"ON THE MARGINS": THE EMERGENCE AND GROWTH OF SQUATTER SETTLEMENTS IN CAPE TOWN, 1939-1960 By JAMES ERIC MEIER A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2000 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many debts have been incurred toward the completion of this dissertation. In particular, R. Hunt Davis, Jr., my academic advisor, has consistently provided insightful guidance and support in a wide range of ways that are deeply appreciated. Additionally, the other members of my doctoral committee-Tim Cleaveland, Anita Spring, Luise White, and Bertram Wyatt-Brown (at the University of Florida), and John Edwin Mason (at the University of Virginia)~have contributed to my academic development and generously given of their time in seeing this project through to completion. Within the Department of History, Betty Corwine, Barbara Guynn, Linda Opper, Jose Corona, and Kimberly Browne have at different times been instrumental in steering me through numerous administrative minefields. In South Africa, many individuals offered their assistance and expertise to help make my field research there both productive and highly enjoyable. Gary Minkley, of the University of the Western Cape, freely shared his own research notes and ideas on squatting, and was vital in helping me secure Xhosa-speaking interpreters. His colleague, Marijka du Toit, provided logistical support in the collection of oral histories on the Cape Flats. At the University of Cape Town (UCT), Christopher Saunders repeatedly gave me the benefit of his vast knowledge of urban South Afirican history, and went out of his way to make me feel welcome. Sean Field, Vivian Bickford-Smith, and Sue Pamell, also of ii UCT, all challenged my ideas and enlarged the scope of my research project. Colin Bundy, Rodney Davenport, Hildegarde Fast, Hilton Judin, and Charles van Onselen similarly provided guidance. Of particular note, Barry Kinkead-Weekes unselfishly allowed me to access his voluminous research notes and advised me where to unearth specific archival materials in Cape Town. At a less academic level, my experience in Cape Tovra was greatly enriched as a result of the friendship of David Gainer, Theresa Lehman, Rob McKend, Fiona Pretorius, Robert Vinson, Ludolff Wium, and the entire Dugmore family. The oral histories which I collected from dozens of elderly informants who generously shared their memories and their feelings of the past proved to be a fascinating and rewarding experience (the names and, in many instances, the photographs of these informants can be found in Appendix I). It profoundly shaped my perspective of what squatting meant for African migrants. Hopefully, they would recognize the reality of their experiences mirrored in portions of this work. I also wish to thank Mbulelo Mrubata, Weziwe Ncame, and Andile Ncula for their tireless assistance in conducting, translatmg, and transcribing interviews. The breadth that oral histories contribute to this dissertation would not have been possible without their participation. Also vital to the oral history component of my research were the many people who helped me locate potential informants: most notably Linda Brightman Madaka, Anne Greenwell, Scottie Morton, and Dr Ozwa Mbomongo. Mr. Madaka and Michael Nduna were kind enough to assist in interviewing some acquaintances when my Xhosa and informants' English did not suffice. I appreciate the cooperation that staff members at the following institutions extended to me: the Ekuphumleni Home for the Frail and Aged [Koleka Bandla, (the Manager) Ms iii Linda Gqiba, Nompumelelo Miriam Lizwe, Elizabeth Madolo, (the Matron) Felicia Malunga, and Charles Ndimande]; the Guguletu Senior Citizens' Home (Mr Majokweni, (the Manager) Mary Sili, and Mr. Sili); the Langa Home for the Aged [(the Matron) Mavis Makosa]; and the Nyanga Home for the Aged [(the Matron) Thandi Sintwa]. The hospitality, excellent Xhosa food, and assistance of Mrs. Elmina Gontsana and the members of the Monwabisi Seniors Club also contributed significantly to the collection of oral histories, under very pleasant circumstances. At Cape Town's archives and libraries, I benefited from the assistance of many excellent archivists and librarians. I would like to sincerely thank the staff at the following institutions: UCT's Manuscripts and Archives Library (Karen Combrinck, Chris Davis, Lesley Hart, and Yasmin Mohamed); UCT's African Studies Library; UCT's Government Publications Library; the University of Stellenbosch's J.S. Gerlicke Library (Hanna Botha); the South African Library (Carel Schoeman and Jackie Loos in Photographic and Special Collections); the Cape Town Civic Centre Municipal Reference Library; the Cape Town Civic Centre Records Management Division (Arlene van Beulen); the Cape Town Civic Centre Land Survey Department (Ian Black); the Cape Divisional Council (Bennie Daniels); the Cape State Archives (Marian George, Peter Longbottom, Ebrahim Kenny, Elsie de Waal, and Jaco van der Merwe); and the Central State Archives in Pretoria. On a more personal note, the insights and friendship of fellow graduate students at the University of Florida helped me better formulate my ideas and made my stay in Gamesville an altogether enjoyable experience. Jim Ellison, Todd Leedy, Paul Lokken, Nate Nowak, Jonathan Walz, Chris and Shari Watford, and James Wilson all contributed iv Brunings. As invaluable as her in this regard. I owe an especially huge debt to Asha computer commonsense, transcribing talent, and proofreading prowess proved in the sometimes trying completion of this dissertation, her love and understanding during the long-standing dissertation writing-up phase were even more remarkable. Owmg to their over the span of many years of support (both emotional and financial), faith, and love _^ special graduate work, my family played a particularly key role. I would like to express and to thanks to my parents, Heidy and Louis; and to Tom, Kelly, Kristin, Jennifer; Elsbeth and Heinz. V TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii LIST OF FIGURES ix KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS xii NOTE ON TERMINOLOGY xiv ABSTRACT xvi CHAPTERS 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Parameters of the Study 8 Comments on Oral Histories 13 Review of the Literature on African Urbanization and Squatting 15 Synopsis of Dissertation Chapters 22 2 THE EMERGENCE OF SQUATTING IN CAPE TOWN 26 The Growth of Squatter Communities in Cape Town 31 The Sanitation Syndrome 38 Increased African Urbanization 42 State Response to African Urbanization and Squatting 45 The Calm Before the Storm: Squatting in the 1930s 55 3 AFRICAN URBANIZATION IN CAPE TOWN AND STATE RESPONSE, 1939- 1948 63 The Attraction of Cape Town 63 State Response to the "Augean Muddle" 71 Assessing the Problem: The Cauldwell Report 76 Tightening the Screws: The Slarke Report 89 African Housing and the Politics of Inaction 96 vi The Cape Flats Report 101 Miscegenation and Paternalism 102 The Sanitation Syndrome Revisited 106 Disease and the Facilitation of Social Engineering 109 Stemming the Tide: African Urban Policy, 1945-1948 1 12 4 "AMONG THE SLIME AND THE RUBBISH HEAPS:" THE NATURE OF SQUATTING IN CAPE TOWN 117 The Contours of Cape Town 118 The Spatial Dynamics of Squatting 120 A Rose By Any Other Name 1 24 The Construction of Shacks: An African School of Architecture? 129 Squatters and Land Ownership 138 Squatting and the Challenges of Family Life 142 Homeboy Networks: Bridging the Rural and Urban Divide 146 Economic Inequities: Formal Employment 151 Economic Enterprise: The Informal Economy 157 The Difficulties of Getting from A to B: Transportation Networks 161 Conclusion 164 5 CULTURE AND COMMUNITY IN CAPE TOWN'S SQUATTER CAMPS .... 165 Transference of Traditional Practices 166 Squatter Culture 173 Recreation and Entertainment 175 The Culture of Beer 177 Squatting and the Ethos of Neighborliness 186 Relations Among African and Coloured Squatters 1 93 Intra-African Relations 201 Gender Relations and Family Life 204 Dora Tamana 213 6 THE HAZARDS AND HARDSHIPS OF SQUATTING 221 Up in Smoke: The Threat of Shack Fires 222 Flooding and its "Rheumaticky, Influenzal and Chilblainy" Results 231 Dying of Thirst by the Sea: The Acute Shortage of Running Water 235 Systems of Sanitation 241 Mired in Sand 244 A Plague of Pests 250 The Inadequacy of Municipal Services 252 Assessing the Damage: The Health of Squatters 255 Unnatural Hazards: Crime and Gangs 260 The Insecurity of Squatter Life 264 vii 7 THE STRUGGLE FOR THE RIGHT TO BE: STATE CONTROL AND SQUATTER DEFIANCE. 1948-1960 267 Squatters and the Introduction of Apartheid 268 State Control and Its Successful Evasion 277 Differential Treatment - African and Coloured Squatters 281 Casting a Widening Net: Emergency Squatter Camps 283 Police Harassment 286 Mounted Patrolmen and the Containment of Squatting 289 Squatters and Popular Protest 295 Fighting a Losing Battle 297 8 CONCLUSION 299 The Crucible of Apartheid 299 In the Aftermath of Forced Removals 305 GLOSSARY OF SOUTH AFRICAN TERMS 308 APPENDICES I PHOTOGRAPHS OF INFORMANTS 310 II PERSONAL DATA OF INFORMANTS 315 III CONSENT FORM 319 IV CAPE TOWN'S PRINCIPAL SQUATTER CAMPS 321 BIBLIOGRAPHY 326 Oral Histories 326 Government Reports 328 Government Acts 329 Newspapers 330 Secondary Literature: Published 330 Secondary Literature: Unpublished 339 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 343 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Eage 1 Population composition in Greater Cape Town 30 2 African Settlements in the Cape Peninsula, 1952 32 3 Two officials survey the Cape Flats with Table Mountain in the background. Cape Times, September 3, 1949. (Courtesy of the South African Library, Photographic and Special Collections) 75 4 Jurisdictional Boundaries of the Cape Peninsula 80 5 A shack constructed of oil drums and sacking. At the time the photograph was taken, it was occupied by a single man who was attempting to save money in order to marry. He had dragged the drums nearly a mile over sand dunes. NTS 4503; 581/313, 1940/1941, H.S. Walker, "Some Homes in the Cape Peninsula," p.l2.