Colonial City: the Case of Georgetown in Penang, Malaysia LI, H
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The Politics of Heritage Conservation in a Southeast Asian Post colonial City: The Case of Georgetown in Penang, Malaysia LI, Ho Fai A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy In Government and Public Administration The Chinese University of Hong Kong September 2011 .,; - , ; /1 '-// /t .. I ', - F· ~ _ "", / - , / - ~ --. , t , .-- .... Thesis! Assessment Committee Professor Ng, Kai Hon (Chair) Professor Ma, Shu Yun (Thesis Supervisor) Professor Lu, Tracey Lie Dan (Committee Member) Dr. Lee, Eliza W.Y. (External Examinar) Acknowledgements 縱然整份論文也以英文寫成，但是我相信感言/致謝部份以中文書寫比較合適。 很多人說論文寫作的過程很痛苦，實在一點也沒有誇張。這份論文由開始與我的 導師討論題目、資料搜集、田野考察、分析整理到最後綜合成文足足用了兩年時 間，期間曾經迷網、失意、刪改題目等等，當中的辛酸實不足為外人道。幸好過 程當中遇到很多人向我提供無私的協助，最後讓我可以順利把論文完成。首先， 感謝我的論文指導老師馬樹人教授，他在開始時向我介紹一個很有趣的硏究題 目，又帶領我進行了一次田野考察，在討論題目及考察的過程中使我眼界大開， 知識增進不少，也令這篇論文有一個很好的開始。而且，亦多謝他和公開大學的 Edmund Cheng撥出研究經費資助我兩次檳城之行。其次，特別感激Universiti Sains Malaysia 的 Anwar Fazal 及 Penang Heritage Trust 的 Sheau Fung 在我其後於檳城進 行第二次田野考察時提供很大的協助，他們友善的幫忙及和藹可親的態度使我銘 記於心°同時，謝謝每位願意接受訪談的人士獻出時間及提供資料，豐富論文的 内容。再者，我感謝關信基教授及李連江教授在研究院的研討會中對我的研究及 分析框架提供了很有用的意見，讓我更能聚焦問題所在。我亦希望在此感謝在本 科時期曾教導我的呂大樂教授，他所教的 < 歷史社會學 > 不但弓丨起我利用歷史研 究社會現象的興趣，也為這篇論女的分析框架提供很有用的參考。另外，我十分 感謝師兄李家翹博士，在我為他的課程當助教時給予我很多鼓勵和支持，令我不 至灰心喪志，繼續完成論文°又多謝在檳城的Alex，讓我搜集資料的過程中可以 有輕鬆談天說地的時間。也多謝每一位曾經支持我的朋友，你們小小的鼓勵也是 我完成論文的動力。最後，我要多謝佩儀，沒有了她一直以來的鼓勵和支持，我 肯定這篇論文不會有完成的一天。 Thesis abstract Conservation of built heritage is a contentious issue as it involves the use of valuable land resources on one hand and the contestation over the definition of heritage itself on the other. This thesis aims at examining the interplay between state and civil society in the dynamics of built heritage conservation in Penang, Malaysia. Despite the pressure for modernization and urban renewal since the independence of Malaysia in 1957, the historic city of Penang, George Town, has survived the threat of large-scale destruction and Was even accorded the UNESCO World Heritage Status in 2008. By adopting the theoretical frameworks of historical institutionalism and theories of civil society, this thesis argues that the successful conservation of George Town by civil society is attributed to the successful forging of elite coalition between NGO members and reformist state actors together with the successful takeover of political power by the reformist state actors at the right moment. The conjuncture of the two factors arguably helps to triumph over the deep-seated interests of property development in the state government and to facilitate the Malay-dominated federal government in recognizing Penang's heritage at the international level, which efficaciously conserves George Town as a historic city at later times. 1 論文摘要（中文） 古蹟保育是富有爭論性的議題。它不但涉及運用城市中重要的土地資 源’而且關乎爭論「古蹟」的定義本身。本文以馬來西亞檳州的舊城 區喬治城作為個案，硏究公民組織及國家如何互動以開展古蹟保育工 作。縱然喬治城於1 9 5 7年馬來西亞獨立後面對著現代化和市區更 新的壓力，城内的古蹟不但成功避過了被大規模破壞的命運，後來更 於2 0 0 8年得到聯合國教科文組織認可成為世界文化遺產。本文將 採用歷史制度主義及公民社會理論的理論框架，嘗試解釋喬治城作為 一座古城被公民社會保育的過程及原因。本文提出，公民組織的成員 在正確的時候成功地跟執政黨内的改革派組成精英合作聯盟，加上該 改革派成功在黨內取得實權，是喬治城內的古蹟得到有效保育的重要 原因。這兩種因素的結合’既能有效地控制在州政府內盤根錯節的物 業發展利益’又能促使聯邦政府在國際上確認檳州古蹟的價值，最終 令古蹟保育得以在喬治城有效地開展。 iii List of Contents Acknowledgements English and Chinese Abstracts ii List of Contents iv Index of tables, figures, and diagrams vi Lists of abbreviations and acronyms vii Notes ix 1. Introduction 1 1.1 Research Background and Research Question 1 1.2 Methodology 3 1.3 Research Significance 5 1.4 Theoretical Frameworks, Central Arguments and Organization of the Thesis 6 2. Theoretical Frameworks and Literature Review 8 2.1 Historical Institutionalism 8 2.2 The Study of Heritage Conservation 10 2.3 The Study of Civil Society 12 2.4 Political Economy of Built Heritage Conservation 14 2.5 State-Civil Society Relations in Post-Independence Malaysia 16 3. Case Study of George Town in Penang, Malaysia (1957-2008) 24 3.1 Genesis of George Town as a British Colonial Town 24 3.2 Development of George Town in 1950s-1970s 25 3.3 Development of George Town in 1980s-2008 32 3.4 Updates of Development of George Town since 2008 60 4. Analysis of the case of George Town in Penang, Malaysia 66 4.1 A Path of Institutional Change towards Heritage Conservation 67 4.2 Structural Basis for Civil Society-state Synergy 69 4.3 Conceptualizing the Constructability of Civil society-state Synergy 77 4.4 Identification of "Critical Juncture" in the Developmental Path 82 4.5 Sustainability of Civil society-state Synergy 83 IV 5. Conclusion and Discussion 88 5.1 Brief Review of the Heritage Movement in Penang 88 5.2 Summary of Arguments 89 5.3 Research Limitations and Directions of further research 93 Appendixes 95 References and bibliographies 100 v Index of Tables, Figures and Diagrams Fig!:!res Figure 3.1 Historical maps of Penang Island and George Town 25 Figure 3.2 Map of Federation of Malaysia after 1965 and the Location of the State of Penang 26 Figure 3.3 KOMTAR in the center of George Town 27 Figure 3.4 Free Trade Zones, Industrial Estates and communications in the State of Penang since the 1970s 29 Figure 3.5 Values of construction GDP and % Share in total GDP in Penang 1990-2006 34 Figure 3.6 Five Conservation Zones outlined in inner George Town in 1987 and one additional zone proposed in 1996 37 Figure 3.7 Birdseye's view of Lebuh Acheh-Lebuh Armenian enclave in George Town 38 Figure 3.8 A poster of the NGOs campaign against PGCC 52 Tables Table 3.1 Gazetted monument under the Antiquity Act 1976 in Malaysia and Penang prior to 1986 31 Table 3.2 Population in Penang State by ethnic group 1970-2010 31 Table 3.3 Functions of MPPP as of 2011 32 Table 3.4 Penang's Economic Structure 1970-2000 (% of GDP) 34 Table 3.5 Elections for Assembly Seats in the State of Penang 1986-1995 39 Table 3.6 Elections for Assembly Seats in the State of Penang 1999-2008 61 Table 4.1 An illustration of political opportunities of different levels 82 Table 5.1 A schematic illustration of the central arguments 91 Diagrams Diagram 3.1 Gerakan party factions 41 Diagram 4.1 Illustration of social networks and organizational ties of individuals relevant for the institutional change towards heritage conservation in Penang 80 vi List of abbreviations and Acronyms BN National Front (Barisan Nasional) BWM Heritage of Malaysia Trust (Badan Warisan Malaysia) CAP Consumer Association Penang CAPU Central Area Planning Unit CHAT Cultural Heritage Advisory Team CNP John Hopkins Comparative Nonprofit Sector Project CRA Rent Control Act CSI Civicus Civil Society Index CSO Civil Society Organization DAP Democratic Action Party EIC East Indian Company EPSM Environment Protection Society Malaysia GDP Gross Domestic Product GTWHI George Town World Heritage Incorporated GTWHS George Town World Heritage Site GTZ German Technical Cooperation Scheme HAC Heritage Advisory Committee ICOMOS International Council on Monuments and Sites ISA Internal Security Acts IZP Interim Zoning Plan of George Town KEKWA Federal Ministry of Culture and Heritage KOMTAR Menara Komtar Complex (Kompleks Tun Abdul Razak) LALA Lebuh-Acheh-Lebuh-Armenian project MCA Malaysian Chinese Association MIC Malaysian Indian Congress MNS Malaysian Nature Society MPPP Municipal Council of Penang Island NDP New Development Policy NEP New Economic Policy NGO Non-governmental Organization NPO Non-profit Organization PAS Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party PCCC Penang Chinese Chamber of Commerce PDC Penang Development Corporation PERDA Penang Regional Development Authority PGCC Penang Global City Center vii PHT Penang Heritage Trust PKR People' s Justice Party POS Political Opportunity Structure PR People's Pact (Pakatan Rakyat) SAM Friends of the Earth Malaysia (Sahabat Alanl Malaysia) SERI Socio-econom ic and Environmental Research Institute SHC State Heritage Committee SOS Save OurSel ves SPI Sustainable Penang Initiative SPU Structure Plan Unit STEP Sustainable Transport Environment for Penang UMNO United Malay National Organization UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific, and Cultural Organization URA Urban Redevelopment Authority viii Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Research Background and Research Question Since July 2008, the historic city center of Penang, Oeorge Town, has become a UNESCO World Heritage Site in conjunction with the historic area of Melaka City as the first cultural World Heritage in Malaysia. While it is not uncommon to have new World Heritage Sites in Asia, it is rare to have NOOs taking the initiatives for the nomination and playing a proactive role in the nomination process as observed in the case of Oeorge Town instead of the state being the initiator as a view conventionally taken. Indeed, it has been well researched that nation-states in Europe and North America have utilized cultural resources and realized heritage conservation for nation-building projects with public museums and monuments (Bennett 1995; Kaplan 2007; Macdonald and Fyfe 1996; Marschall 2008; Murzyn 2008; Simpson 1996). Nation-states in Asia followed the footsteps of their western counterparts and used physical objects of the past for nationalist imagination especially after the postwar decolonization movement (see for example Chung 2003; Henderson 2005). By the end of the 20th century, there was a global trend of conserving monumental buildings and heritage sites in urban environment by the state, owing to the increasing number of city areas due for urban renewal, the global rise of heritage tourism, and the need for branding of city as a culturally and economically vibrant node in the rise of global economy (Long and Labadi 2010:7). Subsequently, built