mediated communication technology.

The majority of the CEOs rated these same individuals as an important source for this

information.

All of the CEOs stated that computers had changed their organizations and changed both

their personal and organization’s way of communicating, therefore increasing the complexity and

the number of communication decisions. The CEOs stated computer-mediated communication

had changed their performance and their organization’s performance.

In conclusion, the findings brought forth that the majority of CEOs were confused on

how to fine tune their own and their organization’s efficient and effective use of media-rich

channel opportunity made available with computer-mediated communication technology. The

benefit of the use of this technology by all the stakeholders, external and internal, had

overwhelmed the CEOs and their organizations. Put simply, most CEOs would like to learn more CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 96 about computer-mediated communication channels, and when, where and how to utilize computer-mediated communication channels with other communication channels. It is the informed orchestration of this salient channel selection that the CEOs found stressful and in need of quality support. The overall goal then of the CEOs that emerged in this study was to minimize frustrations and maximize the potential of computer-mediated communication.

Discussion

Computer-mediated communication is a rich medium with its interactivity and asynchronous nature, allowing for reflexive thought before creating, responding to messages, seeking and processing information. For example, CEO 055 praised the quickness of computer-mediated communication by relating that she/he shared thoughts by email with staff members for complex decisions, asked each to comment and then proceeded with the staff’s input to finalize the decision. The CEO stated that it was amazing that the computer utilized in this way sometimes revealed information that was never present before. In agreement, CEO 050 stated that the computer-mediated communication clarified and documented directions better with the organization’s team when developing better product design parameters. Many CEOs interviewed claimed computer-mediated communication made information available that they had never before had access to utilize when making decisions.

Study’s Theoretical Contributions

As a result of the completion of this study, strengths and limitations became apparent.

Some of these are identified below.

Strengths

As noted earlier, Daft and Lengel (1986) established a hierarchy for media richness: CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 97

(1) face-to-face, (2) interactive media (e.g., telephone, electronic media), (3) personal static

media (e.g., memos, letters, tailored computer reports), and (4) impersonal static media (e.g.,

flyers, bulletins, generalized computer reports). Daft and Lengel emphasize that the more

interactive the media, the richer the medium is. The use of computer-mediated communication

by CEOs and their organizations was established and is a dominant communication channel in

the theoretical media richness hierarchy. One strength of this study is that it made a theoretical contribution to the media richness perspective. That is, media richness provided a rigorous and systematic means for better describing, predicting, explaining, controlling, and understanding

CEOs’ media choices when communicating.

A second strength of the study was its inclusion of CEOs. CEOs are important because they influence large amounts of individual behaviors. As noted by Zeller and Spirek (2003), the

CEOs’ voices are rarely found in the academic literature despite the CEOs’ importance at multiple levels within organizations. By developing and directing strategic plans and controlling and readjusting the activities within their organization structure and external publics, the CEOs exercise influence (Bass, 1990). In this investigation, more than 41,000 employees were directly

influenced by the attitudes and behaviors of the 60 CEOs who comprised this study’s sample.

CEOs’ opinions are valuable, as CEOs’ personal affluence and social status dominate

local government and policy issues such as public education, allocation of civic resources, and

committee positions in various charity and non-profit organizations (Gilbert, 1998). Indirectly,

regional, national, and global economies were influenced by the attitudes and behaviors of the

CEOs and their corresponding stakeholders, trading more than several billion dollars. The CEO

is the top executive in charge, required by law to be accountable for the most efficient and best

use of social assets (Black, 2002). Northouse (2004) further describes the necessity for leadership CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 98 to provide structure and vision for the organization. Hunt (2004) concurs, identifying the CEO’s leadership influencing the individual worker and overall organizational performance. This study contributes to the theoretical framework by clearly demonstrating its ability to investigate potential causal mechanisms of CEOs’ communicative behaviors.

Limitations

One of the major limitations of the study was that it is not comprehensive. It was not possible to conduct a detailed examination on: (1) the different mediated channels, such as personal static media and impersonal static media in contrast to the interactive media, and (2) situational applications, such as CEO individual skills, attitudes, and experiences as a communicator and their perception as sender and receiver in the communication interaction process utilizing different media.

CEOs expressed frustration with the acceptance of messages by their intended receivers.

For example, CEO 027 recommended that a more detailed analysis would be helpful on the social skills of computer-mediated communication users. The CEO felt that computer-mediated communication, specifically email and web content, was having a major impact on social structure, internal and external to her/his organization. CEO 016 stated that in the majority of cases, it was better to make personnel changes rather than rehabilitation. The CEO questioned whether the ability to adopt and change could be a function of educational background and age.

A third example is when CEO 045 mentioned global time zones within working relationships and how they are intrusive in a changing organizational structure. The CEO complained that it challenged management to do a better job with this new computer-mediated interconnectivity.

The CEOs also expressed corresponding frustration with the messages sent by them. The feedback from these messages befuddled the CEOs. Many of the CEOs’ pattern of CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 99

communication behavior observed during these interviews was the process model where all CEO

messages sent are 100% received. The receivers are viewed as receptors of messages and

feedback dialogue frustrated the CEOs. Future research should explore this area which may be a

major paradigm shift in the sharing of meaning within organizations brought about by the

connectedness and interactivity of computer-mediated communication.

Study’s Methodological Contributions

In addition to the strengths and limitations that emerged with the theoretical facets,

strengths and limitations emerged with the dissertation’s methodology as well.

Strengths

The survey interview method utilized in this study maintained a high level of

responses from the CEOs interviewed. With only one exception, all survey interviews were

accompanied by face-to-face contact; one interview was conducted by telephone after the CEO

had completed the survey and returned the survey to the investigator by fax. There was intense

CEO interest, trust, and voluntary elaborations when the CEOs answered the interview questions.

Every CEO contacted was surveyed. Nearly all interviewees asked for definitional clarification on terms such as media, communication channel, or scholar. CEO 047 asked for an example of a media, and then replied, “Oh, I use that every day to run the organization.” CEO 035 queried the investigator if she/he used a computer to interact with others, was that communicating? After answering the interview question on the use of email, the CEO’s own paradigm shifted from one as a director of tasks and orders to the perception of two-way message interaction. The CEO demanded that more time be spent with her/him on this subject.

The survey interview also permitted flexibility, allowing the CEOs to elaborate and take

more than the original time scheduled for the interview. For example, CEO 048 became involved CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 100

after the survey was completed, and insisted that a prominently known CEO in her/his same

industry be interviewed as well after an introduction by CEO 048. With the survey completed,

the CEO elaborated on the changes in her/his industry, along with many anecdotal narratives of

organizational changes influenced by the emerging technology of computers. The open-ended

and closed-ended interview questions kept the CEOs focused on computer-mediated

communication, but allowed the CEOs to expound further when they felt the need.

The CEO participants of the study were all expressive, with many almost forcible in their opinions about the use of the single communication channel of computer-mediated communication. In partial response to the query of what scholars need to know about computers and CEOs, CEO 021 defended CEOs with a statement that leading people as a CEO created maximum value for her/his organization, and that the computer was secondary.

Limitations One limitation of the study is that it was only a snapshot in time of the CEOs’ perception

and behavior. The CEOs, as participants, are dynamic, cosmopolite individuals who use their

social status, authority and social contacts to implement change within their personal, organizations and external environments. All of the CEOs were part of many diverse social, civic, and commercial organizations.

A second limitation of the interview method was the CEO self-report. The survey

interview may bias the information provided if the CEO answered the questions as she or he

thought the investigator was seeking, or answers that were socially appropriate. A third

limitation of the survey methodology may be that the investigator of the study may also bias the

CEOs’ answers by indicating a preference of answers. This limitation might be conscious on

behalf of the interviewer or not. CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 101

A fourth limitation of the survey methodology is that most academic researchers are

unable to gain access to CEOs face-to-face, or to gather personal responses of CEOs for a survey. Most surveys of organizations, if completed at all, are completed by CEO staff secretaries or assistants. A final limitation of the study is that the interview survey may not reflect the context of CEO behavior and attitudes over a longer period of time.

Future Directions

Given the interesting results that were made possible with the completion of this study,

future investigations are encouraged given the insights that emerged. Short-term and long-term

directions are offered below.

Short-Term

Short-term future research directions for this study would be to examine why the majority

of CEOs in this study perceived computer-mediated communication as absolutely necessary.

Rice’s (1984a) communication research levels of interpersonal, organizational, and institutional

or mass mediated would be explored as to the importance of computer-mediated channels in the

context of the CEO reporting that computer-mediated communication is absolutely necessary.

Contrasting channels of communication, such as face-to-face, teleconference, and telephone would be used to clarify why computer-mediated communication is best and necessary in different situations.

An open-ended question in the survey in this study asked the CEOs to elaborate on what

scholars should know about CEOs and computers. The CEOs’ answers revealed agenda questions

for a future focus group, such as whether computer-mediated communication is absolutely

necessary because computers lower operating costs, and how do computers do this? Another agenda question would investigate the absolute necessity for computer-mediated communication CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 102

because computers increase mobility, and what is meant by mobility? A third agenda question

would examine if computer-mediated communication is absolutely necessary because computers

speed communication? And how does speedier communication not cause more

misunderstandings?

A media continuum of communication channels with computer-mediated communication

as one channel would be developed, contrasting with other channels. This continuum would

build upon the media richness continuum research of Daft and Lengel (1984, 1986). The

outcome of the focus group would be developed survey questions. These surveys would examine

the validity of CEO perceptions of absolutely necessary computer-mediated communication use.

Long-Term

Future directions for research should explore the confusion and frustration the CEOs expressed concerning when and where is the best use of computer-mediated communication channels. Media richness theory explains the effects of media channel choice that may result in

disorder of information flow and meanings brought about by ambiguity and uncertainty. When

ideas and tasks are communicated between senders and receivers, the capacity of the channel for

richer or leaner media can have an effect on understanding between sender and receiver (Daft &

Lengel, 1984, 1988; Huber & Daft, 1987; Daft & Huber, 1987).

Rich information used in a routine and leaner situation will confuse the importance of

meaning and cause meaning to be read into information, creating more ambiguity and

uncertainty. For example, if a CEO meets face-to-face with a customer to discuss operating

procedures of the CEO’s organization’s products or services, the customer may attribute more meaning to the reason for the CEO’s operating procedure inquiry. For instance, the customer might assume the organization is having problems with the quality of the product or service, or CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 103 that the CEO is not happy with the usual salesperson, or that changes to the product or service are in the offing. In contrast, if routine procedures are followed and handled through normal product or service exchanges, routine lean communication channels will fit the situation.

However, if lean media channels used in situations where richer information and resulting richer channels are needed, learning and understanding will be limited. For example, a flyer or bulletin as an invitation is not as rich as a handwritten, personally addressed invitation. One-on-one, face-to-face invitations are even richer.

One example of media channel use by CEOs when the CEOs do not understand media channel choice and effects is CEOs contracting with event planners. These event planners guarantee an audience size made up of the proper stakeholders who have the same interests that the CEO or her/his organization is planning to influence. As the event takes place, facilitated by formal text invitations, one-on-one verbal invitations from influential participants, and media advertising for social awareness, the CEO’s event audience or guests are given a rhetorical presentation by the CEO, face-to-face dialogue with the important guests, along with the proper, nonverbal symbolism, all promoting the CEO’s organization and message. Many times, these events are misplanned or misplaced by affluent and influential people. CEO 041 remarked that the communication that took place in many of the organizational events that she/he was required to attend can be quite repulsive and inappropriate, with the display of nonverbal symbols such as very expensive personal homes, possessions, expensive cars, and unnecessary rhetorical presentations of personal accomplishments. CEO 041 urged that there needed to be a better understanding of individual relationships and an understanding that the symbols of success, or nonverbal artifacts, were misplaced with the goals of the events.

CEO 033 relayed experiences of problems with multiple wrong media channel CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 104

choices. The CEO stated a newsletter was chosen as the media channel to explain personnel

changes rather than personal dialogues with each individual affected by major organizational and personal career life changes. Rather, sensitivity to communication methods and media choice should utilize face-to-face dialogue and personal media choices such as email, personal telephone contact to coordinate retraining, interviews and clarifications. Further, problem resolution would incorporate richer use of counseling face-to-face and rich personal emails, coordinating one-on-one discussions.

Letters and news bulletins are considered the leanest of media. These mediums may be

used in coordination with richer one-on-one, face-to-face dialogue, personal email, or telephone

dialogue. In contrast, rich media utilized for routine situations may confuse meaning, in effect

overemphasizing the importance of information. CEO 052 noted having problems implementing

the computer-mediated customer record system in her/his organization, and its use with the

service personnel to provide better service. All customer information was deemed so important

and confidential by CEO 052 that only CEO 052 and her/his top colleagues could interact with

the customers and their records. While waiting to interview CEO 052, the investigator of this

study observed more than six customers verbally comparing their experiences, comparing services and communications with themselves as customers, and their view of their treatment by the employees in CEO 052’s organization.

An example of the unease and possibly wrong channel choice causing CEO 052’s

perceived disorder by the customers was that communicating face-to-face to each customer was

very important to CEO 052. However, with all of the CEOs interviewed, there was a range of

opinions on the choice of face-to-face and computer-mediated communication channels. This

range extended from CEO expressions of relief for not having to see as many individuals CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 105

face-to-face because of the ability to utilize computer-mediated communication, to several CEOs

who stated that they would never use computer-mediated channels to communicate information

such as complex subjects, to deliver bad news, or discuss emotional issues.

In contrast, Daft and Lengel (1984) maintain that tasks that are less analyzable utilize

higher levels of media richness such as one-on-one, face-to-face meetings, group meetings, telephone, and interactive mail. The differentiation of these channels in situational contexts when

used by the CEOS could be explored in a focus group to better understand the long-term

implications of computer-mediated research. Recent research found that email is considered

close in media richness to face-to-face communication (Copher, Kanfer, and Walker, 2002).

Amand, Glick, and Manz’s (2002) research stresses that in today’s complex world, ambiguous

information is best acquired and processed by those who are media sensitive. CEOs’ sensitivity

to different types of media used for communication may be an essential leadership skill that could be defined in further media richness studies.

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 106

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APPENDIX A

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 119

Name ______Company Name ______

1. Where do you turn to identify new computer communication applications, systems, and equipment?

2. How important are each of these sources for your information about computers? Please circle your response on the following scale:

Magazines Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Newspapers Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

TV Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Books Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

WEB Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Word of mouth Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Observing colleagues in your own industry Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Observing others outside of your industry Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 120

Customer or client requests Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Customer or client observations Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Internal IS/IT or management team members Always consult Not at all this source 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3. When identifying and adopting new computer communication technology, how important is the following? Please circle your response on the following scale:

Relevant Advantage: (time saved, cost reduction, competitive advantage etc.) Agree strongly Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Observability: (observing others using new computer communication technology) Agree strongly Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Compatibility: (fit into your organizations culture and in harmony with the organization) Agree strongly Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Complexity: (ease of use and ability to integrate into the organizations operations) Agree strongly Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Trialability: (ability to pretest without obligation new computer communication technology) Agree strongly Disagree strongly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

4. Which of the following roles do you see yourself performing when your organization adopts a new computer communication technology? Please check all that apply:

____ Adopter ____Change agent ____Champion of the new technology ____Facilitator ____Sponsor ____Mentor ____Critic ____Institutional leader CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 121

5. What are the three most important roles listed above? On the list below, mark 1 for most important, 2 for second and 3 for third most important:

____ Adopter ____Change agent ____Champion of the new technology ____Facilitator ____Sponsor ____Mentor ____Critic ____Institutional leader

6. How would you rate your organization on adopting new computer communication technology? Please circle your response on the following scale:

An innovator Early adopter Early majority adopter Late majority adopter Late adopter 1 2 3 4 5

7. How do you personally see yourself on adopting new computer communication technology? Please circle your response on the following scale:

An innovator Early adopter Early majority adopter Late majority adopter Late adopter 1 2 3 4 5

8. Please check any of the following purposes for which you use a computer at work or at home:

_____Presentation packages (such as Power Point)

_____Database (such as Access)

_____Personal productivity software (such as contact manager, appointments, calendar)

_____Project management software

_____Network manager software (such as your organization’s local area network (LAN)

_____Financial management software (such as QuickBooks, Peachtree)

9. Do you use a personal digital assistant (PDA)? (This would include a small hand- held palm pilot, a cell phone with PDA functions, or other PDA variations.) _____No _____Yes If yes, what type of PDA do you use? ______

If yes, what is the brand name of the main PDA you are using? ______Do you synchronize your PDA to your personal computer? _____No _____Yes CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 122

Do you synchronize your PDA with more than one computer? _____No _____Yes If yes, how many? ______

Do you synchronize your PDA and your personal computer with your organizations’ centralized calendar and office appointment scheduling system? _____No _____Yes

10. Does your organization/corporation have a web page? _____No _____Yes

If yes, please check all of the following that apply: (Research and determine before interview)

Is your web page done in house? _____No _____Yes ______Not Sure

Is your web page contracted out? _____No _____Yes ______Not Sure

If no, who is the in-house liaison and what is their position? ______

If yes, who is it done by?______

Does your organization now interact and communicate with other businesses through your computer network? (today called business-to-business or B2B) _____No _____Yes ______Not Sure

Does your organization support an intranet? _____No _____Yes ______Not Sure (local area network (lan) with shared information for organizational use using the web versus direct connections)

If no, does your organization see a need or plan for an intranet in the future? _____No If no, why not? ______Yes If yes, why? ______Not Sure

Does your organization support an extranet? _____No _____Yes (wide area network (wan) with shared information for customers, consultants, sales representatives, etc. using the web versus direct connections) _____No If no, why not? ______Yes If yes, why? ______Not Sure

If no, does your organization see a need or plan for an extranet in the future? _____No ____Yes

Does your organization’s web site support online shopping? _____No _____Yes _____No If no, why not? ______Yes If yes, why? ______Not Sure CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 123

Does your organization’s web site support customer inquiry, such as email? _____No _____Yes

Does your organization’s web site support a customer chat room? ____No _____Yes

Does your organization’s web site present information about your product, such as catalogued specifications? _____No _____Yes

11. Do you have a personal web page? _____No _____Yes If no, skip to question 12. If yes, please check all of the following that apply: (Research and determine before interview)

Does your personal web page support email? _____No _____Yes

What information is on your personal web page? ______

12. How many computers do you have at home? ______

13. What computer at home do you personally use? ______

14. Do you have a home office computer system? _____No _____Yes

If yes, do you use your home office to telecommute (do work offsite and communicate to the organization’s computer communication system) for your job? _____No _____Yes

If yes, please check all of the following uses for your home office that apply: _____Personal financial use _____Financial software (such as Quicken) _____Online banking _____Online trading _____Other: ______

Home Office: _____Educational source _____Online shopping _____Word processing _____Email _____Family or personal contact manager (address book, etc.) _____Calendar or scheduling _____Entertainment (games, DVD, other) _____Other ______

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 124

Computers uses at home other than your own personal use: _____Educational source _____Online shopping _____Word processing _____Email _____Family or personal contact manager (address book, etc.) _____Calendar or scheduling _____Entertainment (games, DVD, other) _____Other ______

15. Please check any of the following online computer information services you personally have used within the last year:

_____Your corporate organization’s internal online network (or local area network/LAN)

_____Your corporate organization’s internal online network (or local area network/LAN) from a remote work site

_____Your corporate organizations own web page

_____Your own personal web page

_____External web sites other than your corporate web site

_____Education use and references (such as Thomas Register, encyclopedias, federal research web sites such as EPA, government statistics, etc.)

16. What percentage of time do you use your computer as a communication tool during the day? (This includes your personal digital assistant or PDA). _____Not at all _____Sometimes _____As needed _____Most of the day _____On all day until I go to sleep

17. How important do you believe your use of computer communication and web technology use is to you? _____Not important _____Somewhat important _____Important _____Very important _____Absolutely necessary

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 125

18. How important do you believe your organization’s use of computer communication and web technology is to your organization? _____Not important _____Somewhat important _____Important _____Very important _____Absolutely necessary

19. For what reason would you not want to use computer communication as a tool?

20. What do scholars need to know about computers and CEOs?

21. What questions did I not ask that I should have?

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APPENDIX B

CEOs’ Computer-Mediated Communication 127

CEO Data Coding Web Pages - Directions

Organization Name:

1. Any reference/identification made of the CEO on this web page?

NO → STOP YES → Briefly describe how the CEO is identified on this web page

2. Is the organization’s catalogue identified on the web page?

NO → STOP YES → Briefly describe

3. Is there a means to make a purchase through this web page?

NO → STOP YES → Briefly describe

4. Apparent that this web page is done by a third party?

NO → STOP YES → Name the third party

5. Approximate the percentage of the web page dedicated to:

a. ______GRAPHICS b. ______TEXT c. ______PHOTOGRAPHS

6. Based on this web page, what is the basic good/service sold?

7. Is this web page for a non-profit organization? Explain:

Is this web page for a profit organization? Explain: