Sustainable Groundwater Management in Lagos, Nigeria: the Regulatory Framework
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SUSTAINABLE GROUNDWATER MANAGEMENT IN LAGOS, NIGERIA: THE REGULATORY FRAMEWORK ADEBOLA OGUNBA THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF GRADUATE AND POSTDOCTORAL STUDIES IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY DEGREE IN LAW GRADUATE STUDIES IN LAW FACULTY OF LAW UNIVERSITY OF OTTAWA © ADEBOLA OGUNBA, OTTAWA, CANADA, 2016 ABSTRACT This doctoral research focuses on groundwater degradation in Lagos, Nigeria. Groundwater is a critically important natural resource in Lagos that is presently troubled by pollution that emanates from solid waste and wastewater. The city generates 10,000 metric tons of waste and 350 million gallons of wastewater daily, all of which are improperly managed and are heavily polluting its groundwater. This direct environmental pollution is aggravated by indirect problems of over-urbanization, and legal and institutional shortcomings. Over- urbanization in Lagos has resulted into a monumental population of 21 million people in the tiny city, which generates the enormous quantities of solid waste and wastewater. The population places a tremendous burden on the city’s water resources, forcing residents to revert to groundwater which is suffering the plight of pollution, and hence the concern of this research. The pollution problem is worsened by civic apathy to environmental matters, and unresolved by a nascent water sector whose evolving governance structures do not adequately address the multi-dimensional pollution problem. In the final analysis, the absence of holistic and comprehensive groundwater legislation that addresses all these problems challenges the sustainability of this vital resource. The research adopts a cross-disciplinary approach by combining several methodologies: historical legal analysis, important insights from scientific studies and from sociological studies that rationalize the demographical movement to Lagos which is at the root of the pollution problem; field work investigation to confirm the fact, source, and extent of polluted groundwater; and a comparative approach by examining the European Union’s legal framework for managing groundwater and waste in order to extract sustainable practices for adoption in Lagos. It concludes with a range of recommendations for incorporation into a legal framework ii that will help to improve the sustainability of the groundwater resource. The study contributes to knowledge by attempting to close a vacuum, which is the paucity of studies that investigate underlying social factors that trigger groundwater pollution, and also by providing broad and holistic recommendations for law reform. It addresses the role of law in remediating the pollution, managing the effects of over-urbanization and overpopulation on groundwater, strengthening institutions, and eliminating legal inadequacies. iii Table of Contents ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………………………..……...xv DEDICATION………….. ………………………………………………………………..……xvii OVERVIEW OF THESIS ……………………………………………………………………...xix CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………1 1.1 Introduction to Lagos, Nigeria ……………………………………………...............1 1.1.1 Origin, Population and Economic Prominence ………………………….1 1.1.2 Groundwater in Lagos …………………………………………………...4 1.1.3 Hydrogeology of Lagos …………………………………………..……..4 1.2 Statement of Research Problem …………………………………………………...….9 1.2.1 The Environmental Problem: Municipal Solid Waste and Sewage…..……..9 1.2.2 Social Problems: Urbanization and Apathy………………………………..12 1.2.3 Institutional Problems……………………………………………………...14 1.2.3.1 A Meagre Regulatory Framework…………………….……........14 1.2.3.2 A Nascent Water Sector……………………………….………....15 1.3 Research Objective……………………………………………………….……….…16 1.4 Research Questions……………………………………………………….………….17 1.5 Methodology……………………………………………………………….…….…..17 1.6 Contribution of Research to Knowledge……………………………………………..20 1.7 Argument for the Thesis……………………………………………………………..20 1.8 Presentation of Chapters……………………………………………………………..22 iv CHAPTER 2: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT……………………………………………..25 2. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………...25 2.1 A Brief History of Sustainable Development………………………………………..29 2.1.1 Silent Spring……………………………………………………………….29 2.1.2 The World Commission on Environment and Development………………31 2.2 The Pillars of Sustainable Development……………………………………………..34 2.2.1 Ecologically Sustainable Development……………………………….…...35 2.3 Core Principles of Sustainable Development Relating to Water…………………….37 2.3.1 The International Conference on Water and the Environment…………….37 2.3.1.1 Water Conservation and Reuse……………………………….….38 2.3.1.2 Water and Sustainable Urban Development……………………..39 2.3.2 The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development…...…39 2.3.2.1 Agenda 21………………………………………………………..40 2.3.2.1.1 Integrated Water Resources Management…………..…41 2.3.2.1.2 Water Resources Assessment……………………….…41 2.3.2.1.3 Protection of Water Resources and Water Quality…….42 2.3.2.1.4 Sustainable Urban Development and Water…………...42 2.3.3 The United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development………….…43 2.3.4 The United Nations Sustainable Development Summit…………………...44 2.4 Environmental Law Principles in Sustainable Development………………………...47 v 2.4.1 The Polluter Pays Principle………………….………………….……….…47 2.4.2 The Principle of Prevention ……………………………………….………48 2.4.3 The Precautionary Principle………………………………………………..48 2.4.4 Environmental Impact Assessment………………………………………...50 2.5 Summary ………………………………………………………………………….…51 2.6 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...52 CHAPTER 3: THE NATURE, CHARACTERISTICS AND IMPORTANCE OF GROUNDWATER………………………………………………………………………........…53 3.1 Nature and Characteristics of Groundwater………………………………………….54 3.2 Groundwater’s Comparative Advantages over Surface Water ………………...……56 3.3 The Global Importance of Groundwater……………………………….…………….59 3.4 The Importance of Groundwater in Lagos…………………………………………...65 3.5 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………...68 CHAPTER 4: URBANIZATION IN LAGOS…………………………..………………………70 4.1 The Concept and Evolution of Urbanization………………………………………...70 4.1.1 Relevant Urbanization Theories and Dimensions……………………….…75 4.1.2 Rural-Urban Migration Theories …….……………………………………75 4.1.2.1 Migration to Lagos…………………………………………….…76 4.1.3 Natural Population Increases…………………………………………........79 vi 4.1.3.1 Natural Population Increases as a Population Enhancer in Lagos…………………………………………………………..80 4.1.3.2 The Implications of a Large Population: Malthusian and Bartlett’s Theories…………………………………………...82 4.2 Dimensions of Urbanization………………………………………………………....87 4.2.1 Over-Urbanization………………………………………………………....87 4.2.2 Urban Primacy……………………………………………………………..91 4.2.3 Urban Bias……………………………………………………………........94 4.3 The Significance of Lagos …………………………………………………….…….96 4.4 Problems of Large Cities…………………………………………………………….98 4.4.1 Water Shortage…………………………………………………………….99 4.4.2 Vast Waste Generation………………...…………………………………100 4.4.3 Groundwater Pollution by Solid Waste and Wastewater..………………..100 4.5 Summary………………………………………………………………….………...103 4.6 Conclusion……………………………………………………………….……........105 CHAPTER 5: PROBLEMS CONFRONTING GROUNDWATER IN LAGOS PART I: The Problem of Solid Waste in Lagos……………………………………………...107 5.1 A Conceptualization of Solid Waste………………………………………………. 107 5.1.1 Sources and Composition of Solid Waste………………………………...109 5.1.2 Move from Landfill based to Resource based Waste Management……...109 vii 5.2 Municipal Solid Waste Management in Lagos……………………………………..110 5.2.1 Profile of Lagos Waste Dumps……………………………………….......112 5.2.2 Volume of Waste Generated……………………………………………...112 5.2.3 Composition of Waste in Waste Stream………………………………….112 5.3 Pollution of Groundwater by Open Waste Dumps in Lagos……………………….114 5.3.1 Empirical Research Findings on Waste Dump Pollution of Groundwater…………………………………………………………...115 5.4 Report of Field Trip to Lagos………………………………………………………121 5.4.1 Summary of Research Findings on Solid Waste Management……..…….122 5.4.2 Analysis and Discussion …………………………………………………124 5.5 Polluted Groundwater and Human Health………………………………………….129 5.6 Mitigating Harm at Waste Disposal Sites…………………………………………..131 5.7 Probable Alternatives to Open Dumping of Waste in Lagos……………………….132 5.8 Summary………………………………………………………………………........135 PART II: The Menace of Wastewater to Groundwater 5.9 Definition of Wastewater…………………………………………………..……….137 5.10 History of Wastewater Management in Lagos…………………………………….138 5.11 Current Wastewater Management Practices………………………………………139 5.11.1 Domestic Sewage………………………………………………………..140 5.11.1.1Empirical Research Findings on Domestic Sewage Pollution of Groundwater…………………………………........143 viii 5.11.2 Industrial Wastewater…………………………………………………...144 5.11.2.1Empirical Findings on Industrial Wastewater Pollution of Groundwater……………………………………………........145 5.12 Report of Field Trip to Lagos……………………………………………………..146 5.13 Summary of Research Findings on Wastewater Problems………………………..146 5.14 Discussion and Analysis ………………………………………………………….148 5.15 Description of Chemical and Microbial Contaminants in Leachate/Wastewater....153 5.15.1 Chemical Contaminants…………………………………………............154 5.15.1.1 International Case Studies …………………………….............158 5.15.2 Microbial Contaminants…………………………………………………159 5.15.3 Profile of Hazardous Chemical and Microbial Contaminants in Groundwater ………………………………………………………...160 5.16 The Usefulness of Wastewater……………………………………………….........162 5.16.1 Treating Wastewater…………………………………………………….162 5.16.2 Using Raw Wastewater………………………………………………….164 5.17 Summary…………………………………………………………………………..166 5.18