Copyright © International Labour Organization 2004 First published, 2004
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ILO - IPEC In-depth analysis of c hild labour and educ ation in Costa Ric a. San José, Costa Ric a, International Labour Offic e, 2004.
Child labour, Ec onomic c onditions, Soc ial c onditions, Educ ation, Costa Ric a
14.02.2
ISBN: Web version: 92-2-116162-5
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Edition International Labour Offic e (ILO) International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC)
General Coordination and Supervision Angela Martins Oliveira International Labour Offic e (ILO) International Programme for the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC)
National Technical Coordination Elizabeth Solano Salazar Coordinator, Area of Censuses and Surveys National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC)
Report prepared by* Ana Luc ía Calderón Saravia
*In the analysis of Chapter 2, Carlos Castro Valverde also ac ted as a c onsultant
Technical assistance and review Elizabeth Solano Salazar, Coordinator, Area of Censuses and Surveys, INEC Esmirna Sánc hez Vargas, Head, Offic e of Attention and Elimination of Child Labour and Protec tion of Adolesc ent Workers, MTSS Angela Martins Oliveira, Senior Statistic ian, ILO/ IPEC-SIMPOC Astrid Marsc hatz, Data Analysis Expert, ILO/ IPEC-SIMPOC María Luisa Rodríguez, Coordinator, Time-Bound Programme in Costa Ric a, ILO/ IPEC
The partial or total reproduc tion of the material published here is allowed as long as the data are not altered and the c orresponding c redit is given.
Funding for this ILO public ation was provided by the United States Department of Labor. This public ation does not nec essarily reflec t the views or polic ies of the United States Department of Labor, nor does mention of trade names, c ommerc ial produc ts, or organizations imply endorsement by the United States Government.
ii
National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (Instituto Nac ional d e Estad ístic a y Censos, INEC)
Ministry of Labour and Social Security (Ministerio d e Trabajo y Segurid ad Soc ial, MTSS)
Statistical Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC)
International Programme on the Eradication of Child Labour (IPEC)
International Labour Office (ILO)
In-depth analysis of child labour and education in Costa Rica
Prepared by*:
Ana Luc ía Cald erón Saravia
*In the analysis of Chapter 2, Carlos Castro Valverde also ac ted as a c onsultant.
July 2004
iii FOREWORD
The International Labour Organization, working through the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), has turned the progressive prevention and abolition of c hildren’s work into a universal c ause.
At the global level, c hildren’s work is a broad, c omplex and multi-fac eted issue. In the absenc e of reliable information and qualitative and quantitative studies, however, it is diffic ult to find effec tive ways to address the problem. For many years, a lac k of data regarding the c auses, magnitude, nature and c onsequenc es of c hildren’s work has signific antly impeded efforts to effec tively fac e, halt and eliminate the problem, whic h affec ts millions of boys and girls around the world.
Sinc e 1998, the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour has administered the Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC). The purpose of the Programme is to assist partic ipating c ountries c ollec t data on c hildren’s work for c omparison among themselves. The overall objec tive of SIMPOC is to use household surveys to generate quantitative data on sc hool ac tivities, as well as other ec onomic and non-ec onomic ac tivities in whic h c hildren are engaged outside of sc hool. The programme also aims to c ollec t qualitative information and c reate databases on c hildren’s work. The information gathered by SIMPOC has served as the basis for a number of studies in partic ipating c ountries.
The c ollec tion and analysis of reliable data supports the development of effec tive ac tions against c hildren’s work. It is hoped that the information gathered in different c ountries, and the studies based on that information, will fac ilitate the development, implementation and follow-up of polic ies and programmes to c ombat c hildren’s work. It should also promote soc ial attitudes that favour the sustainable prevention and progressive elimination of c hildren’s work.
I am c ertain that the information presented in this report on c hildren’s work in Costa Ric a will c ontribute to a better understanding of the phenomenon, inc rease sensitivity to the plight of working boys and girls, and make it possible to develop better strategies to fight the problem.
The ability of eac h partic ipating c ountry to form an inc reasingly ac c urate pic ture of c hildren’s work undoubtedly points toward the development of a more effec tive proc ess and a shorter path toward a world without c hild labour.
Guillermo Dema Subregional Coordinator ILO/ IPEC for Central Americ a, Panama, The Dominic an Republic , Haiti and Mexic o
iv PREFACE
Child and adolesc ent work has existed in Costa Ric a for many years. Our forefathers inc luded boys, girls and adolesc ents in farm labour and housework.
Over the last few years, however, what was onc e c onsidered a tradition has bec ome a soc ial problem. Our c ountry’ s girls and boys have joined the work forc e in large numbers, and have c onsequently bec ome vic tims of exploitative c onditions that limit both their ac c ess to educ ation and the enjoyment of their rights.
To address this situation, the c ountry must develop a national polic y to effec tively abolish c hild labour, and take the immediate steps nec essary to put an end to the abuses suffered by girls and boys whose work puts their health, safety and moral integrity at risk. Girls and boys must also be guaranteed the highest possible level of physic al and mental development.
A number of efforts to gradually eliminate c hild labour have therefore been undertaken. As a result of these endeavours, c hild labour has c ome to be viewed as a problem rather than a solution, and as suc h has been given a plac e on the c ountry’ s politic al agenda.
As part of these initiatives, the Ministry of Labour and Soc ial Sec urity and the National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses, ac ting with the tec hnic al support of ILO IPEC, have implemented the Statistic al Information and Monitoring Programme on Child Labour (SIMPOC). This programme provides updated statistic s on the magnitude of c hild labour in Costa Ric a, as well as information on the geographic areas and oc c upations that hold the highest perc entages of working girls and boys. Suc h information fac ilitates the development of strategies to effec tively address the problem.
The doc uments produc ed by SIMPOC also serve to supplement the sec ond National Plan to Eliminate Child Labour and Protec t Adolesc ent Workers.
It is our hope that the information obtained through this programme will be of use to those who, in a variety of ways, have bec ome our partners and c olleagues in the struggle to eliminate c hild labour.
Lic . Ovidio Pac hec o Salazar Camac ho Lic . José Antonio Calvo Minister Direc tor Ministry of Labour and Soc ial Sec urity National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...... VIII
1. COSTA RICA’S SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT, A SCENARIO FOR CHILDREN’S WORK... 1 1.1 THE POPULATION ...... 1 1.2 POPULATION' S SOCIO-ECONOMIC SITUATION ...... 3 1.2.1 Employed p op ula tion, poverty levels, a nd inc ome ...... 3 1.3 LITERACY...... 6 1.4 POPULATION' S ACCESS TO BASIC SERVICES...... 6 2. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN COSTA RICA ...... 8 2.1 LEGISLATION THAT REGULATES PUBLIC EDUCATION ...... 8 2.2 COUNTRY' S INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION ...... 11 2.3 COVERAGE OF THE REGULAR AND ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION SYSTEMS...... 12 2.4 STUDENTS' ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE...... 13 2.5 DROPOUT RATE...... 14 2.6 PUBLIC EDUCATION INFRASTRUCTURE...... 15 2.7 TEACHING STAFF QUALIFICATIONS...... 17 2.8 EDUCATION QUALITY AND RELEVANCE...... 18 3. WORKING CHILDREN...... 21 3.1 SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS...... 21 3.2 ACTIVITIES PERFORMED BY CHILDREN AND THEIR WORKING CONDITIONS...... 23 3.3 SCHOOL ATTENDANCE BY WORKING CHILDREN ...... 29 4. OPTIONS OFFERED TO WORKING CHILDREN BY THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM ...... 36 4.1 PROGRAMMES OF OPEN BASIC GENERAL EDUCATION FOR CYCLES I, II, AND III...... 36 4.2 THE OPEN CLASSROOM PROGRAMME...... 37 4.3 NEW OPPORTUNITIES PROGRAMME...... 39 4.4 DIVERSIFIED (HIGH-SCHOOL) DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAMME (EDAD)...... 41 4.5 EDUCATION FOR WORK PROGRAMMES...... 42 4.5.1 Litera c y Progra mme ...... 43 4.5.2 First Level Progra mme...... 43 4.5.3 Sec ond Level Progra mme...... 43 4.5.4 Third Level (High Sc hool)...... 44 4.5.5 Emerging ed uc a tion ...... 44 4.6 AN OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF THE ALTERNATIVE EDUCATION OPTIONS...... 45 5. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 47
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES...... 51
APPENDIX 1...... 55
APPENDIX 2...... 57
APPENDIX 3...... 62
vi LIST OF TABLES
Ta b le 1: Tota l c ountry p op ula tion, b y region Ta b le 2: Tota l p op ula tion, b y sex, b y a rea a nd a ge group Ta b le 3: Distrib ution of the emp loyed p op ula tion, b y sec tor a nd ind ustry 2000 - 2002 (in %) Ta b le 4: Sc hooling level of the p op ula tion 25 yea rs old a nd over b y sex (in %) Ta b le 5: Net sc hooling ra tes in the forma l ed uc a tiona l system b y a ge, b y sex Ta b le 6: Intra -a nnua l d rop out ra tes in elementa ry ed uc a tion (Cyc les I a nd II) b y a rea a nd sex, b y typ e of institution Ta b le 7: Intra -a nnua l d rop out ra tes in sec ond a ry ed uc a tion (III c yc le a nd d iversified ed uc a tion), b y sex, b y a rea a nd typ e of institution (tota l figures a nd seventh gra d e, in %) Ta b le 8: Tota l Regula r Ed uc a tion Institutes a nd Servic es b y typ e of institution, 1998-2002 Ta b le 9: Working p op ula tion b etween 5 a nd 17 yea rs old , b y sex a nd a rea Ta b le 10: Ma in d emogra p hic , oc c up a tiona l, a nd inc ome c ha ra c teristic s of household s with known inc ome, b y c hild ren’ s a c tivity sta tus Ta b le 11: Working c hild ren 5-17 yea rs old b y a ge group , b y ind ustry Ta b le 12: Working c hild ren 5 – 17 yea rs old b y sex, b y ind ustry Ta b le 13: Working c hild ren 5 to 17 yea rs old b y a rea , b y ind ustry Ta b le 14: Working c hild ren 5 to 17 yea rs b y sc hool a ttend a nc e, b y ind ustry Ta b le 15: Working c hild ren 5 to 17 yea rs old b y a ge group , b y shift Ta b le 16: Avera ge numb er of hours worked b y working c hild ren 5 to 17 yea rs old b y a ge group Ta b le 17: Avera ge monthly inc ome of working c hild ren 5 to 17 yea rs old tha t ha ve a n inc ome b y a ge group Ta b le 18: Working c hild ren 5 to 17 yea rs old b y a ge group , sex, a nd a rea , b y d ec la red rea son to work Ta b le 19: Sc hool a ttend a nc e of working c hild ren 5 to 17 yea rs old , b y a rea , sex, a ge group , shift, a nd soc io-ec onomic c ond ition Ta b le 20: Pop ula tion b etween 5 a nd 17 yea r old b y sc hool situa tion, b y a c tivity sta tus, a ge group , sex, a nd a rea Ta b le 21: Working c hild ren 5-17 yea rs old not a ttend ing the ed uc a tiona l system b y a ge group , sex, a nd a rea , b y d ec la red rea son not to go to a ttend sc hool Ta b le 22: Work-seeking c hild ren b etween 5 a nd 17 yea rs old b y a ge group , sex, a nd a rea , b y d ec la red rea son not to a ttend sc hool Ta b le 23: Ina c tive p op ula tion 5-17 yea rs old b y a ge group , sex, a nd a rea , b y d ec la red rea son not to a ttend sc hool
vii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Multiple Purpose Household Survey (EHPM, for its name in Spanish), c arried out by the National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC) in 2002, inc luded a module on the ac tivities c arried out by the population between 5 and 17 years of age, whic h yielded updated information about the living c onditions of working c hildren and on the effec t of work on their ac ademic ac hievement.
Ac c ording to the data revealed by the EHPM for 2002, people between the ages of 5 and 17 who are ec onomic ally ac tive were found in 99,846 households. The number of working c hildren in the c ountry for that year amounts to 113,523. Labour insertion at an early age takes plac e more frequently in rural areas, at a proportion of 68.4% of the total group of working c hildren, in c omparison to 31.6% in the urban areas. Boys enter the labour market in a higher number: 72.7% of the ec onomic ally ac tive population is c omprised of men.
Families with members between 5 and 17 years who work live in disadvantageous ec onomic c onditions, a situation that is in agreement with the premise that relates c hild labour to poverty and, c onsequently, to a negative impac t on the insertion is sc hool and ac ademic performanc e. The data show that most of the labour ac tivities performed by c hildren between 5 and 17 c an be c lassified as unskilled ac tivities, in the sense that they do not required muc h experienc e or training. Forty- four perc ent work in ac tivities related to the agric ulture, forestry, and hunting sec tors; 21.7% work in c ommerc e and c ar and applianc es repair, and 9.0% work in ac tivities related to the manufac turing industry. This seems to influenc e working c hildren not to c onsider educ ation as a mec hanism to improve their labour and living c onditions.
Regarding the effec ts of c hild labour on educ ation and their relationship, the figures indic ate that the younger the c hild and the fewer the hours worked, there are more possibilities of remaining in sc hool. In the 5 to 9 age group, sc hool attendanc e is 91.7%, whereas in the 15 to 17 age group, 62.9% do not attend sc hool. Sc hool exc lusion affec ts men proportionately more: 47.7% of boys do not go to sc hool in c omparison to 37.4% of girls.
Exc lusion and lagging signific antly affec t working adolesc ents who are between 15 and 17 years old. Sixty-two point five perc ent of this age group is not attending sc hool and 70.5% of those who are, are behind in their sc hooling. Seventy-nine point five perc ent of the working population who does not go to sc hool is between 15 and 17 years old. Regarding the reasons for not attending sc hool, the most c ommon is lac k of interest in formal educ ation. The figures also indic ate that most of the working population who does not attend sc hool --73.0%-- lives in rural areas.
There are 9,666 c hildren who are seeking work and who are not in sc hool, 91.1% of them in the 15 to 17 age group. There is also a population under 18 who neither works nor studies, some 67,259 people.
viii In c omparing the c onditions of ec onomic ally ac tive c hildren with the educ ational possibilities offered by the Ministry of Public Educ ation (MEP), it bec omes c lear that the formal system does not adapt to the c onditions, interests, and requirements of this population. In this sense, the development of several informal educ ational alternatives are a signific ant c ontribution to the improvement of educ ational c overage, espec ially the alternative educ ation programmes suc h as Aula Abierta (Open Sc hool), Nuevas Oportunidades (New Opportunities), and Centros e Institutos de Educ ac ión de Adultos (CINDEA) [Adult Educ ation Centres and Institutes].
The defic ienc ies regarding infrastruc ture, teac hing materials, teac hers' training, and ac c essibility in public educ ation affec t sc hool permanenc e and the quality of the sc hooling rec eived, sinc e there is no c onsistenc y between the partic ular c onditions, expec tations, and educ ational needs of working c hildren and the educ ational supply. In fac t, the defic ienc ies in the educ ational system turn into obstac les that, very often, do not allow ac c essing an educ ation in ac c ord with soc iety' s c urrent needs.
To guarantee the right to educ ation on the part of c hildren involved in ec onomic ac tivities, the government of Costa Ric a has to c onsider the different realities in the c ountry and take into ac c ount geographic , ec onomic , c ultural, and gender issues. In addition, the evaluation or grading system needs improvement. Sinc e it is standardised in nature, it does not take into c onsideration the diverse c onditions of the student population and does not assess the real ac quisition of knowledge and suc c ess of the teac hing-learning proc ess.
The educ ational system should fac e the c hallenge of democ ratising educ ation, in the sense of looking for mec hanisms that would allow an effec tive partic ipation of c hildren, their parents, and the c itizens, in general, in the design of study plans and programmes, grading mec hanisms, and responsibility sharing so that the c hild population have ac c ess to the sc hooling system in any of the modes available.
The alloc ation of more resourc es that would lead to a qualitative improvement in the national educ ational system and an expansion of its c overage to reac h a larger population, would make sc hooling ac tually respond to c hildren' s expec tations and partic ular needs as well as the c ountry' s development.
ix 1. COSTA RICA’S SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONTEXT, A SCENARIO FOR CHILDREN’S WORK
The Multiple Purpose Household Survey (EHPM) c arried out by the National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC) between July and August of 2002 inc luded a c hild ac tivity module for those 5-17 years old, through whic h updated information on the living c onditions of working c hildren was gathered.
Child labour in Costa Ric a is a phenomenon that has not been studied in depth until rec ently, despite the fac t that c hildren have traditionally supported the family ec onomy, both remunerated and without pay, in rural and urban c ontexts. It was due to international dec larations and of the c reation of national laws to safeguard the rights and integrity of the people under 18 years old that the problem of c hild labour bec ame visible in Costa Ric a and was identified as a prac tic e that in many c ases attempts against the integral development of the c hildren that prevents them from enjoying their basic rights, suc h as their right to educ ation.
Ec onomic , c ultural, and soc ial fac tors explain the oc c urrenc e of c hild labour and, at the same time, the possibilities of having ac c ess to free and c ompulsory educ ation for the whole population. However, poverty is identified as the main c ause of c hild labour, sinc e families with unmet basic needs, due to their own situation, c annot envisage alternatives to improve their ec onomic inc ome. Thus, the solution they see to their immediate problem is the inc orporation of most of the members of their household in produc tive ac tivities. Therefore, it is important to review some information on the soc ial and ec onomic c ontext of Costa Ric a, whic h is the sc enario within whic h c hild labour oc c urs.
1.1 The population
Ac c ording to estimates of population growth in the last 10 years, Costa Ric a' s population grew from 3 million inhabitants in the year 1992 to about four million in 2002. The National Population Census c arried out in 2000 by INEC revealed that the c ountry had a population of 3,925,331 inhabitants and for 2002 the estimates indic ate that the population grew to 3,997,883 inhabitants, of whic h 50.4% are women and 49.6% are men.
The urban areas have the largest population, about 59.0% of the total, while the remaining 41.0% lives in rural areas. Table 1 shows the distribution of the population by region. With a surfac e of 51,100 square kilometres, the population density in Costa Ric a for 2002 is 78.3 inhabitants per square kilometre.
1 Table 1 Total country population, by region Region Total Population Total Population (absolute (relative numbers) numbers) Centra l 2,564,984 64.1% Chorotega 312,198 7.8% Pa c ífic o Centra l 210,097 5.3% Brunc a 310,422 7.8% Hueta r Atlá ntic a 385,987 9.6% Hueta r Norte 214,215 5.4% Total 3,997,883 100.0% Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002
The group between 0 and 17 years represents 36.7 % of the total population, as shown in Table 2. That is, c hildren c omprise the most numerous population group. As will be explained later, people under 18 years old have c harac teristic s and needs that are different from those of the rest of the population. This is due to the fac t that they are in a stage of growth, development, and learning and do not yet have the physic al or emotional maturity to fac e the c hallenges of adulthood. For this reason, ac c ording to the Code of Children and Adolesc ents (Law No. 7739), c hildren are, first of all, the responsibility of their parents or c ustodians, and sec ond, of the Costa Ric an State. The State is in the obligation of making sure that boys and girls enjoy the c onditions that allow them to have ac c ess to their rights.
Table 2 Total population, by sex, by area and age group Area and age group Number Percentage Total Sex Total Sex Male Female Male Female
Country total 3,997,883 1,983,715 2,014,168 100.0 100.0 100.0 0 – 5 432,779 220,510 212,269 10.8 11.1 10.5 6 – 10 419,220 218,047 201,173 10.5 11.0 10.0 11 – 17 614,607 316,514 298,093 15.4 16.0 14.8 18 – 25 596,900 307,090 289,810 14.9 15.5 14.4 26 – 35 568,995 274,439 294,556 14.2 13.8 14.6 36 – 45 570,261 266,231 304,030 14.3 13.4 15.1 46 – 55 360,096 177,152 182,944 9.0 8.9 9.1 56 – 65 208,400 97,473 110,927 5.2 4.9 5.5 66 a nd old er 218,116 101,496 116,620 5.5 5.1 5.8 Unknown 8,509 4,763 3,746 0.2 0.2 0.2
Urban 2,359,158 1,147,227 1,211,931 100.0 100.0 100.0 0 – 5 231,221 117,963 113,258 9.8 10.3 9.3 6 – 10 226,321 120,218 106,103 9.6 10.5 8.8 11 – 17 340,757 172,569 168,188 14.4 15.0 13.9 18 – 25 369,377 189,628 179,749 15.7 16.5 14.8 26 – 35 330,731 156,773 173,958 14.0 13.7 14.4 36 – 45 351,438 159,588 191,850 14.9 13.9 15.8 46 – 55 231,200 108,461 122,739 9.8 9.5 10.1
2 56 ± 65 131,972 58,612 73,360 5.6 5.1 6.1 66 a nd old er 140,098 60,385 79,713 5.9 5.3 6.6 Unknown 6,043 3,030 3,013 0.3 0.3 0.2
Rural 1,638,725 836,488 802,237 100.0 100.0 100.0 0 ± 5 201,558 102,547 99,011 12.3 12.3 12.3 6 ± 10 192,899 97,829 95,070 11.8 11.7 11.9 11 ± 17 273,850 143,945 129,905 16.7 17.2 16.2 18 ± 25 227,523 117,462 110,061 13.9 14.0 13.7 26 ± 35 238,264 117,666 120,598 14.5 14.1 15.0 36 ± 45 218,823 106,643 112,180 13.4 12.7 14.0 46 ± 55 128,896 68,691 60,205 7.9 8.2 7.5 56 ± 65 76,428 38,861 37,567 4.7 4.6 4.7 66 a nd old er 78,018 41,111 36,907 4.8 4.9 4.6 Unknown 2,466 1,733 733 0.2 0.2 0.1 Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2002
Other demographic indic ators show that the total population growth1 dec reased in the last dec ade, passing from 21.8 per 1000 in 1992 to 18.8 per 1000 in 2002.
The birth rate, that is, the number of annual births for every thousand inhabitants, was 17.4 in 2002, 2.5 points below its level in 2000. The downward trend in the birth rate has been present sinc e the nineties, whic h evidenc es a reduc tion in the number of pregnanc ies and the size of the family. Ac c ess to more information about reproduc tive health and easy ac c ess to various birth c ontrol methods, in addition to the entry of women in the labour market, are elements that may explain the reduc tion in the population growth.
Child mortality in 2002 was 11.1 deaths of c hildren under one year old for every thousand live births.
1.2 Population’s socio-economic situation
1.2.1 Employed population, poverty levels, and income 2
Ac c ording to the Human Development Report 2003, Costa Ric a was among the 53 c ountries of the world with high human development, oc c upying position number 42. And out of 94 c ountries ranked, it oc c upies position 4 regarding the human
1 The tota l p op ula tion growth ra te refers to the growth of the p op ula tion b etween two time p eriod s, b a sed on the exp onentia l growth of the p op ula tion a nd using the formula r = {[ln (Nt/ NO)] / t}*1000, where r = result, ln = na tura l loga rithm, Nt= = fina l p op ula tion, NO = initia l p op ula tion, a nd t = time p eriod selec ted . 2 Ac c ord ing to the d efinitions used b y INEC, non-p oor household s a re those tha t ha ve a p er c a p ita inc ome tha t a llows them to c over their b a sic food a nd non-food need s, tha t is, their p er c a p ita inc ome is eq ua l to or higher tha n the p overty line. On the other ha nd , household s tha t d o not meet their b a sic need s a re those tha t ha ve a p er c a p ita inc ome und er the p overty line, b ut eq ua l to or higher tha n the p er c a p ita c ost of the b a sic shop p ing b a sket (CBA). The p er c a p ita c ost of the p overty line for 2002 wa s ¢28,895 (US$80.80) for the urb a n a rea s a nd ¢22,714 (US$63.52) for the c ountry' s rura l a rea s.
3 poverty index. In Latin Americ a, only Barbados, Argentina, and Uruguay rank higher than Costa Ric a in human development. Close to it, but in a lower position, Chile takes up plac e 43, Cuba position 52, Mexic o 55, and Panama 593. Despite its high ranking ac c ording to the world human development index, 20.6% of Costa Ric a' s population lives in poverty, and 5.7% of its inhabitants live in extreme poverty.
The open unemployment rate 4 reac hed 6.4% in 2002. In the 12 ±to -24 year age group, open unemployment was 13.8% nationwide and 17.2% among women.5 These c onditions, in addition to produc tion in different sec tors, as will be explained later, evidenc e a limited ec onomic growth that only benefits those who have more resourc es, a minority that still owns the c ountry' s wealth6. In this setting, most of the population is exc luded from alternatives that would allow it to improve its living c onditions by having ac c ess to better labour opportunities and better inc ome.
The evolution of the minimum wage shows an ac tual rate 7 of negative variation in the years 2000 and 2002, with figures of ±1.0% and ±1.1%, respec tively. The average inc ome shows a similar trend, and in 2002 the minimum salary was equivalent to US$216 a month. In the medium-term, the ac tual minimum wage does not show a dec reasing trend if c omparing the data for 2002 and 1991. However, as of 1998, its evolution in real terms prac tic ally stalled 8.
1.2.2 Economic growth in the last years and the structure of the economy
In 2002, the per c apita Gross Domestic Produc t (GDP) in Costa Ric a reac hed 4,130 US dollars. It has been prac tic ally stalled sinc e 2000 as a result of lower ec onomic growth9. On the other hand, public financ es show a defic ient performanc e whic h limits investment in soc ial polic ies and programmes. In 2002, the overall public
3 UNDP. Huma n Develop ment Rep ort 2003. http :/ / www.und p .org/ hd r2003/ esp a nol/ p d f/ p resskit/ HDR03_PKS_HDI.p d f 4 Annex 1 inc lud es the d efinitions used b y INEC for ea c h of the ind ic a tors rega rd ing the la b our forc e a nd p overty. 5 INEC. Household Survey 2002, ma in results, c ha rts 6 a nd 8 6 8th Rep ort on the Sta te of the Na tion 7 The rea l sa la ry ind ic a tes the q ua ntity of good s a nd servic es tha t c a n b e p urc ha sed with the money rec eived , so tha t if the workers’ wa ges inc rea se, b ut a t the sa me time, the p ric es of the p rod uc ts s/ he p urc ha ses inc rea se, the rea l sa la ry d oes not c ha nge, a nd if the inc rea se in the p ric e of good s is higher tha n the rise in sa la ries, the a c tua l ra te of va ria tion is nega tive. Da ily La Na c ión, p a ge 26, Sec tion A, July 11, 2003. 8 Ba sed on the figures of the 8th Rep ort on the Sta te of the Na tion, Sta tistic s Volume, Minimum Wa ge Dec ree July 2002; MIDEPLAN – SIDES. Avera ge wa ges c orresp ond to tha t registered b y the Household Survey for the tota lity of the emp loyed p eop le with a known inc ome. 9 PROCESOS. ¿Ha c ia d ónd e va mos? Ec onomía y Desigua ld a d en Costa Ric a 1997-2002. [Where a re we going? Ec onomy a nd Ineq ua lity in Costa Ric a 1997-2002]. Sa n José, Costa Ric a : Asoc ia c ión Progra ma Centroa meric a no p a ra la Sostenib ilid a d Democ rá tic a (PROCESOS), s.f., p p . 28, 61
4 sec tor defic it reac hed 4.8% of the GDP, while for the c entral government it inc reased from 2.2% in 1999 to 4.1% in 2002. “ The evolution of the defic it of the Central Government along the period was c harac terised by unsustainability of the long-term indebtedness. As of 1998, the ac c umulated perc entage of domestic and external debt inc reased as a perc entage of GDP from 19.5% to 36.2% in 2002” 10.
In the long- and medium-term, signific ant c hanges have taken plac e in the employment struc ture (Table 3) and in the c omposition of the main employment sec tors. For instanc e, in 1960, agric ulture represented 25% of GDP, perc entage that has been dec reasing to 18% in 198011 and 7.3% in 200212. The manufac turing sec tor is the most important within the sec ondary sec tor; however, the partic ipation in this sec tor has been dec reasing sinc e 1990 when it represented 18.0%, to the point that in 2002, it only represents 14.3%.
Sinc e the nineties, the main trend was not only the c ontinuity in the reduc tion of agric ulture’ s relative weight as a sourc e of employment in national produc tion, but also the reduc tion in the partic ipation in c ommunity, soc ial, and personal servic es from 26.7% to 22.6% between 2000 and 200213.
Table 3 Distribution of the employed population, by sector and industry 2000 - 2002 (in %) Sector and type of activity 2000 2001 2002 Primary sector 17.3 15.6 15.9 Agric ulture 17.3 15.6 15.9 Secondary sector 21.7 22.2 21.1 Mining a nd q ua rrying 0.2 0.1 0.1 Ma nufa c turing ind ustry 14.8 15.4 14.3 Construc tion 6.7 6.7 6.7 Tertiary sector 60.4 61.8 63.0 Elec tric ity, wa ter, a nd ga s sup p ly 0.8 1.3 1.4 Tra d e, rep a ir, resta ura nts, hotels 21.3 21.3 24.3 Tra nsp ort, stora ge, a nd c ommunic a tions 6.2 5.7 5.7 Fina nc ia l esta b lishments, insura nc e, enterp rises 5.4 6.0 8.5 Soc ia l a nd p ersona l servic es; p ub lic 26.7 27.5 22.6 a d ministra tion Unsp ec ified a c tivities 0.7 0.3 0.5 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, Basic Figures on the Labour Forc e, July 2001 a nd 2002.
10 Ib id ., p .27 11 VII Rep ort on the Sta te of the Na tion, 2001, p . 148 12 INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, Basic Figures on the Labour Forc e, Numb ers 5, 6, a nd 7. 13 Ibid.
5 The struc ture of employment shows a marked partic ipation proc ess in the tertiary sec tor, as well as a reduc tion of employment in agric ultural ac tivities and a lower partic ipation of employment in industry. Agric ulture dec reased its partic ipation among the employed population from 17.3% in 2000 to 15.9% in 2002, while the tertiary sec tor inc reased from 60.4% to 63.0% in the same period, and industry dec reased from 14.8% to 14.3%.
1.3 Literacy
The population' s literac y rates evidenc e signific ant progress in the last 50 years. Illiterac y was reduc ed from 21.2% among the population over 10 years old in 1953 to 4.8% in 2000, being 5.0% for men and 4.5% for women.
This, however, does not exc lude important defic ienc ies in a signific ant part of the population. When the number of people over 25 years old without sc hooling (6.7%) are added to the 19.0% who did not c omplete primary educ ation, it is c lear that a fourth of the population has a low educ ational level (Table 4). An important ac hievement in Costa Ric a' s soc ial development that is worth noting is gender equity, as sc hooling levels are very similar between men and women.
Table 4 Schooling level of the population 25 years old and over by sex (in %) Schooling Men Women Total Without a ny sc hooling 6.8 6.5 6.7 Inc omp lete p rima ry 18.0 20.0 19.0 Sub tota l without instruc tion a nd inc omp lete 24.8 26.5 25.7 p rima ry Prima ry c omp lete 30.3 29.4 29.8 Sec ond a ry Inc omp lete 15.4 15.0 15.2 Sec ond a ry Comp lete 10.9 11.7 11.3 Community College 1.0 1.3 1.2 University 15.9 15.0 15.4 Unknown 1.6 1.1 1.4 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Sourc e: Based on INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2001.
1.4 Population’s access to basic services
Regarding ac c ess to basic servic es, ac c ording to estimates for 200114, health c are reac hed to 3,933,975 inhabitants, that is, prac tic ally 100% of the population. Vac c ination c overage among c hildren reac hed 88.5% of the c hild population. The population with ac c ess to piped water was estimated at c lose to 100% and c overage of elec tric servic es reac hed 97% of the population.
Regarding the health c onditions of the Costa Ric an population, the data show positive results in the medium and long-term. Child mortality is 10.8 per every thousand births in 2001, whic h represents almost 7 times less than the 67.0 per
14 8th Rep ort on the Sta te of the Na tion. Sta tistic s Volume. p a ges 325, 354
6 thousand in 1970. Life expec tanc y at birth is 77.7 years, while the perc entage of births rec eiving medic al attention is 95.6%. Vac c ination c overage is high, with figures c lose to or higher than 90%. Health insuranc e c overage is 87.5%. This figure, however, is lower if rather than using the administrative rec ords of the CCSS (Soc ial Sec urity Authority), data from the Population Census is used. Ac c ording to the latter, 81.8% of the c ountry' s population is c overed by the soc ial sec urity.
As a result of the c hanges in the epidemiologic al patterns among the population, overall mortality at present is c onc entrated on c hronic illnesses and tumours.
7 2. THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN COSTA RICA
2.1 Legislation that regulates public education
Several legal instruments refer to educ ation in Costa Ric a. The Politic al Constitution of Costa Ric a of 1949 and its amendments set forth the overall regulatory framework for the c ountry’ s public educ ation.15 Its main provisions regarding educ ation are the following: • Artic le 78- “ Pre-sc hool educ ation and the general basic educ ation [grades 1-9] are c ompulsory. These and the “ diversified” or high-sc hool educ ation [grades 10-11] in the public system are free and paid for by the Nation.
In state-run educ ation, inc luding higher educ ation, public expenses will not fall below six perc ent (6%) of gross domestic produc t per year, ac c ording to the law, without detriment of the provisions in artic les 84 and 85 of this Constitution” 16 (Constitutional Amendment 7676 approved on July 23, 1997). A previous c onstitutional amendment of the year 1973 defined as c ompulsory the general basic educ ation, that is, six years of primary educ ation and three years of middle sc hool. In the past, only elementary educ ation was c ompulsory (MEP, 1997; c hap. 8, page 1). The innovation introduc ed in 1997 c onsisted in inc luding pre-sc hool educ ation and setting public expenditure to be no less than 6% of GDP for educ ation. Other artic les of the Politic al Constitution that make referenc e to educ ation go from 77 to 82:
• Artic le 77- “ Public educ ation will be organised as an integral proc ess c orrelated in its diverse c yc les, from pre-sc hool to the university.”
• Artic le 79- “ Freedom of teac hing is guaranteed. However, every educ ational c entre shall be under the State’ s inspec tion.”
• Artic le 80- “ Private initiatives in educ ational matters will be promoted by the State as provided for by the law.”
• Artic le 81- “ The general direc tion of public educ ation c orresponds to a superior c ounc il integrated as provided for by the law and c haired by the Ministry of the area.”
• Artic le 82- “ The State shall provide food and uniforms to indigent sc hool c hildren, ac c ording to the law.”
15 Politic a l Constitution of Novemb er 7, 1949, a nd its a mend ments (up to June 2002), Title VII Ed uc a tion a nd Culture, online version, Dr. Rod olfo Sa b orío Va lverd e a t http :/ / www.nexos.c o.c r/ c esd ep u/ nb d p / c op ol2.htm 16 This a rtic le a lso sta tes tha t “ the Sta te sha ll fa c ilita te the p ursuit of higher stud ies to those who la c k the fina nc ia l resourc es. The a ssignment of sc hola rship s a nd stip end s will b e in c ha rge of the Ministry of the a rea through the orga niza tion p rovid ed for b y the la w.”
8 • Artic le 86- The State will train teac hers by means of spec ial institutes, the University of Costa Ric a, and the other higher educ ation institutes (Constitutional Amendment 5697 of June 9, 1975).
The Fundamental Law of Educ ation of 195717 set forth more spec ific regulations. In its Artic le 1, it states that ª every inhabitant of the Republic has the right to educ ation and the State has the obligation to offer it in the broadest and most adequate form.º
The Central Americ an Convention on the Basic Unific ation of Educ ation of 1962, in addition to defining several requirements and c onditions to unify educ ation in the region' s c ountries, in its Chapter I, Artic le 25, item 7, states that“ ...the signatory States dec ide to set a minimum of two hundred days a year of ac tual c lasses, with a daily sc hedule of no less than five hours. Moreover, they will use all the resourc es at hand and, as allowed by the c irc umstanc es, gradually eliminate the c ourses struc tured in a single shift, a double period, or require attending c lasses on alternate sessions.” 18 The objec tive of this provision was to extend c lassroom time for more and better learning, as well as expand the educ ational supply in terms of a higher number of educ ational c entres that would allow regular attendanc e in the same sc hedule. However, it is important to point out that the two hundred sc hool days agreement was not implemented until the Rodríguez Ec heverría Administration (1998-2002), almost forty years after the Convention was signed and published. Furthermore, there is a lac k of infrastruc ture, staff, and budget that make it impossible to eliminate the alternate session shifts (e.g. c lasses are taken one day in the morning and another day in the afternoon).
Finally, the Code of Children and Adolesc ents19, in effec t sinc e February 1998, is the legal instrument that at present regulates, protec ts, and sets forth the rights and duties of the population under eighteen years old, as well as the responsibilities of the various governmental institutions, parents, and c ustodians to oversee c hildren’ s well-being. In its Title II, Chapter V, Right to Educ ation, it states:
Artic le 56 Right to develop their full potential
Underage persons will have the right to rec eive educ ation aimed at the development of their full potential. The training offered to them shall be addressed at the full exerc ise of their c itizenship, teac hing them respec t for human rights, own c ultural values, and c are for the natural environment within a framework of peac e and solidarity.
This legal instrument appoints the State to design national polic ies regarding educ ation, guarantee quality learning and equal opportunities that promote sc ientific , tec hnologic al, artistic , and c ultural learning as well as ethic al and moral values, and the dissemination of the rights of underage people to prevent risk
17 http :/ / www.mep .go.c r/ LeyFund a menta l.html 18 Centra l Americ a n Convention on the Ba sic Unific a tion of Ed uc a tion, 1962 19 Cod e of Child hood a nd Ad olesc enc e, La w No. 7739, Feb rua ry 1998
9 fac tors for the integral development of this population. In its Artic le 59, Right to free and c ompulsory educ ation, the Code states:
“ Pre-sc hool educ ation, general basic educ ation, and high sc hool will be free, c ompulsory, and paid for by the State.
Ac c ess to c ompulsory and free educ ation will be a fundamental right. The lac k of governmental ac tions to fac ilitate it and guarantee it will be c onsidered a violation of the Right and shall be liable before the c ompetent authority” .
Artic les 60 to 72 state that the Ministry of Public Educ ation (MEP) is the institution responsible for taking the nec essary measures for underage people to enjoy their right to educ ation, regardless of their soc io-ec onomic c ondition, nationality, ethnic group, or beliefs. Moreover, the right to tec hnic al educ ation, spec ial educ ation, parents' and learners' partic ipation in the educ ational proc ess, MEP' s duties, disc iplinary proc edures, c orrec tive ac tions, prohibition of disc riminatory prac tic es, and students' rights, are also outlined.
Chapter VII Spec ial Protec tion Regime for Working Adolesc ents establishes 15 as the minimum age to exerc ise the right to work, together with a series of regulations that guarantee that working adolesc ents do not risk their physic al, mental, or emotional health or endanger their integral development. These regulations inc lude a maximum daily work sc hedule of 6 hours and 36 hours weekly. It prohibits c hildren from working in mines and quarries, unhealthy and dangerous plac es, bars and other plac es that sell alc oholic beverages, as well as their partic ipation in ac tivities that endanger their life and that of other people, their being responsible for other people and performing jobs with heavy mac hinery, polluting substanc es, or exc essive noise. Artic le 87 Work and Educ ation reaffirms the right and obligation of working c hildren to educ ation and states that their job must not interfere with their attendanc e to educ ational institutions.
MEP is assigned the responsibility of designing modes and sc hedule to fac ilitate working adolesc ents' ac c ess to educ ation and states that educ ational authorities are responsible for making sure that adolesc ents' jobs will not interfere with their attendanc e or performanc e in sc hool, as well as their obligation to report to the National Direc torate of General Labour Inspec tion of the Ministry of Labour and Soc ial Sec urity any labour-related situation that affec ts the students.
Artic le 88 of the Code forc es employers to provide working adolesc ents with the fac ilities to attend sc hool, and Artic le 89 states the right of working adolesc ents to training.
It is important to point out that the Code of Children and Adolesc ents establishes for the first time the relationship between educ ation and work as part of the rights of the people under eighteen, as well as the regulations to guarantee their implementation and enforc ement. The relevanc e of this legal instrument lies prec isely in the fac t that it takes into c onsideration c hildren' s needs and that it
10 states that c hildren and adolesc ents are subjec ts of rights, with duties and obligations. It also states that parents or c ustodians and the State and soc iety in general are responsible for the people between 0 and 17 years old and should make sure that their rights are protec ted and their well-being safeguarded.
2.2 Country’s investment in education
Public expenditure on educ ation showed a relative upward trend in the nineties, as it inc reased from 3.9% of the GDP in 1990 to 5.2% in 2001, whereas overall soc ial expenditure inc reased from 16.1% of the GDP to 19.0% in the same period. It should be noted that the figure c orresponding to educ ation remains under the 6% set forth in amendment 78 of the Politic al Constitution of 1987.
The internal c omposition of soc ial expenditure shows a slight inc rease in the perc entage aimed at educ ation, whic h inc reased from 24.0% in 1990 to 27.6% in 2001. The main part of soc ial expenditure c orresponds to soc ial sec urity and welfare whic h inc ludes the spec ial pension regimes. Spending on health is the sec ond highest with 28.8% of total soc ial expenditure.
The internal distribution of spending on educ ation shows the following c harac teristic s: • General educ ation, whic h inc ludes pre-sc hool, primary, and sec ondary educ ation as well as spec ial educ ation and open educ ation, represents 69.1% of the total expenses in educ ation. Community c ollege and university educ ation takes 21.3%, voc ational training uses 5.9%, and study inc entives (sc hool diners and other programmes) take up 3.6%20.
• In general educ ation, 96.1% of the expenses c orresponds to c urrent expenses and 88.8% to salaries, while investment is only 3.9%, and tec hing materials take up 1.0% of the total21. Ac c ording to the estimates of the Budget Planning Department22 of MEP, in 2002 the government invested a total of US$551.47 for every elementary-sc hool student and US$783.46 for eac h high-sc hool student during the year23.
20 Trejos, Jua n Diego. “ La eq uid a d d e la inversión soc ia l en el 2000” [Eq uity in soc ia l investment in 2000]. Pa p er for the 8th Rep ort on the Sta te of the Na tion. Sa n José, Costa Ric a : June 2002, p .p . 4, 5. 21 Loc . Cit. 22 Informa tion p rovid ed b y Mr. Ca rlos Ba d illa Cha ves, Bud get Pla nning Dep a rtment, MEP. 23 These figures a re c omp uted on the b a sis of the investment ma d e in infra struc ture, sta ff sa la ries, a d ministra tive exp enses, sc hool d iners, tea c hing ma teria ls, a nd sc hola rship s tha t MEP ma d e in the yea r. Then, the tota l a mount is d ivid ed b y the numb er of stud ents enrolled .
11 Regarding investment in teac hing materials, infrastruc ture, and teac hers' salaries, for 2003, it is estimated that the total expenses will amount to US$2,637,202.26.24
In the c ase of the sc holarship system, for 2002, the National Sc holarship Fund (FONABE) granted 37,334 sc holarships to c hildren, representing 82.0% of the total. For 2003 the figure inc reased to 39,517 sc holarships for c hildren representing 89.9% of the total of sc holarships granted. It only assigned 126 sc holarships to elementary-sc hool students and 115 to high-sc hool students in the Open Basic General Educ ation Programme, whic h will be disc ussed later, 7 sc holarships for the Open Classroom Programme, and 42 sc holarships for students in the New Opportunities Programme. These figures illustrate the little support available to students in the educ ational programmes whic h are more ac c essible to working c hildren25.
2.3 Coverage of the regular and alternative education systems
Coverage rates in primary and sec ondary educ ation show some progress in the last years. In elementary sc hool, where the gross rate is above 100% due to the educ ational lag, there is an inc rease in the Sec ond Cyc le (from third to sixth grade), from 90.6% in 1990 to 99.6% in 2002. In this same c yc le, the net rate is lower by 10 perc entage points due to overage c hildren, although there was an inc rease in the net rate from 81.3% to 88.8% in the same period.
At this level, attendanc e figures ac c ording to the Population Census and the Household Survey show that Costa Ric a is very c lose to universal c overage in elementary educ ation and that the gaps between the urban and rural areas and between the Central Region and the peripheral regions of the c ountry are small. In the urban area, sc hool attendanc e from 7 to 12 years of age is 97.4%, whereas in the rural area it is 93.6%, ac c ording to the Population Census of 2000. In the Central Region, attendanc e for the same age group is 97.6%, whereas in the peripheral regions it reac hes 96.5%, ac c ording to the Household Survey of 2002. There are no signific ant differenc es regarding sc hool attendanc e for men and women.
Middle-sc hool c overage also showed a favourable trend in the last 10 years. The gross enrolment rate inc reased from 57.5% in 1992 to 65.6% in 2002, and the net rate passed from 50.3% in 1992 to 58.7% in 2002. In the period of ª diversified educ ationº, whic h c orresponds to the end of sec ondary educ ation, c overage is lower, although it has also inc reased. In 2002, the gross rate in this c yc le was 48.4% and the net rate was 36.0%.
Starting in the sec ondary level, geographic and soc ial differenc es in attendanc e rates are c learly marked. In 2002, attendanc e in urban areas for c hildren between 13 and 17 years old was 77.4%, in sharp c omparison to the rural area where
24 Informa tion p rovid ed b y Mr. Ca rlos Ba d illa Cha ves, Bud get Pla nning Dep a rtment, MEP. 25 Informa tion p rovid ed b y Mr. Ca rlos Ba d illa Día z, Hea d of the Unit of Proc esses a nd Informa tion Ma na gement of the Na tiona l Sc hola rship Fund of the Ministry of Pub lic Ed uc a tion.
12 attendanc e drops to 55.7%. In the Central Region, attendanc e in the same age group was 77.3%, dec reasing to 62.6% in the other regions. The data also show c ontrasts among adolesc ents ac c ording to the sc hooling of the head of the household, sinc e 97.6% of adolesc ents from homes in whic h the head has c ollege educ ation attend sc hool, in c ontrast to 57.2% of the youngsters from homes in whic h the head has no instruc tion or inc omplete elementary educ ation.
Regarding sex, there are no signific ant differenc es between male and female rates. Some differenc es seem to favour women, for example after 12 years old the net c overage in sec ondary educ ation is higher for women. This c ould mean a lower educ ational lag (Table 5). From 6 to 11 years old, the net c overage rate by sex is very similar for men and women.
Table 5 Net schooling rates in the formal educational system by age, by sex Sex and Age level of schooling 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 Men Primary 0.2 59.1 92.5 99.4 99.0 102.6 100.4 59.3 26.2 12.0 3.7 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.2 Sec ondary ------0.8 32.0 57.9 61.9 58.3 51.6 35.2 16.5 7.1 Women Primary 0.2 60.7 92.6 99.9 99.4 101.0 100.7 54.7 19.8 7.7 2.2 0.5 0.1 0.0 0.1 Sec ondary ------0.9 36.0 63.0 67.8 64.1 56.8 37.1 16.2 6.3 Sourc e: Statistic s Department, MEP. Expansion of the educ ational system 2001 (Table 94).26
The development of several informal educ ation alternatives is a signific ant c ontribution to the improvement of educ ational c overage. The gross enrolment rate in sec ondary educ ation inc reased by 9.8 perc entage points from 65.6% to 75.4% in 2002, while the net rate inc reased by 4.8 points from 58.7% to 63.5%. In sec ondary educ ation, the main alternative educ ation programmes are Open Classroom, New Opportunities, and Adult Educ ation Centres and Institutions (CINDEA), whic h will be disc ussed later.
2.4 Students’ academic performance
Ac ademic performanc e is measured ac c ording to the perc entage of students who pass the grade eac h year with regards to the final registration for the year in question. In the primary sc hool level, around 90% of students definitely pass the grade, while in sec ondary sc hool the proportion is c lose to 80%. The lower performanc e in high sc hool c orresponds to seventh grade, the first level in this c yc le, with 75.5% of students passing in 2001, whic h indic ates that one of every four
26 Pop ula tion figures used a s referenc e c ome from CELADE. As of 2002, MEP estima tes the c overa ge d a ta , b a sed on the p op ula tion estima tes of CCP a nd INCE, whic h in turn a re b a sed on the Pop ula tion Census 2000. The c overa ge d a ta b y sex were not inc lud ed b y MEP in its 2002 sta tistic s.
13 students that starts sec ondary sc hool fails, whic h has subsequent impac t on the dropout rate of 1 out of every 5 students in sec ondary educ ation.
2.5 Dropout rate
Sc hool dropout or exc lusion refers to those students who leave the educ ational system before the sc hool year ends. Ac c ording to available data, dropout in elementary educ ation reac hed 5% in 2001, and in high-sc hool it reac hed 12% that same year. However, in seventh grade the dropout rate reac hed 20.9%. This figure does not seem to dec rease from one year to the next, whic h points at a struc tural problem in the educ ational system. This problem is a lac k of assimilation and adaptation to make the transition between primary and sec ondary educ ation easier. This has a direc t impac t on may youngsters who do not c onc lude the third c yc le (ninth grade) to have ac c ess either to high-sc hool educ ation or to enter the tec hnic al educ ation programme whic h are part of the formal educ ation system, or to that provided by the National Learning Institute (Instituto Nac ional de Aprendizaje, INA), the Professional Institutes for Community Educ ation (Institutos Profesionales de Educ ac ión Comunitaria, IPEC], or the Educ ation Centres and Institutes for Adults (Centros e Institutos de Educ ac ión de Adultos, CINDEA), where the minimum admission age is 15.
The adolesc ents who prematurely drop out of sc hool do not have the legal age to work and run the risk of entering labour ac tivities that attempt against their integral development and enjoyment of basic rights, suc h as educ ation and rec reation. In addition to the high dropout rate in the first year of sec ondary educ ation there is also a failure rate of 25% for students in that same level. This inc reases the levels of overage students and the probabilities of dropping out in the following years.
There are important differenc es at the elementary level between public and private educ ation, whic h has an impac t on sc hool dropout rates. In public educ ation the dropout rate is 4.8% and in private educ ation it is 1.2% (Table 6). Between urban and rural areas there are no signific ant differenc es. But men' s dropout rate is slightly higher than women' s.
Table 6 Intra-annual dropout rates in elementary education (Cycles I and II) by area and sex, by type of institution Type of institution Total Urban Rural Total Men Women Total Men Women Total Men Women Total 4.5 4.8 4.2 4.2 4.4 4.0 4.7 5.1 4.3 Pub lic 4.8 5.1 4.4 4.7 4.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 4.3 Priva te 1.2 1.2 1.3 0.8 0.6 1.0 2.5 2.9 2.2 Sub sid ised p riva te 0.8 1.1 0.7 0.8 0.9 0.7 1.4 3.0 -0.5 Sourc e: MEP, Statistic s Department, 2001
In sec ondary educ ation, there are differenc es between public and private educ ation. The differenc es by sex favour women, situation that c ould be explained by the fac t that less girls enter the labour market than boys. In public
14 high sc hool, total the dropout rate is 13.9%, whereas in private sc hools it is 1.9%. By geographic area, there is a higher abandonment of the educ ational system in rural areas than in urban areas, with figures of 13.0% and 12.1%, respec tively. By sex, the dropout rate is lower for women (10.8% in high sc hool) than for men (14.1%). In seventh grade of middle sc hool, these differenc es remain, being higher for men in rural areas (25.3%) as c ompared to 24.6% in urban areas (Table 7).
Table 7 Intra-annual dropout rates in secondary education (III cycle and diversified education)*, by sex, by area and type of institution (total figures and seventh grade, in %) Area and type of Total 7º grade institution Total Men Women Total Men Women Total 12.4 14.1 10.8 20.9 23.1 18.6 Pub lic 13.9 15.6 12.2 22.8 24.9 20.4 Priva te 1.9 2.8 1.0 3.8 4.9 2.7 Priva te sub sid ised 2.9 3.7 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.3 Urban area Tota l 12.1 13.7 10.5 20.5 22.5 18.4 Pub lic 13.9 15.5 12.3 22.9 24.6 20.9 Priva te 1.4 2.3 0.6 2.3 3.0 1.6 Priva te sub sid ised 3.0 4.1 2.1 1.3 1.3 1.2 Rural area Tota l 13.0 14.7 11.2 21.6 24.1 18.8 Pub lic 13.9 15.9 12.0 22.6 25.3 19.7 Priva te 3.6 4.5 2.8 9.2 11.6 6.8 Priva te sub sid ised 2.6 3.0 1.9 1.2 1.0 1.5 * It inc ludes daytime and night-time sc hools. Sourc e: MEP, Statistic s Department, 2001
2.6 Public education infrastructure 27
Sc hools for all regular educ ation c yc les grow in number eac h year, as shown in Table 8. However, the c onditions of these educ ational c entres are not always ideal sinc e they lac k the nec essary resourc es to guarantee an adequate environment for the teac hing-learning proc ess and do not have ac c ess to the nec essary and minimal teac hing materials and servic es.
27 Ba sed on d a ta from the Dep a rtment of Sta tistic s of the MEP a nd informa tion p rovid ed b y Mr. Ca rlos Ba d illa Cha ves from the Dep a rtment of Bud get Progra mming of the MEP.
15 Table 8 Total regular education institutes and services by type of institution, 1998-2002 Year Total Pre- Cycles I Night- Third Cycle and High School Special school and II time Total Daytime Night- education schools time 1998 6247 1646 3711 12 425 386 39 453 1999 6539 1821 3768 12 454 415 39 484 2000 6884 2035 3801 12 518 480 38 518 2001 7156 2174 3860 10 547 510 37 565 2002 7597 2289 3904 10 580 534 46 814 Sourc e: MEP, Statistic s Department, Expansion of the Costa Ric an Educ ational System 2002
The defic ient infrastruc ture in public sc hools affec ts students' permanenc e in the educ ational system and the quality of educ ation. These sc hools often imply c o- existenc e in a c rowded environment that does not have the minimal servic es nor the resourc es nec essary to guarantee an appropriate setting for teac hing and learning.
In 2002, 79.7% of public primary sc hools did not have a library, defic ienc y present in 20.5% of private sc hools. Similarly, the lac k of c omputer laboratories affec ts 81.1% of public establishments versus 9.3% of private institutions. The differenc es between public and private institutions regarding libraries and c omputer laboratories may be explained by the fac t that the latter have the resourc es to purc hase the equipment and have ac c ess to newer information tec hnologies. Diners, on the other hand, are a public servic e deemed important for the nourishment and ac hievement of the student population, espec ially that with fewer resourc es. As suc h, it is absent only in 7.4% of public sc hools, whereas in private sc hools the figure reac hes 44.2%. It should be pointed out that 13.0% of public sc hools do not have elec tric ity.
In sec ondary educ ation, there are similar differenc es and defic ienc ies when public and private institutions are c ompared. Yet, the absenc e of servic es suc h as c omputer laboratories and libraries is lower than in public elementary sc hools. There is no library in 32.9% of public high sc hools (c ontrasted with 18.5% in private ones) and no c omputer laboratories in 37.4% of them (7.4% in private institutions). The absenc e of internet servic es is higher as it reac hes 63.8% in public high sc hools and 29.9% in private high sc hools. It is important to point out the limitation this represents to the students who do not have ac c ess to a servic e that would allow them to get updated information on the most diverse issues in an easy and inexpensive way. Moreover, this would be an important resourc e for those sc hools that do not have teac hing materials or libraries.
In elementary sc hools, 26.4% of the c lassrooms are in a fair c ondition while 5.8% are in poor c onditions, ac c ording to assessments by sc hools princ ipals themselves. In public sec ondary educ ation, the situation is not muc h different: 26.9% of the c lassrooms are in fair c ondition and 3.7% are in poor c ondition.
16 Beyond the physic al c onditions of the c lassrooms, their defic it in public educ ation is high. Ac c ording to estimates by the princ ipals, in elementary educ ation, there is a lac k of 1,971 rooms, that is, 14.4% of the totality of c lassrooms c urrently available. Regarding sec ondary educ ation, this ratio is higher, as out of a total of 5,917 c lassrooms, there is an additional need for 1,091 or 18.4%. This c ould be evidenc e that the expansion of high-sc hool c overage in the last years has not been ac c ompanied by the c orresponding investment in infrastruc ture.
2.7 Teaching staff qualifications
At present, there are a total of 46,225 teac hers, of whic h 5,254 work in pre-sc hool, 22,818 in primary, and 14,735 in sec ondary sc hool28.
The qualific ations of the teac hing staff have improved in the last 15 years, sinc e the perc entage of teac hers with degrees rose from 78.2% in 1992 to 88.2% in 2002. In primary sc hools, 91.2% of the teac hers have degrees. This perc entage drops to 86.3% among high-sc hool teac hers. Having teac hers with the minimal requirements has an impac t on the quality of educ ation sinc e unqualified teac hers do not have the knowledge or the didac tic tools to adequately perform their job. Moreover, attention must be paid to those areas and educ ational c entres where the teac hers with the lowest ac ademic profile are found, and analyse the ac hievement of the students under their c harge while looking for medium-term alternatives to improve teac hers' training.
A c ondition that attempts against an adequate teac hing development is the high number of interim positions: 13,889 in 2003 ac c ording to figures provided by MEP to the press29, a third of the total. In some sc hools, the perc entage of teac hers with an interim position ranges between 50% and 60%30. Yet, the interim c ondition does not affec t the salary or the level of labour stability, sinc e interim teac hers enjoy the same advantages and wage inc entives as teac hers on tenure. Promotion possibilities and job stability greatly depend on eac h teac her' s ac ademic qualific ation, sinc e the person with a higher degree has a higher possibility of getting a stable job in an area of his/ her c hoic e. Nevertheless, MEP has an inc entive programme for those teac hers who dec ide to teac h in soc ially disadvantaged c ommunities. Ac c ording to the teac hers' ac ademic preparation, the inc entive is higher, thus the best-qualified and more experienc ed teac hers are enc ouraged to work in less developed c ommunities (Appendix 2).
28 MEP, Sta tistic s Dep a rtment, figures on the tea c hing sta ff in ed uc a tion, c ha rts 3 a nd 6. 29 http :/ / www.na c ion.c om/ ln_ee/ 2003/ feb rero/ 07/ p a is1.html. The newsp a p er mentions a s its sourc e the Personnel Direc tora te of MEP. 30 Doc tora te in Ed uc a tion, Universid a d d e Costa Ric a (DE-UCR 2001). La ed uc a c ión c osta rric ense: una p rop uesta d e a gend a p a ra un d eb a te na c iona l [Costa Ric a n ed uc a tion: An p rop osa l for the na tiona l d eb a te a gend a ] Sa n José, Costa Ric a : Progra ma La tinoa meric a no d e Doc tora d o en Ed uc a c ión, Universid a d d e Costa Ric a , Novemb er 26, 2001, p . 27.
17
2.8 Education quality and relevance
To talk about educ ation quality and relevanc e in Costa Ric a, it is nec essary to state the fac t that the c onc ept of quality in the educ ational environment c omes from administration theories that equate quality to produc tion. However, other positions c onsider that the quality in educ ation may be measured by the c harac teristic s of the produc t, in this c ase, the students. These theories also indic ate that effic ienc y, as equivalent to sc hool ac hievement, c an also show the quality of educ ation31. Villalobos believes that these c onc eptions are limited and restric ted and proposes five aspec ts to take into ac c ount to estimate the relevanc e and quality of educ ation32:
¾First, it is nec essary to visualise the politic al and ideologic al levels of educ ation, whic h respond to the educ ational demands from the different sec tors of soc iety, and whic h are translated into the ends and goals of educ ation. In this sense, quality educ ation should: ª ...provide the best educ ation possible to the largest number of people, regardless of their ec onomic origin and foc using on its pedagogic al approac h, thus c reating mec hanisms and proc edures for dec ision making that set forth in advanc e the educ ational effic ienc y c riteria.” ¾A sec ond aspec t that measures the quality of educ ation is its c ommitment to respond to the educ ational demands and needs of the different sec tors of soc iety, whic h means an agreement between ª ...the c ontents developed in the c lassroom in relation to their relevanc e within the soc io-c ultural c ontext and the development of c ontents, attitudes, and values...” , as well as the partic ipation of the different soc ial and teac hing sec tors, students, administrative staff, parents, and c ommunity leaders. ¾Third, the teac hing-learning proc ess should be c onsidered based on the people being targeted, “ ...the learning c onditions, the educ ational sc enarios, and the definition of the didac tic model implemented in the educ ational proc ess.” ¾A fourth aspec t has to do with the teac hing personnel, their qualific ations both regarding their ac ademic preparation and their c onditions to undertake their teac hing ac tivities. ¾Finally, a fifth element that has an impac t on the quality of educ ation is the ac ademic struc ture and administrative management of the educ ational system, that should define a logic al sequenc e between the c urric ulum, c ourses, c ontents, and ac ademic ac tivities, as well as the educ ational c yc les and levels that have to fac ilitate students'
31 Ac c ord ing to Ángel Ba rriga , q uoted b y Villa lob os, Luis R., in the a rtic le “ La c a lid a d d e la ed uc a c ión: Direc tric es p a ra su eva lua c ión” [Qua lity in ed uc a tion: Guid elines for its eva lua tion] en Revista Elec trónic a Interc a mb io. Universid a d Intera meric a na d e Costa Ric a . http :/ / www.revista interc a mb io.c om/ a gosto_2003/ p orta d a / p or_005_c a lid a d .htm 32 Villa lob os, Luis R., ob . c it., p p 2, 4.
18 c omprehensive formation, with time effic ienc y and optimal administrative management of the sc hools and the resourc es they have.
Based on the information above and the c harac teristic s of educ ation in Costa Ric a, some researc hers point out that the educ ational system is c ompletely outdated in relation to soc iety’ s requirements. In this sense, Costa Ric an educ ation has little relevanc e for c hildren and adolesc ents, who spend several hours a day in the sc hools, despite the fac t that it has a useful soc ial role in the transmission of reading and writing skills, basic arithmetic , interac tion with other people, and disc ipline and responsibility prac tic es33.
Sc hool exc lusion and lag make about 50% of the population not to enter high sc hool or not finish it. The fac t that educ ation is more defic ient and has fewer resourc es in the poorest c ommunities leads to a third of the population not having other alternatives to overc ome poverty or nor having ac c ess to voc ational training, espec ially in rural areas34. This indic ates that the Costa Ric an educ ational system has still to overc ome a series of limitations. A system that is not c apable of retaining the students, both bec ause of ec onomic limitations and bec ause it fails to attrac t a segment of the population that is also affec ted by sc hool failure, is far from being effic ient.
One of the main defic ienc ies of Costa Ric an educ ation is that its teac hing and evaluation systems are selec tive. The educ ational proc ess is organized within theoretic al, organizational, and statistic al parameters that do not take into ac c ount the partic ular development of the students as a whole or individually. Thus, those that c annot adjust themselves to the pac e of the majority are exc luded from the system. Standardised national tests are an example of this model, as they do not take into ac c ount the various soc io-c ultural c ontexts and multiple realities that are apparent in the c ountry. As Meléndez35 points out:
“ It is c lear that a c urric ulum that does not respond to the c ontextual and personal pec uliarities, that is not willing to promote the partic ipation of its ac tors in the c onstruc tion of the c urric ulum itself, that does not show interest or respec t for the styles or spec ial learning pac es, bec ause of the partic ularities imposed by the ethnic groups, among many others (...), is not in agreement with a democ ratic system or a c itizens’ formation for c ritic al and c reative partic ipation, for inc lusive, c ollaborative, and non- disc riminatory ac tions.”
In analysing the c harac teristic s of the Costa Ric an educ ational system, its c onc eptual and tec hnic al model, its material resourc es, teac hing staff, and the
33 http :/ / c la ud iogutierrez.c om/ ed uc a c ion_d igita l.html 34 Melénd ez, La d y, a rtic le “ El mod elo ed uc a tivo c osta rric ense d e c a ra a la exc lusión esc ola r” [The Costa Ric a n ed uc a tiona l mod el fa c ed with sc hool exc lusion] in Revista Elec trónic a Interc a mb io. Universid a d Intera meric a na d e Costa Ric a . http :/ / www.revista interc a mb io.c om/ a gosto_2003/ p orta d a / p or_009_c a lid a d .htm 35 Ib id ., p . 2
19 number of students that pass, repeat grades, lag behind and are exc luded, it is possible to affirm that sc hooling in the c ountry still needs to overc ome several obstac les in order to c omply with its c ommitment to improve its quality and relevanc e, and to provide nec essary options. Complying with this c ommitment would ensure that all the people get the kind of formation that responds both to their wishes and aspirations, and also c ontributes to the c ountry' s widespread development and the improvement of the population' s quality of life.
The quality of educ ation should also respond to the investment that families make to send their c hildren to sc hool, bec ause although the legislation indic ates that general basic educ ation and high sc hool are free and c ompulsory, the truth is that educ ation has a c ost that very often is not c ompensated by an educ ational proc ess that is not c ontributing to c hildren' s learning and integral development and that exc eeds many families' ec onomic possibilities.
As an example, the Ministry of Public Educ ation makes an annual estimate of the basic c ost of educ ation for families, based on the studies of the Ministry of Ec onomy, Industry, and Commerc e on the market value of uniforms and sc hool supplies36. Although there no data about these c osts for several years, it is estimated that for eac h student in public educ ation, the initial expenses for the 2003 sc hool year was the following:
• Primary, first c yc le (first to third grade): girl' s uniform 9,072 c olones (about US$ 22.68), boy' s uniform 10,282 c olones (US$ 25.70); sc hool supplies 8,582 c olones (US$ 21.38). • Primary, sec ond c yc le (fourth to sixth grade): same c ost for sc hool uniform, supplies 9,862 c olones (US$ 24.65). • Middle sc hool, third c yc le (seventh to ninth grade): women' s uniform 9,865 c olones (US$24.66), men' s uniform 11,475 c olones (US$28.68); supplies 11,552 c olones (US$28.88).37
These c osts do not inc lude textbooks, food, transportation, or materials that students need throughout the year. This investment makes many families dec ide not to send their c hildren to sc hool in an educ ational system that in spite of demanding important expenses and resourc es, does not meet the expec tations of students and their parents.
36 Sc hool sup p lies inc lud e noteb ooks for d ifferent sub jec ts, sheets of p a p er, p enc ils to write a nd c olor p enc ils, p enc il sha rp ener, p ens, era sers, glue, sc issors, a nd a geometry set. 37 Informa tion sup p lied b y Pa tric ia Mora , offic er of the Pla n a nd Progra mmes Dep a rtment of MEP.
20 3. WORKING CHILDREN
3.1 Socio-economic characteristics
The Multiple Purpose Household Survey (EHPM) 2002 gathered updated data about working c hildren, their living c onditions and their reasons for entering the job market. Based on the data gathered, it is estimated that there are 113,523 c hildren between 5 and 17 years old who are c urrently working in the c ountry. Labour insertion at an early age is more c harac teristic of rural areas. A total of 68.4% of working c hildren are rural residents, and 31.6% reside in the urban areas. Male c hildren and adolesc ents are the ones that join the labour forc e in larger numbers, as illustrated in Table 9: 72.7% of the working c hild population is c omposed by men.
Table 9 Working population between 5 and 17 years old, by sex and area Area a nd sex Number Percentage Total 113,523 100.0 Area Urb a n 35,831 31.6 Rura l 77,692 68.4 Sex Men 82,512 72.7 Women 31,011 27.3 Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002
A total of 99,846 households report c hildren between 5 and 17 years who are either working or seeking work. About 127,077 c hildren in this age group either work or are searc hing for work. Moreover, a total of 54,259 boys and girls are employed on a regular basis, whic h means that their main status in the year of referenc e was employed 38. Partic ipation in the c hild labour forc e is defined by partly by sc hooling, as it varies ac c ording to the sc hool sc hedule and vac ation periods and also ac c ording to the agric ultural produc tion c yc les. Analysing this spec ific group makes it possible to visualise how the partic ipation of c hildren under 18 in labour ac tivities c hanges ac c ording to the season.
Among those households of c hildren who work or look for work, it is estimated that 99,846 households have on average 1.1 c hildren who are ac tive. Of these households, 31.9% live in poverty, 21.3% do not meet their basic needs, and 10.6% are under the extreme poverty line, a perc entage that is muc h higher when
38 The informa tion sup p lied b y the surveyed p eop le inc lud es a c tivities held d uring one week a t the time the EHPM wa s held . Therefore, these d a ta a re c irc umsta ntia l. However, a s a stra tegy to lea rn a b out the evolution of c hild la b our d uring a yea r, the c onc ep t “ ha b itua l a c tivity,” used b y ILO, wa s inc lud ed . This a llowed id entifying the “ ha b itua lly a c tive” p op ula tion for the p eriod b etween July 2001 a nd June 2002 (ILT-IPEC-SIMPOC, INEC, Informe Na c iona l d e la Enc uesta d e Tra b a jo Infa ntil y Ad olesc ente en Costa Ric a [Na tiona l Rep ort on the Child La b our Survey in Costa Ric a ]. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 2003, p . 55.
21 c ompared with households with underage c hildren who neither work nor look for work, of whom only 23% live in poverty, as shown in Table 10.
The average household inc ome in the c ase of working c hildren is smaller than that of households of c hildren who are not ac tive. The data also indic ate that sc hooling is lower among heads of household and other adults in the former, with an average of 6.0 years of sc hooling, whereas in the latter heads of household' s sc hooling average in formal educ ation is 8.1. Lower sc hooling of adults may mean lower possibilities to have a skilled job, resulting in lower wages. This c reates ec onomic limitations that forc e c hildren to enter the labour market at an early age and to leave sc hool or have low ac ademic ac hievement.
Table 10 Main demographic, occupational, and income characteristics of households with known income, by children’s activity status Household characteristics Children’s activity status Working or looking for Inactive39 work
Tota l p ersons in household s 548,030 2,279,485 Tota l household s40 99,846 483,487 Members per household 5.5 4.7 0 - 4 yea rs old 0.4 0.4 5 - 17 yea rs old 2.5 1.8 18 yea rs old a nd old er 2.6 2.5 Labour force per household 3.0 1.7 Emp loyed b y household 2.8 1.6 5 - 17 yea rs old 1.1 - 18 yea rs old a nd old er 1.7 1.6 Poverty Incidence (%)* 31.9 23.0 Unmet b a sic need s 21.3 16.6 Extreme p overty 10.6 6.4 Tota l household inc ome (¢) 183,690 249,564 Per c a p ita household inc ome (¢) 33,466 52,935 Emp loyed a d ults' inc ome (¢) 161,674 235,975 Emp loyed c hild ren' s inc ome (¢) 45,424 - Avera ge sc hooling of hea d (yea rs) 6.0 8.1 Avera ge sc hooling of a d ults (yea rs) 6.6 8.7 Household s with a fema le hea d (%) 24.8 23.3 * Perc enta ge of household s und er the p overty line. Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002.
Although the differenc e in the perc entage of households with female heads is not very signific ant for homes with and without ac tive c hildren, the figure is slightly
39 The ina c tive p op ula tion inc lud es c hild ren who d o not p a rtic ip a te in ec onomic a c tivities a nd tha t a re not trying to enter the la b our ma rket. 40 With memb ers b etween 5 a nd 17 yea rs old who a re p a rt of the Ec onomic a lly Ac tive Pop ula tion
22 higher in homes with c hildren who work or seek work, with a total of 24.8%, in c omparison to 23.3% where c hildren are inac tive.
In general, one finds more unfavourable ec onomic c onditions in households of members between 5 and 17 who work or seek work, situation that c oinc ides with the premise that relates c hild labour to poverty. However, it should be pointed out that many households that have suffic ient resourc es to meet their basic needs involve c hildren in labour ac tivities at an early age, not in response to an ec onomic need to improve the household' s living c onditions, but bec ause they believe that work helps enhanc e c hildren' s development, as they get a sense of responsibility and learn to apprec iate the c ost of material things and the importanc e of working. In addition, having c hildren partic ipate in the family' s business or ec onomic ac tivity is c onsidered both by adults and c hildren as a way to identify with the adults and the household and to c ontinue the family tradition. Several studies disc uss these perc eptions41; however, it is important to distinguish labour ac tivities for this purpose, from ac tivities that attempt against the c omprehensive development of c hildren, espec ially their partic ipation in the educ ational system.
In households where underage persons work to guarantee their food, c lothing, educ ation, and even shelter, or where they assume the ec onomic responsibility of supporting the adults, c hildren' s rights are being violated, bec ause it is the adults who are responsible for ensuring that youngsters' material needs are met. Unavoidably, those who partic ipate in labour ac tivities at an early age have their right to educ ation affec ted, as will be explained in the following sec tions.
3.2 Activities performed by children and their working conditions
The data show that most of c hildren' s labour ac tivities may be c ategorised as low- skilled ac tivities, in the sense that they do not require muc h experienc e or training. In other words, 43.4% of c hildren work in the agric ulture and forestry sec tor, 21.7% in trade and repair of vehic les and applianc es, and 9.0% work in the manufac turing industry, as shown in Table 11.
41 To exp a nd this informa tion, the following p ub lic a tions ma y b e looked up : United Na tions Intera genc y Progra mme. Up a la : Cond ic iones d e vid a y d erec hos huma nos [Up a la : Living c ond itions a nd huma n rights]. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 1997 / UNICEF–Costa Ric a . El tra b a jo infa nto juvenil en á rea s urb a na s: el c a so d el d istrito d e Pa va s [Child -la b our in urb a n a rea s: The c a se of the Pa va s d istric t]. UNICEF-Costa Ric a , 1999/ IPEC-ILO. Tra b a jo Infa ntil y Ad olesc ente en la Región Brunc a : Dia gnóstic o [Child -la b our in the Brunc a Region: Dia gnostic ] IPEC-ILO, Fund a c ión Iustitia , MTSS. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 2001/ IPEC-ILO, Ca rta go: Dimensión, na tura leza y entorno soc ioec onómic o d el tra b a jo infa ntil y a d olesc ente [Ca rta go: Dimension, na ture, a nd soc io-ec onomic environment of c hild la b our]. IPEC-ILO, Sa n José, 2002/ IPEC-ILO. Sistema tiza c ión d e la Intervenc ión d el Progra ma d e Ac c ión: Elimina c ión Progresiva d el Tra b a jo Infa ntil en la Extra c c ión d e Molusc os y Ac tivid a d es Pesq uera s d el Golfo d e Nic oya [Systema tisa tion of the Ac tion Progra mme Intervention: Progressive Era d ic a tion of Child La b our in the Extra c tion of Mollusks a nd Fishing Ac tivities in the Gulf of Nic oya ]. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 2002.
23 Table 11 Working children 5-17 years old by age group, by industry Industry Age group 5 - 14 15 - 17 Total Total % Total % Total % Total 48,715 100.0 64,294 100.0 113,009 100.0
Agric ulture, forestry, hunting 27,563 56.6 21,533 33.5 49,096 43.4 Fishing 202 0.4 693 1.1 895 0.8 Mining a nd q ua rrying 0 0.0 114 0.2 114 0.1 Ma nufa c turing Ind ustry 3,533 7.3 6,677 10.4 10,210 9.0 Construc tion 2,347 4.8 5,553 8.6 7,900 7.0 Tra d e a nd vehic le/ a p p lia nc es rep a ir 9,506 19.5 15,054 23.4 24,560 21.7 Hotels a nd resta ura nts 2,400 4.9 3,047 4.7 5,447 4.8 Tra nsp ort, stora ge, a nd c ommunic a tion 420 0.9 1,487 2.3 1,907 1.7 Rea l esta te, b usiness, a nd lea sing a c tivities 346 0.7 1,726 2.7 2,072 1.8 Ed uc a tion 0 0.0 299 0.5 299 0.3 Hea lth a nd soc ia l c a re 0 0.0 161 0.3 161 0.1 Soc ia l, c ommunity, a nd p ersona l servic es 1,021 2.1 2,644 4.1 3,665 3.2 Priva tes household s with emp loyed p ersons 1,377 2.8 5,306 8.3 6,683 5.9 Note: 514 c ases in whic h the industry is not known are exc luded. The following industries are also exc luded: ª elec tric ity, gas, and water,º ª financ ial intermediation,º ª public administration, defenc e and c ompulsory soc ial sec urity,º and ª extra-territorial organizationsº as there are no c hildren involved in these industries. Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002.
It is important to notic e that 43.1% of the employed population is between 5 and 14 years old, an age range in whic h it is forbidden to work. The law also prohibits boys and girls to work in ac tivities suc h as mining and fishing, that pose risks and threaten c hildren' s health and life, but still some c hildren engage in them.
Although a small perc entage, a few c hildren report to partic ipate in teac hing ac tivities. This means, that these c hildren under 18 have teac hing jobs, but at this age it is impossible for a person to have the ac ademic requirements or experienc e to work as a teac her. This represents a failure in the selec tion of the teac hing staff, with the risks it implies for the educ ational system and the quality of educ ation.
The male population between 5 and 17 years old c omprises 72.6% of working c hildren, and 27.4% are females. The data by sex also suggest that some industries are exc lusively male. These inc lude fishing, mines and quarries, and c onstruc tion. In the areas of health and soc ial c are, on the other hand, only women partic ipate. In domestic work, the perc entage of male partic ipation is low, 0.8% of total working boys, while it is higher among women, 19.6%. In agric ulture and forestry, male relative partic ipation surpasses female partic ipation by 12.5 perc entage points, as shown in Table 12.
The highest partic ipation of men in labour ac tivities may be evidenc e of the traditional roles assigned to men, where the role of provider and the entry into the public world of work may be reasons for families to forc e boys to enter the labour market at an early age.
24
Table 12 Working children 5 – 17 years old by sex, by industry Type of Activity Sex Men Women Total Total % Total % Total % Total 82,067 100.0 30,942 100.0 113,009 100.0
Agric ulture, forestry, hunting 38,459 46.9 10,637 34.4 49,096 43.4 Fishing 895 1.1 0 0.0 895 0.8 Mining a nd q ua rrying 114 0.1 0 0.0 114 0.1 Ma nufa c turing Ind ustry 7,934 9.7 2,276 7.4 10,210 9.0 Construc tion 7,900 9.6 0 0.0 7,900 7.0 Tra d e a nd vehic le/ a p p lia nc e rep a ir 17,566 21.4 6,994 22.6 24,560 21.7 Hotels a nd resta ura nts 2,135 2.6 3,312 10.7 5,447 4.8 Tra nsp ort, stora ge, a nd c ommunic a tions 1,907 2.39 0 0.0 1,907 1.7 Rea l esta te, b usiness a nd lea sing a c tivities 1,626 2.0 446 1.4 2,072 1.8 Ed uc a tion 299 0.4 0 0.0 299 0.3 Hea lth a nd soc ia l c a re 0 0.0 161 0.5 161 0.1 Soc ia l, c ommunity, a nd p ersona l servic es 2,614 3.2 1,051 3.4 3,665 3.2 Priva te household s with emp loyed p ersons 618 0.8 6,065 19.6 6,683 5.9 Note: 514 c ases in whic h the industry is not known are exc luded. The following industries are also exc luded: ª elec tric ity, gas, and water,º ª financ ial intermediation,º ª public administration, defenc e and c ompulsory soc ial sec urity,º and ª extra-territorial organizationsº as there are no c hildren involved in these industries. Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002.
Regarding the distribution by area, 68.5% of the employed population between 5 and 17 years c omes from rural areas and only 31.5% from urban areas. Obviously, there is a higher number of c hildren partic ipating in agric ulture and forestry in the rural area, 57.5%, in c ontrast with urban areas where the perc entage barely reac hes 12.8%. The most c ommon ac tivities in the urban areas are trade and vehic le and applianc e repairs, with 31.8%, c onstruc tion with 13.9%, and the manufac turing industry with 13.2%.
In the urban areas there are more labour opportunities in the servic e sec tor, while in the rural areas the primary sec tor (agric ultural produc tion) is still the one that absorbs most working c hildren, as illustrated in Table 13.
25 Table 13 Working children 5 to 17 years old by area, by industry Industry Area Urban Rural Total Total % Total % Total % Total 35,593 100.0 77,416 100.0 113,009 100.0 Agric ulture, forestry, hunting 4,562 12.8 44,534 57.5 49,096 43.4 Fishing 459 1.3 436 0.6 895 0.8 Mining a nd q ua rrying 0 0.0 114 0.1 114 0.1 Ma nufa c turing Ind ustry 4,684 13.2 5,526 7.1 10,210 9.0 Construc tion 4,943 13.9 2,957 3.8 7,900 7.0 Tra d e a nd vehic le/ a p p lia nc e rep a ir 11,335 31.8 13,225 17.1 24,560 21.7 Hotels a nd resta ura nts 2,379 6.7 3,068 4.0 5,447 4.8 Tra nsp ort, stora ge, a nd c ommunic a tions 1,221 3.4 686 0.9 1,907 1.7 Rea l esta te, b usiness a nd lea sing a c tivities 1,149 3.2 923 1.2 2,072 1.8 Ed uc a tion 160 0.4 139 0.2 299 0.3 Hea lth a nd soc ia l c a re 161 0.5 0 0.0 161 0.1 Soc ia l, c ommunity, a nd p ersona l servic es 2,379 6.7 1,286 1.7 3,665 3.2 Priva te household s with emp loyed p ersons 2,161 6.1 4,522 5.8 6,683 5.9 Note: 514 c ases in whic h the industry is not known are exc luded. The following industries are also exc luded: ª elec tric ity, gas, and water,º ª financ ial intermediation,º ª public administration, defenc e and c ompulsory soc ial sec urity,º and ª extra-territorial organizationsº as there are no c hildren involved in these industries. Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2002.
Out of the ec onomic ally ac tive 42 c hildren (5 to17 years old) who do not go to sc hool, 41.0% work in agric ulture, livestoc k, hunting, and forestry, 17.2% work in c ommerc e, and 11.0% in the manufac turing industry (Table 14).
Table 14 Working children 5 to 17 years by school attendance, by industry Industry Total % Goes to Does not go school to school n:64,908 n:56,675 Total 121,583 100.0 100.0 100.0 Agric ulture, livestoc k, hunting, a nd forestry 50,706 41.7 42.3 41.0 Fishing 895 0.7 0.1 1.5 Mining a nd q ua rrying 114 0.1 0.0 0.2 Ma nufa c turing ind ustry 11,531 9.5 8.2 11.0 Construc tion 8,831 7.3 6.1 8.6 Tra d e 26,247 21.6 25.4 17.2 Hotels a nd resta ura nts 6,295 5.2 6.0 4.2 Tra nsp ort, stora ge, a nd c ommunic a tions 2,049 1.7 1.5 1.9 Fina nc ia l intermed ia tion 157 0.1 0.0 0.3 Rea l esta te, b usiness, a nd lea sing a c tivities 2,316 1.9 1.3 2.5 Ed uc a tion 299 0.2 0.2 0.2 Soc ia l a nd hea lth servic es 161 0.1 0.0 0.3 Other c ommunity servic e a c tivities 3,981 3.3 2.6 4.1 Priva te household s with emp loyed p ersons 7,487 6.2 5.5 6.9 Unknown 514 0.4 0.8 0.0 Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2002.
42 See d efinition in Ap p end ix 1.
26
Regarding c hildren' s work sc hedule, 91.0% work a daytime shift, 7.3% have a mixed shift43, and 1.7% work at night. This result must be emphasised sinc e 2.5% of the population between 5 and 14 years old and 1.1% of those between 15 and 17 works at night (Table 15). This situation is c ompletely against the legal provisions regarding adolesc ent work.
Table 15 Working children 5 to 17 years old by age group, by shift Shift Age group Total % 5 - 14 15 - 17 Total % Total % Total 48,856 100.0 63,535 100.0 112,391 100.0 Da ytime shift 45,746 93.6 56,514 88.9 102,260 91.0 Mixed shift 1,903 3.9 6,338 10.0 8,241 7.3 Night-time shift 1,207 2.5 683 1.1 1,890 1.7 Note: Those c ases in whic h the shift is unknown are exc luded (1,132). Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2002
Regarding the number of hours worked per week by c hildren, in the 5 to 9 age group the average 5 (Table 16). In the 10 to 14 age group, the average number of weekly hours worked is 14. In the 15 to 17 age group, the average number of hours worked per week is 32. Moreover, 42.3% of them work shifts that extend beyond the number of hours spec ified by the law, that is, 36 hours a week for adolesc ents. Part-time oc c upations and full time oc c upations prevent c hildren who work that many hours to do well in sc hool and even prevent them from going to sc hool.
Table 16 Average number of hours worked by working children 5 to 17 years old by age group Age groups 5 to 9 years 10 to 14 years 15 to 17 years Total Number % Average Number % Average Number % Average Number % Average 13,110 100.0 5 35,821 100.0 14 63,478 100.0 32 112,409 100.0 23 Note: Those c ases in whic h the number of hours worked is unknown (1,114) are exc luded. Sourc e: INEC, Multiple Purpose Household Survey, July 2002
Regarding the remuneration rec eived by working c hildren for the labour they perform, it is important to point out that it depends on the number of hours worked. Children between 15 and 17 years old work more hours and have a higher inc ome.
43 The mixed shift inc lud es ta kes p la c e p a rtly in the a fternoon a nd p a rtly a t night. Ac c ord ing to the Child ren a nd Ad olesc ents Cod e, a p erson b elow the a ge of 18 should not work a fter 10:00 p .m.
27 Table 17 Average monthly income of working children 5 to 17 years old that have an income by age group Average monthly income Age group 5 to 9 10 to 14 15 to 17 Working with inc ome 2,590 13,493 46,297 Avera ge inc ome ¢5,243 ¢20,886 ¢46,667 US$15 US$58 US$130 Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002
With regards to this aspec t, a researc h done in Costa Ric a in the year 2000 with c hildren domestic work revealed that those that work full time (up to 12 hours a day) or part time (between 4 and 6 hours a day) rec eived an average monthly salary of US$71.00 and US$42.72, respec tively. This information c an illustrate the fac t that the population of c hildren and adolesc ents rec eives wages that are muc h lower than the minimum legal wages set forth by the law 44.
It is also important to point out that in their own homes, a total of 176,214 c hildren, that is 15.8% of the population between 5 and 17 years old, perform domestic c hores for an average of 10 hours a day or more per week without pay. These ac tivities c ould also affec t their ac ademic attendanc e and ac hievement45.
Regarding the reasons why c hildren work, 48.9% reported that the main reason is to help with household expenses or the family business. This explanation reac hes 51.3% in rural areas and 44.0% in urban areas (Table 18). The sec ond most important reason for c hildren' s work is to c over personal expenses and pay for studies, with 26.2% of total responses. In the rural areas, this explanation is given by 35.8% of interviewees. Both the need to c ontribute to the household and to c over personal expenses indic ate that c hildren' s work is c losely related to ec onomic wants in the households, and that this forc es c hildren to enter the labour market. The perc entage that indic ates that c hildren work due to problems in sc hool only reac hes 3.3%, being this perc entage higher, 4.6%, in the 15-17 age group. These data reveal that the most signific ant reasons for c hildren to work are not related to problems at sc hool. Yet, work does interfere with students' optimal educ ational ac hievement, as may be notic ed in the following sec tion.
44 ILO – IPEC. El tra b a jo infa ntil y a d olesc ente d oméstic a en Costa Ric a [Domestic c hild la b our in Costa Ric a ]. ILO – IPEC. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 2002, p . 102. 45 ILO – IPEC- INEC. Informe Na c iona l d e los Resulta d os d e la Enc uesta sob re Tra b a jo Infa ntil y Ad olesc ente en Costa Ric a [Na tiona l Rep ort of the Results of the Child La b our Survey in Costa Ric a ]. ILO – IPEC- INEC. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 2002, p . 64.
28 Table 18 Working children 5 to 17 years old by age group, sex, and area, by declared reason to work* Reason to work Total 5 - 17 Age group (%) Sex (%) Area (%) 5 - 14 15 - 17 Men Women Urban Rural Number % (n: 45,505) (n:58,964) (n:76,251) (n:28,218) (n:34,172) (n:70,297) Total 104,469 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 To help with household 51,095 48.9 46.3 50.9 48.0 51.4 44.0 51.3 exp enses or the fa mily b usiness To p a y for p ersona l 27,340 26.2 17.4 32.9 26.6 25.0 35.8 21.5 exp enses a nd stud ies Prob lems in sc hool 3,431 3.3 1.6 4.6 3.5 2.6 3.4 3.2 To lea rn a tra d e 9,029 8.6 14.4 4.2 10.0 4.9 6.1 9.9 Other 13,574 13.0 20.3 7.4 11.8 16.1 10.7 14.1 * Those c a ses in whic h the rea son to work is unknown (9,054) a re exc lud ed . Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002
3.3 School attendance by working children
Table 19 summarises the overall c onditions of working c hildren indic ating whether they go to sc hool or not. The figures indic ate that the younger the c hild and the fewer the number of hours worked, the higher the possibilities to remain in sc hool. In fac t, in the 5-9 age group, the perc entage of working c hildren who go to sc hool is 91.7, whereas in the 15-17 age group, 62.9% do not go to sc hool. Exc lusion from sc hool affec ts boys more than girls, as 47.7% of working males do not go to sc hool in c ontrast to 37.4% of working girls.
Exc lusion from sc hool reac hes an even higher perc entage in rural areas: 48.0%, in c ontrast to 38.2% in urban areas. On the other hand, a higher perc entage of working c hildren living in poverty (56.7) and extreme poverty (66.5) remain in sc hool. This c ould be explained by three c irc umstanc es. One of them c ould be that c hildren living in poverty are younger and, as already mentioned, the younger the c hild, the higher the possibilities of remaining in sc hool. Another aspec t that may be influenc ing this situation is the ec onomic support given to poor students, whic h may be giving good results by allowing a perc entage of the soc ially and ec onomic ally disadvantaged population to remain in sc hool despite its material limitations. Parents also value educ ation as a mec hanism to overc ome poverty, so this may be another element that has an impac t on having poor c hildren remain in sc hool.
29 Table 19 School attendance of working children 5 to 17 years old, by area, sex, age group, shift, and socio-economic condition School attendance Total Yes No Area Number % Number % Number % Urb a n 22,149 61.8 13,682 38.2 35,831 31.6 Rura l 40,429 52.0 37,263 48.0 77,692 68.4 Sex Men 43,166 52.3 39,346 47.7 82,512 72.7 Women 19,412 62.6 11,599 37.4 31,011 27.3 Age group 5 - 9 12,026 91.7 1,084 8.3 13,110 11.5 10 - 14 26,723 74.0 9,396 26.0 36,119 31.8 15 - 17 23,829 37.1 40,465 62.9 64,294 56.6 Shift Da ytime 56,136 54.9 46,124 45.1 102,260 91.0 Mixed 4,455 54.1 3,786 45.9 8,241 7.3 Night-time 1,423 75.3 467 24.7 1,890 1.7 Poverty incidence Extreme 7,836 66.5 3,947 33.5 11,783 12.6 Do not meet their b a sic need s 11,388 56.7 8,706 43.3 20,094 21.5 Non p oor 32,748 53.1 28,958 46.9 61,706 65.9 Ma in monthly inc ome (a vera ge) ¢28,626.66 ¢47,874.82 ¢39,935.72 Avera ge hours worked p er week 13.4 34.87 23.03 Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002
Exc lusion and lag affec t working adolesc ents between the ages of 15 and 17 more severely. Of them, 62.5% no longer attend sc hool and 70.5% of those who do are behind in their studies. In the 10 to 14 age group, 26.0% do not attend out and 45.4% are lagging, in c ontrast to only 3.3% who are not attending sc hool among those between 5 and 9 and 10.7% that are lagging (Table 20).
30 Table 20 Population between 5 and 17 year old by school situation, by activity status, age group, sex, and area Age group, sex, and area Persons Dropout Enrolled rate (%)* Total Without lag With lag (%)** (%)** Working children 112,036 44.1 62,578 48.3 51.7 By age group 5 - 9 12,429 8.3 12,026 89.3 10.7 10 ± 14 36,119 26.0 26,723 54.6 45.4 15 - 17 63,488 62.5 23,829 29.5 70.5 By sex Men 35,390 37.4 22,149 42.7 57.3 Women 76,646 47.3 40,429 51.4 48.6
Inactive children 941,866 6.9 877,199 73.4 26.6 By age group 5 ± 9 356,676 2.7 347,102 94.7 5.3 10 ± 14 390,557 5.1 370,825 72.2 27.8 15 ± 17 194,633 18.2 159,272 52.4 47.6 By sex Men 461,547 4.9 438,886 74.4 28.6 Women 480,319 8.7 438,313 75.2 24.8 By area Urb a n 546,271 4.6 521,258 75.5 24.5 Rura l 395,595 10.0 355,941 70.2 29.8 * Perc enta ge with resp ec t to tota l numb er of p ersons. ** Perc enta ge with resp ec t to tota l p ersons enrolled . Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002.
When the figures of the working population between 5 and 17 years old are c ompared with those of the inac tive population in the same age group, it may be notic ed that among the former the dropout rate is 44.1%, while for the latter it is only 6.9%. Similarly, regarding sc hool lag, 51.7% of working c hildren are behind the grade that c orresponds to their age, whereas 26.6% of non-working c hildren are in suc h situation.
Having to devote time and effort to labour ac tivities diminishes students' time and energy for their sc hool c hores. This is evidenc ed by the ac ademic ac hievement shown by those who are working and those who are not. As already pointed out, inevitably c ombining c hild labour with educ ation dec reases the ac ademic preparation and permanenc e in sc hool of those working c hildren. Moreover, in some c ases, the short-term vision of the c hildren and their parents c an lead them to devote more time to their jobs bec ause of the money they get and the goods they c an buy with it, leaving educ ation aside.
Regarding the reasons not to attend sc hool, as illustrated in Table 21, the most c ommon is the lac k of interest in formal learning, mentioned by 34.0% of the working total. By age group, 29.9% of those between 10 and 14 years and 35.7% of those between 15 and 17 stated not attending bec ause of lac k of interest in
31 formal educ ation. Moreover, this is the reason working boys mention most frequently for not attending sc hool, with 37.4% of responses. In urban areas (38.2%) and rural areas (32.6%), this is also the most frequently mentioned reason.
Regardless of the subjec tivity that c ould underlie this response, the figures do evidenc e that there is a high perc entage of working c hildren who have dropped out of sc hool and that are not being c overed by the alternate educ ational options (to be disc ussed later). This situation renders visible, weaknesses in the promotion mec hanisms and those used to attrac t students to the new educ ational alternatives not related to the traditional system. It c ould also show failures in the c onventional educ ational system to retain students, sinc e they c annot adapt themselves to the system or do not find an alternative c ompatible with their interests and aspirations in formal educ ation.
Table 21 Working children 5-17 years old not attending the educational system by age group, sex, and area, by declared reason not to go to attend school Reason not to attend Total 5 - 17 Age group (%) Sex (%) Area (%) school 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 17 Men Women Urban Rural Number % (n: 1,084) (n:40,465 ) (n:40,465) (n:39,346) (n:11,599) (n:13,682) (n:37,263) 2.1* 18.4* 79.5* 77.6* 22.4* 27.0* 73.0* Total 50,945 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Has to work 11,003 21.6 0.0 16.4 23.4 24.5 11.9 27.9 19.2 Has to help with the 285 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.7 0.0 2.4 0.0 0.7 house c hores Cannot pay for his/ her 7,309 14.3 8.1 18.2 13.7 11.7 23.3 9.0 16.3 studies Ac c ess problems to the 3,098 6.1 14.4 4.9 6.1 4.7 10.6 3.5 7.1 sc hool system Pregnanc y or marriage 640 1.3 0.0 0.0 1.5 0.0 5.5 1.9 1.0 Disease or disability 578 1.2 0.0 1.9 0.9 1.3 0.7 0.9 1.2 Finds studies hard 5,780 11.4 0.0 13.8 11.1 10.8 13.1 11.6 11.3 Not interested in formal 17,345 34.0 8.1 29.9 35.7 37.4 22.5 38.2 32.6 learning Does not have the 750 1.4 62.9 0.0 0.1 0.9 3.4 0.4 1.9 required age Other 3,420 6.7 6.5 14.9 4.9 7.1 5.5 3.8 7.8 Unknown 737 1.4 0.0 0.0 1.9 1.6 1.1 2.8 0.9 *Perc enta ges with resp ec t to the tota l (50,945) Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002.
Women mention as the main reason not to go to sc hool the fac t of not being able to pay for their studies (23.3%) and, in sec ond plac e, they mention lac k of interest in formal educ ation (22.5%). It is possible for women to have more limited resourc es to study due to traditional c onc eptions of sex roles, plac ing women at home and not in the labour market. This leads some families not to c onsider the need for women to get an educ ation, and dec ide to invest their resourc es in sending boys to sc hool. This is evidenc ed by the fac t that 11.7% of boys stated not having the nec essary resourc es to study as the main reason not to attend sc hool. Another aspec t to notic e is that 10.6% of working girls mention sc hool ac c essibility problems as a c ommon obstac le, a situation that again c an be related to gender issues and
32 the idea that outside the home, women are exposed to many dangers and, therefore, should not go out and expose themselves to those dangers. This means that the ac c essibility diffic ulties may not only be physic al but also c ultural, sinc e this reason is only mentioned by 4.7% of boys.
Of working girls, 5.5% mentioned pregnanc y or marriage as a reason not to go to sc hool. However, this should not be a reason to drop out, sinc e the educ ational c entres and the staff are obliged to provide adequate c onditions to pregnant adolesc ents and mothers to c ontinue their studies. The fac t that pregnant adolesc ents drop out is an issue that shows a weakness in the educ ational system, that still has to find alternatives to retain young mothers to be and to look for the family support to make it possible.
Gender issues c ould also explain why most of the working population between 5 and 17 is c omposed of men--77.6%. Men are traditionally expec ted to be the breadwinners and be independent, both from the dec ision-making perspec tive and from the ec onomic perspec tive. Thus, boys may be pressured to enter the labour market. This pressure is not nec essarily based on ec onomic c onstraints but on more subjec tive reasons, suc h as ª bec oming menº by earning money, working outside the home and c ollaborating with the family expenses. Almost a fourth of men (24.5%) mention not going to sc hool bec ause they have to work, whereas women only mention this alternative in 11.9% of the c ases.
The figures also indic ate that most of the working population that has dropped out of sc hool lives in the rural areas, 73.0%, as shown in Table 20. In addition, this may mean that in rural areas c hildren have more labour options in agric ulture as well as more ec onomic needs that forc e them to enter the labour market at an early age. An important aspec t to take into c onsideration is that in rural c ommunities, where the main sourc e of inc ome and also food is agric ulture, the knowledge required to be suc c essful in its produc tion may c ome more from experienc e than from formal instruc tion. Having a standardised c urric ulum for the whole c ountry does not take into ac c ount the educ ational needs for the different ec onomic , soc ial, and c ultural c ontexts. This may be a reason for working c hildren not to c onsider educ ation as a mec hanism that teac hes them about relevant issues in ac c ordanc e to their everyday reality.
There is a population46 of 9,666 c hildren who do not work but are ac tively seeking work and do not attend sc hool(Table 22), 91.1% of whom are in the 15 to 17 year old age group. For these c hildren, the most c ommon reason not to go to sc hool is not having money to pay for their studies. This reason was mentioned by 35.3% of these c hildren. In sec ond plac e is the lac k of interest in formal educ ation, with 34.1%. In this c ase, the perc entage is the same for rural and urban areas and similar for men (35.0%) and women (32.3%).
Among the c hildren seeking work, ec onomic problems as well as the lac k of interest in formal educ ation prevent them from going to sc hool. But lac k of work
46 See d efinition in Ap p end ix 1.
33 and educ ational exc lusion make this population vulnerable to abuse, involvement in illegal ac tivities, and in the medium term, inability to ac c ess skilled labour alternatives and salaries that would allow them to meet their basic needs.
Table 22 Work-seeking children between 5 and 17 years old by age group, sex, and area, by declared reason not to attend school Reason not to attend Total 5 - 17 Age group (%) Sex (%) Area (%) school 5 - 9 10 – 14 15 - 17 Men Women Urban Rural Numb er % (n: 0) (n:853 ) (n:8,813) (n:6,386) (n:3,280) (n:4,194) (n:5,472) 0* 8.9* 91.1* 66.1* 33.9* 43.4* 56.6* Total 9,666 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Ha s to work 482 5.0 0.0 6.7 4.8 6.5 2.1 0.0 8.8 Ha s to help with the 303 3.1 0.0 0.0 3.5 0.0 9.2 3.8 2.6 house c hores Ca nnot p a y for his/ her 3,415 35.3 0.0 24.8 36.3 36.1 33.8 27.3 41.5 stud ies Ac c ess p rob lems to 142 1.5 0.0 0.0 1.6 2.2 0.0 0.0 2.6 sc hool Pregna nc y or ma rria ge 71 0.7 0.0 0.0 0.9 0.0 2.2 0.0 1.3 Sic kness or d isa b ility 54 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 1.6 0.0 1.0 Find s stud ies ha rd 519 5.4 0.0 4.1 5.4 6.3 3.6 6.9 4.2 Not interested in forma l 3,293 34.1 0.0 49.4 32.6 35.0 32.3 48.1 23.3 lea rning Other 1,014 10.5 0.0 8.3 10.8 10.1 11.2 10.2 10.7 Unknown 373 3.9 0.0 6.7 3.5 3.8 3.9 3.7 3.9 *Perc enta ge with rega rd s to the tota l (9,666) Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002.
There is also an inac tive population (Table 23) (appendix 1) that does not work nor seek work and does not study, and that is at a higher risk sinc e ac c ess to the educ ational system, knowledge about c hildren' s rights, and protec tion of the educ ational authorities may prevent situations of abuse and neglec t. Not having ac c ess to educ ation already exposes this population to exc lusion from learning, lac k of interac tion with people of their same age, and not building a life projec t based on the opportunities offered by the educ ational system.
With the exc eption of 37.9% of this group that stated not having the age to study, there are 67,259 people who do not go to sc hool and do not work nor seek work. Of them, 13.7% affirm that their exc lusion is due to lac k of interest in formal educ ation, and 12.7% state not having the resourc es to pay for educ ation. This reason is mentioned primarily by those between 10 and 14 (26.7%). The perc entage of women that mention ec onomic limitations not to study is 14.7, c ompared to 10.0% men. In rural areas, this aspec t was mentioned by 16.2%, while in the urban areas it was mentioned by 8.1% of the group.
Outside of the educ ational system, in some c ases fac ed with ec onomic hardship and with no interest to work, the population that does not work, searc h for work
34 nor study is the one at a higher soc ial risk. Ac c ording to Claramunt47, poverty, family disintegration, domestic violenc e, abuse, and sc hool exc lusion are risk fac tors, espec ially for girls, for c ommerc ial sexual exploitation. Related to sc hool exc lusion, there is also drug addic tion and delinquenc y. And one of the main soc ial roles of the educ ational system is prec isely enc ouraging c hildren to build a projec t of life aimed at personal development that would allow them to enjoy a good quality of life, professional development, and work.
Table 23 Inactive population 5-17 years old by age group, sex, and area, by declared reason not to attend school Reasons not to attend Total 5 - 17 Age group (%) Sex (%) Area (%) school Number % 5 - 9 10 - 14 15 - 17 Men Women Urban Rural (n: 51,001) (n:20,522 ) (n:36,771) (n:45,173) (n: 63,121) (n:46,218) (n:62,076) 47.1* 18.9* 34.0* 41.7* 58.3* 42.7* 57.3* Total 108,294 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Has to work 917 0.8 0.0 1.5 1.6 0.7 1.0 0.7 1.0 Has to help with the house 3,641 3.4 0.0 0.6 9.5 0.2 5.7 2.3 4.1 c hores Cannot pay for his/ her 13,786 12.7 3.1 26.7 18.1 10.0 14.7 8.1 16.2 studies Ac c ess problems to sc hool 8,195 7.6 6.6 15.9 4.2 6.5 8.4 5.8 8.9 Pregnanc y or marriage 3,332 3.1 0.0 1.1 8.5 0.3 5.1 4.2 2.3 Sic kness or disability 5,597 5.2 1.7 11.5 6.7 5.8 4.7 5.4 5.0 Finds studies hard 6,461 6.0 0.7 11.1 10.4 5.8 6.1 6.5 5.6 Not interested in formal 14,875 13.7 0.1 18.7 29.9 14.4 13.3 14.9 12.9 educ ation Does not have the age 41,035 37.9 79.9 0.8 0.4 46.6 31.7 42.3 34.6 Other 8,096 7.5 6.6 10.2 7.2 6.7 8.0 6.8 7.9 Unknown 2,359 2.2 1.3 1.9 3.5 3.1 1.5 3.1 1.5 *Perc enta ges with rega rd to the tota l (108,294) Sourc e: INEC, Multip le Purp ose Household Survey, July 2002.
Based on this perspec tive, it is possible to point out that there is still plenty to do, espec ially in the educ ational sec tor, sinc e attrac ting c hildren who are not attending sc hool to educ ational c entres will depend on an wide-ranging strategy that inc ludes the identific ation of spec ific educ ational needs for this population, material support, work with families, and design of educ ational programmes that are in ac c ord with the expec tations of this population that has indic ated not being interested in the traditional educ ational system.
47 Ma . Cec ilia Cla ra munt. Exp lota c ión sexua l en Costa Ric a : Aná lisis d e la ruta c rític a d e niños, niña s y a d olesc entes ha c ia la p rostituc ión [Sexua l exp loita tion in Costa Ric a : Ana lysis of c hild ren’ s c ritic a l route for c hild ren] UNICEF – Costa Ric a , 1998 / Exp lota c ión Sexua l Comerc ia l d e Persona s Menores d e Ed a d en Costa Ric a [Commerc ia l Sexua l Exp loita tion of Child ren in Costa Ric a ]. ILO –IPEC. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 2002.
35 4. OPTIONS OFFERED TO WORKING CHILDREN BY THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
To c over the adolesc ent population outside the c onventional educ ational system, the Ministry of Public Educ ation (MEP) c arries out several programmes that operate under the ª open educ ationº c onc ept. In this mode, students may c hoose the educ ational options that meet their needs better, dec ide what subjec ts to take and when they want to be evaluated. Sc hedules are flexible, students do not need to wear a uniform, the textbooks used are designed to promote distanc e learning and inc lude alternatives for ac ademic , tec hnic al, produc tive, and soc io- c ultural educ ation. Below is some general information of eac h on these programmes.
4.1 Programmes of open basic general education for cycles I, II, and III48
These educ ational programmes target the population 14 years old and over and are part of MEP' s general adult educ ation sc heme. Upon c onc luding Cyc les I and II of the Programme, the student gets the elementary sc hool diploma, and upon c onc luding Cyc le III, they finish ninth grade and rec eive the General Basic Educ ation diploma.
The methodology of these programmes c onsists of studying from textbooks with spec ific c ontents for eac h c yc le and for eac h of the five basic subjec ts in Cyc les I and II: Spanish, arts, mathematic s, sc ienc es, soc ial studies, and human educ ation. In Cyc le III, human educ ation c hanges to c ivic educ ation and English as a foreign language is added among the c ompulsory subjec ts.
Exams are given twic e a year for eac h of the subjec ts in the three c yc les. If students pass these tests, they are promoted to the following c yc le. Eac h of the subjec ts is evaluated separately.
To prepare for the tests, students may study individually at home or attend the tutorial sessions offered by MEP c alled ª public workshopsº in educ ational c entres throughout the c ountry. These tutorials c omprise three weekly sessions taught after 6:00 p.m. for a period that usually begins in February and ends at the time the students take the tests. Thus, their duration c an vary from six to nine months. Those in c harge of the tutorials are teac hers who take this c hore in addition to their regular jobs49. Before eac h test, the regional direc torates50 set up public workshops
48 Informa tion inc lud ed in the informa tive d oc uments a b out the I, II, a nd III Cyc le Progra mmes of MEP’ s Op en Genera l Ba sic Ed uc a tion. 49 Although a c ting a s a tea c her in the p ub lic workshop s is c onsid ered a n a d d itiona l work loa d b ec a use it surp a sses tea c hers’ work sc hed ule, they rec eive a wa ge inc entive c lose to 30% of their b a se sa la ry. 50 In Costa Ric a there a re twenty Regiona l Ed uc a tion Direc tora tes tha t c oord ina te, sup ervise, a nd sup p ort the op era tion a nd a d ministra tion of the 7,597 sc hools throughout the c ountry. The Regiona l Direc tora te of Sa n José, for insta nc e, a ttend s 784 sc hools. Other Regiona l Direc tora tes a re Desa mp a ra d os (342 sc hools), Purisc a l (229), Pérez Zeled ón (631), Ala juela (502), Sa n Ra món (274), Sa n Ca rlos (564), Up a la (239), Ca rta go (510), Turria lb a (277), Hered ia (499), Lib eria (175), Nic oya (262), Sa nta Cruz (183), Ca ña s (191), Punta rena s
36 in sc hools loc ated in c ommunities where the demand is c onc entrated 51. Those who take the tests under this mode may also pay for tutorial sessions at private institutes.
Cyc les I and II have a student population of 18,715 persons in 2002 and Cyc le III had 12,189 students in the same year.
Under this mode, the student has the advantage of c hoosing the moment to take the tests and with only one exam he/ she c an pass the whole subjec t for a c yc le. However, the method requires a great deal of disc ipline and dedic ation on the part of students in order for them to pass the tests, sinc e they do not go to c lasses and they are responsible for their own learning proc ess. In addition, the mode implies studying to pass the test and this does not guarantee that the knowledge they get is permanent.
4.2 The open classroom programme 52
The Open Classroom Programme was c reated in 2001 to be implemented in c ommunities with a lower soc ial development, as part of the government' s strategy to eradic ate poverty. The main objec tive of this programme is to provide an open and flexible educ ational option to adolesc ents between 13 and 1553, who want to finish elementary sc hool. The target population of the programme inc ludes:
¾People in the educ ational system who are at least three years older than the rest of their c lassmates and who do not show signs of adapting to the formal educ ation system ¾Adolesc ents who have dropped out of Cyc les I and II of Basic General Educ ation ¾Adolesc ents c ompletely exc luded from educ ational servic es, who never entered sc hool for whatever reason ¾Adolesc ents who partic ipate in labour ac tivities, whether formal or informal, and regardless of their rec eiving pay or not ¾Teenage mothers ¾Foreign migrants
(338), Coto (578), Aguirre (159), Limón (517), a nd Guá p iles (343). Ea c h Direc tora te c overs a la rge geogra p hic a rea a nd id entifies the need s of ea c h sc hool in its jurisd ic tion a s well a s p otentia l solutions. 51 Pub lic workshop s a re d efined a nnua lly for the whole c ountry a nd try to ha ve a na tiona l c overa ge. For insta nc e, in 2003, the Litera c y Progra mme ha d 570 p ub lic workshop s, 472 for elementa ry sc hool, 151 for the third c yc le a nd 72 for high sc hool. Informa tion p rovid ed b y Mr. Emilio Uma ña Herná nd ez, Ad visor of the Teena ge a nd Ad ult Ed uc a tion Dep a rtment. 52 Informa tion sup p lied b y Bla nc a Rosa Loa iza Esq uivel, Coord ina tor of the Op en Cla ssroom Progra mme a nd a d visors Irma Na va rro Mora a nd Alb erto Chévez León. 53 Rega rd ing the a ge limit, severa l exc ep tions ha ve b een ma d e if the stud ent is over 15 yea rs old , p rovid ed tha t he/ she is not old er tha n 17.
37 Eac h student is evaluated at the beginning of his/ her inc orporation into the Programme. The main c harac teristic s of this system are the following:
9Sc hedule flexibility that allows students to attend sc hool in the afternoon or evening and define the days that are more c onvenient to them 9Eac h student advanc es at his/ her own learning pac e 9Use of textbooks c alled self-informative guides, with whic h students study independently, evaluate their own progress, and do prac tic al exerc ises 9Tutors' support to expand the information in the textbooks and to respond to students' questions 9The possibility of c ompleting one sc hool year in only one semester 9Use of everyday c lothes rather than sc hool uniforms, but following the same standards used in the formal system, suc h as not allowing any pierc ing, tattoos, short and tight garments.
The teac hers that work in the Programme must have ac ademic training with a minimum degree of ª diplomadoº (similar to an assoc iate degree), and preferably with teac hing experienc e in Cyc les I and II of general basic educ ation and sensitivity toward the student population that has sc hool-failure, lagging, dropout, and learning problems, and lac k of adaptation to the formal educ ational system. Teac hers should also have the skills to handle boundaries and disc ipline in the c lassroom, handle and apply several learning theories, evaluation mec hanisms, individualised teac hing strategies, personal development, and soc ial c o-existenc e, thinking and c reativity development in the educ ational proc ess, physic al, soc ial, and affec tive development in adolesc enc e. Moreover, teac hers should be c apable of planning and organizing their work so that they c an advanc e at different pac es with students, but also in order to apply various tec hniques that c ontribute to strengthening the students' self-esteem and motivation. They should also look for ways to inc orporate parents into the educ ational proc ess.
The c urric ulum inc ludes five basic subjec ts: Spanish, sc ienc es, soc ial studies, c ivic educ ation, and mathematic s, whose assimilation is evaluated by means of several mec hanisms designed by the tutors. They determine when a student c an move on to the next level. Upon c onc luding level III of the Open Classroom, students should take the c ountry' s standardised tests spec ially designed for this Programme in order to get their elementary educ ation diploma.
Regarding the way in whic h students' learning problems are c ared for, the programme only provides adaptations to fac ilitate ac c ess to the semester tests. These c onsist of offering students more time to c omplete the test as well as taking the test alone, without his/ her c lassmates' c ompany.
The Open Classroom Programme intends to add workshops on other subjec ts (suc h as, English, music , religion, physic al educ ation, fine arts, and c omputer use) to provide a more c omprehensive educ ation. These subjec ts would be evaluated qualitatively and their results would not have any bearing on the grades for the basic subjec ts. But, this initiative has not yet been implemented.
38 The Open Classroom Programme was assigned priority by the c urrent administration of Dr. Abel Pac hec o de la Espriella (2002-2006), as it is c onsidered a very useful tool to provide educ ational alternative to a population with sc arc e possibilities to partic ipate in the formal system. It is expec ted that the programme will have reac hed 10,000 students by the end of the four-year administration period. Thanks to this situation, the Programme has been provided with didac tic materials, teac hing positions, and grants from several organizations suc h as the International Labour Organization and Bank of Costa Ric a. These resourc es make it possible to have monthly training sessions for the c ountry' s teac hers.
The c ountry has defined c ommunities to implement the Programme on a priority basis (Appendix 3) and, although c overage has inc reased, the dissemination and attrac tion mec hanisms among the target population are still very limited. The population c overed in 2002 was 4,493 students and 5,041 in the first semester of 2003.
One of the main obstac les that the Open Classroom Programme still has to overc ome is the selec tion of the staff, bec ause the suc c ess of the Programme lies on the c ommitment, c reativity, and persistenc e of the teac hers. When the teac hers are not dedic ated and c annot identify themselves with the target population, the Programme' s objec tives are not ac c omplished.
Another obstac le to overc ome is some sc hool princ ipals' refusal to ac c ept using their sc hool' s fac ilities to implement the programme. They feel that students in this Programme are troublesome and c an influenc e the rest of the student population negatively sinc e they are older, have been exc luded from the system and, in some c ases, are resentful against the formal system. In these c ases, the princ ipals do not ac knowledge the c ommunities' need to have this educ ational option.
A final limitation on the effec tive implementation of the Programme is that only three people are in c harge of guiding and supervising its implementation throughout the c ountry and it is impossible for suc h a small team to c over all the c ountry' s c entres, travel on a regular basis to the different sc hool c entres throughout the c ountry, and evaluate the progress and teac hers' performanc e, as well as the programme' s obstac les and needs.
4.3 New opportunities programme 54
This programme was c reated in 2000 in order to provide an alternative for adolesc ents between 15 and 17 years old to start or finish middle and high sc hool. The c harac teristic s of these students are similar to those in the Open Classroom Programme:
¾People who never entered high sc hool
54 Informa tion p rovid ed b y the a d visors of New Op p ortunities: Merc ed es Rod ríguez Pa ga ni, Miria n Roja s Roja s, a nd Rona ld Va rga s Cha va rría , August 2003.
39 ¾People in the educ ational system that are at least two years older than their c lassmates and that do not show signs of adaptation to the formal educ ation system ¾People who dropped out of sc hool one year ago or more ¾Adolesc ents who have dropped from Cyc le III of Basic General Educ ation or High Sc hool ¾Adolesc ents who have a job, either formally or informally, whether paid or not ¾Teenage mothers ¾Foreign migrants
Under exc eptional c irc umstanc es, the age limit to be ac c epted in this programme is 21 years old. One of the exc eptions is made for young mothers. New Opportunities operates in 20 regions ac ross the c ountry and eac h has a c oordinator for the programme.
Like Open Sc hool, in one semester students have to c over the c ontents of a c onventional sc hool year and in one year they c an c over two high-sc hool years. The six c ompulsory subjec ts for Cyc le III of Open General Educ ation are the same for this programme and the same textbooks are used. Tutors partic ipate in the programme to respond to students' questions and assign homework. Groups are c omposed of 15 to 30 students.
The student population in the New Opportunities Programme has been inc reasing year after year. In 2000 it had 10,414 students; in 2001 there were 10,457; in 2002, 14,377, and in the first semester of 2003, 15,853 students were enrolled in the programme. In most sc hools where the programme is implemented, c lasses take plac e in the night-time or late afternoon. The sc hedule is defined ac c ording to the students' needs.
Regarding c urric ular adaptations for students with learning problems, as in the c ase of the Open Classroom, these deal with giving students more time to take the semester tests and the possibility of taking them alone without distrac tions.
The programme' s teac hers are high-sc hool teac hers who should have the same ac ademic requirements of those who work in formal educ ation, and they take their job in the New Opportunities Programmes in addition to their regular job. These teac hers understand the problems that adolesc ents fac e, are flexible regarding sc hedules and the use of didac tic resourc es to offer the tutorial sessions.
The students in the programme should c omply with the same disc ipline requirements and relationship with teac hers and c lassmates as those in the formal educ ation system. In this sense, the transmission of values and c o-existenc e rules, respec t, and disc ipline are deemed important and are promoted through the subjec t c itizens' educ ation.
When a student drops out of the programme, there are no follow-up mec hanisms to try to attrac t him/ her bac k into the programme. In this sense, the lac k of
40 personnel is one of the main limitations to expanding the programme c overage and ac hieving more effec tiveness by means of more tutorial hours for the students, sinc e vast c ontents need to be c overed in a few weeks.
Another aspec t that needs to be improved is the training of the teac hers who work in the programme, given that the population with whic h they work fac es spec ific situations that require the applic ation of psyc hologic al princ iples and those of other disc iplines in addition to different and innovative teac hing tec hniques to fac ilitate the assimilation of c ontents.
The lac k of resourc es in the programme prevents the national advisors to visit the different regions where the programme is implemented to supervise tutors' work and to get feedbac k from teac hers.
Regarding the c osts of the textbooks and payment for the tests, eac h student must c over these expenses sinc e the programme' s regulations do not c ontemplate providing any ec onomic support or sc holarships.
4.4 Diversified (High-school) Distance Education Programme (EDAD)
This programme is geared to adolesc ents older than 15 years old and adults who did not go to high sc hool (10 and 11 grades) or adult educ ation programme by means of a distanc e learning programme in whic h eac h student prepares himself/ herself to take tests in five subjec ts: Spanish, soc ial studies, mathematic s, English, and sc ienc e (either biology, physic s, or c hemistry).
The students have to have c ompleted Cyc le III of General Basic Educ ation and have the c orresponding diploma to apply for this programme.
The programme allows students to transfer the subjec ts passed from other programmes, either the formal educ ation system or the adult educ ation programme (available for those students over 18 years old).
The methodology of this programme is similar to that used in the Open Basic General Educ ation Programme, with the differenc e that there are no tutors to advic e students. Thus, the suc c ess of the programme depends on his/ her c apac ity to study individually and assimilate the knowledge.
Regarding evaluation, there are two tests to take per subjec t, eac h of whic h is worth 50%. They must pass eac h test with a minimum grade of 70 points to pass the subjec t. For eac h subjec t passed, the student may take the c orresponding standardised test to get the high-sc hool diploma.
41 4.5 Education for work programmes55
The programmes inc luded in this mode offer ac ademic , tec hnic al, produc tive, artistic and c ultural training and are geared toward people over 15 years old (exc eptions are made for students over 13 years old) at different levels from literac y to high-sc hool c ompletion plus training in some tec hnic al or artistic disc ipline.
The methodology of these programmes c onsists of taking learning modules. Evaluation is more like a follow-up proc ess that is partic ipatory and democ ratic , and less like the assignment of a number grade. It should reflec t students' degree of progress, assimilation of knowledge, and skill development.
These programmes are taught in two types of offic ial institutions: the Centres and Institutes of Adult Educ ation (Centros e Institutos de Educ ac ión de Adultos, CINDEA) and the Professional Institutes of Community Educ ation (Institutos Profesionales de Educ ac ión Comunitaria, IPEC). Both are part of the Costa Ric an educ ation system and are c harac terised for offering alternatives for ª permanent educ ationº that respond to the educ ational demands and interests of the adolesc ent and adult population. They also provide opportunities to involve the target population in various educ ational programmes designed and offered in the different Regional Direc torates of Costa Ric a. There are a total of 14 CINDEA and 13 IPEC throughout the c ountry. Their c reation and implementation depends on the demand and express request of the c ommunities that have to show the need in the population to c reate a Centre or Institute and the number of students who will attend.
A c harac teristic of the CINDEA and IPEC is that they do not give standardised tests to their students. Instead, students' progress is measured ac c ording to their assimilation and applic ation of their knowledge. On the one hand, this is an advantage for those students who c annot adapt to the formal educ ation system, but the fac t that the c urric ulum has a c omprehensive approac h (ac ademic , soc io produc tive, and personal development), not just foc used on ac ademic c ontents, makes the educ ational authorities underestimate the usefulness of this permanent and open educ ational model. IPEC and CINDEA students are not c onsidered part of the formal educ ational system, and sinc e they are not subjec t to the c onventional evaluation and learning standards, they are not granted the diplomas that the rest of the population in the formal system rec eives.
Finally, the National Learning Institute, (Instituto Nac ional de Aprendizaje, INA), as part of the educ ational system, offers learning programmes in several tec hnic al spec ialisations. Its entranc e requirement is being at least 15 years old and having approved ninth grade. The c ourses last between one and two years. It also offers c omplementary c ourses and spec ific spec ialised c ourses adapted to the
55 Informa tion inc lud ed in the Pla n d e Estud ios p a ra la Ed uc a c ión d e Jóvenes y Ad ultos [Stud y Pla n for Youngsters a nd Ad ults]. MEP, Dep a rta mento d e Ed uc a c ión p a ra Jóvenes y Ad ultos. Sa n José, Costa Ric a , 2001.
42 c ommunities' demands; these c ourses are shorter. The age requirement is the same (15 years old minimum) but they only require sixth grade. In 2002, 150,585 people were trained in the different c ourses offered by INA throughout the c ountry56.
4.5.1 Literacy programme
This programme is geared toward adolesc ents and adults who lac k the basic reading and writing skills. Students must c omplete a literac y programme that c onsists of 405 hours and 27 c redits57. Upon c ompletion, students rec eive the Citizens' Literac y Certific ate.
4.5.2 First level programme
People who passed the Literac y Programme and have the reading and writing skills and wish to c ontinue studying c an enter the First Level Programme. Here they need to pass 129 c redits (102 c ompulsory and 27 optional) equivalent to 1,935 hours of instruc tion.
The c ontents in this programme are geared toward the students' personal development and soc ial c o-existenc e. Their purpose is to build skills to analyse reality, express themselves orally and in writing and also using the body, and look for appropriate solutions to the everyday problems of the students' personal, family, and soc ial lives through the applic ation of basic knowledge.
In 2002, this level had 1,087 students, but it was not possible to know how many of them were below 18 years of age.
4.5.3 Second level programme
This programme requires 1,770 hours of instruc tion equivalent to 118 c redits (108 c ompulsory and 10 optional).
This level inc ludes aspec ts related to personal development and c ritic al awareness regarding history, politic al thinking, c ommunic ation proc esses, organization and operation of the Costa Ric an State institutions. The programme also promotes the development of logic al thinking skills and other basic learning in mathematic s. This knowledge intends to provide students with attitudes, skills, and knowledge to
56 It wa s not p ossib le to d etermine the numb er of p eop le und er 18 yea rs old who p a rtic ip a ted in tec hnic a l ed uc a tion p rovid ed a t INA. This informa tion wa s p rovid ed b y the Sta tistic s Dep a rtment of MEP a nd Mr. Emilio Uma ña , of the Youngsters a nd Ad ult Ed uc a tion Dep a rtment of MEP. 57 The c red its a re sc ores a ssigned a c c ord ing to the numb er of hours of the c ourses. Ea c h level ha s a minimum sc ore to p a ss. In these p rogra mmes, ea c h c red it is eq uiva lent to 15 hours, 10 hours a re to b e c omp leted in the c la ssroom a nd 5 hours a re to b e d evoted b y the stud ent d oing a ssignments out of c la ss.
43 improve their soc ial and working c onditions by means of an adequate handling of sc ienc e and tec hnology.
Having c onc luded this level, the student may opt for any of the three different options offered in the Third Level.
4.5.4 Third level (high school)
At this level, the student may c hoose between ac ademic , tec hnic al, and artistic educ ation ac c ording to his/ her partic ular interests and abilities.
Those who c hoose ac ademic educ ation get a high sc hool diploma. Those who c hoose tec hnic al or artistic educ ation, get a professional diploma or mid-level tec hnic ian diploma in the spec ialisation they c hose after c ompleting the requirements.
The Conc lusion of High Sc hool diploma they rec eive in the ac ademic option allows students to enter the labour market and c ontinue studying in institutions that do not require the high sc hool diploma. This option requires 1,635 hours of instruc tion equivalents to 109 c redits (89 c ompulsory and 20 optional). This option promotes the selec tion of learning modules ac c ording to the students' interests and needs in order to strengthen their ac ademic formation so they c an have ac c ess to higher educ ation.
The tec hnic al and artistic options aim at forming students so they c an partic ipate in produc tive proc esses based on new tec hnologies. The c ontents of these modules are c omplementary and independent from the modules of the Basic and Diversified General Educ ation. The various possibilities that these options offer allow students to enter the labour market by learning the theoretic al and prac tic al princ iples of a c raft or a tec hnic al or artistic disc ipline. These options require 2,700 hours of training equivalents to 180 c redits and all modules are c ompulsory. Upon c ompleting all requirements, the student rec eives the Conc lusion of Tec hnic al or Artistic Educ ation Certific ate in the spec ialisation c hosen. Then eac h student has to take the National Test for Mid-Level Tec hnic ian and if he/ she passes the standardised bac helor' s test, he/ she also gets the professional diploma in the area of training.
The student population in Cyc les II and III in 2002 was 11,000, but it was not possible to determine how many were less than 18 years old.
4.5.5 Emerging education
This mode offers several short-term educ ational and training alternatives by means of soc io-c ultural workshops, soc io-produc tive workshops, modular c ourses, study c irc les, and free c ourses at the IPEC and CINDEA. This educ ational supply is c harac terised by being dynamic , flexible, and func tional and by giving preferenc e to the soc io-produc tive area, although ac ademic formation and
44 personal development are also c onsidered important in the c urric ulum of this mode.
The modules offered in Emerging Educ ation may be c omplementary to the other educ ational programmes and students may get an attendanc e c ertific ate, a partic ipation c ertific ate, an ac hievement c ertific ate, or a diploma for those programmes and short-c ourses that lead to learning a c raft.
Emerging Educ ation had 6,697 students in 2002, and 995 people were trained in the soc io-labour area.
The professional educ ation programmes and soc ial educ ation programmes had 23,249 students in 2002. However, it was not possible to determine the perc entage of students younger than 18 who partic ipate in these programmes, so it was not possible to determine how effec tive they are in attrac ting adolesc ents.
4.6 An overall assessment of the alternative education options
In general, although the alternative educ ation options offer different c hoic es apart from the formal educ ation system, it may be affirmed that their c overage is limited, both bec ause they do not have enough resourc es to reac h a higher number of people and bec ause their promotion among adolesc ents is limited. In the c ase of the Open Classroom and New Opportunities programmes, neither of them has a promotion strategy to identify and attrac t the target population.
However, the methodology used in these two programmes may bec ome a good alternative for the adolesc ent population that c annot adapt to the c onventional educ ational system and that has less time to study. Nevertheless, only Open Classroom has a follow-up strategy, a mec hanism that may c ontribute to prevent desertion from this programme.
An obstac le in these programmes that has to be overc ome is the fac t that they do not have spec ific funding to grant sc holarships to the poorest students and those in disadvantageous soc io-ec onomic c onditions. Paying for books, written tests, transportation, and materials requires resourc es that many families and students do not have.
Cyc le I, II, and III Programmes of the Open Basic General Educ ation and the Diversified (High sc hool) Distanc e Educ ation Programme, with the self-study mode to take tests, does not seem adequate for adolesc ents who have dropped out of the formal educ ation system bec ause although they may pass the subjec t matter of one c yc le taking only one exam, assimilating suc h large quantity of knowledge through self-study requires c onsistenc y, disc ipline, and c onc entration, c onditions that are diffic ult to get when adolesc ents start working at an early age and when they live in an environment of material deprivation and ec onomic pressures.
Regarding the Educ ation for Work programmes, the number of hours that eac h level requires is inc ompatible with the educ ational requirements of the working
45 adolesc ent population that has less time to study. The free c ourses in soc io- produc tive areas seem a viable tec hnic al educ ation alternative for adolesc ents who need training in some spec ific area that would allow them to enter a c ertain labour sec tor, ac c ording to their c ommunity c ontext and the opportunities it offers.
Regarding the IPEC and CINDEA, the c ontradic tion appears bec ause they offer an alternative educ ation model that is flexible and that responds to youngsters' and adults' expec tations, but that does not rec ognise the differenc es and the importanc e of implementing an evaluation system adapted to this model. This issue has to be resolved for the benefit of the student population that c hooses this educ ational alternative.
Figures show that the formal educ ation system is not suitable for the partic ular c onditions of the working adolesc ent population. Moreover, it is inc apable of preventing sc hool desertion, lag, and the lac k of interest on the part of c hildren and adolesc ents. Furthermore, the educ ational system c annot c oordinate ac tions to prevent sc hool-age c hildren and adolesc ents from looking for labour alternatives to pay for their own educ ation and c ontribute to their household expenses.
46 5. OVERALL CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The analysis of the data obtained from the Multiple Purpose Household Survey of July 2002 allows drawing some general c onc lusions regarding the partic ular c onditions of the working c hild population, espec ially about those aspec ts that are related to their sc hooling situation. The main c onc lusions are the following:
• Labour insertion at an early age takes plac e mainly among boys - 72.6% of working c hildren between 5 and 17 years old are boys. This phenomenon is related not only to families' soc io-ec onomic c onditions, but also to gender issues that enc ourage boys to work and earn money.
• Girls seem to have less ec onomic support to study, as 23.3% of those who work and do not go to sc hool said that the reason for not attending sc hool is not having the resourc es to pay for their studies, c ompared to 11.7% boys. This situation may evidenc e c ultural aspec ts that disc ourage women from studying as it is believed that their role is to be wives and mothers, remain at home and not enter the labour market.
• The poor enforc ement of the national legislation that prohibits c hildren under 15 to work is evidenc ed in the fac t that 43.1% of working c hildren are between 5 and 14 years old.
• The types of ac tivities where most c hildren work may be c lassified as low-skilled. This fac tor may influenc e c hildren and their parents to underestimate the need to remain in sc hool bec ause the work they do does not demand more training or ac ademic preparation.
• Sinc e 68.5% of working c hildren live in rural areas, the risks to repeat grades, lag in sc hool, and be exc luded are higher in the c ountry' s rural c ommunities.
• The formal educ ational system is not c ompatible with the living c onditions, interests, and expec tations of working c hildren. This is evidenc ed by the fac t that 48% of the working rural population and 38.2% of the working urban population do not go to sc hool. Dropout rates in the 15-17 working population reac hes 62.5% and sc hool lag reac hes 70.5% in that same age group.
• Children who drop out or are exc luded from the educ ational system and enter the labour market run the risk of living in poverty, sinc e the lac k of formal instruc tion and training will prevent them from getting skilled jobs and better salaries that would allow them to have a life without ec onomic and material deprivations.
• A total of 67,259 people between 5 and 17 years old who do not work and do not go to sc hool either are at a great soc ial risk sinc e exc lusion from the sc hool system, assoc iated to poverty, family disintegration, domestic violenc e, and abuse is c onsidered a fac tor that may lead to the c ommerc ial sexual exploitation of girls, drug addic tion, and partic ipation in illegal ac tivities.
47
• Although there are numerous open educ ation alternatives, the c overage of these programmes is still limited, bec ause of the few resourc es they have and the limited promotion of the servic es they offer, and bec ause of the evaluation methodologies and mec hanisms used that are still framed within those used in formal educ ation.
Some general recommendations are the following:
¾First, for the national educ ation system to respond to the needs and demands of the different soc ial sec tors of Costa Ric a, the Ministry of Public Educ ation has to design an educ ational plan adequate to the different ec onomic , c ultural, and geographic c ontexts and has to respond to the different educ ational needs of the population. The design of regional educ ational plans that take into ac c ount the soc ial, c ultural, gender, age, and ec onomic differenc es of the c ommunities may bec ome a tool c apable of attrac ting c hildren and adolesc ents to sc hool who, due to labour, ec onomic , or inc ompatibility reasons, are not attending sc hool or run the risk of being exc luded from the educ ational system.
¾Undertake a national diagnostic with the partic ipation of c hildren and adolesc ents, parents, c ommunity organization representatives, staff from non- governmental institutions, representatives from the different produc tive sec tors, and c itizens in general that may c ontribute to identifying both the needs and expec tations from educ ation and the labour and ec onomic possibilities of the c ommunities and regions. This knowledge will be an input in the preparation of educ ational plans and programmes in ac c ord with the learning interests and training of c hildren and adolesc ents and with the labour options of the different soc io-ec onomic and c ultural c ontexts of the c ountry and with employers' requirements.
¾An ac tion that the Ministry of Public Educ ation, in c oordination with other governmental institutions and the c ivil soc iety, should take is the identific ation of c hildren and adolesc ents who are out of the educ ational system, whether for ec onomic or labour reasons, diffic ulties at sc hool or any other reason, and look for educ ational options adequate to the partic ular c onditions of this population. It should also implement programmes that respond to the needs and expec tations of this group exc luded from the formal educ ation system.
¾Ec onomic wants forc e c hildren to work at an early age and puts their ac c ess to educ ation at risk. A far-reac hing assistanc e strategy for families that have c hildren under 18 years old who are working, then, should inc lude ec onomic support through sc holarships and temporary monetary and food assignments for the families as well as the possibilities of training, labour and produc tive opportunities for their adult members so that they c an assume the ec onomic responsibility for the family, rather than depend on c hild labour. The implementation of a plan of this sort may c ontribute to improve the quality of life of the families and their members, and expand c hildren' s opportunities to
48 remain in sc hool. The implementation of this kind of strategy requires a c oordinated ac tion on the part of governmental institutions and a greater state investment in educ ation and soc ial welfare.
¾Investment in educ ation should also be expanded to improve sc hool c onditions, so that they have adequate infrastruc ture and the nec essary servic es to guarantee a healthy environment that fac ilitates the teac hing- learning proc ess. As important is the design and provision of teac hing materials adequate for the different soc ial, c ultural, and ec onomic c ontexts of the c ountry. If the educ ational system intends to reac h the largest possible number of people with a quality supply, it needs resourc es to be able to ac hieve its objec tives and to be adapted to the population' s needs.
¾The educ ational system also requires a polic y of professional development and training of the teac hing staff, sinc e 15% of the teac hers still do not have a university degree and this has an impac t on the quality of the servic e offered. In addition to professional training, a permanent training polic y must be designed in order to allow teac hers to get the knowledge they need to respond with sensitivity and c reativity to the problems, needs, and interests of the student population and the c ommunities where they work. The design of permanent training programmes in several issues, suc h as detec tion and attention of learning problems, c urric ular adaptations, gender perspec tive, c hildren' s and adolesc ents' rights, new teac hing tec hniques, assertive c ommunic ation, and alternative c onflic t resolution, among many others may c ontribute to having teac hers do their work more effec tively and fac ilitate students' assimilation of knowledge and permanenc e in the educ ational system.
¾Children who are forc ed to take a job are more limited to respond to the demands of the formal educ ation system. In this sense, teac hers should also have the flexibility of adapting the teac hing-learning proc ess to the partic ular population and prevent c hildren from dropping out, repeating grades, and lagging in their studies. It is also indispensable to strengthen the open educ ation programmes so that they c an inc rease their c overage and reac h a larger number of people. This is important bec ause despite the variety of options available, they c annot yet attrac t c hildren who are not attending sc hool and who do not have the ec onomic resourc es or family support to do so.
¾One of the ac tions that the Ministry of Public Educ ation has to inc lude as a priority is making teac hers aware of their responsibility in preventing exc lusion and sc hool desertion, bec ause although permanenc e in the educ ational system in the end depends on the parents, teac hers have a key role in detec ting those c ases in whic h c hildren stop c oming to sc hool without a valid reason. Following up eac h student is vital to prevent desertion. Likewise, teac hers should support students who have low ac hievement and learning problems by means of different study tec hniques and any other resourc e that would allow them to overc ome these problems, regardless of their learning
49 pac e. Budgetary limitations and the lac k of staff should not be exc uses for educ ational authorities to remain indifferent when fac ed with the possibility of having a student exc luded from sc hooling. The law is c lear in this sense and assigns MEP the responsibility of guaranteeing c hildren’ s and adolesc ents’ right to educ ation.
¾MEP should also re-think the use of standardised evaluation throughout the c ountry in order to ensure an educ ational system that is democ ratic and respec tful of the c ultural, ec onomic , and geographic differenc es within the population. In addition, it should c onsider whether over-evaluation is useful for students’ formation, sinc e those attending the formal educ ation system should take tests eac h month, eac h quarter, and also to go from primary to sec ondary sc hool and from ninth grade to high sc hool. Onc e they finish high sc hool, they have to take and pass the national standardised tests in order to graduate from a level that they already passed. Not passing the national tests is an obstac le for any student who wants to c ontinue in the educ ational system. There lies the importanc e of improving the evaluation mec hanisms so they do not harm the students, espec ially those with more diffic ulties and limitations to remain in sc hool, suc h as working c hildren.
¾Finally, the joint effort of several governmental entities—the Ministry of Public Educ ation, the National Child Welfare Institute, the National Learning Institute, the Mixed Soc ial Welfare Institute, the Ministry of Labour and Soc ial Sec urity, and the Ministry of Financ e—is indispensable to guarantee the provision of the nec essary resourc es to substantially improve the educ ational system, guarantee respec t to the laws dealing with c hild labour and ac c ess to quality educ ation, both ac ademic and tec hnic al or artistic , free and c ompulsory, for c hildren. This c ollaboration is also essential to c reate the c ondition for Costa Ric an c hildren to benefit from a national strategy that fac ilitates ac c ess to educ ational opportunities suitable to their partic ular c onditions and needs, and to the c ountry’ s development.
50 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES
Documents
Asamblea Legislativa de Costa Ric a. Código de la Niñez y la Adolesc enc ia (Ley No. 7739). Asamblea Legislativa. San José, Costa Ric a, 1998
Bortagaray, Isabel, art. “ Patrones tec nológic os en los países pequeños de Améric a Latina. Aprendiendo del c aso de Costa Ric a”. En: Revista Espac ios Digital, Carac as, Venezuela, vol. 22 (3) 2.001, http:/ / www.revistaespac ios.c om/ a01v22n03/ 01220353.html
Castro, Carlos, ponenc ia “ Disparidades soc iales y espac iales en el ac c eso al sistema educ ativo”. Oc tavo Informe Estado de la Nac ión. Proyec to Estado de la Nac ión. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
Central Bank of Costa Ric a. Cuentas Nac ionales de Costa Ric a 1991-2001. BCCR, División Ec onómic a, Departamento de Contabilidad Soc ial. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002 (http:/ / www.bc c r.fi.c r/ flat/ bc c r_flat.htm).
Claramunt, Ma. Cec ilia. Explotac ión sexual en Costa Ric a: Análisis de la ruta c rític a de niños, niñas y adolesc entes hac ia la prostituc ión. UNICEF – Costa Ric a, 1998
Claramunt, Ma. Cec ilia. Explotac ión Sexual Comerc ial de Personas Menores de Edad en Costa Ric a. OIT –IPEC. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002
Dengo Obregón, María Eugenia. Educ ac ión c ostarric ense. Universidad Estatal a Distanc ia (EUNED). San José, Costa Ric a, 8ava reimpresión, 2003.
Doc torado en Educ ac ión, Universidad de Costa Ric a (DE-UCR 2001). La educ ac ión c ostarric ense: una propuesta de agenda para un debate nac ional. San José, Costa Ric a: Programa Latinoameric ano de Doc torado en Educ ac ión, Universidad de Costa Ric a, 26 de noviembre de 2001. Gutiérrez, Claudio, http:/ / c laudiogutierrez.c om/ educ ac ion_digital.html Hess, Hermann. Carac terístic as del financ iamiento de los c ostos de la educ ac ión en Costa Ric a. PNUD. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
International Labour Offic e / IPEC. El trabajo infantil y adolesc ente doméstic o en Costa Ric a. OIT – IPEC. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
Meléndez, Lady, artíc ulo “ El modelo educ ativo c ostarric ense de c ara a la exc lusión esc olar”. En Revista Elec trónic a Interc ambio. Universidad Interameric ana de Costa Ric a. http:/ / www.revistainterc ambio.c om/ agosto_2003/ portada/ por_009_c alidad.htm
Ministerio de Educ ac ión Públic a (MEP). Sistema Educ ativo Nac ional de Costa Ric a. San José: Ministerio de Educ ac ión Públic a, Organizac ión de Estados
51 Iberoameric anos para la Educ ac ión, la Cienc ia y la Cultura (OEI), http:/ / www.c ampus-oei.org/ quipu/ c ostaric a/
MEP. Plan de Estudios para la Educ ac ión de Jóvenes y Adultos. MEP, Departamento de Educ ac ión para Jóvenes y Adultos. San José, Costa Ric a, 2001.
MEP. Expansión del Sistema Educ ativo Costarric ense 2002. MEP, División de Planeamiento y Desarrollo Educ ativo, Departamento de Estadístic a. Public ac ión 228-02. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
MEP. Informe general: polític a educ ativa hac ia el siglo XXI. MEP, División de Planeamiento y Desarrollo Educ ativo. San José, Costa Ric a, 2001.
Ministerio de Salud. Análisis Sec torial de Salud – Costa Ric a 2002. Ministerio de Salud - OPS/ OMS Cooperac ión Téc nic a. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002, 3 vols., versión digital en http:/ / www.netsalud.sa.c r/
National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC). Enc uesta de Hogares de Propósitos Múltiples Julio 2001 y Julio 2000 (princ ipales resultados). INEC. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses. Enc uesta de Hogares de Propósitos Múltiples Julio 2001 (princ ipales resultados). INEC. San José, Costa Ric a: INEC, 2002.
National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses. – CCP. Costa Ric a. Estimac iones y proyec c iones de poblac ión 1970-2100 ac tualizadas al año 2000 y Evaluac ión del Censo 2000 y otras fuentes de informac ión. Informe metodológic o. National Institute of Statistic s and Censuses (INEC) – Central Americ an Population Centre (CCP) Universidad de Costa Ric a. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
PROCESOS. ¿Hac ia dónde vamos? Ec onomía y desigualdad en Costa Ric a 1997- 2002. Asoc iac ión Programa Centroameric ano para la Sostenibilidad Democ rátic a (PROCESOS). San José, Costa Ric a, s.f.
Proyec to Estado de la Nac ión. Sexto Informe Estado de la Nac ión en Desarrollo Humano Sostenible. San José, Costa Ric a: Proyec to Estado de la Nac ión, 2000.
Proyec to Estado de la Nac ión. Oc tavo Informe Estado de la Nac ión en Desarrollo Humano Sostenible. San José, Costa Ric a: Proyec to Estado de la Nac ión, 2002.
Sauma, Pablo, “ Pobreza, distribuc ión del ingreso, merc ado de trabajo e inversión soc ial”. Ponenc ia al Oc tavo Informe Estado de la Nac ión. San José, Costa Ric a: junio 2002.
Trejos, Juan Diego, ponenc ia “ La equidad de la inversión soc ial en el 2000”. Oc tavo Informe Estado de la Nac ión. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
52 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Informe de Desarrollo Humano 2003. http:/ / www.undp.org/ hdr2003/ espanol/ pdf/ presskit/ HDR03_PKS_HDI.pdf
UNICEF – UCR. Estado de los Derec hos de la Niñez y la Adolesc enc ia en Costa Ric a. Fondo de las Nac iones Unidas para la Infanc ia – Universidad de Costa Ric a. San José, Costa Ric a, 2000.
UNICEF – UCR. II Estado de los Derec hos de la Niñez y la Adolesc enc ia en Costa Ric a. Fondo de las Nac iones Unidas para la Infanc ia – Universidad de Costa Ric a. San José, Costa Ric a, 2001.
UNICEF – UCR. III Estado de los Derec hos de la Niñez y la Adolesc enc ia en Costa Ric a. Fondo de las Nac iones Unidas para la Infanc ia – Universidad de Costa Ric a. San José, Costa Ric a, 2002.
Villalobos, Luis R., “ La c alidad de la educ ac ión: Direc tric es para su evaluac ión”, en Revista Elec trónic a Interc ambio. Universidad Interameric ana de Costa Ric a. http:/ / www.revistainterc ambio.c om/ agosto_2003/ portada/ por_005_c alidad.htm
Online statistical information
Banc o Central de Costa Ric a (BCCR). Cifras de Cuentas Nac ionales 1991 – 2001. http:/ / www.bc c r.fi.c r/ flat/ bc c r_flat.htm
Banc o Central de Costa Ric a (BCCR). Sistema de Indic adores Ec onómic os. http:/ / websiec .bc c r.fi.c r/ indic adores/ indic e.web
Caja Costarric ense de Seguro Soc ial (CCSS). Indic adores de Seguridad Soc ial 1996 – 2001. CCSS: Direc c ión Ac tuarial y de Planific ac ión Ec onómic a, http:/ / www.info.c c ss.sa.c r/ ac tuarial/ indiindi.html Centro Centroameric ano de Poblac ión (CCP). Cuadros selec c ionados de las “ Estimac iones y proyec c iones de poblac ión 1970-2100 ac tualizadas al 2000” http:/ / c c p.uc r.ac .c r/ observa/ CRnac ional/ c uadros.htm Informe Estado de la Nac ión No. 8, c ompendio estadístic o http:/ / www.estadonac ion.or.c r/ Compendio/ c ompendio.html
Instituto Nac ional de Estadístic a y Censos (INEC). Series estadístic as Enc uesta de Hogares 1976-2000. http:/ / www.inec .go.c r/ series%20estadistic as.htm
Ministerio de Planific ac ión Nac ional y Polític a Ec onómic a (MIDEPLAN). Sistema de Indic adores sobre Desarrollo Sostenible (SIDES). http:/ / www.mideplan.go.c r/ sides/ index.html
53
54 APPENDIX 1
Definitions used for the economically-active population by INEC
EMPLOYED: those people in the labour forc e who worked for at least one hour in the week of referenc e or that, not having worked, have a job from whic h they were absent due to c irc umstantial reasons suc h as sic kness, lic ense, vac ations, strike, sc holarship, etc .
UNEMPLOYED: people in the labour forc e who were not working in the week of referenc e, that were available to start working immediately, and who did not find a job although they took c onc rete steps in the last five weeks to get a paid or an independent job. Unemployed people are c lassified into two c ategories: laid off and first-job seekers.
ECONOMICALLY-ACTIVE POPULATION: it is the group of peopleÐ 5 or olderÐ who worked or were unemployed in the week of referenc e and c omprise the labour forc e.
ECONOMICALLY-INACTIVE POPULATION: it is the group of peopleÐ 5 or olderÐ who did not work in the week of referenc e and did not look for a job in the last five weeks. This group inc ludes: retirees, rentiers, students, homemakers, people with disabilities that do not allow them to work, and others. In other words, people who are not part of the labour forc e.
(Sourc e: INEC Multiple Purpose Household Surveys 2001 and 2002, Main results (2002-a and 2002-b) c hapter I ª Methodologic al aspec tsº. http:/ / www.inec.go.cr/ Hogares02.pdf and http:/ / www.inec.go.cr/ PubEH001.pdf)
Definitions of poverty used by INEC
To determine poverty, INEC has adopted the Poverty Line Method or Inc ome Method. It c onsists on c alc ulating the Poverty Line whic h represents the minimum per c apita amount needed for a household to meet its members' basic needs (food and non-food), and c ompare it with the per c apita inc ome of eac h household. The applic ation of the method requires the following information: a. the c ost of the per c apita basic shopping basket (CBA); b. an estimate of the c ost of non-food basic needs that is c omputed as the inverse of the food expenses, ac c ording to the information in the last Inc ome and Expense Survey; c . the per c apita inc ome in the household c alc ulated by the Household Survey on the basis of the households that dec lared their inc ome, whic h this time represented 83,0% of the total households in the c ountry.
The value of the Poverty Line c orresponds to the value of the CBA multiplied by the inverse of the food expenses. The proc edure is applied in the same way for the urban and rural areas.
55 Ac c ording to this, the applic ation of the Poverty Line Method allows c lassifying households as non-poor households, households that do not meet their basic needs, and households in extreme poverty.
Non-poor Households are those that have a per c apita inc ome that allows them to c over their basic food and non-food needs. That is, their per c apita inc ome is equal to or higher than the Poverty Line.
Households that do not meet their basic needs have a per c apita inc ome lower than the Poverty Line, but equal to or higher than the CBA per c apita c ost. The per c apita level of the Poverty Line for 2002 was ¢28,895 for urban areas and ¢22,714 for rural areas in the c ountry.
Households in extreme poverty are those whose per c apita inc ome is lower than the per c apita c ost of the CBA. The per c apita c ost of the CBA in 2002 was ¢13,255 for urban areas and ¢11,530 for rural areas in the c ountry.
(Sourc e: INEC Multiple Purpose Household Survey 2002. Main results (2002-b), c hapter I ª Methodologic al aspec tsº, pages 16-17 http:/ / www.inec .go.c r/ Hogares02.pdf)
56 APPENDIX 2
PRESIDENCY OF THE REPUBLIC GENERAL DIRECTORATE OF CIVIL SERVICE (DIRECCIÓN GENERAL DEL SERVICIO CIVIL)
RESOLUTION DG-268-2003
GENERAL DIRECTORATE OF CIVIL SERVICE (DIRECCIÓN GENERAL DEL SERVICIO CIVIL) --Sa n José, a t the thirteen hours of the fourteenth of Ma y two thousa nd three.
WHEREAS:
1. Artic le 13, item a ), of the Civil Servic e Sta tute gra nts p owers to this Genera l Direc tora te to c la ssify a nd a ssess job p osts.
2. By mea ns of a greements sub sc rib ed on Oc tob er 29 a nd 30 of 1996 a nd Dec emb er 12 of 1997 b etween the Ministry of Pub lic Ed uc a tion a nd the tea c hers’ rep resenta tives, it wa s a greed to set a n a d d itiona l p a yment for tea c hing a nd a d ministra tive-tea c hing p ositions for working in ed uc a tiona l c entres loc a ted in the a rea s with the lowest soc io- ec onomic d evelop ment; a nd tha t to this end a b ip a rtite c ommission wa s c rea ted with rep resenta tives from the Ministry of Pub lic Ed uc a tion, the Civil Servic e Genera l Direc tora te, a nd the Na tiona l Tea c hers’ Assoc ia tion.
3. By mea ns of the a greement sub sc rib ed on June 25, 2001, the Minister of Pub lic Ed uc a tion c ommitted to extend ing this inc entive to Sc hool Counsellors, Assista nt Counsellors, a nd Lib ra ria ns.
4. The a forementioned a greement a lso inc lud es the p a yment of this inc entive a s of 2002 to other tea c hers who ha ve a d egree sp ec ific a lly in ed uc a tion, inc lud ing those tha t hold the following p rofessiona l c a tegories: MT-3, VT-4, PT-3, PT-4, KT-1, ET-2, a nd ET-1.
5. As a result of these a greements a nd the rec ommend a tions issued b y the b ip a rtite c ommission, Resolutions DG-152-97, DG-086-2000, a nd DG-178-2001 were issued whic h rec ognise this p a yment for a rea s with the lowest soc io-ec onomic d evelop ment.
6. Ac c ord ing to the p rovisions in the resolutions mentioned a b ove, the inc entive in the Low Level a nd Very Low Level d istric ts wa s a c knowled ged , a s p er c la ssific a tion b a sed on the Distric t Soc ia l Develop ment Ind ex (IDSD), b y rela tive d evelop ment a rea s, d etermined a t p resent a c c ord ing to Exec utive Dec ree Nº29923-PLAN-COMEX of Sep temb er 17, 2001.
7. By mea ns of offic ia l letter DVM-A-3879-2003 d a ted Ap ril 25, 2003, sub sc rib ed b y the Ad ministra tive Vic e-Minister of the Ministry of Pub lic Ed uc a tion, Lic . Ca rlos Enriq ue Ca mp os Rob lero, the d oc ument entitled “ Commission Rep ort on the Lea st Develop ed Area s” is end orsed a nd sent to this Offic e, a c tion tha t rec ommend s the inc lusion of some Mid d le Level d istric ts a s b enefic ia ries of this inc entive a s p er Exec utive Dec ree Nº29923-PLAN-COMEX.
57 8. In a d d ition to the a forementioned resolutions, a ttend ing to the d ema nd s of the a d ministra tive d yna mic s inherent to the p a yment referred to a b ove, a s well a s the req uirements of the Ministry, Resolutions DG-118-2002 a nd DG-124-2002 were a lso issued ; this ma kes it nec essa ry to integra te in a single regula tory b od y wha t c orresp ond to the p a yment mentioned a b ove.
Therefore;
THE GENERAL DIRECTOR OF THE CIVIL SERVICE
In his c a p a c ity a s c onferred b y Artic le 13 of the Civil Servic e Sta tute a nd the Pub lic Ad ministra tion Sa la ry Ac t, a nd in a greement with the p etition tha t to this end wa s p resented b y the a uthorities of the Ministry of Pub lic Ed uc a tion.
RESOLVES:
Article 1º-. An a d d itiona l p a yment, d ivid ed into twelfths, a s d eta iled in a rtic le three of this Resolution, sha ll b e gra nted to tea c hers in Cyc le III a nd Diversified (High Sc hool) Ed uc a tion, Cyc les I a nd II of the Ba sic Genera l Ed uc a tion, Pre-sc hool Ed uc a tion, a nd Sp ec ia l Ed uc a tion a c c ord ing to their a c a d emic sta tus, the p osition they ha ve, a nd their geogra p hic loc a tion, p rovid ed tha t they c omp ly with wha t is sp ec ified b elow:
a) They hold a a.i.) Tea c hing only p osition, or a.ii.) Tea c hing-a d ministra tive p osition, or a.iii) Position in the Tec hnic a l Tea c hing Stra ta a s Lib ra ria n in a n Ed uc a tion Centre 1 or 2; Counsellor 1, 2, or 3; or Assista nt Counsellor.
b) They ha ve the minimum a c a d emic d egree of c ollege b a c c a la urea te in the sp ec ia lty of sa id p osition or a tea c hing d egree tha t c orresp ond s to one of the following p rofessiona l group s: MT-3, VT-4, PT-3, PT-4, KT-1, ET-2, or ET-1.
c) They work in ed uc a tiona l c entres of Cyc le III or Diversified (High sc hool), Cyc les I a nd II of the Ba sic Genera l Ed uc a tion, Pre-sc hool Ed uc a tion, or Sp ec ia l Ed uc a tion, loc a ted in the a rea s (d istric ts) of lowest rela tive d evelop ment, Low a nd Very Low levels, a c c ord ing to the p rovisions in Dec ree 29923-PLAN-COMEX of Sep temb er 17, 2001, p ub lished in the offic ia l p a p er La Ga c eta Në 210 of Novemb er 1, 2001.
Article 2º-. Ba sed on the rec ommend a tions of the c ommission c rea ted for this p urp ose, a nd on the p a rtic ula r c ond itions of some d istric ts, the a d d itiona l p a yment will b e a c knowled ged for tea c hers working in the Mid d le Level d istric ts inc lud ed in the d ec ree und er the sa me c ond itions a s those in the Low Level. These d istric ts a re d eta iled b elow:
SAN JOSE Fra iles Sa n Cristob a l Norte Genera l Ta b a rc ia Sa n Pa b lo d e Turrub a res Sa nta Ma ria d e Dota Sa n Pa b lo d e Leon Cortes
58
ALAJUELA Desmonte Venec ia Toro Ama rillo
CARTAGO Sa nta Cruz Queb ra d illa Corra lillo Tuc urriq ue
GUANACASTE Temp a te La Ma nsion Queb ra d a Hond a Hoja nc ha Diria d e Sa nta Cruz Fila d elfia Ca rmona d e Na nd a yure Sa rd ina l d e Ca rrillo
PUNTARENAS Ja c o Sa n Ra fa el Ba rra nc a Cha c a rita Quep os d e Aguirre Golfito
LIMON Limon Gua c imo Poc ora
This is a p p lic a b le p rovid ed tha t there is c omp lia nc e with the p rovisions in items a ) a nd ) of Artic le 1ë of this Resolution.
Article 3º-. The p a yment will b e ma d e und er the following c ond itions: a) The emp loyees b enefited must ha ve one of the following p rofessiona l group s: MT-6, MT- 5, MT-4, ET-4, ET-3, KT-3, KT-2, PT-6, PT-5, VT-6, or VT-5. b) For workers who ha ve the p rofessiona l group s mentioned a b ove, the p a yment will b e c omp rised of two p a rts, a s d eta iled b elow:
First: For working in a n a rea of low d evelop ment, Low Level or Very Low Level, a s follows:
- If they work in a d istric t c la ssified a s a Very Low Level a rea , fifty p erc ent (50%) a yea r of the tota l sa la ry.
59 - If they work in a d istric t c la ssified a s Low Level, forty p erc ent (40%) a yea r of the tota l sa la ry.
Second: Ac c ord ing to the p rofessiona l group of the emp loyee, na mely MT-6, MT-5, MT- 4, ET-4, ET-3, KT-3, KT-2, PT-6, PT-5, VT-6, or VT-5, a s follows:
- MT-6, fifty p erc ent (50%) a yea r of the tota l sa la ry.
- MT-5, ET-4, KT-3, PT-6 o VT-6, forty p erc ent (40%) a yea r of the tota l sa la ry.
- MT-4, ET-3. KT-2, PT-5 o VT-5, thirty p erc ent (30%) a yea r of the tota l sa la ry.
Thus, the following ta b le will b e a p p lied :
Table to determine the additional payment for working in an area of low development and according to the professional group, in percentage of the total salary MT-5, ET-4, KT-3, PT-6, IDSD Level MT-6 MT-4, ET-3, KT-2 PT-5, VT-5 VT-6
Per year Per month Per year Per month Per year Per month Low 90% 7.50% 80% 6.666% 70% 5.833% Very Low 100% 8.33% 90% 7.50% 80% 6.666%
c) For workers with a tea c hing d egree, whic h c orresp ond s to p rofessiona l group s MT-3, VT- 4, PT-4. KT-1, or ET-2, the p a yment will b e c omp uted a s follows:
- If they work in a d istric t c la ssified a s a Very Low Level a rea , fifty p erc ent (50%) a yea r of the tota l sa la ry.
- If they work in a d istric t c la ssified a s Low Level, forty p erc ent (40%) a yea r of the tota l.
The following ta b le will b e a p p lied :
PT-4, VT-4, MT-3, ET-2, KT-1 IDSD Level58 Per year Per month Low 40% 3.333% Very Low 50% 4.166%
d) For workers with a sp ec ific tea c hing d egree c orresp ond ing to p rofessiona l group s PT-3 or ET-1, p a yment will b e ma d e a s follows:
- If they work in a d istric t c la ssified a s a Very Low Level a rea , forty p erc ent (40%) a yea r of the tota l sa la ry.
- If they work in a d istric t c la ssified a s Low Level, thirty p erc ent (30%) a yea r of the tota l.
The following ta b le will b e used :
58 IDSD: Distric t Soc ia l Develop ment Ind ex
60
PT-3, ET-1 IDSD Per year Per month Low 30% 2,5% Very Low 40% 3,333%
Article 4º-. The d efinition of the a rea s a c c ord ing to Exec utive Dec ree 29923-PLAN-COMEX ma y va ry if a nother d ec ree tha t mod ifies it is issued , or if, a s a result of the c rea tion of a c ommission a c c ord ing to the a greements sub sc rib ed , it is d eemed c onvenient to a d d other d istric ts b a sed on other a d d itiona l c riteria to those inc lud ed in Exec utive Dec ree 29923-PLAN-COMEX of Sep temb er 17, 2001. This would b e d one to b etter c omp ly with the p urp ose of this inc entive.
Article 5º-. This a d d itiona l p a yment is temp ora ry a nd will b e a p p lied while the worker is entitled to it, rema ins in the sa me a rea or d istric t. His/ her temp ora ry or p erma nent tra nsfer to a nother a rea or d istric t will mea n a c ha nge in the p a yment a s req uired or the tota l elimina tion of the p a yment if his/ her new p osition is not a mong those inc lud ed in item c ) of a rtic le one or a rtic le sec ond of this Resolution.
Article 6º-. For a ll lega l p urp oses, the a d d itiona l p a yment regula ted b y these regula tions will not b e c onsid ered sa la ry, so it will not b e sub jec t to the soc ia l c ontrib ution nor will it b e c onsid ered to c omp ute overp a yments.
Article 7º-. Without d etriment to the p owers of this Genera l Direc tora te, c omp lia nc e with the genera l p rovisions of this Resolution will b e the resp onsib ility of the a uthorities of the Ministry of Pub lic Ed uc a tion.
Article 8º-. The following Resolutions a re hereb y rep ea led : DG-152-97 Dec emb er 8, 1997, DG-086-2000 of August 28, 2000, DG-178-2001 of Novemb er 29, 2001, DG-118-2002 of June 18, 2002, a nd DG-124-2002 of June 25, 2002.
Article 9º-. The p rovisions in this Resolution a re in effec t a s of the month of Feb rua ry of 2003 a nd a re sub jec t to b ud get a va ila b ility.
Let it b e p ub lished .
Guillermo Lee Ching GENERAL DIRECTOR
SRH/ GLCh
61 APPENDIX 3
Priority c ommunities to imp lement the Op en Ed uc a tion, Op en Cla ssroom, a nd New Op p ortunities p rogra mmes b y c a nton a nd d istric t.
CANTON DISTRICT COMMUNITY
Ta la ma nc a Bra tsi Distrito Comp leto Ma tina Ma tina Ma tina Centro Siq uirres Siq uirres Asenta miento Imp erio Asenta miento Ma ryla nd Guá c imo Río Jiménez La Luc ha Los Ángeles Poc oc í Colora d o Ba rra d el Colora d o Tortuguero Up a la Dos Ríos Ba sílic a Sa n Luis Yolilla l Sa n Ga b riel Los Tijos Los Chiles Ca ño Negro Vera c ruz La s Ma ría s Los Chiles (c entro) Coq uita les Cua tro Esq uina s Sa n Ca rlos Poc osol El Plomo Tres y Tres Cutris Sa n Ped ro Boc a d e Sa n Ca rlos (Boc a d e Arena l) Gua tuso Buena Vista Mónic a Costa Ana Sa n Ra fa el Pa lenq ues Ind ígena s (Tongib e, Ma rga rita y El Sol) Ca ña s Pa lmira Nueva Gua tema la Pa lmira Centro Porosa l Centro Sa nta Luc ía Ba ga c es Centra l Lla nos d e Cortés Pla yita s d e Sa n Ra món Río Na ra njo Río Chiq uito Na ra njito Nic oya Nosa ra Centro La Esp era nza Sá ma ra China mp a s El Torito Ab a nga res Colora d o Higuerilla Sa n Joa q uín Ra iza l Sa n Jua n Gra nd e Sa n Jua n, Tod o el d istrito La Cruz Sa nta Cec ilia Ca ob a La Virgen La Ga rita La Ga rita Centro Los And es Na nd a yure Bejuc o Mora via
62 CANTON DISTRICT COMMUNITY
Queb ra d a Na nd o Porvenir Los Ángeles Queb ra d a Gra nd e Hoja nc ha Puerto Ca rrillo Beta nia Sa n Miguel Monterromo Sa n Isid ro Cuesta Roja Buenos Aires Pila s Conc ep c ión Pa b lo Nuevo Cha nguena Cha nguena Centro Pa ra íso Osa Sierp e Sierp e Centro Ba hía Dra ke Ba hía Ba llena Va lla Centro Pla ya Hermosa Golfito Puerto Jiménez Puerto Jiménez Centro La Pa lma Pa vón Conte Za nc ud o Coto Brus Limonc ito Sa b a nilla La s Vega s Coto Brus Pittier Agua s Ca lientes Sa nta ma ría Corred ores Ca noa s Sa n Jorge El Triunfo La urel Na ra njo La Nuvia Aguirre Sa a vegre Centro Porta lón Na ra njito Centro Villa Nueva Pa rrita Pa rrita Sitra d iq ue Pirrís (IDA settlement) Punta rena s Ba rra nc a Jua nito Mora El Progreso Chomes Oroc ú (IDA settlement) Colima s d e Sa rmiento Sa n José Hosp ita l El Poc hote Cristo Rey Uruc a León XII La Ca rp io Ala juelita Sa n Antonio The whole d istric t (d isp ersed ) Ac osta Ca ngreja l Disp erse p op ula tions Sa b a nilla Disp erse p op ula tions León Cortés Lla no Bonito Disp erse p op ula tions Sa nta Cruz Disp erse p op ula tions Turrub a res Sa n Jua n d e Ma ta Sa n Ga b riel Sa n Luis Queb ra d a Azul Sa n Luis Goic oec hea Ra nc ho Red ond o Tod o el Distrito
63 CANTON DISTRICT COMMUNITY
Purra l Los Cua d ros Desa mp a ra d os Fra iles Pa rtic ula r a rea s with d isp erse p op ula tion Rosa rio Pa rtic ula r a rea s with d isp erse p op ula tion Ca rta go Lla no Gra nd e Lla no Gra nd e c entro Ca rta go Ba rrio los Ángeles Queb ra d illa Asenta miento La Flor (IDA) Coris Turria lb a La Suiza Cruza d a d e Afirro La s Colonia s Ta yutic Quetza l Gra no d e Oro Sa ra p iq uí La Cureña Los Ángeles Golfito Lla nura s d e Ga sp a r La Ald ea Sa n Antonio Ala juela Sa b a nilla El Cerro Sa n Luis Sa n Ra fa el El Futuro Sa c ra mento Sa n Ra món Pied a d es Sur Gua ria -Sa rd ina l Sa n Miguel Za p ote Sa n Antonio d e Za p ota l Ca rrera Buena
64