Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONLEARNING OBJECTIVES NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION After reading this chapter and completing the learning activities, you should be able to: •• Define communication •• Define speech ••© DefineJones language & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION •• Explain the relationships among communication, speech, and language •• List and explain the five components of language •• Differentiate the terms speech, speech sounds, phonemes, allophones, articulation, and phonology © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC •• Define disorders of language, articulation, and phonology NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

INTRODUCTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Communication LLC is one important way humans© Jones connect & Bartlett with each Learning, other. Communication LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONis the process through which we share information.NOT FOR This SALE sharing OR occurs DISTRIBUTION both in the sending and receiving of messages. The information shared may be related to thoughts, ideas, needs, desires, feelings, perceptions, or knowledge. The means by which we convey these messages may be spoken or unspoken, or written or unwritten. Some examples in which communication occurs are by means of verbal exchange, phone calls, email, skype, text, or social media. Verbal© communication Jones & Bartlett occurs when Learning, thoughts LLCor ideas are shared through words.© Jones Nonverbal & Bartlett Learning, LLC communicationNOT FOR occurs SALE when OR a person DISTRIBUTION smiles, frowns, wrinkles their nose, raisesNOT their FOR eye SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION brows, waves, laughs, crosses their arms in front of them, or gives a “thumbs up.” Manual communication such as American Sign Language (ASL) is another example of nonverbal communication that can also be characterized as a gestural-based linguistic system. ASL is © Jones &linguistic Bartlett as it Learning, is governed byLLC rules for the sequence and use© Jonesof the basic & Bartlettunits of meaning, Learning, LLC signs. Communication, therefore, occurs in many forms including gestures, speech, and the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION most formal form being language.

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.© NOTJones FOR SALE& Bartlett OR DISTRIBUTION Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

10 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC An important dimension of communication includes two key terms: speech and language. Spoken NOTwords, FORor verbal SALE communication, OR DISTRIBUTION is the most frequently utilized modeNOT of commu FOR- SALE OR DISTRIBUTION nication. Speech is the term used to reference the verbal, oral, or spoken means of communication or expression (Hulit, Fahey, & Howard, 2015). Speech also involves the motor movements required to produce speech sounds for communication. The term language is © Jonesused & to Bartlett refer to the Learning, complex, rule-based LLC system of conventional© symbolsJones that & Bartlettare universally Learning, LLC NOT FORaccepted. SALE Language OR DISTRIBUTION is a dynamic system that is used in variousNOT modes FOR of SALEcommunication OR DISTRIBUTION for the expression of and sharing of information or messages. Language, as a rule-governed system, can be further described in terms of five basic components: phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. The complex and dynamic nature of a rule-based, symbolic-language system must be learned for effective communication. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Communication is a means of human connection. © pio3/ShutterStock,© Jones Inc. & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE This section presents each component of language separately. Each of the five components © Jonesof &language Bartlett will beLearning, defined and LLC described. However, in any language© Jones system, & theBartlett five compo Learning,- LLC NOT FORnents SALE are interdependent OR DISTRIBUTION to support language content, form, NOTand use, FOR or function, SALE for OR effec DISTRIBUTION- tive communication. See FIGURE 2.1 for a schematic of the components of communication.

Components of Language 11

Phonology

USE

Pragmatics ©Communication Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Articulation

Speech Fluency © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Voice

FIGURE 2.1 Schematic of the Components of Communication. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONPhonology is the study of the sound systemNOT of FOR a language, SALE including OR DISTRIBUTION the rules for combining sounds into words. In phonology, the basic unit is phonemes, or speech sounds. Central to phonology is the concept that the speech sounds of a language occur in specific sequence to convey meaning. Phonology is also the study of the rule system that governs the systematic arrangement of sounds and how they are organized. Phonetics is the study of how speech© sounds Jones are &produced, Bartlett how Learning, they are formed, LLC and the acoustic properties© of Jones each sound & Bartlett Learning, LLC (ShribergNOT & FORKent, 2013).SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Phonemes are broadly classified as vowels and consonants. The American Eng- lish language is comprised of 45 phonemes, 14 American English vowels, 24 American English consonants, and 10 American English diphthongs, including the rhotic diphthongs. © Jones &See Bartlett TABLE 2. 1Learning, for the phonemic LLC inventory of American English.© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEPhonemes OR function DISTRIBUTION to convey meaning by distinguishingNOT words. FOR Therefore, SALE OR this DISTRIBUTIONrule- governed system encompasses how sounds can be sequenced and how sounds are used to

12 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC TABLE 2.1 Phonemic Inventory of American English NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Consonant Example Vowel Example Diphthong Example Phoneme Phoneme p pat i bee aɪ mine © Jonesb & Bartlett bLearning,oat LLCɪ zip ©aʊ Jones & Bartlettcow Learning, LLC NOT FORt SALE ORtop DISTRIBUTIONe lake NOTɔɪ FOR SALEboy OR DISTRIBUTION d dip ɛ men eɪ bake k car æ cat oʊ boat g good a father ɪr hear © Jones & Bartlett Learning,f LLCfeet u © Jonesmoon & Bartlettɛr Learning,pear LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONv voice ʊ NOTwoo dFOR SALEʊr OR DISTRIBUTIONpure s see o toe ɔr four z zip ɔ paw ar car ʃ shoe ɚ butter ʒ © Jonesbeige & Bartlettɝ Learning,bir LLCd © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC ʧ NOT FORchair SALE ORʌ DISTRIBUTIONmud NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ʤ jam ə about θ think ð that © Jonesm & Bartlett mLearning,ouse LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORn SALE ORnose DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION ŋ sing l lamp r red © Jones & Bartlett Learning,w LLCwind © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONj yes NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION h how

create words with different meanings. By changing just one speech sound in a string of sounds, we© Jonescan create & a Bartlett new word, Learning, thereby differentiating LLC words and creating a© new Jones mean -& Bartlett Learning, LLC ing. For NOTexample, FOR the wordsSALE “dip” OR and DISTRIBUTION “nip” differ by one sound in the initial position.NOT FOR The SALE OR DISTRIBUTION two phonemes, “d” and “n,” create different words with different meanings. By using the additional phonemes or phoneme sequences represented by the letters “h,” “l,” “r,” “s,” “t,” “wh,” “z,” and “fl,” the following words can be created: “hip,” “lip,” “rip,” “sip,” “tip,” “whip,” “zip,” and “flip.” Each word is different and has a different meaning. Children learning the © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC phonological system of their language must learn the phonemes of that language as well as NOT FORthe phonotacticSALE OR rules DISTRIBUTION for arranging the sounds in words. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Components of Language 13

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Each language has a set of rules governing which phonemes can be combined, and in whichNOT order FOR as well SALE as the ORword DISTRIBUTIONposition in which they can occur. Such NOTrules are FOR called SALE OR DISTRIBUTION phonotactic rules. For example, in the English language, words can end in “nk” but cannot begin with “nk.” Another phonotactic rule of the English language is that no more than three consonants in sequence can be used at the beginning of a word or syllable, as © Jones &in “street.”Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Application Activity Identify the following: © Jones & Bartlett Learning,English LLCtwo-element consonant sequences:© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONInitial word position: NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Final word position: English three-element consonant sequences: Initial word position: ©Final Jones word position:& Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Can youNOT think FOR of any SALE four element OR DISTRIBUTION consonant sequences that occur in English?NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Morphology is the study of the structure of words and the rules for combining word parts to © Jones &create Bartlett complete Learning, words. The LLCword parts may include, as an ©example, Jones full & words Bartlett or grammati Learning,- LLC NOT FORcal SALE markers OR indicating DISTRIBUTION possession, plurality, and past tense.NOT Grammatical FOR SALE marker signalsOR DISTRIBUTION can signal a change in word class. These pieces or word parts are called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of a language that carries meaning. The word “pull” is a morpheme. It cannot be divided into smaller, meaningful parts. However, various parts, or morphemes, can be added to “pull” to create different meanings. For example, “-ed” is used to signal the © Jones & Bartlett Learning,meaning of LLC past tense and is considered to© be Jones a morpheme. & Bartlett The “-ed” Learning, can be added LLC to “pull” NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONto create “pulled,” which has a different NOTmeaning FOR from SALE “pull.” Alternately,OR DISTRIBUTION the present progressive “-ing” signals a verb tense change to present tense and is a morpheme, or word part. The “-ing” can be added to “pull” to create “pulling” which results in a different meaning than “pull” or “pulled.” Both “-ed” and “-ing” are word parts or morphemes. Morphemes can be classified in two different ways. The more common classification system© isJones to classify & Bartlettmorphemes Learning, as either free LLC morphemes or bound morphemes.© Jones A free& Bartlett Learning, LLC morphemeNOT canFOR stand SALE on its OR own. DISTRIBUTION It carries meaning in that form. UsingNOT the previousFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION example, “pull” is a free morpheme because it carries meaning by itself. Bound morphemes cannot stand alone and carry meaning and only derive meaning when attached to a free morpheme (Hulit et al., 2015). Therefore, “-ing” is a bound morpheme and only derives meaning when it is bound to another free morpheme, as in “pulling.” See TABLE 2.2 for © Jones &common Bartlett bound Learning, morphemes LLC and the function or meaning© thatJones is added & Bartlett when combined Learning, LLC NOT FORwith SALE free morphemes.OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

14 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC TABLE 2.2 Common Morphemes and Function NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Morpheme Function free morpheme Root word un- Not © Jonesre- & Bartlett Learning, LLC Do again © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR-th SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Changes adjectiveNOT into nounFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION -ful Changes noun into adjective -ly Changes adjective into adverb -s Plural or possession © Jones & Bartlett Learning,-ing LLC © JonesPresent progressive & Bartlett verb tense Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION -ed Past tense verb

In another, less commonly used two-class system, morphemes are classified either as roots or affixes.© RootsJones are &words Bartlett that cannot Learning, be divided LLC into any smaller pieces. Affixes© Jones are mor -& Bartlett Learning, LLC phemes that are combined with roots to create new meaning. Using the earlier example of “pulling,”NOT “pull” FOR is the SALEroot and OR “-ing” DISTRIBUTION is the affix. In the words “unbox” or “rebox,”NOT the FOR root SALE OR DISTRIBUTION is “box” and “un” and “re” are the affixes. Thus, affixes can be suffixes, as in the past tense “-ed,” the present progressive -ing, or in the plural “-s.” Affixes can also be prefixes, as in “un-” and “re-.” © Jones &The Bartlett two classification Learning, systems LLC share similar structures.© Roots Jones and & free Bartlett morphemes Learning, LLC NOT FORcan SALEstand alone OR as DISTRIBUTION meaningful units. Affixes and bound morphemesNOT FOR do notSALE carry OR mean DISTRIBUTION- ing unless combined with other roots or free morphemes. The importance in identifying words by the smallest meaningful units is to determine the types and number of morphemes that are used to create the word. For example, the word “treehouses” contains two free morphemes or roots, “tree” and “house,” and one bound morpheme or affix, the © Jones & Bartlett Learning,plural “-s.” LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Application Activity List the bound and free morpheme(s) for each word below: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Word Free Morpheme(s) Bound Morpheme NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Cats Unfailing Restarting Untruthfully © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Components of Language 15

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC There are rules for combining bound and free morphemes, for example, adding “-s” to a root nounNOT to create FOR a plural, SALE or adding OR DISTRIBUTION“-ed” to a verb to create a past tense verb, orNOT adding FOR “-ing” SALE OR DISTRIBUTION to a verb to create a present tense progressive verb. However, there are variations in the way that words are pronounced when free morphemes are added. A few examples of these variations in production involve plural nouns and past tense verbs. The plural nouns “boats,” © Jones &“dogs,” Bartlett and “horses” Learning, are each LLC created by adding the plural© “s.” Jones The word & Bartlett“boats” is createdLearning, LLC NOT FORwith SALE the addition OR DISTRIBUTION of a plural “s,” and is pronounced /s/. TheNOT word FOR“dogs” SALEis created OR with DISTRIBUTION the addition of the plural “s,” and is pronounced /z/. The word “horses” is created with the addition of the plural “s,” and is pronounced /əz/. Likewise, the past tense verbs “cooked” and “canned” are each created with a variation of the pronunciation of the past tense “-ed.” The past tense “-ed” is pronounced as a /t/ in “cooked” and as /d/ in “canned.” These variations © Jones & Bartlett Learning,represent allomorphs.LLC An allomorph is a© variation Jones of& a Bartlett morpheme Learning, that does not LLC alter the NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONmeaning of the original morpheme. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Semantics is the component of language that includes the meanings of words and utterances. Semantics involves the words or vocabulary of a language, also known as the lexicon. Words can represent things, places, people, concepts, characteristics, actions, emotions, or activities. Semantics also involves the study of words and word meanings. Words can have more ©than Jones one meaning, & Bartlett such as Learning, “trip.” Trip canLLC be a verb that refers to a stumble© Jones or a fall,& Bartlett Learning, LLC or it canNOT be aFOR noun SALEthat refers OR to aDISTRIBUTION journey or vacation. The meanings are determinedNOT FOR by the SALE OR DISTRIBUTION context in which the word is used. •• Be careful to not trip over the rug. •• They went on a trip to London. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORFurthermore, SALE OR words DISTRIBUTION may have similar meanings. Words suchNOT as “yell” FOR and SALE “shout” ORhave DISTRIBUTIONsimi- lar meanings, and so do the words “shrub” and “bush.” The component of semantics also involves phrases that may have multiple meanings. An example of a phrase that has multiple meanings is “super ball.” One interpretation could be the type of ball that bounces very high. Another interpretation may be a very large ball or © Jones & Bartlett Learning,a ball that LLChas superpowers. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Application Activity What two meanings could be derived from: The© phrase Jones “stole & Bartlett second base?” Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC TheNOT sentence FOR “she SALE saw a ORbat?” DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Words and their corresponding referents may also have associations with other words and referents. For example, the word “apple” is associated with words such as “orange,” “banana,” © Jones &and Bartlett “pear.” This Learning, association LLC reflects that words can belong© Jonesto the same & Bartlettcategory. The Learning, use LLC NOT FORof SALE categories OR helps DISTRIBUTION to organize the vocabulary of a language.NOT As FORchildren SALE acquire OR semantic DISTRIBUTION

16 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC skills, they must develop a categorization system for a rapidly expanding vocabulary. The system mustNOT be FORconsistent SALE with ORothers DISTRIBUTION who speak the same language. The educationalNOT system FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION emphasizes the importance of the semantic skill of categorizing by attributes and the skill of moving from superordinate to subordinate categories and also in the reverse sequence. Aca- demic units in early childhood focus on the categories such as letters, colors, numbers, farm © Jonesanimals, & Bartlett and transportation Learning, (Reed, LLC 2005). The superordinate© category Jones is & the Bartlett broader catLearning,- LLC NOT FORegory SALE under whichOR DISTRIBUTION many examples might be identified. The NOTsubordinate FOR category SALE includesOR DISTRIBUTION those items that can be identified under a broader superordinate category. One example of this system of categorization is that the word “corn” can be associated with “beans,” “squash,” and “peas” with the superordinate category of vegetables. Likewise, “vegetables” are similar to other fresh farm products. The word “vegetables” is now a subordinate category © Jones & Bartlett Learning,of fresh farm LLCproducts. FIGURE 2.2 represents© Jonesanother example& Bartlett of this Learning, system of semantic LLC NOT FOR SALE ORcategorization. DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Semantics also includes figurative language and inferential meanings. Figurative language represents the meaning behind a phrase or sentence derived beyond the concrete or literal interpretation. For example, the sentence “Billy was glued to the TV.” is not likely if interpreted literally. Inferential meaning refers to the meaning that can be derived from a sentence© based Jones on the & contextBartlett (Reed, Learning, 2005). For LLC example: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Simon, a 3-year-old boy, tries a new vegetable, squash. He makes a disgusted face and spits out the food. We can derive through inferential meaning that Simon did not like the taste of the squash. © Jones &Another Bartlett component Learning, of language LLC is syntax. Syntax is a© component Jones & that Bartlett reflects Learning,the LLC form of a language. Syntax refers to the rules for how words are sequenced in phrases and NOT FORsentences SALE to ORconvey DISTRIBUTION the intended message. A basic syntacticNOT rule for FOR the EnglishSALE language OR DISTRIBUTION is the sequence of subject + verb + object (Reed, 2005). Sentences may contain the same exact words, but word order may change the meaning. The change in word order may

© Jones & Bartlett Learning,Markers LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Pens NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONis a subordinate WrNOTiting FORis aSALE subordinate OR DISTRIBUTIONSchool Pencils category of tools category of supplies Crayons Chalk

FIGURE 2.2 Semantic Categorization. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Components of Language 17

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC result in something plausible such as the following two sentences in which the nouns are reversed:NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The boy kissed the girl. The girl kissed the boy. © Jones &Or, Bartlett the result ofLearning, noun reversal LLC may be implausible: © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEThe girl OR pet theDISTRIBUTION dog. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION The dog pet the girl. These examples help to illustrate the importance of specific word order to communicate the © Jones & Bartlett Learning,intended message LLC and meaning. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Once a child learns basic syntactic rules such as noun + verb + object or article + attribute NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION+ noun, unlimited phrases and sentences NOTcan be FOR generated. SALE The ORresult DISTRIBUTION is an expanded ability to express thoughts or ideas.

Application© Jones Activity & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC MultipleNOT Phrases FOR Generated SALE OR from DISTRIBUTION a Syntactic Rule NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION What phrases can be generated from the following? Select different words from each column. Noun Verb Object © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Boy Carries Bone NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Girl Sees Branch Dog Takes Ball Girl Throws Flower

© Jones & Bartlett Learning,What phrases LLC can be generated from ©the Jones following? & BartlettSelect different Learning, words fromLLC each NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONcolumn. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Article Attribute Noun The Old Shoe A Brown Dog An © Jones & Bartlett SmellyLearning, LLC Glove © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Flower NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

18 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC There is also a transformational aspect of syntax. This transformational aspect involves the adding to,NOT deleting FOR from, SALE or rearranging OR DISTRIBUTION a set of words to create different sentenceNOT FORtypes SALE OR DISTRIBUTION (Reed, 2005). For example, “The boy is playing basketball.” can be transformed into the question, “Is the boy playing basketball?” by rearranging the words. By adding the word “not,” the original sentence can be transformed into a negative, “The boy is not playing bas- © Jonesketball.” & Bartlett By deleting Learning, a word, the LLC original sentence is transformed© Jones into “The & boyBartlett is playing.” Learning, LLC NOT FORIn all SALE three examples, OR DISTRIBUTION the meaning of the original sentence NOTis altered. FOR However, SALE all OR three DISTRIBUTION examples are transformed sentences of the original sentence “The boy is playing basketball.” Syntax, therefore, involves the sequence, or word order, of phrases and sentences to convey messages. Pragmatics refers to the study of language and how language is used in a wide range of © Jones & Bartlett Learning,communicative LLC and social contexts. Language© Jones serves specific & Bartlett communicative Learning, functions LLC or NOT FOR SALE ORreasons DISTRIBUTION for communicating. Pragmatics refersNOT to the FOR means SALE through OR which DISTRIBUTION we communicate or the “how,” and the reasons for communicating or the “why.” The pragmatical component of language is also rule-governed. The way we use language to communicate will vary depending on the situational context and/or the communication partner. Pragmatics is also governed by social and cultural values. For example, in a library, a person would talk softly rather than© Jones at a normal & Bartlettspeaking volume Learning, or loud LLCvoice. Communication, in this© example, Jones is & Bartlett Learning, LLC modifiedNOT by the FOR place SALEor situational OR DISTRIBUTIONcontext. We might modify the way we talkNOT depending FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION on our communication partner. We would talk differently to a child versus an adult, or a friend versus a co-worker, or even a boss. Furthermore, pragmatics is related to facial expres- sions, gestures, and word emphasis to convey different meanings. For example, the sentence, © Jones“I studied& Bartlett really hardLearning, for that test.” LLC can mean different things depending© Jones on & the Bartlett way in which Learning, LLC it is stated. If the sentence is spoken with emphasis on “really” and is accompanied with a NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION rolling of the eyes, perhaps the sentence is characterized with a bit of sarcasm and means that the person did not study enough. Alternately, if the sentence is spoken with extra emphasis on “really” and “hard” and the student gives a high five, perhaps the student is conveying confidence of strong performance on the test. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,The pragmatics LLC component of language ©encompasses Jones & a Bartlettbroad range Learning, of the functions LLC of NOT FOR SALE ORour DISTRIBUTION utterances. This includes our ability to takeNOT turns FOR and SALE maintain OR topics DISTRIBUTION during conversa- tion, providing sufficient information to convey a message without too much or redundant information, appropriate use of nonverbal communicative cues, and adapting our style of communication depending on the listener or situation, and recognizing and repairing communication breakdowns. In summary,© Jones communication & Bartlett broadly Learning, encompasses LLC speech and language. Communication© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC is the integrationNOT FOR of skills SALE in theOR areas DISTRIBUTION of phonology, morphology, semantics, NOTsyntax, FOR and SALE OR DISTRIBUTION pragmatics. Language refers to the complex, dynamic, and rule-governed system of symbols used to convey thoughts and ideas. Speech, then, is the verbal expression of these thoughts and ideas, and involves the articulation of speech sounds and the phonological aspects governing the organization, distribution, and sequencing of these sounds. © Jones &The Bartlett next section Learning, explores the LLC speech-related aspects of communication:© Jones & articulationBartlett Learning,and LLC NOT FORphonology. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Speech: Articulation and Phonology 19

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC SPEECH:NOT ARTICULATION FOR SALE ANDOR DISTRIBUTIONPHONOLOGY NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Articulation is the term used to describe a person’s speech production. Clinically, articulation refers to the motor aspect of planning and executing the sequences of movements that result in the production of speech. Learning how to produce speech sounds is a gradual devel- © Jones &opmental Bartlett progression Learning, that involves LLC learning how to move and/or© Jones position & theBartlett articulators Learning, for LLC the accurate production of phonemes. Since we cannot be effective communicators through NOT FORthe SALE production OR ofDISTRIBUTION single phonemes, developing speech soundNOT production FOR SALE skills also OR involves DISTRIBUTION learning how to move the articulators in a smooth and rapid manner in order to sequence and connect sounds into words. Therefore, articulation, or the acquisition of and production of speech sounds, involves motor learning. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,As a developmental LLC skill, the speech© sound Jones production & Bartlett abilities Learning, of a typically LLC develop- NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONing 2-year-old child will be vastly differentNOT than FOR the SALE articulation OR DISTRIBUTIONskills of an 8-year-old child. Therefore, articulation is a gradually developing motor skill that is executed mainly by peripheral motor processes. These peripheral motor processes involve the planning and execution of the movements of the articulators for speech sound production. The central unit of speech is the set of speech sounds of a language. Speech sounds are the physical,© Jones auditory & Bartlett product of Learning, the motor processes LLC of articulation. The motor© Jones production & Bartlett Learning, LLC of speechNOT sounds FOR reflects SALE the OR phonetic DISTRIBUTION properties of articulation. We describeNOT and FOR analyze SALE OR DISTRIBUTION speech sounds through phonetic transcription. Speech sounds, then, are the physical, auditory product used in speech. Speech sounds have an articulatory or phonetic form, but they also have linguistic function. This linguistic, or phonemic, function includes the rules for arranging sound units into words. These sound © Jones &units Bartlett are also Learning,called phonemes. LLC A phoneme is the smallest© linguistic Jones unit& Bartlett that is combined Learning, LLC NOT FORwith SALE other OR phonemes DISTRIBUTION to create words and to distinguish NOTbetween FOR them. SALE The words OR DISTRIBUTION“cot” and “hot” are formed with the phoneme sequences of /k/, /a/, /t/ and /h/, /a/, /t/. The words differ by only one phoneme. Different meanings are created when different phonemes are utilized in the initial word position. In this way, phonemes are used to create words with different meanings. © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Phonemes LLC are not static, unchanging© entities. Jones Phonemes & Bartlett can Learning,be quite dynamic, LLC with NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONchanging properties depending on the phoneticNOT FORcontext SALE and the OR speaker. DISTRIBUTION These slight variations are called allophones. Allophones are the variations in the productions of phonemes that do not result in a change in the meaning of a word. The phonological system of Ameri- can English has many allophonic variations of phonemes. A ©common Jones allophonic & Bartlett variation Learning, in the English LLC language can occur with the ©phoneme Jones /p/. & If Bartlett Learning, LLC the word’sNOT initial FOR position SALE as aOR consonant DISTRIBUTION singleton, the phoneme /p/ is typicallyNOT aspirated. FOR The SALE OR DISTRIBUTION term aspiration refers to the puff of air heard just after the production of /p/. For example, the aspirated /p/ can be heard in “pat.” However, when the phoneme is produced in the word’s initial position as a unit/segment of a consonant sequence, it is typically unaspirated, as in “pretty” and “split.” The allophonic variation including aspiration or lack of aspiration does not have a pho- © Jones &nemic Bartlett or linguistic Learning, function inLLC the phonological system of American© Jones English. & Bartlett We can detect Learning, the LLC NOT FORdifferences SALE OR but bothDISTRIBUTION productions are considered allophonic variationsNOT FOR of the SALE same phoneme OR DISTRIBUTION /p/.

20 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Phonology is the study of phonemes, how they are organized, and the linguistic function of phonemesNOT in FOR creating SALE different OR meanings.DISTRIBUTION Phonology includes the entire NOTinventory FOR of SALE OR DISTRIBUTION vowels and consonant speech sounds of a language. The sounds of a language are organized in words to convey meaning, the function of the phonemes. Clinically, we must make a distinction between speech sounds and phonemes. The physi- © Jonescal, & auditory Bartlett product, Learning, the actual LLC production of speech sounds,© areJones described & Bartlett through pho Learning,- LLC NOT FORnetic SALE transcription. OR DISTRIBUTION Speech sounds and speech sound errors areNOT related FOR to articulatory SALE OR motor DISTRIBUTION processes of production. However, when a child produces the words “keep,” “jeep,” “sleep,” “cheap,” and “leap” the same way as “teep,” the initial sounds are not being used contrastively to create different meanings. This refers to the child’s phoneme system. Difficulties in using phonemes contrastively are related to the child’s linguistic abilities, to the child’s © Jones & Bartlett Learning,phonological LLCsystem as a component of language.© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONIn summary, speech sounds are related NOTto motor FOR and SALEarticulatory OR skills.DISTRIBUTION Phonemes are related to understanding the phonological system and linguistic rules of our language.

COMMUNICATION DISORDERS © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Communication disorders may involve difficulties in the sending or receiving of messages. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Communication disorders encompass the wide range of disorders in speech and/or language. A language disorder may be evident in any combination or all components of language: phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax, or pragmatics. A speech disorder may be evident in respiration, phonation, resonation, or articulation. For the purpose of this book, we will © Jonesmore & Bartlettfully explore Learning, articulation LLCand phonological disorders, also© Jonesreferenced & as Bartlett speech sound Learning, LLC NOT FORdisorders. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION An articulation disorder refers to an impairment or difficulty with motor planning and execution for the production of speech sounds. It is the inability to produce specific speech sounds. Articulation skills and the acquisition of speech sounds follow a predictable progression, and therefore, developmental guidelines have been established for the average © Jones & Bartlett Learning,age of mastery LLC for the production of speech© Jones sounds. &Therefore, Bartlett articulation Learning, errors LLC are NOT FOR SALE ORclassified DISTRIBUTION according to a child’s chronologicalNOT age. FOR The ageSALE of the OR child DISTRIBUTION guides the deter- mination of whether noted speech sound errors are typical or atypical. Typical errors are speech sound errors that would be expected for a child’s chronological age. Articulation errors for speech sounds for which a child would be expected to have achieved mastery are considered atypical. An articulation disorder encompasses the atypical production of speech sounds.© Jones The &errors Bartlett are commonly Learning, characterized LLC as substitutions, omissions,© Jones distor -& Bartlett Learning, LLC tions, orNOT additions, FOR often SALE represented OR DISTRIBUTION with the acronym SODA, which may NOTcompromise FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION speech intelligibility. A phonological disorder refers to deficits in the use of the sound system of a language and the rules for combining the phonemes of a language. As this disorder is related to the © Jonesrule-based & Bartlett system Learning, for using phonemes LLC contrastively, it is considered© Jones a subsystem & Bartlett of a Learning,lan- LLC guage disorder. As such, a phonological disorder is also commonly associated with deficits in NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

Chapter Summary 21

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC TABLE 2.3 A Comparison of Terms NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Articulation The motor act of producing speech sounds; refers to the speech sound production abilities of a client Articulation disorder Difficulty in establishing the placement of the articulators or © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLCexecuting the motor movements© neededJones to produce& Bartlett speech Learning, LLC sounds; may reflect an inability to produce certain speech sounds NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Phonology The study of the rule-governed system that determines how sounds are systematically arranged and organized in a language Phonological disorder A disorder related to the contrastive use of phonemes that is related to the rule-based linguistic function of speech sounds; © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC phonemic inventory© Jones may & be Bartlett limited Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

other areas of the language system, such as morphology, semantics, syntax, and pragmatics (Edwards, Beckman, & Munson, 2004; Edwards, Fox, & Rogers, 2002; Morrisette & Gierut, 2002;© Munson, Jones Edwards, & Bartlett & Beckman, Learning, 2005; LLCRoberts, 2005; Stoel-Gammon,© Jones1987, 1989; & Bartlett Learning, LLC Storkel,NOT 2001, FOR 2003, SALE 2004; StorkelOR DISTRIBUTION & Rogers, 2000). A phonological disorderNOT is identified FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION through the compilation of a child’s phonemic inventory. A phonemic inventory represents the phonemes that are used contrastively to convey meaning. Commonly, a child with a phonological disorder demonstrates a restricted phoneme inventory. This restricted phoneme inventory may be characterized by phonemes not present in a child’s speech, or by © Jones &a restricted Bartlett use Learning, of phonemes LLC in all word positions. TABLE© 2. 3Jones presents & a comparisonBartlett Learning, of the LLC NOT FORterms SALE articulation, OR DISTRIBUTION articulation disorder, phonology, and phonologicalNOT FOR disorder. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Understanding the distinction between a phonetic or articulation disorder and a phonemic or phonological disorder is important for clinicians. This differential diagnosis provides direction for intervention planning. To summarize this distinction, an articulation disorder involves the peripheral motor processes of speech sound production. A phonological disorder © Jones & Bartlett Learning,involves the LLC sound system, the rule-based© organizationJones & Bartlettand function Learning, of phonemes. LLC A clear NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONdifferentiation of articulation and phonologicalNOT FORdisorders SALE is often OR a bit DISTRIBUTION more complex. Often a child’s speech can be characterized both by motor production errors and the contrastive use of phonemes to distinguish meaning. Comprehensive and systematic phonetic analysis of production errors and phonological analysis of the phoneme inventory will support this important step in the process of differential diagnosis and clinical decision making for intervention© planning.Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter provides a summary of terms that are central to the study of assessment and © Jones &intervention Bartlett ofLearning, speech sound LLC disorders. The terms communication,© Jones speech, & Bartlett and language Learning, are LLC introduced. The five components of language are also presented: phonology, morphology, NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

22 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER CASE STUDY—CLINICAL APPLICATION Using the following test results obtained from the administration of the Goldman- Fristoe Test of Articulation 3, describe the speech sound errors noted in this sample. © Jones &Which Bartlett sounds Learning, are substituted LLC for target sounds in the sample?© Jones Are there & Bartlett sounds the Learning, LLC NOT FORclient SALE does OR not DISTRIBUTIONproduce in this sample? Based on this sample,NOT do FORyou think SALE the child OR DISTRIBUTION is demonstrating an articulation disorder or a phonological disorder? Explain your conclusion. The following responses were obtained for Anna, 5 years, 8 months of age. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Target Response Target Response Target Response NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION house [haʊt] slide [taɪ] blue [bwu] door [dor] swing [tɪ] yellow [wɛwo] pig [pɪg] guitar [dɪta] brother [bʌdo] cup © Jones[tʌp &] Bartlettlion Learning,[waɪə LLC] frog [fwɔd©] Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC boy NOT FOR[boɪ ]SALE ORchair DISTRIBUTION[ʃɛə] green [dwi]NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION apple [æpl] soap [top] that [dæt] go [do] glasses [dætɪ] leaf [wif] duck [dʌt] tiger [taɪdə] cookie [tʊtɪ] © Jones &quack Bartlett Learning,[tæ] LLCpuzzle [pʌdo] cheese© Jones &[ʃi Bartlett] Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALEtable OR DISTRIBUTION[tebo] finger [bɪndə] pajamasNOT FOR [SALEpʌdæmə] OR DISTRIBUTION monkey [mʌnti] ring [wɪn] teeth [tif] hammer [hæmə] thumb [ϴʌm] princess [pwɪntə] fish [fɪʃ] elephant [ɛwəfɪ] crown [taʊn] © Jones & Bartlett Learning,watch LLC[waʃ] vacuum © Jones[bætu] & Bartletttruck Learning,[twʌ] LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONspider [paɪdə] shovel NOT[ʃʌbə FOR] SALEred OR DISTRIBUTION[wɛ] web [wɛ] teacher [tiʃə] juice [du] drum [dʌm] zebra [dibə] zoo [du] plate [pet] giraffe [dəwæ] star [ta] knife© Jones[naɪ &] Bartlettvegetable Learning,[bɛdəbo LLC] five [faɪ] © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC shoeNOT FOR[ʃu] SALE ORbrushing DISTRIBUTION[bʌʃɪ] seven [tɛbənNOT] FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

References 23

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC semantics, syntax, and pragmatics. The components of phonology and morphology are more fully exploredNOT FOR to establish SALE foundational OR DISTRIBUTION knowledge of the speech sound formNOT and linguisticFOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION function of speech sounds. Definitions for articulation, phonetics, phonology, phonemes, and speech sounds are presented to support the knowledge base needed for distinguishing between articulation disorders and phonological disorders. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORKEY SALE TERMS OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Allomorphs Morphemes Phonotactic rules Allophones Morphology Pragmatics Articulation Phonemes Semantics © Jones & Bartlett Learning,Articulation LLC disorder Phonetics© Jones & BartlettSpeech Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONCommunication PhonologicalNOT disorder FOR SALE ORSyntax DISTRIBUTION Language Phonology

CHAPTER EXERCISES © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC 1. NOTDefine FOR and explainSALE theOR relationship DISTRIBUTION among the terms: communication,NOT speech, FOR and SALE OR DISTRIBUTION language. 2. List and explain the five components of language. 3. Differentiate the terms speech, speech sounds, phonemes, allophones, articulation, © Jones & Bartlettand phonology. Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE4. Describe OR DISTRIBUTION disorders of articulation and phonology. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

REFERENCES Edwards, J., Beckman, M. E., & Munson, B. (2004). The interaction between vocabulary size and pho- © Jones & Bartlett Learning,notactic LLCprobability effects on children’s production© Jones accuracy & Bartlett and fluency Learning, in nonword LLC repetition. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONJournal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research,NOT FOR47, 421–436. SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Edwards, J., Fox, R., & Rogers, C. (2002). Final consonant discrimination in children: Effects of phonological disorder, vocabulary size, and articulatory accuracy. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 231–242. Hulit, L. M., Fahey, K. R., & Howard, M. R. (2015). Born to talk: An introduction to speech and language development© Jones (6th & ed.). Bartlett Upper Saddle Learning, River, NJ: PearsonLLC Education, Inc. © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Morrisette,NOT M., FOR & Gierut, SALE J. (2002). OR LexicalDISTRIBUTION organization and phonological change inNOT treatment. FOR Jour SALE- OR DISTRIBUTION nal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45, 143–159. Munson, B., Edwards, J., & Beckman, M. E. (2005). Relationship of nonword repetition accuracy and other measures of linguistic development in children with phonological disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 47, 61–78. Reed, V. A. (2005). An introduction to children with language disorders (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: © Jones & BartlettPearson Education, Learning, Inc. LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION

24 Chapter 2 Overview of Basic Concepts

© Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC Roberts, T. (2005). Articulation accuracy and vocabulary size contributions to phonemic awareness and wordNOT reading FOR in EnglishSALE language OR DISTRIBUTION learners. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97, 601–616.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Shriberg, L. D., & Kent, R. D. (2013). Clinical phonetics (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Stoel-Gammon, C. (1987). Phonological skills of two-year-olds. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 18, 323–329. Stoel-Gammon, C. (1989). Prespeech and early speech development of two late talkers. First Language, © Jones &9, 207–223.Bartlett Learning, LLC © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC NOT FORStorkel, SALE H. (2001). OR LearningDISTRIBUTION new words: Phonotactic probability in NOTlanguage FOR development. SALE Journal OR DISTRIBUTIONof Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1321–1337. Storkel, H. (2003). Learning new words II: Phonotactic probability in verb learning. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46, 1312–1323. Storkel, H. (2004). The emerging lexicon of children with phonological delays: Phonotactic constraints © Jones & Bartlett Learning,and probability LLC in acquisition. Journal of Speech,© JonesLanguage, &and Bartlett Hearing Research, Learning, 47, 1194–1212. LLC Storkel, H. L., & Rogers, M. A. (2000). The effect of probabilistic phonotactics on lexical acquisition. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTIONClinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 14, 407–425.NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION