THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES La Revue des études bahá’íes/La Revista de estudios bahá’ís

Volume 30, number 1-2 Spring-Summer 2020

A Publication of the Association for Bahá’í Studies–North America THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES LA REVUE DES ÉTUDES BAHÁ’ÍES/LA REVISTA DE ESTUDIOS BAHÁ’ÍS Volume 30 Number 1-2 Spring-Summer 2020 Publications Mail Registration No. 09448

EDITOR Michael Sabet EDITOR EMERITUS John S. Hatcher POETRY EDITOR Peter E. Murphy EDITORIAL COORDINATOR Nilufar Gordon EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Ann Boyles, Roshan Danesh, Nilufar Gordon, Pierre-Yves Mocquais, Bahhaj Taherzadeh, Valerie Warder

French translation: Louise Mailhot and Juliette Goudreau Spanish translation: Amelia Cardeña

The Journal of Bahá’í Studies (USPS #013-468) is published by the Association for Bahá’í Studies–North America. The views expressed in this Journal are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the opinions of the Editorial Board or Executive Committee of the Association for Bahá’í Studies, or authoritative explications of Bahá’í teachings.

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Articles in The Journal of Bahá’í Studies are available on EBSCO Publishing’s aggregated database. This journal is abstracted in Science of Religion Abstracts, Religion Index One: Periodicals, Index Islamicus, and Index to Book Reviews in Religion, and catalogued at American Theological Library Association and the Institut de L’Information Scientifique et Technique.

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Printed in Canada on recycled paper. ISSN 0838–0430

© Association for Bahá’í Studies 2020. All rights reserved. THE JOURNAL OF BAHÁ’Í STUDIES

LA REVUE DES ÉTUDES BAHÁ’ÍES/LA REVISTA DE ESTUDIOS BAHÁ’ÍS Volume 30 Number 1-2 Spring-Summer 2020

Contents

3 J S. H Passing the Torch

6 J B A Note from the ABS Executive Committee

8 M S From the Editor’s Desk

16 You Might Also Like to Read . . .

19 L M M Spiritual Cosmopolitanism, Transnational Migration, and the Bahá’í Faith

47 T S Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness: Progressing from Delusional Habits to Dynamic Freedom

Poem

45 S S The Believer

Illustrations

2 B A Pillars – Seat of the Universal House of Justice 18 B A Crest – Shrine of the Báb

115 Biographical Notes

Cover: R M So High a Calling (acrylic and ink on paper, 15”x11”) 2 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Pillars – Seat of the Universal House of Justice

BEN ALTAIR 3

snow-covered forest near Cedar Glen, Passing the Torch Ontario, and meeting in a room the size of an ordinary classroom with other notable friends of the Association— JOHN S. HATCHER Dr. David Smith and Dr. Jane Faily At the inception of the Five Year Plan among them—as well, of course, as the of 1974 to 1979, the Universal House founders. That was but forty-four years of Justice specifi cally called upon the ago—like yesterday in my mind. And Canadian Bahá’í community to “culti- yet, since then, this agency has become vate opportunities for formal presenta- the Association for Bahá’í Studies— tions, courses and lectureships on the North America (ABS–NA); its annual Bahá’í Faith in Canadian universities conferences now bring in thousands and other institutions of higher learn- of attendees from across the globe; ing” (21 March 1974). In response to the annual monographs have become that call, the National Spiritual Assem- a quarterly journal; and similar Bahá’í bly of Canada convened a “policy con- scholarly associations have been suc- ference”—a free-fl owing consultation cessfully established throughout the among a group of believers especially world. invited because of their connection to As of a month ago, all four of our the line of action being considered. beloved founders have winged their The result of this fruitful conven- way to serve in another realm, though ing of devoted souls was the creation doubtless they pray for us who strive by the National Spiritual Assembly of to maintain this institution, even as we the Canadian Association for Studies pray for them. My own dear brother, on the Bahá’í Faith in February 1975. Dr. William S. Hatcher, who taught me Among the members of its fi rst Exec- about the Bahá’í Faith, died in 2005, utive Committee were four individu- after having served on the National als who were, at that time, serving as Spiritual Assemblies of Switzerland, members of the National Assembly and Canada, and Russia, having written whom we are honored to consider the several major scholarly studies on the founders of the Association: Hossain Bahá’í Faith, and having pioneered Danesh, William S. Hatcher, Douglas extensively, always focused on serving Martin, and Otto Donald Rogers. the Faith wherever he resided. He was I was privileged to attend the fi rst a noted mathematician, educator, and annual conference of the Association philosopher who excelled at using log- in December 1976, where I present- ic to expound spiritual verities. During ed a paper that would develop into one of his fi nal years, he gave talks the monograph “The Metaphorical at universities across Canada and the Nature of Physical Reality.” It was United States in which he explained to a lovely time, some fi fty or sixty of overfl owing crowds of students his en- us staying in wooden cottages in the during logical proof of the existence of 4 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

God, on which occasions he challenged Faith: The Emerging Global Religion. anyone to refute his argument, and try So notable as an engaging, delightful, as they might—whether student or fac- loving, and humorous speaker, Doug ulty member—none was able to do so. served for a quarter of a century on the And at the guidance of the Universal Canadian National Spiritual Assembly. House of Justice, after his passing, ob- He was then appointed Director Gen- servances were held across Canada in eral of the Bahá’í International Com- his honor. munity’s Offi ce of Public Information, On June 2 of this year, the second of and, subsequently, he was elected to the the three founders, Dr. Hossain Danesh, Universal House of Justice, on which passed away after a life dedicated to he served for twelve years. promoting education, healing, and the Upon his passing, and in commem- establishment of peace through his writ- oration of his remarkable service, the ings, his talks, and the many creative Universal House of Justice observed, educational programs he established all “The special gifts he possessed for pre- over the globe. For twenty-two years he senting the Faith with clarity and vision served on the National Spiritual Assem- shone through as much in his scholarly bly of Canada, and upon his passing, writings as in his public presentations, this institution applauded “his keen in- including in vigorous defense of the terest in the intellectual life of the com- Bahá’í community in Iran. Much of munity” that “found expression over this work was undertaken while he many years through contributions to simultaneously discharged weighty re- the development of the Association for sponsibilities in the administration of Bahá’í Studies, strengthening its foun- the Faith.” dations and stimulating its growth.” Last year, we lost Otto Donald Rog- Some of my fondest memories of that er, a beloved and enthusiastic supporter fi rst meeting I attended were the times whom I met at that fi rst ABS confer- between sessions when he, Bill, Doug, ence, and with whom I have been fast and I would fi nd such joy in discussing friends until his passing on 28 April matters of theology and philosophy, as 2019. He was the fi rst to read my arti- well as purely practical matters about cle on metaphor, and he related it to the how to help the Association thrive and very heart of his own thoughts about expand. the function of art, especially his own On September 28 of this year, the highly regarded painting and sculpture. third of the three founders, Doug- A Canadian painter and sculptor from las Martin, passed away after having rural Saskatchewan, his abstract works served the Bahá’í Faith at the highest refl ect his Bahá’í beliefs about unity in levels of administration, in addition to diversity, as well as his love of the nat- having co-written with Bill possibly the ural landscapes so lastingly dear to his most widely distributed introductory heart. His work has adorned the covers book about the Bahá’í Faith, The Bahá’í of two issues of this journal. Passing the Torch 5

In addition to his prestigious Among his many accolades were achievements as an artist—his works earning an honorary doctorate in sci- are held in many private and public ence from Amherst College in 1989 collections and galleries in Canada and being selected to give the 34th and other countries—his service to Balyuzi Memorial Lecture at the annu- the Bahá’í Faith was recognized by al meeting of the Association of Bahá’í the Bahá’í World Centre. At the be- Studies in 2016, a talk appropriately ti- hest of the Universal House of Justice, tled “The Intellectual Life of the Bahá’í in 1988 Rogers left the University of Community.” Of course, perhaps the Saskatchewan and moved to Haifa, Is- most memorable of his many contribu- rael, where for ten years he served as tions to the education and progress of a member of the International Teach- the global Bahá’í community was the ing Centre. In 1998, Rogers returned early work he did in Colombia devel- to Canada where he settled in Milford oping the Ruhi Institute courses and the in Prince Edward County, Ontario, to framework for the institute process as a continue his art. whole. For the past two decades, this This year also saw the passing, on model of education and action for com- September 25, of another luminary munity building on a global scale has in the fi eld of education, Dr. Far- been at the forefront of massive com- zam Arbab. Among his myriad other munity development and enrollment, creative endeavors in service of the most prominently in some of the most Bahá’í Faith and its institutions, Dr. remote regions of the world. In some Arbab was known for his avid support of these places, the progress in the Ad- of the Association of Bahá’í Studies, ministrative Order of the Bahá’í Faith and heralded for his presidency, from now provides glimpses of the vision 1974 to 1988, of the Fundación para la set forth by Shoghi Eff endi of the rise, Aplicación y Enseñanza de las Cien- in the fullness of time, of “the Bahá’í cias (FUNDAEC), a nongovernmental Commonwealth of the future, of which development agency in Colombia on this vast Administrative Order is the whose board of directors he continued sole framework,” and which “is, both to serve until his passing. in theory and practice, not only unique Dr. Arbab was a member of the Na- in the entire history of political insti- tional Spiritual Assembly of Colombia tutions, but can fi nd no parallel in the from 1970 to 1980, and then served as annals of any of the world’s recognized a Continental Counsellor from 1980 to religious systems” (World Order 151). 1988. He was subsequently appointed In the context of the passing of these to the International Teaching Centre in giants on whose shoulders we stand, 1988, and he was elected to serve as a it is now my privilege, after seven member of the Universal House of Jus- years of editing the journal which they tice in 1993, a position he held for two founded, to pass the torch of editor- decades, from 1993 to 2013. ship to another generation of scholars. 6 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Therefore, it is with utmost pleasure that with this issue we introduce you to A Note from the new Editor for the journal, Michael the Executive Sabet, who, over the course of the past six months, has already proven himself Committee of the extremely capable and an inspired ap- pointment by our beloved institutions. Association for Dedicated to Bahá’í scholarship Bahá’í Studies and inaugurated by the founders of the Association of Bahá’í Studies more than three decades ago, the Journal of JULIA BERGER, S Bahá’í Studies has garnered the respect of scholars by maintaining the highest of standards and by establishing a vital As we welcome the new Editor of the space for those who wish to explore Journal for Bahá’í Studies, Michael the integration of the Bahá’í teachings Sabet, the Association for Bahá’í Stud- with the vast variety of fi elds that can ies wishes to recognize the rich and fi nd in those teachings and beliefs the wide-ranging contributions of Dr. John mizán—the standard—by which they Hatcher, now retiring from that role, can assess their eff orts in whatever ac- under whose gifted leadership over the ademic endeavors they pursue. past seven years the stature and content In conclusion, I am confi dent that of the Journal advanced markedly. In with Michael’s guidance—assisted November 2013, he assumed the po- ably by Editorial Coordinator Nilu- sition of Editor with enthusiasm and far Gordon (without whom this eff ort vigor, pouring his talents and creative would not be possible), and greatly in- energy into this arena of service. Many spired by the sterling eff orts modeled readers were already familiar with his by the noble forebears, Arbab, Danesh, distinguished academic career, which Hatcher, Martin, and Rogers—the included forty years as Professor of journal will continue to serve an in- English Literature at the University of creasingly important function for both South Florida, and with his illustrious the Association of Bahá’í Studies and contributions to Bahá’í scholarship the Bahá’í community at large. with over twenty-fi ve published books and over one hundred poems and ar- ticles spanning the fi elds of literature and philosophy as well as Bahá’í the- ology and exegesis. In addition to his vast erudition, he brought to the role of Editor a penchant for frank and honest discourse, a jovial spirit, and a subtle sense of humor. A Note from the Executive Committee 7

Over the past seven years, the Jour- and with a personal and refi ned touch nal advanced in a number of signifi cant invited us to engage thoughtfully with ways. Publication increased in fre- the articles presented therein. quency from one to three issues a year, To attempt to summarize Dr. Hatch- off ering a growing range of topics, in- er’s multifaceted contributions to the cluding seminal articles on the Bahá’í Journal is to fail, inevitably, to do approach to racial unity, the intellec- them justice. The theme underlying tual life of the Bahá’í community, a them all is his dedication to devoting framework for Bahá’í scholarship, and his talents and energy to the advance- the nature of the harmony between sci- ment of Bahá’í scholarship, in service ence and religion; further, poetry and to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s prayer that God’s photography were added as new fea- loved ones might become “piercing tures. To promote greater access to the rays of the mind shedding forth their intellectual fruits of the Journal, the light in this, the ‘fi rst life’” (Bahá’í publication transitioned from print to Prayers). In tribute, then, we can do digital, with each issue becoming im- no better than to bring to mind a pas- mediately publicly available for down- sage from one of his favorite poems, load at no cost, while a print version re- “The Windhover,” in which the poet mained available for those who prefer sees, in the aerial feats of a falcon, the that format. In close collaboration with harmonious alignment of a creature Nilufar Gordon, Editorial Coordinator, with nature—which, as in the Bahá’í and with the support of the Editorial conception, is ultimately an expression Committee, John oversaw signifi cant of the Will of God—and a reminder of advances in the systematization of all the Manifestation’s perfect alignment aspects of the editorial process. with that Will: Among Dr. Hatcher’s greatest con- . . . . how he rung upon the rein of tributions to the advancement of the a wimpling wing Journal was his tireless outreach to In his ecstasy! then off , off forth scholars to continually expand and on swing, diversify the pool of perspectives rep- As a skate’s heel sweeps smooth resented in its intellectual output. He on a bow-bend: the hurl and encouraged younger scholars and un- gliding derrepresented voices, including wom- Rebuff ed the big wind. My heart en and people of color, to contribute in hiding their work and gave generously of his Stirred for a bird, – the achieve of, time and energy to assist and mentor the mastery of the thing! authors as they worked to refi ne their submissions. His framing of every is- Brute beauty and valour and act, sue, “From the Editor’s Desk,” broad- oh, air, pride, plume, here ened our vision, deepened our appreci- Buckle! AND the fi re that breaks ation of the signifi cance of the content, from thee then, a billion 8 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Times told lovelier, more danger- ous, O my chevalier! (Hopkins) From the Editor’s Desk As we survey Dr. Hatcher’s achieve- ments in scholarship and mentorship during his tenure as Editor, our hearts MICHAEL SABET are indeed stirred at the mastery of the thing! We express our deep gratitude to Before you begin to read the articles Dr. Hatcher for the inspired and dis- contained in this edition of the Journal tinguished years of service which have of Bahá’í Studies, I encourage you to brought the Journal to its present stage close the journal—or scroll back to the of development. We look forward to start—and spend some time with the his continuing engagement as Editor artwork featured on its cover. “So High Emeritus and wish him all the best as a Calling” is an illuminated calligraph- he directs his talents and focus to a host ical rendering of a passage whose En- of other scholarly undertakings, which glish translation can be found in Glean- will undoubtedly continue to enrich ings from the Writings of Bahá’u’lláh. our understanding of the vast ocean of The artist, Reza Mostmand, has divid- the Bahá’í Writings and their signifi - ed his canvas in two. The lower half of cance for our time. the piece is broken up and textured by rows of sharp mountains, jagged and foreboding. But the eye is drawn up- wards to the golden orb, rising behind the bare mountains as if in answer to Bahá’u’lláh’s call in the Fire Tablet: “Thou seest the Dayspring of Thine utterance in the darkness of creation: Where is the sun of the heaven of Thy grace, O Light-Giver of the worlds?” (Bahá’í Prayers). The mountains are separated into distinct ranges, each range further divided into individual peaks; yet, the light illuminating them is one. As if to represent that illumina- tion, fl owing down from the orb onto the peaks—and thus bridging the two halves of the canvas—is the Word. The text of the Persian calligraphy reminds us: From the Editor’s Desk 9

Ye are the stars of the heaven of act? Will we become even more divid- understanding, the breeze that ed—as individuals, communities, and stirreth at the break of day, the countries—separate and isolated peaks soft-fl owing waters upon which in the darkness of creation? Or will we must depend the very life of all weld ourselves, in the fi re of adversity, men, the letters upon His sacred into a greater degree of unity? scroll. . . Whoso is worthy of so It is a vast question, and it goes high a calling, let him arise and beyond, and runs beneath, the present promote it. (Bahá’í Prayers) crisis. In case we were tempted to lose sight of it in the day-to-day details We might imagine, looking on the of coping with the pandemic—how scene, that the sun represents God, to stay safe, protect those nearest to Single and Alone, while the mountains us, and rearrange our lives in a world stand for us human beings, separate suddenly upended—the question reas- and individual. The Word draws us serted itself in another guise over the upwards, out of our separateness and summer. Racial prejudice, described individualism. We are called higher, by Shoghi Eff endi as not only the called to serve, called to refl ect the “most vital and challenging issue con- light of oneness through which we can fronting the Bahá’í community” but understand the true meaning of our also a “corrosion” that has “attacked diff erences and see beauty in diversity the whole social structure of American rather than only the potential to divide. society” (Advent), was brought to the Separateness and oneness, the high fore of our collective consciousness calling of service—these seem apt con- once again by the murder of George cepts with which to introduce this edi- Floyd. This murder, only one in a chain tion of the Journal of Bahá’í Studies, of injustices that has lengthened even published as we still struggle against the since then, sparked demonstrations coronavirus pandemic. Both articles in that began in the United States but soon this edition explicitly consider the im- rippled out and resonated globally. And plications of the pandemic, while the underneath the pain and anger, hope featured poem, discussing the theme of and despair, resistance and denial ex- suff ering, cannot help but speak to the pressed in the demonstrations and the moment as well. As the authors of both reactions to them, the same question: articles point out, this global health Fundamentally, are we diff erent, or crisis has done more than highlight the are we one? strains, tensions, and defects in exist- Both of the articles in this edition ing structures of society, from the local can help us advance our ability to to the global. The pandemic has posed contribute to the discourses of society a challenging question to humanity, bearing on this crucial question. and it awaits our response: in the face Dr. Layli Miron’s article, “Spiri- of collective affl iction, how will we tual Cosmopolitanism, Transnational 10 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Migration, and the Bahá’í Faith,” providence, and dominion.” Thus, for highlights one of the avenues through cosmopolitanism to succeed, it must do which thinkers have developed and so in spite of religion: religion must be promoted the idea of the oneness of subordinated to a conception of human humankind: the philosophical tradi- oneness, and those features of each re- tion of cosmopolitanism, which, in its ligion that would undermine this one- ethical dimension, “asserts that every ness must be muted or segregated from human has obligations to every other our public life. (This view of religion, human, regardless of diff ering group of course, is not unique to cosmopoli- affi liations.” Miron takes a fresh ap- tan thought; liberal political theory has proach to cosmopolitanism by provid- grappled since at least John Locke with ing a theoretical justifi cation, and ini- the problem of whether, and to what tial empirical support, for the premise degree, religious convictions must be that our spiritual commitments, rooted hived off from public life in order to in religion, can help us to “construct a protect fundamental human freedoms, persuasive cosmopolitanism.” It is an including freedom of conscience.) important claim, suggesting as it does Another diff erent perspective, but an alternative to those views that see one in which cosmopolitanism and re- religion and cosmopolitanism in oppo- ligion are again at odds, can be found sition and would subordinate one to the in the hopes of some religious adher- other. ents for worldwide unity to be fi nally On one such view, religion is just realized through the triumph of their another feature of the individual’s particular religion—whatever it may identity, separating them from those be—and its acceptance by all. In many who do not share it. Indeed, because religious narratives, this is expected it makes claims about what is most to come only after an eschatological important, religion may be the most event.1 divisive of all identities, putting us in irreducible opposition to those who 1 Both of these perspectives fi nd do not belong to our creed. Adher- notes of resonance in the Bahá’í Writings. ents of this view would also rightly On the one hand, Bahá’u’lláh proclaims: point out that religious concepts and “That which the Lord hath ordained as the language are often used to articulate sovereign remedy and mightiest instrument and strengthen the kind of national- for the healing of all the world is the union ism that sets itself in opposition to of all its peoples in one universal Cause, cosmopolitan universalism. As Miron one common Faith” (Gleanings). On the points out, “the nationalism that op- other hand, religion itself must, if neces- sary, be subordinated to the imperative of poses cosmopolitanism itself relies on creating unity: “religion must be the cause deep-seated faith concepts with strong of unity, harmony and agreement among religious resonance, such as destiny, mankind. If it is the cause of discord and From the Editor’s Desk 11

In contrast to these views, Miron, fairly be said that the picture Miron in her elaboration of the concept of paints shows that within the context of “spiritual cosmopolitanism,” shows the Bahá’í teachings, a cosmopolitan how religion, and the Bahá’í Faith in outlook is reinforced by the conviction particular, can accurately be viewed as that unity is not only a desirable condi- reinforcing, rather than opposing, cos- tion, but the divinely destined direction mopolitanism. She not only highlights in which humanity is moving. In an the Bahá’í teachings that ground this age of resurgent nationalism, this per- harmonious relationship—and they are spective can inspire a faith in a cosmo- myriad, given that the oneness of hu- politan future—and a consequent mo- mankind is “the pivot round which all tivation to act diligently to help build the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh revolve” that future—that might, from a purely (Shoghi Eff endi, World Order)—but secular perspective, be hard to sustain. also shows how these beliefs, far from Additionally, Miron’s work is a valu- being mere pious abstractions, have able contribution to a way of thinking been operationalized and lived by the about the phenomenon of migration Bahá’í migrants she interviews, in- that sees those who leave their coun- dividuals for whom the interplay be- tries, even under duress, not as passive tween unity and diversity has had to victims of forces beyond their control, be worked out on the ground in their but as protagonists with the capacity day-to-day lives in a new country and to make a constructive contribution cultural milieu. to the discourses and social reality of Further, Miron shows how the phe- their new homes. They are not merely nomenon of religion, which at its core benefi ciaries of whatever cosmopolitan concerns itself with the universal, has attitudes their hosts might grace them the capacity to bring life to cosmopoli- with; they can themselves be pow- tan commitments, by bringing the lan- erful agents of cosmopolitan ethics, guage of love and spirit to a discourse animated not least by their spiritual that has been criticized as overly ra- convictions. tional. She persuasively argues for the It is to be hoped that other scholars particular aptitude of the Bahá’í Faith, will see in the “spiritual cosmopolitan- a religion born in the age of national- ism” posited by Miron a fruitful way ism and speaking to the questions of to contribute to the cosmopolitan dis- our time, to bring these strengths to course, and will continue the theoret- the cosmopolitan agenda. It can also ical and empirical exploration of how our deepest convictions, born of our sincere desire to know spiritual truth, hostility, if it leads to separation and cre- can be a powerful aid rather than a det- ates confl ict, the absence of religion would riment to the project of building human be preferable in the world” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Promulgation). solidarity. 12 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

In a 1985 message to the peoples of Dynamic Freedom” explores how we the world, the Universal House of Jus- tend to view reality today and wheth- tice writes: er our ways of seeing reality serve us well. In the fi rst part of his paper, Smith Unbridled nationalism, as distin- diagnoses a wide range of pathologies guished from a sane and legiti- in how we live, act, and associate, mate patriotism, must give way to and traces each to one or both of two a wider loyalty, to the love of hu- delusional habits of mind. One is the manity as a whole. Bahá’u’lláh’s habit of totalizing reality—of imposing statement is: “The earth is but one a single, static story upon all facets of country, and mankind its citizens.” existence, which then leads us to twist The concept of world citizenship and skew our reading of reality itself in is a direct result of the contrac- order to fi t our chosen story. Depending tion of the world into a single on the totalizing story we adopt, our bi- neighbourhood through scientifi c ased reading of reality might deny our advances and of the indisputable oneness; conversely, it might impose a interdependence of nations. Love false oneness based on uniformity or of all the world’s peoples does not hierarchy that ignores the true diversi- exclude love of one’s country. The ty of our reality. The other is the habit advantage of the part in a world of fragmenting reality, which takes the society is best served by promot- valuable human capacity of analysis to ing the advantage of the whole. an extreme where it sees only parts and (“The Promise of World Peace”) loses sight of the whole. The results of this habit can include an unbalanced Surely this message is today timelier individualism, where any attempt to than ever. In the face of the current fi nd coherence between, or discern an pandemic, choices made by commu- objective truth behind, our varied in- nities and governments that ignore dividual perceptions of phenomena is the oneness of humanity—a truth that abandoned, and each person is left to the virus, which does not choose to choose, and act according to, whatever infect based on language or passport, subjective story they desire to impose affi rms—will fail to meet the moment, on reality. because they reject reality. By connecting so many of our Our choices to move in the direc- problematic ways of being and do- tion of unity or of separation will be ing to these two underlying habits of intimately informed by how we view thought, Smith maps out what might and understand reality itself. Dr. Todd otherwise seem to us a mass of unre- Smith’s “Crisis and the Power of an lated symptoms. This sets the stage for Inclusive Historical Consciousness: the second part of the paper, in which Progressing from Delusional Habits to Smith moves to prescription, showing From the Editor’s Desk 13 how embracing an inclusive historical drawing on a wide range of sources, consciousness lies at the foundation of from many disciplines, to weave the breaking out of these delusional habits tapestry of his argument. The attentive of mind. With the help of this histori- reader will fi nd many insights, and, it cal consciousness, we can begin to de- is hoped, will come away from their velop the capacity to “think and act in reading better equipped to engage in accordance with a number of dynamic discourse with thoughtful individuals interplays,” not least of which is the about the needs of the age and the ways interplay between unity and diversity, in which the diagnosis and prescription which transforms the apparent tension of Bahá’u’lláh, the Divine Physician, in the question “are we one, or are we speak to those needs. many?” into a powerful driving force As we turn to the poem that con- for human progress and well-being. cludes this edition, “The Believer” by A reader familiar with the Writings Shirin Sabri, we shift from the deep of the Central Figures of the Bahá’í diagnosis of the underlying patholo- Faith, and the messages of its insti- gies of our age to the immediacy and tutions, bearing on the condition of intimacy of suff ering, a poignant theme society, will see in Smith’s work an of the time we are passing through. The invaluable contribution to bringing poem is an exploration of the story of the concepts found in those works into Job, that ancient meditation on suff er- deeper discourse with the ideas of those ing reiterated in the Bible, the Qur’an, perceptive thinkers who have, with and Bahá’u’lláh’s Tablet of Patience, greater or lesser clarity, seen the fl aws also known as the Tablet of Job. The besetting our modern world, and who voice of the poem belongs to Job’s are actively seeking suitable remedies. wife, who, in Bahá’u’lláh’s account, is On one level, then, the article can be her husband’s faithful support and the thought of as a work of translation: a witness to his woes. The poem shows signal eff ort to take concepts from the us the intensity of suff ering to which Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh and present Job and his wife are exposed, and an them in terms understandable in the old lesson is reiterated: if there is evil discourses of wider society. affl icting Job and his wife, it is not Bahá’u’lláh has written that “in the to be found in the suff ering which an estimation of men of wisdom keen- inscrutable providence has meted out ness of understanding is due to keen- to them, but in the contempt, cruelty, ness of vision” (Tablets). The author’s and indiff erence of their neighbors. In keenness of vision in this piece is re- a time when so many are suff ering— markable: he masterfully traces the from illness, economic hardship, racial common threads connecting so many prejudice, and the ever-mounting im- of the ailments of our age, and he en- pacts of our changing climate—this is a riches the reader’s understanding by timely reminder. Perhaps in the shared 14 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 experience of suff ering we can gain an Center of Bahá’u’lláh’s Covenant and appreciation for the oneness of human- the Perfect Exemplar for His followers, ity. The testament of suff ering might that “His slightest word aff ected me open us to the cosmopolitan outlook as a summons. ‘Come up higher!’ He Miron speaks to, reminding us that this seemed to say” (Portals 55). Shoghi Ef- fundamental facet of the human con- fendi continued this same call upwards, dition knows nothing of borders, lan- sending out a stream of encouragement, guages, and creeds. And it might help during some of the darkest years of the us feel, even if the delusional habits of bloodiest century in human history, for mind that we all to some extent fi nd the Bahá’ís to redouble their eff orts to ourselves entrapped in do not quite al- advance the Divine Plan. And today, we low us to see, that the suff ering person can turn to these words of the Universal in front of us is the same as ourselves. House of Justice: And if looking at each other isn’t enough to make us see our underlying When society is in such diffi culty oneness, Job reminds us of that other and distress, the responsibility of great bounty that suff ering can bring. the Bahá’ís to make a construc- Perhaps at the fi rst promptings of tive contribution to human aff airs pain—or perhaps only at the very end becomes more pronounced. This of our resources and capacity, faced is a moment when distinct but in- with the “poverty of [our] own nature” terrelated lines of action converge (Prayers and Meditations XXXVI) and upon a single point, when the call unable anymore to deny that we are to service rings aloud. . . . Bahá’í a “wretched creature knocking at the contributions to discourses newly door of Thy grace” (Bahá’í Prayers, prevalent in society are generating “Long Obligatory Prayer”)—we turn heightened interest, and there is upwards. And there, in the common a responsibility to be discharged Source of all, we can see the ultimate here too. At a time when the ur- proof and foundation of our oneness. gency of attaining higher levels As the art adorning the cover of this of unity, founded on the incontest- edition reminds us, we look upward not able truth of humanity’s oneness, only to worship or to ask for aid, but is becoming apparent to larger because we are called to rise. And so and larger numbers, society stands we return to the question posed at the in need of clear voices that can outset: in the face of collective adver- articulate the spiritual principles sity, how will we act? Bahá’u’lláh has that underlie such an aspiration. (9 summoned humanity to a high calling, May 2020) and this summons has been constantly reiterated in this Dispensation. Howard It is the sincere hope of the Editori- Colby Ives wrote of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the al Committee that the contributions in From the Editor’s Desk 15 this edition may be of service to those has shown immense patience and for- who aspire to raise “clear voices” in bearance during the transition process this way. “Whoso is worthy of so high and helped ensure the continuity of the a calling, let him arise and promote it” Journal’s work while I learn the ropes. (Bahá’u’lláh, qtd. in Bahá’í Prayers). Finally, I want to express my love I would like to conclude by attempt- and gratitude to my family, and in par- ing to express, however inadequately, ticular my wife Mahtab, without whose my deep appreciation and thanks to unfailing encouragement and aff ection all those who have mentored, guided, I would not be able to take on this work. and assisted me in taking on the re- sponsibilities of Editor of the Journal W C of Bahá’í Studies. First and foremost, I thank Dr. John Hatcher. His years of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. The Promulgation of dedicated service provide a model of Universal Peace. 1912. Bahá’í excellence and devotion that would Reference Library, www. have been nothing but daunting had it bahai.org/library/authorita- not been accompanied by a degree of tive-texts/abdul-baha/promul- warm and generous encouragement gation-universal-peace/. and counsel that I cannot properly con- Bahá’í Prayers: A Selection of Prayers vey here. Even with John’s continuing Revealed by Bahá’u’lláh, support in his role as Editor Emeritus, the Báb, and ‘Abdu’l-Bahá. the prospect of trying to fi ll such big U.S. Bahá’í Publishing Trust. shoes would, I think, be paralyzing, www.bahai.org/library/au- were it not for the constant accompani- thoritative-texts/prayers/ba- ment and guidance of Nilufar Gordon, hai-prayers/. the Journal’s Editorial Coordinator. Bahá’u’lláh. Gleanings from the Writ- I cannot imagine taking on this work ings of Bahá’u’lláh. Bahá’í without her help. I would also like to Reference Library, www. express my profound appreciation and bahai.org/library/authorita- gratitude to the Editorial Committee tive-texts/bahaullah/glean- of the Journal—Ann Boyles, Bahhaj ings-writings-bahaullah/. Taherzadeh, Pierre-Yves Mocquais, ———. Prayers and Meditations by Roshan Danesh, and Valerie Ward- Bahá’u’lláh. Bahá’í Refer- er—as well as to Derik Smith, who ence Library, www.bahai.org/ goes beyond his role as a member of library/authoritative-texts/ the Executive Committee of the As- bahaullah/prayers-medita- sociation for Bahá’í Studies and is tions/. devoting signifi cant time and energy ———. Tablets of Bahá’u’lláh. to the work of the Editorial Commit- Bahá’í Reference Library, tee. Each of these dedicated members www.bahai.org/library/au- 16 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

thoritative-texts/bahaullah/ Y ... tablets-bahaullah/. Hopkins, Gerard Manley. “The Wind- As a service to our readers, we are hover.” Poetry Foundation, including the URLs to articles related www.poetryfoundation.org/ to the subjects presented in this issue. poems/44402/the-wind- These are articles that have been previ- hover. ously published in the Journal and are Ives, Howard Colby. Portals to Free- available for free on our website. dom. 1937. Bahá’í Library In addition, we wish to bring your Online, bahai-library.com/ attention to the fi rst book to be printed ives_portals_freedom. under the ABS imprimatur after more Shoghi Eff endi. The Advent of Divine than twenty years: Dr. Michael Karl- Justice. 25 Dec. 1938. Bahá’í berg’s Constructing Social Reality. Reference Library, www. In the words of Dr. Layli Maparyan, bahai.org/library/authorita- professor and chair of Africana Studies tive-texts/shoghi-effendi/ad- at Wellesley College, it is “[a]n urgent vent-divine-justice/. read for those willing to think deeply ———. The World Order of about the challenges confronting us in Bahá’u’lláh. 1938. Bahá’í Ref- these perplexing times and arise to new erence Library, www.bahai. forms of constructive action.” org/library/authoritative-texts/ shoghi-effendi/world-or- C S R: A der-bahaullah/. I N F- Universal House of Justice. Letter to S C the National Spiritual Assem- M K bly of the Bahá’ís of Canada, https://shop.bahaistudies.ca/product/ Naw-Rúz1973. constructing-social-reality/1 ———. Letter to All National Spiritu- al Assemblies, 9 May 2020. Some of the most signifi cant obstacles ———. “The Promise of World Peace.” to human well-being today are habits October 1985. Bahá’í Refer- of Western thought that have been ex- ence Library, www.bahai.org/ ported around the world. These habits library/authoritative-texts/the- include dichotomous conceptions of universal-house-of-justice/ truth and relativity, cynical concep- messages/19851001_001/1. tions of knowledge and power, and confl ictual conceptions of science and religion. Michael Karlberg articulates a framework for reconciling each of these false dichotomies in a critically informed and constructive manner. You Might Also Like to Read... 17

He does this, in philosophical terms, https://bahaistudies.ca/up- by reconciling ontological founda- loads/2018/07/28.12-Dykema.pdf tionalism and epistemological rela- tivism within a moderate social con- The idea that adversity may off er spir- structionist framework. Karlberg’s itual insight and opportunities for per- timely and accessible argument is sonal growth—a common theme in the off ered with a spirit of humility and teachings of the Bahá’í Faith—is par- open-mindedness, inviting dialogue ticularly worthy of consideration. This characterized by the same spirit, born paper refl ects on how both the Bahá’í out of genuine concern for the better- Writings and the literature on benefi t ment of humanity at this critical junc- fi nding can enhance the understanding ture in history. and applications of mental health re- covery principles. “A C E- : T R- “L R S R T R” L R” T S M K H A https://doi.org/10.31581/JBS-19.1-4.3(2009) https://doi.org/10.31581/JBS-25.3.3(2015)

The fi eld of epistemology has been Bahá’í contribution to discourses con- characterized by a perennial tension cerned with the betterment of the world between two broadly contrasting ap- and the advancement of civilization is proaches to knowledge—one associ- a vast fi eld of diverse activity, and it is ated with the search for foundational by no means the intention of this arti- truth, the other associated with asser- cle to address it in any comprehensive tions regarding the relativity of truth. way. The purpose of this discussion is This paper resolves this tension with- to make a modest off ering to under- in the framework of a consultative standing one aspect of this endeavor— epistemology. The ultimate purpose learning to read social reality in light of the paper is to articulate an epis- of the Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh—as temology that supports the develop- it relates to the thinking behind the ment of more integrative approaches programs of the Institute for Studies in to knowledge. Global Prosperity. The Institute works in a relatively narrow area of this fi eld “T A: U to learn systematically about enhanc- B’ W B F- ing the capacity of individuals and E U groups to participate in some of the A M H R- prevalent discourses of society. P” L-R D 18 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Crest – Shrine of the Báb

BEN ALTAIR 19

cosmopolitisme spirituel, dont les princi- Spiritual pes d’amour universel et d’harmonie se retrouvent dans les enseignements de la foi Cosmopolitanism, bahá’íe, comme pouvant être la clé d’une Transnational telle solidarité sans frontières. En s’appuy- ant sur des données recueillies lors d’entre- Migration, and the tiens avec des réfugiés iraniens qui se sont 1 établis aux États-Unis, l’auteure montre Bahá’í Faith comment les principes cosmopolites in- fl uencent les bahá’ís dans leur vision du monde. Cette étude de cas met en évidence LAYLI MARIA MIRON le fait que le cosmopolitisme spirituel peut enrichir le discours public en faveur de l’inclusion d’autres personnes, comme les Abstract immigrants. Scholars have wrestled with the question of how people can be persuaded to extend feel- Resumen ings of kinship beyond their own ethnic or En el ámbito académico se ha tratado de re- national groups. This article identifi es spir- solver la cuestión de como hacer que el sen- itual cosmopolitanism, whose principles of tido de consanguinidad que tiene la gente, universal love and harmony can be found in se extienda más allá de sus propios grupos the teachings of the Bahá’í Faith, as key to étnicos y nacionales. Este artículo identi- such borderless solidarity. Drawing on data fi ca al cosmopolitismo espiritual, cuyos gathered from interviews with Iranian refu- principios de amor universal y armonía se gees who have settled in the United States, pueden encontrar en las enseñanzas de la the article demonstrates how cosmopolitan fé bahá’í, como clave para esta solidari- principles shape the worldviews of Bahá’ís. dad sin fronteras. Basándose en los datos Through this case study, spiritual cosmo- recopilados de entrevistas con refugiados politanism’s potential to enrich public argu- iraníes quienes han llegado a radicar en los ments for the inclusion of Others such as Estados Unidos, este artículo demuestra immigrants becomes apparent. como los principios cosmopolitas forman los la visión del mundo de los bahá’ís. Por Résumé medio de este estudio, se volverá evidente Des chercheurs se sont penchés sur la el potencial del cosmopolitismo espiritual question de savoir comment persuader les para enriquecer el impulso social que ex- gens d’étendre leur sentiment de parenté iste para promover la inclusión de los gru- à des personnes qui ne sont pas de leur pos enajenados, tales como los migrantes. propre groupe ethnique ou de leur propre pays. L’auteure de cet article identifi e le Imagine seeing our planet from space. 1 To all those who helped improve The only borders are those where land this article, including Dr. Cheryl Glenn, ends and water begins; the national Michael Sabet and other Journal of Bahá’í Studies editors and reviewers, and many boundaries we know so well are in- others, I extend my gratitude. visible. As we look down, we can see 20 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 hints of motion in the whorled clouds to decisive worldwide action. But for adorning the globe; we may imagine this to happen, humanity, steeped in an the movement of people, invisible to us-versus-them mindset, must be per- us from this height, as equally serene suaded that cosmopolitanism is a better and unimpeded. Is this borderless world approach than nationalism and its atten- not ideal? This question animates the dant factionalisms. philosophy known as cosmopolitanism, For the resources to construct a per- born (so the story goes) when the Greek suasive cosmopolitanism, I look to spir- philosopher Diogenes proclaimed him- ituality, rooted in the understanding and self a citizen of the world. At its most practice of religion. Though every world basic, cosmopolitanism asserts that ev- religion can furnish some resources for ery human has obligations to every oth- this project, the Bahá’í Faith, founded er human, regardless of diff ering group in the era of nationalism, provides the affi liations. most elaborated perspective on cosmo- On the ground, however, we can politanism. While its ideas have yet to see what was hidden to us from space: attain mainstream uptake, they have the vastness and complexity of human gained a fervent following worldwide, mobility. Recently, the coronavirus inspiring Bahá’ís ranging from novel- pandemic has brought humanity’s ists to refugees to forge transnational transnational movements into sharp- and intercultural connections. In this er relief than ever, as the virus rapidly article, I theorize spiritual cosmopol- spread from its point of origin to the itanism through the lens of the Bahá’í entire world, aff ecting every country Faith. I emphasize migration as a cru- within mere months. This global crisis cible in which cosmopolitan ideals are unmistakably confi rms that humanity is tested and refi ned, for in the integration intricately interconnected, regardless of of migrants the imperative to build har- the borders that purport to separate na- mony without erasing diff erence meets tions from each other. A virus respects a major challenge: the tendency of the no such divisions. Nevertheless, many majority to overrun minorities. political leaders worldwide have used To elucidate spiritual cosmopolitan- it to stoke their constituents’ fear of ism, I fi rst address the tension inherent outsiders and have blamed other coun- in appealing to religion as a source for tries instead of collaborating with them. cosmopolitanism. I then provide some The consequences can be quantifi ed in background on secular cosmopolitan the ever-rising death toll, which would theory and on its spiritual counterpart indubitably be lower if a concerted in- in Bahá’í teachings. As a scholar sit- ternational response had been devised. uated in the fi eld of rhetoric, with its Planetary catastrophes such as the pan- focus on how people employ language demic and climate change underscore to spark action, I am interested in how the urgency of humanity adopting a believers understand and communicate cosmopolitan vision—the prerequisite about scripture, so my next move is to Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 21 investigate how rank-and-fi le Bahá’ís several dozen immigrants from an interpret the teachings. The writings of array of countries, together with their contemporary Bahá’í author Bahiyyih family members, gathered for a nat- Nakhjavani form a launchpad for exam- uralization ceremony. My husband, ining the perspectives of Iranian Bahá’í Sergey, who is from Moldova, was refugees, an examination I conduct by there, along with me. As part of this presenting the results of interviews. ceremony, the presiding judge gave a Having been forced to cross national speech on American exceptionalism, borders and join a new society, my in- which, as he explained, means that the terviewees share perspectives informed United States is distinguished from by their fi rsthand experience with nav- other nations by a special mission. He igating diff erence. Overall, this article related how this mission, in the form demonstrates that spiritual cosmopoli- of Manifest Destiny, drove the nation’s tanism, motivated by a divine mandate westward expansion in the nineteenth for universal love and harmony, has the century, and how it has made the Unit- potential to enrich public arguments ed States a protagonist in international for the inclusion of Others such as politics, as it seeks to spread democra- immigrants. cy around the world. What the judge did not mention were the violent con- C F sequences of American exceptionalism for the indigenous people exterminated At fi rst glance, religion may seem like and displaced in the name of Manifest a strange place to ground a cosmo- Destiny, for the enslaved Africans who politan worldview. Not only do many powered the country’s expansion, and religious communities in practice tend for the denizens of countries ranging towards insularity and even outright from Chile to Vietnam that have been xenophobia, but the nationalism that subject to U.S. intervention or invasion. opposes cosmopolitanism itself relies In the judge’s talk were entwined on deep-seated faith concepts with immigration, nationalism, and—im- strong religious resonance, such as plicitly—religion. His audience was destiny, providence, and dominion. immigrants being welcomed into the Before considering how cosmopolitan- citizenry of an “exceptional” nation ism, too, can draw strength from faith, and, at the same time, also being ed- it will be fruitful to look at an example ucated about the “proper” disposition of religious arguments being used to toward the United States: one of awe reinforce a nationalistic worldview. at the singular accomplishments of this country. Exceptionalism of the kind N F promoted by the judge is intensely na- tionalistic, since it sets this nation apart At the federal courthouse in William- from, and above, the rest of the world. sport, Pennsylvania, in May 2019, Its rationale, exposed by the judge’s 22 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 reference to Manifest Destiny, is fun- topic indicates the enduring ascendan- damentally religious. cy of exceptionalism with its almost re- Manifest Destiny stems from do- ligious reverence for the United States. minion theology, a strain of U.S. Chris- The invocation of American exception- tian thinking that envisions church and alism to solemnize the conversion of state joining forces to make the United immigrants into citizens was not with- States into the Kingdom of God (Crow- out irony, given that this same excep- ley). The term “manifest destiny” was tionalist ideology undergirds nativism: coined in 1845 by a writer who pro- if the nation is special, those with roots claimed Americans’ “manifest destiny therein are also special, and all outsid- to overspread the continent allotted by ers are inferior.2 Providence for the free development of Is religion, then, naturally suited our yearly multiplying millions” (qtd. to serve nationalist ideology? I will in Wilsey 3). “Providence” denotes a argue that both the teachings of the divine plan—a God-ordained destiny. Bahá’í Faith and the dispositions of Thus, Manifest Destiny, along with its those whose worldview is consciously corollaries of expansionism and excep- shaped by those teachings, tell a diff er- tionalism, rests on the faith that divine ent story: religion can be a powerful providence propels the growth and motivator for a cosmopolitan outlook. power of the United States. Supporters Spirituality lends cosmopolitanism of this belief cite a Bible passage as rhetorical force. Before considering justifi cation: “And God blessed them, the evidence for this claim, a review of and God said unto them, Be fruitful, cosmopolitanism is in order. and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over C, S the fi sh of the sea, and over the fowl of S the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth” (Genesis 1:28). For most of its life in the European By a leap of logic (and faith), dominion philosophical tradition, from the Greek theology links God’s mandate to the Cynics to the Roman Stoics to the early fi rst humans to the political destiny of the United States. 2 It is important to note that Given the religious background ‘Abdu’l-Ba h á H i m sel f a ffi rms that America of Manifest Destiny, the judge’s ar- has a unique spiritual destiny, but the gument—while not mentioning re- character of its distinctiveness—a topic ligion—rests on the assumption that too lengthy to be explored here—centers God has mandated the United States on its role in shedding light on the whole to lead the world. Whether the judge’s world, rather than on nationalistic ideas. lesson was persuasive to the new cit- Shoghi Eff endi has also elucidated the izens arrayed before him in pew-like nature of the spiritual destiny of America. benches, I cannot say, but his choice of See, for instance, Tablets of the Divine Plan and The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh. Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 23

and medieval Christians, cosmopoli- of whether we have an obligation to tanism has upheld an ethical stance for admit anyone of another nationality, realizing universal obligations and thus resembling the question of universal questioning intergroup prejudice—an obligations at the heart of cosmopol- alternative to identity categories that itanism. At least one rhetoric scholar, demand primary allegiance and imply Alessandra Von Burg, has applied that ethical obligations stop at the bor- cosmopolitan theory directly to im- der of the tribe, the polis, the country. migration rhetoric, considering cas- In the 1700s, the German philosopher es in the European Union (Muslim Immanuel Kant transmuted cosmopol- immigrants in “Toward a Rhetorical itanism into a political theory of inter- Cosmopolitanism” and Roma nomads national relations, which continues to in “Stochastic Citizenship”). Much generate discussions among political remains to be said about immigration scientists. For my purposes, however, rhetoric from a cosmopolitan per- the ethical stance is of greater interest spective, especially within the unique because of its applicability to rhetoric, context of the United States, which, so I will not review the ever-growing unlike nations in the European Union, scholarship on political cosmopolitan- has been populated almost entirely by ism. Ethical cosmopolitanism can be immigrants from overseas. The study boiled down to the following princi- of Iranian refugees presented later in ple: regardless of identity diff erences, this article seeks to contribute to this every human has obligations to every conversation—and, moreover, to illu- other human. This principle has ma- minate the nexus of migration, cosmo- jor implications for arguments over politanism, and religion. immigration. Today, various thinkers see mi- C R grants as the vanguard of cosmopoli- tanism (Pollock et al.; Bhabha). Failed Cosmopolitanism has a long rela- by capitalism and nationalism, refu- tionship with religion. While in the gees and other immigrants who move crucible of Stoic philosophy, cosmo- because of global inequities have an politanism was infl uenced by a new urgent impetus to push against these religion, Christianity; a millennium systems and the divisions they rely later, progressive Christian thinkers upon. Moreover, as they seek entry to like the School of Salamanca mulled wealthier countries, migrants present over cosmopolitan ideas (Brown and the paramount test of cosmopolitan Held). Moreover, cosmopolitanism’s ethics, compelling their destinations global scope refl ects the global vision to decide between nativist exclusion inherent in most world religions, which and hospitable reception (Derrida). perceive universal principles uniting Indeed, public discourse about im- all humanity. Admittedly, outside the migration is reducible to the question abstract realm of theory and theology, 24 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 cosmopolitanism and religion are not cosmopolitan thinkers avoid the pit- always friendly bedfellows; religious fall of Eurocentric imperialism, Giri affi liation can defy cosmopolitanism contends. by encouraging exclusive attachments As Giri has mined the religions of to doctrines, coreligionists, and plac- the Indian subcontinent for cosmopol- es of worship (Elshtain). Despite the itan lessons, I turn to a religion born shortcomings in how followers imple- in Iran, the Bahá’í Faith. The Bahá’í ment religious teachings, religion still Faith arguably provides the most de- off ers resources to cosmopolitanism. veloped vision of cosmopolitanism One way it can do so is by helping of any world religion. The teachings to decolonize cosmopolitan theory. of Bahá’u’lláh address the political The traditional canon of cosmopolitan context in which He lived, an era of philosophy has been dominated by nationalism and economic globaliza- European thinkers, with its trajecto- tion—a milieu much diff erent from ry traveling steadily north and west, that of earlier Prophets such as Jesus from Diogenes in ancient Greece to and Muhammad. Therefore, He laid Kant in seventeenth-century Prussia. out not only spiritual principles for But Europe does not hold a monop- unifi cation but also practical guidance oly over cosmopolitanism. Looking on a world federation that would rem- beyond the Global North, particularly edy the excesses of nationalism. to religions from the East, might help I explore the cosmopolitan resourc- to revive and enhance this ancient es found in the Bahá’í Faith from three mindset by locating alternatives to the perspectives. I fi rst look at scholarship imperialistic undercurrents that mud- on the topic of the Faith’s cosmopoli- dy its European manifestation—the tan orientation, before considering the colonial tendency to dictate how the writings of Bahiyyih Nakhjavani, a rest of the world should operate (Mi- Bahá’í author who is herself an Irani- gnolo). Such a broadened cosmopoli- an émigré and whose works of fi ction tanism could remedy the Eurocentric can be viewed as a deliberate explo- version’s tendency toward a blood- ration of the cosmopolitan question. less academicism that is unpalatable Finally, I will examine fi ndings from to most (Nussbaum). Indeed, Ananta interviews with eight Iranian Bahá’í Kumar Giri sees Kant’s cosmopoli- immigrants to the United States. By tan theory as overly rational because featuring the voices of “everyday” it disdains the passions. In contrast, Bahá’ís in this way, I align with a re- Giri recommends imbuing it with the cent shift in cosmopolitan theory to- emotional processes of self-develop- ward vernacular practices, balancing ment and self-transformation promot- the traditional focus on great intellec- ed by Hindu and Buddhist traditions. tuals with attention to cosmopolitan- Learning from spiritual traditions ism from below (Robbins). beyond Judeo-Christianity can help Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 25

C P mankind its citizens”—a precept sup- B’ F porting the “citizen of the world” iden- tity (117:1). As Bahá’u’lláh rejected Previous scholarship has begun fl esh- divisive nationalism, He also prohib- ing out the nexus of Bahá’í belief and ited religious antipathy: “Consort with cosmopolitan theory. For example, the followers of all religions in a spirit social scientist Ruth Williams charac- of friendliness and fellowship” (43:6). terizes the Bahá’í Faith as a “cosmo- Paired with the “ethics of oneness” politan religion” because its members established in Bahá’í scripture is a identify as “citizens of the world”; con- practical vision of global governance scious of their participation in a global (Mooten 6)—that is, Bahá’ís see cos- religious community, their faith identi- mopolitan consciousness as eventually ty takes priority over ethnic and nation- having political eff ects. In the Bahá’í al memberships (221). I draw from the view of humanity’s evolution, unity research of political scientist Nalinie has rippled out from family to tribe to Mooten to describe how this religion city-state to nation (22). Nation-based advances cosmopolitan thought. unity is showing strain, however, since Bahá’í cosmopolitanism has its ba- realms such as the economy are already sis in scripture, according to Mooten. globalized. Bahá’u’lláh arrived in this Indeed, many passages in the religion’s tense era, which Bahá’ís consider hu- holy writings imply that the foundation manity’s turbulent adolescence. As of a lasting world peace must be laid nationalism staggers forward in spite within the hearts of individuals. For of globalization, old structures are fall- instance, Bahá’u’lláh declared, “Ye are ing apart, ideally making way for new the fruits of one tree, and the leaves of ones better suited to global unity (25). one branch. Deal ye one with another Indeed, Bahá’ís see worldwide unity as with the utmost love and harmony, the telos of human history (23). In fact, with friendliness and fellowship. . . . So whereas some religions foretell human- powerful is the light of unity that it can ity meeting its end with an apocalyptic illuminate the whole earth” (132:3). Last Judgment from which the faithful Bahá’u’lláh also counseled humanity will be sent to paradise, Bahá’ís antic- to expand its perspective beyond local ipate establishing a paradise here on concerns to encompass the entire plan- earth through humanity’s unifi cation et: “Let your vision be world-embrac- and consequent peace and prosperity. ing, rather than confi ned to your own The form of global governance an- self” (43:5). Indeed, one of the most ticipated by Bahá’ís is an international renowned passages of Bahá’u’lláh ad- federation, which, rather than abolish- vises, “It is not for him to pride himself ing nation-states, joins them together who loveth his own country, but rather for the common good. While the idea for him who loveth the whole world. of world government often evokes The earth is but one country, and dystopian nightmares of totalitarian 26 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 rule, the “Bahá’í model . . . is holistic myriad material distinctions between and based on grassroots values, [and] humans in developing their universal calls for the principle of ‘subsidiarity’ love” (Miron, “Laura Barney’s Disci- and ‘decentralisation’ in international pleship,” 16). For another, the Bahá’í aff airs” (Mooten 38). Such a mod- principle of unity in diversity supports el does not forbid “sane patriotism” “the ‘sensitive turn’ taken by cosmo- (Shoghi Eff endi qtd. in Mooten 46), politanism, which stresses diversity, in but it does limit the autonomy of in- the sense of abandoning a domineer- dividual nations, which should expect ing and homogeneous universalism” international intervention if they vi- (Mooten 65). By promoting collabo- olate human rights (24). Bahá’ís see ration rather than competition between the League of Nations and the United local and global interests, Bahá’í teach- Nations as steps along the way to eff ec- ings could reconcile postmodernism’s tive international governance and have wariness of homogeneity with cosmo- participated in their eff orts (21). Bahá’í politanism’s end goal of international principles may even have infl uenced unity (68). the creation of the League of Nations Overall, Bahá’í teachings support (Pearsall). When the United Nations the traditional concerns of cosmopol- took over from its failed forerunner, itanism—“the promotion of the com- the Bahá’í international community mon good, the need for more global gained representation there starting in and peaceful forms of communities, 1948 (BIC).3 and [the rejection of] the view that hu- Doctrinal attention to global gover- man nature is inherently belligerent” nance is one unique aspect of Bahá’í (Mooten 68). They also make unique cosmopolitanism; Mooten points out contributions: a vision of an interna- some other noteworthy elements. For tional federation, a focus on unifi ca- one, the Bahá’í Faith, as an Eastern tion as a spiritual, not just a political, religion, complements the Western process, and an emphasis on unity in perspectives that have dominated most diversity. To begin the exploration of cosmopolitan thought (6). For exam- the links between Bahá’í cosmopolitan ple, where secular cosmopolitanism à thought and transnational migration la Kant relies solely on human agency, that will occupy the rest of this article, Bahá’í teachings mesh human action I now turn to the views of a contem- with divine revelation (68). In this porary adherent who has had fi rsthand view, “without recognizing that one- experience with the crossing of bor- ness has a spiritual source, cosmop- ders: Bahiyyih Nakhjavani. Through olites will struggle to transcend the her writing, Nakhjavani shows how Bahá’í cosmopolitan principles can be brought to bear upon contemporary 3 For more information about public discourse. Bahá’í involvement in the United Nations, see Berger. Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 27

“A W A” A crosses lines of identity, Nakhjavani B’ C shows—as she writes in the afterword, “Tahirih has become a universal fi gure. Bahiyyih Nakhjavani (b. 1948) is a She is the fi rst modern Iranian woman Bahá’í writer who was born in Iran, to belong to the world” (Woman 317). grew up in Uganda, and has lived her Nakhjavani has pursued such ex- adult life in the United Kingdom, the plorations of the promises and perils United States, and France. Like many of transnational relations, evoking the Bahá’í writers before her, such as Lau- Bahá’í principle of global unity, in ra Barney and Martha Root,4 Nakh- other writings. In 2017, her fourth nov- javani has taken inspiration from the el, Us&Them—about contemporary life of the Bábí heroine Táhirih. The Iranian immigrants in the West—was Woman Who Read Too Much (2015), published. Refl ecting on her book in an Nakhjavani’s work of historical fi ction essay titled “A Wandering Alien,” she based on Táhirih’s fi nal years, raises a shares her perspective on immigration: number of questions about cosmopol- “There is no ‘us’ and ‘them’—we’re itanism through its representation of aliens when we can’t identify with nineteenth-century Anglo-Persian re- others.” The Bahá’í tenet of univer- lations (Miron, “A Persian Preacher’s sal love for humanity permeates her Westward Migration”). Nakhjavani essay. Regarding the polarization of features Lady Sheil, wife of the British immigration discourse, she argues that envoy to Iran, as a prominent charac- “immigration does not need to be ei- ter. In interacting with the shah’s court, ther a threat or banishment. A diaspora Sheil fi nds the Persians rude and back- community can also be enriching to all wards; the Persians fi nd her awkward concerned. It can widen perspectives; and foreign. These tensions encapsu- it can help to overcome prejudice and late Persian resentment about British transcend fear.” For example, she con- interference, which burst into war in templates how, in becoming minorities 1856. While Nakhjavani exposes cul- in the West, Iranian immigrants can gain tural and political barriers to transna- awareness about their own (mis)treat- tional cooperation, she also provides ment of minorities in their homeland. a kernel of hope by paralleling Sheil She also asserts that all humans are with a Persian princess: both women, complex, requiring both stability and dependent on their politicking male freedom. Her encouragement to fi nd kin, separately try to prevent Táhirih’s the commonalities beneath superfi cial execution. Admiration for Táhirih diff erences, especially beneath the la- bel of “alien,” resonates with Bahá’í 4 In previous articles, I have treat- teachings on the spiritual oneness of ed Barney’s and Root’s relationship with humanity. As she observes, “We are all Táhirih. See Miron, “Laura Barney’s Dis- settlers and simultaneously nomads, cipleship to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá” and “Martha bound to a loved land and breathing Root’s Interwar Lectures.” 28 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 the air. Deep down in every one of us, to get involved in society through edu- there is an exile, a wanderer looking cation and work. Since work done in for that eternal home.” the spirit of service is seen as worship, Nakhjavani is one of millions of gaining employment and volunteering Iranians living outside their homeland; are important; advancing one’s educa- for instance, my maternal grandfather tion is also valued. Such involvement moved from Iran to the United States provides a pathway toward integration. in 1955 in pursuit of medical educa- Marriage between people of diff ering tion. The Iranian diaspora swelled backgrounds is also celebrated in the after 1979, when the Islamic Revolu- Bahá’í Faith, which might encourage tion installed a theocratic government immigrants to forge familial relation- that persecuted political dissidents ships outside their ethnic community. and religious minorities—especially Indeed, Bahá’í institutions ask Iranian Bahá’ís—pushing many to seek more refugees to avoid congregating in en- liberal environs. Today, Iranian im- claves. Overall, Williams concludes migrants comprise a sizeable portion that the religion helps immigrating of the U.S. Bahá’í community. In the believers become active members of next section, I present the perspectives their adopted societies by reason of its of eight Iranian-American Bahá’ís cosmopolitan principles and practices. to complement those of Nakhjavani, In my interviews with Iranian Bahá’í thereby showing how contemporary refugees, I explore questions similar to believers take up religious principles Williams’s about faith and integration, to forge cosmopolitan dispositions, es- while also investigating my respon- pecially regarding immigration. dents’ views on immigration itself.

P I B’ T C I R R U S R

Before outlining my own research with As noted earlier, scholars have argued Iranian Bahá’í refugees, it is worth that refugees and other immigrants who briefl y reviewing the fi ndings of Ruth move because of global inequities are Williams, who studied the experiences in the vanguard of cosmopolitanism, of seven Bahá’í refugees who had im- for they see through the empty promis- migrated to Australia from Iran several es of unbridled capitalism and national- decades earlier, in the 1980s. Williams ism (Pollock et al.). As of late 2019, the aimed to understand how their faith af- UNHCR counted nearly eighty million fected their integration. In interviews, people forcibly displaced from their the refugees indicated that a number homes worldwide, including twen- of cosmopolitan Bahá’í principles and ty-six million refugees.5 Iranian reli- practices helped them adjust. For ex- ample, Bahá’í principles urge everyone 5 In its landmark Refugee Protocol, Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 29 gious refugees belong to this growing for emigration. As the HIAS website population of displaced people—but notes, since 2001, its Vienna offi ce has unlike many other refugees, they are served more than twenty-fi ve thousand fl eeing not confl ict but the status quo Iranian religious refugees. The U.S. of their country, where the government government’s increasing restrictions uses sometimes subtle, sometimes on immigration have, however, led to violent tactics to push out those who an “unprecedented” number of rejected do not adhere to the state-sponsored applications in recent years (Parvini). belief system. This persecution aff ects For the Iranian refugees who do make Bahá’ís and Christians—who comprise it the United States, they join a larger the largest faith minorities in Iran, each community of about half a million Ira- community numbering about 300,000 nian Americans. Forty percent of this (U.S. Department of State)—as well population lives in California, most as Jews, Zoroastrians, and Mandeans. of them in “Tehrangeles” (Taxin)— Some seek resettlement through refu- the Los Angeles area, that is, which gee programs designed for Iranian reli- attracts newcomers because of its gious minorities; Canada spearheaded well-established community of Iranian the development of such programs expatriates and its Tehran-like weather in the early 1980s, followed by some (Etehad). twenty-fi ve other countries (Cameron). In the following sections, I fi rst A U.S. program for Iranian religious explain the method of my interviews. minorities, established in 2004, is Next, I describe the participants’ mo- named after its sponsoring lawmakers, tives for leaving Iran and their experi- Frank Lautenberg and Arlen Specter. ences integrating into the United States. To apply to the Lautenberg-Specter Subsequently, I analyze their responses program, eligible Iranians take a west- to questions about their stance on im- ward path, sometimes with extended migration and the infl uence of Bahá’í waits in Turkey, that eventually culmi- teachings thereon. Finally, I consider nates in a processing period in Austria. takeaways from these interviews in As they wait in Vienna, usually for terms of how religion aff ects disposi- about half a year, a Jewish refugee tions toward immigration. Overall, this organization, the Hebrew Immigrant qualitative study illuminates the poten- Aid Society (HIAS), prepares them tial for cosmopolitan spiritual precepts to infl uence discourse on borders and which encompasses legislation passed migration. in 1951 and updated in 1967, the Unit- ed Nations defi nes refugees as having A N M “well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of [1] race, [2] religion, [3] nation- Because of California’s importance as ality, [4] membership of a particular social a destination for Iranian immigrants, group or [5] political opinion” (Article including Bahá’í refugees, I chose it I.A.2). 30 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 as the setting for my interviews. I de- The research process itself was di- veloped a research protocol based on vided into phases of recruitment, in- the following objective, which I sub- terviewing, and analysis. An Iranian mitted to my university’s Institutional friend, Sahar Noroozi, served as my Review Board (IRB): “The PI [princi- co-researcher, recruiting eight Irani- pal investigator] seeks to learn about an Bahá’í participants from her social two minority religious communities network. In May 2018, we both visited within the Californian Iranian diaspo- California, traveling from San Francis- ra, Bahá’ís and Zoroastrians, and how co to San Diego, and talked to these they envision their role as migrants in participants; they are profi led in Table the United States. In particular, the PI 1.6 The interviews proceeded according would like to learn how they conduct to my questionnaire, which had been outreach both to educate non-Irani- approved by the supervising IRB, and an Americans about their culture and which can be found in the Appendix. about their religion.” (Because of this article’s focus on the Bahá’í Faith, I do 6 Research funds for this project not discuss the results of my interviews were arranged by Dr. Jack Selzer. I am with Zoroastrians here.) thankful for his fi nancial support, as well as for Sahar’s coordination of the interviews. Table 1: Interview Participant Profi les N P Y R N ()

Zahra Architect 2010 Bay Area Married couple Shayan Computer 2003 scientist

Mehri Schoolteacher 2000 Los Angeles Area Married couple Ehsan Postal worker 2000

Pegah Accountant 2011 Los Angeles Area

Farzaneh Manager of 2011 San Diego Area therapy center

Negin Computer 2011 San Diego Area scientist

Sepideh College 2017 San Diego Area student Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 31

After recording the interviews, I made the government marginalizes Bahá’ís notes on each and transcribed sections primarily through oblique tactics—in I deemed of greatest interest. Then, particular, the denial of higher educa- in a process loosely resembling open tion. The Iranian college admissions coding, I arranged passages from the process requires applicants to disclose interviews into themes, which form the their religion, and applications marked basis of the sections below. “Bahá’í” are rejected. In response, in 1987, the Bahá’ís established their own A I B’ D underground university system, the Bahá’í Institute for Higher Education, All the participants had fi rsthand expe- or “BIHE.” Most of my participants rience with discrimination, having left had studied with BIHE; as interviewees Iran because of religious persecution, Zahra and Shayan opined, it represents which stymied their educational and a resilient response to oppression. It career aspirations. In the interest of also exemplifi es a cosmopolitan ap- grounding their cosmopolitan visions proach to higher education, as, in addi- in their lived experiences as refugees, tion to faculty within Iran, it has since I briefl y explain the sociopolitical con- 2005 embraced a network of volunteer text driving my participants’ migration instructors around the world through to the United States. This background its online infrastructure (BIHE). Nev- demonstrates how spiritual cosmopoli- ertheless, due to its marginality (it fac- tanism emerges at the nexus of princi- es periodic attacks by the government), ple and practice, of spiritual beliefs and it cannot off er students resources com- material struggles. mensurate to a traditional university’s. Iranian Bahá’ís underwent violent Moreover, even with a degree from persecution in the aftermath of the BIHE, Bahá’ís face limited employ- 1979 Revolution: over two hundred ment prospects due to discrimination. were executed or disappeared, stu- These are the factors that push some dents were expelled, cemeteries and Iranian Bahá’ís to emigrate today— holy places were destroyed, property they want to earn advanced degrees was confi scated, and “virtually all cit- and put those degrees to use in their izenship rights were stripped” away, careers. Departure is not a decision including the right to leave the country, taken lightly; as Mehri commented, according to political scientist Geof- if her country were a good place, she frey Cameron. By the 1990s, “while would rather stay there with her rel- Baha’is were still denied most basic atives. Sepideh recalled taking fi ve rights, the arbitrary imprisonment years to decide whether to emigrate. and violent persecution had mostly But the desire for an unconstrained ed- stopped” (Cameron). My participants ucation and career can tip the scale. For all left Iran during this ongoing peri- example, Farzaneh stated that she left od of subtler discrimination, in which because she wanted to earn a graduate 32 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 degree in her fi eld, which was unavail- debarred entrants from Iran, she found able through BIHE at that time. After that “my classmates, a couple of them immigrating, she earned a Master’s in were asking a question about me, if psychology and now manages a family I have family over there—but those therapy center. Pegah confronted not were people who never talked to me only educational but employment dis- about my issues, they never were cu- crimination in Iran; working at a pri- rious about that—but after that . . . vate company, she heard rumors that they wanted to tell me that they care her employer was planning to fi re her . . . I think people’s minds are chang- because of her religion, so she resigned ing.” The restrictive policy sparked before he could do so. While the refu- a new compassion for immigrants in gees I spoke with were achieving their some Americans, she speculated. Zah- educational and professional goals in ra also found native-born Americans the United States, they often had to to be “sympathetic” about the ban; on play catch-up upon arriving. Sepideh, its fi rst day, not only her coworkers, for instance, was redoing her under- but also her CEO, asked her how she graduate education. Pegah expressed was faring. Before that, she had also feeling “ten years behind my age”: she encountered Americans interested in was thirty when she arrived but felt her experience: “When I was in Berke- like she reverted to twenty, perhaps be- ley, they always wanted to know more cause she was back in school, working about my story, they published it, they on a Master’s, rather than established interviewed me over and over.” Pegah in a career and family like some of remarked that she had never had a bad her peers. This observation suggests experience as an immigrant—and the the complexity of integrating into the country’s religious liberty enabled her United States as a refugee. to fi nally be “a free Bahá’í.” Compar- ing her time spent in Austria to that in Integrating as New Americans: the United States, she found adjusting “People’s Minds Are Changing” to Los Angeles much easier because of its diversity; the presence of fellow Ira- While some participants comment- nians assuaged her homesickness. Of ed on the challenges of immigrating, course, California might be a uniquely many concurred that the United States cosmopolitan state in terms of its hos- had been welcoming to them, suggest- pitality toward immigrants, as Negin ing that the foundations of cosmopol- noted; nearly one-third of its resi- itanism already exist here. Farzaneh, dents are foreign-born (Johnson and for example, found the experience of Sanchez). Yet, even if Iranian Bahá’ís immigration harder than she had ex- pected; yet, after the “Muslim ban”7 in January 2017, sought to ban entries from seven majority-Muslim countries; though its constitutionality was challenged, a version of 7 This executive order, initially passed it is still in force as of this writing. Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 33 settle in an area with few immigrants, Pegah’s can sustain formal initiatives if there are some coreligionists present, for Bahá’í immigrants, but often inte- they can expect at least one welcoming gration happens through casual friend- community. ships. For instance, when Mehri and Nearly all the participants affi rmed Ehsan arrived, a Bahá’í woman off ered that their local Bahá’í communities had them low-cost housing in her home, aided with their social integration; this which they accepted; by living with this eagerness to welcome newcomers can local Bahá’í, Ehsan learned English. be linked to the emphasis the religion Thus, when it comes to welcoming im- places on the paradigmatically cosmo- migrants, Bahá’í communities facilitate politan concept of world citizenship. institutional and personal cosmopolitan Even Sepideh, who does not actively practices. practice the religion or associate with It was not only camaraderie with lo- the community, remarked that Bahá’í cal Bahá’ís that helped the new immi- concepts, especially that of world cit- grants adjust but their own deeply held izenship, make it easier to live any- Bahá’í principles, such as peacemak- where. In the words of Shayan, Bahá’ís ing, neighborliness, and respect—all of belong to “a worldwide community, which, by promoting intergroup unity, and you’re connected anywhere you relate to cosmopolitan ethics. Shayan go.” His wife Zahra fondly recalled her highlighted the religion’s valuation of time participating in San Diego’s Bahá’í good citizenship, recounting a story community; she learned most of her of nineteenth-century Iranian Bahá’í English from friends she made there. immigrants to Ashgabat who were per- Other participants also recalled being secuted by the locals but, rather than welcomed by their new Bahá’í com- retaliating, interceded with the gov- munities. Farzaneh, for example, found ernment to ask forgiveness for their at- that attending community events helped tackers. Such a conciliatory disposition her through her initial homesickness. might aid in integration even in hostile Negin, lacking friends or family in the contexts. Mehri refl ected that her fam- area she settled, also found the Bahá’í ily’s spiritual disposition helps them community an important source of sup- befriend the native-born parents who port. Pegah refl ected that “the love we bring their children for playdates; these get from the Bahá’í community” off - parents tell her they feel uniquely safe sets “the challenges of immigration” leaving their kids in her household. She by fostering “belonging”: “wherever believes this feeling of comfort comes I go, I feel I have family and friends.” from “the Bahá’í spirit in the house.” In After her own immigration, she served addition, Ehsan stated that his religious on a taskforce for welcoming Iranian beliefs, especially in the equality of Bahá’ís to Los Angeles, encouraging women and men, helped him adjust. He them to participate in the communi- reports to a female supervisor, which ty’s activities. Larger communities like inverts the gender dynamic prevalent 34 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 in Iran. Yet, the Bahá’í tenet of gender injustice—whether discrimination at equality made this hierarchy easier to home or the unequal distribution of accept. Both the social support off ered wealth globally—drives their depar- by the local Bahá’í community and in- ture. Zahra noted her hope that, some- ner reliance on Bahá’í principles aided day, there will be no refugees. Ehsan the interviewees in their integration similarly advocated an end to illegal into the United States. Next, to explore immigration, which he likened to slav- commonplaces of religion that might ery, with migrants subject to low pay serve as contributions to cosmopolitan- and border violence. He remarked ism and correctives to nativism, I turn that the United States should help the from participants’ personal experienc- sending countries to make emigration es as immigrants to their refl ections on unnecessary. Likewise, regarding the immigration. global refugee crisis, he viewed it as a result of governments’ impunity in T M’ P mistreating their residents. Evoking P the Bahá’í vision of a global federa- tion, he envisioned proactive interven- Though the interviewees were quick tions into persecution and confl ict that to laud the civil rights they had gained would halt the conditions that produce by moving to the United States, they refugees. also pointed out the downsides of im- Mass exoduses can lead to suff ering migration. Leaving home behind is not only for immigrants but also for an uncertain undertaking, even when their host countries, in Ehsan’s opin- fl eeing persecution. In this section, I ion. Uniquely among the participants, fi rst present their perspectives on the Ehsan valorized what he termed the problems with immigration, then on “Anglo-Saxon” political culture of the its benefi ts; taken together, they off er United States. While acknowledging a balanced perspective on immigration that immigrants enhance this cultural as often driven by social injustice yet bedrock, he feared that sudden infl ux- potentially enriching for immigrants es may erode it. More extreme than and receiving countries alike. Such Ehsan’s view were the cases Negin a perspective contributes to a mature had witnessed of a few Iranian Bahá’í cosmopolitan vision that understands immigrants touting their support for transnational mobility as ambivalent immigration restrictions, even the rather than as purely liberating. Muslim ban. She speculated that may- be these immigrants wanted to display Perils: Immigration as a their integration into the United States Consequence of Injustice by siding with nationalist policies. Such resistance to multiculturalism For immigrants who leave home is unusual among Bahá’ís—Ehsan’s because of oppression or poverty, views were the only conservative ones Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 35 on immigration policy among the in- limited to menial jobs. Mehri conclud- terviewees, and Negin registered her ed that pursuing diversity is inherent shock that Bahá’ís, especially immi- to the Bahá’í principle of “race unity,” grants, would support restrictions. the view that humanity is a single fam- These outlier views in favor of re- ily. This Bahá’í ideal clashes with the strictionism demonstrate that spiritual antipathy toward cultural and racial cosmopolitanism is never uniform; its Others that was dominating the U.S. expression varies according to the way political stage at the time of the inter- individuals apply spiritual precepts to views (May 2018), a milieu that the material realities. participants denounced.

Promises: Immigration as the R R Engine of the United States N: P P S C Most of the interviewees took a cos- mopolitan perspective on immigration, The interviewees, many of whom had celebrating the contributions of immi- benefi ted from the formerly eff ective grants to the United States, which they Lautenberg-Specter program for Irani- characterized as a nation built by im- an religious refugees, readily acknowl- migrants (Zahra, Negin), powered by edged the negative consequences of their talents and diversity (Pegah), and the more restrictive policies that came made more progressive by their activ- into eff ect starting in 2017. The Mus- ism for social change (Farzaneh). They lim ban was of particular concern, as noted their own appreciation for their it aff ected their fellow Iranians’ ability fellow immigrants—an appreciation to enter the United States. Besides cri- that, as Mehri noted, is common among tiquing these reversals in immigration Bahá’ís, who tend to enjoy learning policy and the underlying upsurge of from people of other ethnicities (an xenophobia, they also off ered some expression of spiritual cosmopolitan- thoughts on how to constructively re- ism). Mehri lauded the diversity of her spond. This section thus signals the fellow schoolteachers, recounting how participants’ awareness of prejudice she benefi ts from the diff erent points of and their cosmopolitan vision for com- view brought by a teacher of Latinx de- bating it. scent or one of European heritage. Her goal is to compile a “multi-culture,” Critiquing Prejudice Against taking the best of each culture she Immigrants encounters—an opportunity she sees as unique to the United States, where The Bahá’í principle of global unity one can freely associate with people has a direct bearing upon immigra- of sundry nationalities, whereas in tion, according to Zahra and Shayan, Iran, immigrants are more segregated, a married couple. Shayan stated that 36 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 all Bahá’í concepts “align with this and the trouble it was causing refugees concept of welcoming refugees, wel- to a larger deterioration of Americans’ coming diversity,” recalling an admo- “welcoming” attitudes toward immi- nition by Bahá’u’lláh that “if anyone grants. She, on the other hand, believes comes to your country as a refugee, in a patently cosmopolitan “world you should accept them.” Zahra opined without any border,” so she feels hurt that, per the Bahá’í teaching of “the when she hears Americans claiming unity of mankind,” people should be that this country needs to care for its free to travel unimpeded by borders or own instead of letting others in. Sim- stringent documentation requirements: ilarly, Mehri decried the partisan pol- “You, as a human being, shouldn’t itics that have fomented a disunifying, be judged and defi ned and identifi ed anti-immigrant atmosphere, which based on your geographic identity.” If she associated with the valorization of this vision of open borders seems like European heritage. She critiqued this an unattainable ideal, that is because White nativism as fallacious, since only we still rely on nationalism; she argued indigenous people can claim to be truly that the consequent isolationism is self- “native.” Moreover, every culture, in- ish and self-defeating, since internal cluding Euro-American ones, contains issues in any country eventually aff ect a mixture of negative and positive the world. So, she concluded, it is time qualities, she contended—and immi- for eff ective world governance. gration, rather than ruining the country, Several of the interviewees re- has generated its wealth. Given these marked on the diffi culties created by participants’ strong anti-xenophobia the travel ban, which, though dubbed stances, what steps could they take to a Muslim ban, also hurt members address the upsurge of prejudice? of minority religions in the targeted countries who had been trying to im- Productive Responses to Nativism migrate to the United States. Rather than simply wanting to travel, as Zahra Farzaneh off ered one strategy: her pointed out, refugees are leaving under unremitting hope for social change, duress—a point often lost in nativist which she combined with a strong portrayals of asylum-seekers as free- identifi cation with other immigrants loaders. Sepideh, who had spent time in her cosmopolitan vision of advo- in Turkey during her immigration pro- cacy. She expressed an aspiration “to cess, expressed concern for the Bahá’ís be a voice of new immigrants and waiting there for visas, some of whom refugees,” impelled by her belief that had already been in limbo for years. immigrants can best help each other Along these lines, Shayan had heard because of their shared experiences. that some refugees processed through But non-immigrants also have a role to HIAS in Vienna were being sent back play, and she wanted to help them be- to Iran. Negin connected the travel ban come more hospitable and vocal about Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 37 immigrants’ rights. She recognized that Bahá’í principles inspire her at substantial obstacles to this mission, work, as exemplifi ed by a pro-immi- especially the nativism unleashed by grant speech she delivered at a school the 2016 election. Nevertheless, she assembly. With the threat of mass de- tapped into a wellspring of hope—“I portations looming, anxieties among believe that it’s going to change”— students with immigrant parents had not only for policy change but also been running high, so administrators for an immigrant rights movement, asked some instructors to give speech- which she envisions as a successor to es affi rming the value of immigration the Civil Rights Movement. Her op- following a standard outline: name, timism about reform aligns with the origin, and struggles and hopes as an Bahá’í vision of a brighter spiritual immigrant. Mehri, pondering Bahá’í future for the United States, which she principles, developed this speech: linked to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s talks in the country a century ago, many of which My fi rst name is “Human,” and my underscored the necessity of eradicat- last name is “Being.” Put it togeth- ing racism. Farzaneh saw the amity er: I’m a Human Being . . . You between Black and White Bahá’ís as are asking me where I am coming indicating the potential for such social from . . . As an immigrant, when I transformation. Drawing faith from stepped in here, they gave me a pa- the Bahá’í teachings and community per and they put alien number for that the United States could overcome me. But I’m not coming from an- racism and xenophobia, she imagined other planet. Why do they call the her commitment to immigrants as immigrant “alien”? I’m coming eventually becoming mainstream. This from Planet Earth! . . . I have Rus- hope, treasured by Farzaneh despite sian in my background, Turkish in current setbacks, refl ects the unremit- my background . . . Don’t we go ting faith in divinely ordained social through the same struggles? We change that characterizes spiritual all have fear of failing . . . Imagine cosmopolitanism. all those struggles that everybody In terms of specifi c advocacy meth- goes through. It just doubles for an ods, Sepideh and Mehri both off ered immigrant. We have insecurity of examples of workplace activism. In being an immigrant, not knowing addition to being a university student stuff , and fear of failing. And what herself, Sepideh teaches Persian in the is my hope? . . . I hope one day San Diego area; she said she incorpo- we all understand that we are all rates the Bahá’í vision of world peace human beings, we all come from into her lessons. Perhaps this theme Planet Earth, we all have the same could inspire students to think glob- fears and failures, and we all work ally, thus practicing cosmopolitanism. together to make this planet a bet- Mehri, also a teacher, likewise stated ter place to live. 38 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Her speech stood out for its creative re- the two studies, one in Australia with sponse to the prompt, and students and immigrants who arrived in the 1980s, staff praised it. Mehri saw it as illus- the other in the United States with trating how Bahá’ís can apply the tenet immigrants who mostly arrived in of the oneness of humanity (a distinctly the 2010s, suggest the consistency of cosmopolitan concept) to immigration Bahá’í tenets throughout the global discourse. She also viewed her own be- community, as well as their applicabil- havior as potentially persuading others ity to diff ering eras and locales. Indeed, of the value of immigration; one co- despite having faced struggles along worker told Mehri that she serves as an the way, both groups of participants example of how immigrants contribute appeared thoroughly integrated into to society. So, besides speaking up, an- their new countries. other way to promote the principle of This integration is no mirage. As unity is to engage with the local com- Geoff rey Cameron has documented, in munity and thus make observers re- the 1980s, the unusual adaptability of think their stereotypes and maybe even Iranian Bahá’í refugees was noticed by take the Bahá’í view that, as Mehri put the Canadian government, which noted it, “Earth is just one country.” Mehri’s that “the employment record of Baha’i border-eff acing philosophy, born in the refugees is very impressive. More than crucible of Bahá’í teachings and her 90% fi nd jobs within the fi rst year.” own transnationality, suggests the po- Quotas for Iranian Bahá’ís were con- tency of both religion and migration to sequently raised. Evidently, the princi- (re)construct cosmopolitanism. ples of the Bahá’í Faith, especially its emphasis on the oneness of humani- R: T V ty—on cosmopolitanism—encourage C? immigrants to make inroads into their new culture, as Cameron’s research For Bahá’í refugees, their religion, on Canada, Williams’s on Australia, which marks them for persecution in and mine on the United States indi- their homeland, can serve as a spring- cate. Where my study diverges from board into their adopted countries. Williams’s is in eliciting participants’ Regarding my participants’ accounts views on immigration—as global phe- of their integration experiences, my nomenon, as policy, as discourse—in fi ndings align with Williams’s, de- addition to their personal experienc- scribed above. Both her interviewees es. Adding this dimension reveals not and mine gained support from their only how religion can help newcom- Bahá’í communities, which served as ers adapt but also how they envision a home away from home. Both groups adapting their new society. also tapped into Bahá’í teachings as The eight Bahá’í refugees I inter- they worked to integrate into the new viewed advocate for a cosmopolitan society. The commonalities between approach to immigration. They critique Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 39 the causes of forced migration and informed the philosophies they shared suggest that international cooperation with me, revolving around visions of is required to redress them. Despite a more just world, more open nation- the unjust circumstances driving much al borders, a more hospitable United global migration, including their own, States—philosophies that fi nd expres- they see immigrants as improving their sion in their daily lives, as typifi ed by new countries—they credit immigra- Mehri’s speech at her school’s assem- tion with the success of the United bly. Their progressive views indicate States. Many Americans apparently do that cosmopolitanism is not, as the not share this view, given the effi cacy philosopher Martha Nussbaum fears, of xenophobic arguments in the 2016 too elitist and colorless to infl uence hu- election; the interviewees decry the re- manity beyond the ivory tower. Indeed, cent surge in nativism. Yet, they hold the everyday tenets of immigrants and out hope that this nativism will be con- the religious, such as Iranian Bahá’í quered by a new social movement for refugees, promise to unfold a more vi- immigrants’ rights, and they fi nd ways brant and persuasive cosmopolitanism. in daily life to channel the Bahá’í prin- Perhaps religion, especially when in- ciple of global unity toward this end. formed by its transnational adherents, Immigrants, who must acutely ob- off ers the marriage of cosmopolitan serve national borders as they cross or ideals to emotional—or better, spiri- are obstructed by them, have a central tual—convictions that Nussbaum has role to play in advancing cosmopol- found lacking in the realm of political itan ideas. Refugees in particular are philosophy. well-positioned to assess the hospital- ity of host countries, which, because I C: A C V of conditions in their homelands, they must rely on. My participants had left Let us travel from Williamsport, the Iran under duress, blocked there from city with which I began this article, six advancing their educations and ca- thousand miles east to Haifa. If ever you reers, and had undergone periods of get the chance to visit Haifa, I would waiting in countries such as Turkey suggest taking a walk down Mount and Austria before receiving approv- Carmel toward the Mediterranean so al to immigrate. These experiences you can pass through several of the of transnational movement no doubt city’s varied neighborhoods. This is a sharpened their attention to the treat- walk I took seven years ago, along with ment of immigrants. In combination other Bahá’ís who had newly arrived with the (painful) insights that come to begin a period of volunteer service from living in between national iden- at the Faith’s World Centre. We started tities, my participants also had their re- from the garden-bedecked property of ligion, which guides them to prioritize the Bahá’í World Centre. We walked global unity. Together, these elements downhill to Hadar, a district that has 40 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 been a magnet for Jewish immigrants religions to coexist—and maybe even from the former Soviet Union, where to abet intergroup harmony someday. Cyrillic joins Hebrew on the signs of The fate of the world—not just of countless little shops. We walked fur- Israel and Palestine—may well rest ther downhill to Wadi Nisnas, the old- on whether cosmopolitanism can gain est part of Haifa, with curving lanes a foothold against nationalism, as ur- and timeworn stone buildings, home gent threats such as climate change can to Arab Christians; storefronts here only be addressed with international feature Arabic signage. The city also cooperation. The transformation of in- houses smaller Arab Muslim and Druze ternational governance likewise hing- populations, as well as the community es on the diff usion of a cosmopolitan of several hundred Bahá’í temporary disposition from the grassroots into residents to which I belonged for two the upper echelons of power: instead years. of judges teaching immigrants how The diversity of Haifa and its rel- to love their adopted country (as in ative dearth of ethnic confl ict have the naturalization ceremony described made it a symbol of urban cosmopol- at the beginning of this article), im- itanism, an “island of sanity” amidst migrants should teach judges how to the Israel-Palestine confl ict (Welsh), love the world as a whole. The cosmo- symbolized by its annual “Festival of politan dispositions of Iranian Bahá’í Festivals” in which Hanukkah, Eid refugees whom I interviewed for this al-Adha, and Christmas are simulta- project off er glimmers of hope for such neously celebrated. Resident Moad a transformation, as they endeavor to Ode, a Muslim, observes, “Haifa is enact and promote Bahá’u’lláh’s teach- not a special city . . . Haifa represents ing that the “earth is but one country, how normal human beings should and mankind its citizens” (117:1). Cos- live” (Welsh). Though the city is not a mopolitanism matters greatly, and it total utopia of coexistence, as its Jew- needs to gather persuasive power from ish and Arab communities are fairly diverse resources beyond its traditional segregated (Black), it seemed to me lineage—resources including the prin- a world apart from the interreligious ciples off ered by the Bahá’í Faith. hostilities plaguing its larger counter- part, Jerusalem. While the Israel-Palestine confl ict exemplifi es the risks of ethnoreligious disunity, Haifa evokes the possibili- ties of cosmopolitanism. As Israel’s third-largest city, Haifa is located in a country that epitomizes religious vi- olence. Yet, this mountain city’s rela- tive serenity indicates the potential for Spiritual Cosmopolitanism 41

A º What is your opinion of U.S. policies on immigration? Interview Questions for Iranian • Does your religion aff ect the way Religious Groups (Zoroastrians & you view immigration? If so, how? Bahá’ís) | May 2018 Community Perspectives on O I Immigration • Do you think your views on immi- Personal Background gration refl ect the views of others • What is your profession? in your (religious) community • How involved are you with your here? religious community? Do you have • What kinds of interactions do you any administrative or leadership or your community have with any roles in it? immigrants, whether from Iran or from other countries? Personal Experiences with Immigration O I A • Have you had direct experience with immigration? Current Perceptions • Did you emigrate from another • What do you think a typical Eu- country to the United States, or has ro-American knows about your someone in your family done so? community? º If “yes” to the above question: • Do you think your community’s º Did religious persecution play connection with recent immigra- a role in your decision to im- tion from Iran aff ects the way other migrate to the United States? Americans perceive it? If so, how? º Did your religious communi- ty help you to resettle in any Vision for Outreach way? For example, did mem- • How do you envision your com- bers of your religion help you munity’s outreach eff orts—for make social connections in example, events that are open to your new place of residence? the public—infl uencing public discourse? Views of Immigration • What do you want a typical Eu- • U.S. immigration—both legal and ro-American to know about your illegal—is a controversial issue. community? What are your views on this issue? º How do you view immigrants to the United States? What role do they play in U.S. society, in your opinion? 42 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

W C

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SHIRIN SABRI

There remained unto Him no friend or companion and He became alone in the world except for His wife, who believed in God and served Job in all His tribulations. We confi rmed her to be His support in all matters. Bahá’u’lláh, The Tablet of Patience (provisional translation)

Air breathed soft in the valley where our herds slept hock deep in winter pasturage—but I woke to hear wild howls. Raiders down from the mountain stripped our household bare, fl ensed of fat, to start the year in famine. Then a tempest, the solid hill fl owed, swept my sons and daughters into the pit, and all those near to my Beloved were gone, all but me. I could not breathe. The tribe waited for my screams. I stood still, did not run into the storm, nor wail, nor prise crushed limbs from sodden earth—could only pray, and wait to be told my children had died. My Lord’s eyes held me—for Him I chose to be silent, obey, let the tribe call me cold—unmoved by their lies. But I did shake with cold that night, keeping to His way. Mud folded over my dear ones, buried them deep. My throat closed on swallowed tears I must not weep. My Love woke next day, skin thick with sores that fl ayed skin from fl esh. He shook with ague, could neither lie nor sit, nor stand but in raw torment. I longed to aid Him—held out empty hands, begged, ‘Call on God, cry out for relief!’ Cobweb frail, unbroken, face greyed with pain—why ask for Himself what He must deny Himself? He would suff er the world’s evil, and endure. Next day, men sure in knowledge came to off er a cure. There they were, kilted and curled for the occasion, cheeks plump with certainty—these, who once envied the Father of the poor. They did not think to listen, scorned the words that could have answered all our need. ‘Those who sow trouble reap the same,’ the false physician claimed, that one named wise. They told my Lord to plead for mercy, to repent—and smiled, those men, while calling God an unbeliever; we were cast out, into exile. 46 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

I scooped stones, picked thorns, smoothed a hollow in the ground—small shelter. His pain was a prison of seeping foulness, there was no balm to off er, no comfort. We slept cold. I wakened into a vision of the pit, and in darkness knew what I did not know. But songs sounded in earth’s bones—my children chanted descant to their Father, and fi lled the night with sweet prayer— till I woke again in starlight.

Days passed in hunger. Foraging brought little. Poor, in want, I went to ask the women of the tribe for bread. How many, once familiar, turned me from their door? My faith made them afraid, I was no longer any kindred of theirs. But one called—in hope, I went. She tore the ribbon from my brow, pulled my hair about, said she’d buy, then scraped the blade so close across my head some skin went too. She cursed me, but I took her bread.

Who are our kin, if not those we can turn to in distress? The unknown hand that reaches down into a wrecked boat is not a stranger’s; the foreign guide in the wilderness is no alien—he knows the way. It held no kindness, but I kept the bread I had demeaned myself to get—and went to confess. My Beloved took the loaf in His wounded hands and wept. He blessed and broke it, then strewed it for the birds to eat. This torment is devised by love; it has a purpose to complete.

He taught us with words, with His body, and blind derision answered Him. But the last, best teacher is dire need. Dark, marbling clouds turn like a millwheel, fi ll the horizon, close in. Rain hammers towards us in a bellowing stampede. He speaks now as God, opens wide the pit, and our children rise to aid us, singing in the wilderness, ready to lead our lost kin home. O my Lord, teach us to love; shrive all things, tell the end of all things, make all things alive! 47

degradation, and political turmoil and ex- Crisis and tremism—this essay has two objectives. The fi rst objective, addressed in Part One, the Power of is diagnostic. Specifi cally, it is to exam- an Inclusive ine two macro habits of mind that are de- scribed as delusional because, while they Historical may seem warranted, they in fact perpetu- ate defects of being, doing, and associating Consciousness: that, in turn, exacerbate the crises before us. These two habits of mind, namely, the Progressing from habit of totalizing reality and the habit of fragmenting reality, manifest in various Delusional Habits harmful ways, including in our compul- sions to ideologize, to dichotomize, to re- to Dynamic duce, to individualize, to hyper-consume, Freedom1 to dogmatize, and to otherize. The second objective, addressed in Part Two, is to pro- pose how these delusional macro habits of TODD SMITH mind and their associated compulsions can be overcome. It is argued that overcoming them entails embracing an inclusive histor- Abstract ical consciousness, centered on the idea of In view of the many crises now facing humanity’s path to maturity, and develop- humanity—such as the coronavirus pan- ing the related capacities to think and act in demic, overt racial strife, environmental accordance with a number of dynamic in- terplays, including the interplays between unity and diversity, the individual and the 1 I am extremely grateful for the collective, and worship and service. Final- insights and valuable feedback of the fol- ly, it is maintained that learning to think lowing individuals who reviewed either and act in accordance with these interplays full drafts of this essay, portions of it, or promotes what is called dynamic free- aspects of it which had previously been dom—a condition in which the wealth of intended for other projects: Elham Afnan, individual and collective potential is pro- Vargha Bolodo-Taefi , Livia Dittmer, Omid gressively realized for the benefi t of all. It Ghaemmaghami, Michael Karlberg, Kim- is hoped that this article will be of some berley Oh, Sandra Smith, Mihdi Vahedi, assistance to readers’ eff orts to contribute and Matthew Weinberg. I would also like to to the advancement of the discourses in thank my daughter Toren Smith for helping which they are involved, by helping them me with the design for Figure 1 regarding correlate the teachings of the Bahá ’í Faith the interplay between science and religion, with the ideas of thoughtful individuals as well as the editorial team of the Jour- from the larger community who are alert nal for Bahá’í Studies, whose feedback I to the consequences of totalizing and frag- found especially stimulating and helpful in menting reality. strengthening various components of the entire essay. 48 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Résumé dynamique, une condition qui permettrait Dans le contexte des nombreuses crises au riche potentiel individuel et collectif auxquelles l’humanité est confrontée au- d’être progressivement réalisé au profi t de jourd’hui, telles que la pandémie de coro- tous. L’auteur souhaite que cet article aide navirus, les confl its raciaux manifestes, la les lecteurs à contribuer à l’avancement dégradation de l’environnement ainsi que des discours publics auxquels ils partici- l’instabilité et l’extrémisme politiques, pent, en les aidant à mettre en corrélation l’auteur du présent essai poursuit deux les enseignements de la foi bahá’íe avec les objectifs. Le premier objectif, qu’il abor- idées de personnes réfl échies dans la so- de dans la première partie, est de poser ciété qui sont conscientes des conséquenc- un diagnostic. Plus précisément, il s’agit es qu’entraînent des visions totalisantes ou d’examiner deux grandes façons de pensée fragmentaires de la réalité. que l’auteur qualifi e d’illusoires car, même si elles peuvent sembler justifi ées, elles Resumen perpétuent en réalité des défaillances en Este ensayo tiene dos objetivos en vista de matière d’être, d’action et d’association. las crisis múltiples que enfrenta la humani- Ces défaillances, à leur tour, exacerbent dad actualmente- tal como la pandemia del les crises auxquelles l’humanité est con- Coronavirus, el confl icto racial abierto, frontée. Ces deux grandes tendances à el deterioro ambiental, al igual que la ag- appréhender la réalité selon une vision to- itación y el extremismo político. El primer talisante ou morcelante se manifestent de objetivo tiene un propósito diagnóstico y se diverses manières préjudiciables, notam- aborda en la Parte 1. Específi camente, su ment dans notre compulsion à nous canton- propósito es examinar dos macro hábitos ner dans des idéologies, des dichotomies, mentales que se describen como ilusorios le réductionnisme, l’individualisme, l’hy- porque, aunque parezcan justifi cados, de perconsommation, le dogmatisme ainsi hecho, perpetúan defectos del ser y el ac- qu’à voir le monde en termes de « nous » et tuar, y eso a su vez, complica la crisis que « eux ». Le deuxième objectif, que l’auteur enfrentamos. Estos dos hábitos mentales, aborde dans la deuxième partie, consiste específi camente el hábito de totalizar a la à proposer des moyens pour surmonter realidad y el habito de fragmentarla, se ces deux grandes façons de pensée et les manifi estan de varias maneras dañinas, in- compulsions qui s’y rattachent. L’auteur cluso en nuestras compulsiones por ideol- soutient que pour s’en aff ranchir, il faut ogizar, dicotomizar, reducir, individualizar, adopter une conscience inclusive de l’his- híper consumir, dogmatizar y enajenar a los toire, centrée sur l’idée du cheminement de demás. El segundo objetivo, abordado en l’humanité vers la maturité, et développer la Parte 2, es proponer como estos macro les capacités connexes de penser et d’agir hábitos mentales ilusorios y sus compul- en fonction d’un certain nombre d’interac- siones asociadas, pueden ser sobrepasadas. tions dynamiques, notamment les interac- Demostraremos que el sobrepasarlas conl- tions entre l’unité et la diversité, l’individu leva aceptar una conciencia histórica inclu- et le collectif, l’adoration et le service. En- siva, centrada en la idea del sendero hacia la fi n, l’auteur soutient que le fait d’apprendre madurez de la humanidad, y en el desarrol- à penser et à agir en fonction de ces interac- lo de las capacidades relacionadas del pen- tions favoriserait ce qu’il appelle la liberté sar y el actuar, de acuerdo a una cantidad Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 49

de interrelaciones dinámicas, incluyendo a resulting consternation has also been las interrelaciones entre la unidad y la di- aggravated by a host of other dilem- versidad, el individuo y el conjunto, y entre mas that have put many into a state of la adoración y el servicio. Finalmente, se existential dismay. These dilemmas afi rma que el aprender a pensar y actuar de include the rise of demagoguery and acuerdo con estas interrelaciones promueve the persistent challenge to democra- lo que llamamos la libertad dinámica- una cy, including its institutions, the bal- condición en la cual la riqueza del potencial ance of power, and the integrity of the del individuo y del colectivo se logra pro- gresivamente para el benefi cio de todos. Se franchise; the blatant debasement of espera que este artículo sea de ayuda en los political and moral norms; the shifting esfuerzos de los leyentes para contribuir ha- dynamics of power between nations cia el avance de los discursos en los cuales partly accomplished through duplic- están involucrados, ayudándolos a correl- itous means notably involving social acionar las enseñanzas de la fé bahá’ì con and news media; the palpable worsen- las ideas de individuos refl exivos de la co- ing state of the environment; and the munidad en general quienes están alertas a distressing resurgence, yet again, of las consecuencias de la fragmentación y la overt racial animosity and acts of hate totalización de la realidad. coupled with political extremism, up- risings, and violence. In the words of PART ONE: ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “the tempests of trials DELUSIONAL HABITS and tribulations have encompassed the world, and fear and trembling have Humanity appears to be living through agitated the planet” (qtd. in Universal an extraordinarily challenging moment House of Justice, Naw-Rúz 177). in history. We are currently beset by a pandemic that is “creating tragedies for O: T O families and individuals and plunging whole societies into crisis” (Universal Recognizing that change is endemic to House of Justice, Riḍ vá n 2020). This society—for better or for worse, and crisis is compounded by the fact that particularly during this age of transi- much of the suff ering appears need- tion2—it is with tribulations such as less, its having been exacerbated, par- these in mind that this essay has been ticularly in some countries, by the lack written. It has two objectives, which of a unifi ed, science-based approach are addressed in two parts. to grappling with the disease. As stat- The fi rst objective, addressed in ed by the Universal House of Justice: this part, is to critically examine two “Seldom has it been more evident that overarching delusional habits of mind, society’s collective strength is depen- dent on the unity it can manifest in action, from the international stage to 2 That is, “as humanity struggles to the grassroots” (Naw-Rúz 177). The attain its collective maturity” (Universal House of Justice, 28 Dec. 2010). 50 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

which are labeled as delusional be- to the fi rst macro habit of mind is the cause, while they may seem justifi ed compulsion to ideologize. Tied to the and natural, they in fact operate in var- second one are the compulsions to re- ious ways to perpetuate numerous de- duce, compartmentalize, and dichoto- fects of being, doing, and associating, mize, to atomize or individualize, and and thereby stifl e our capacity to deal to hyper-consume, among others. Tied with crisis, let alone fl ourish, as a glob- to both macro habits are the compul- al community. These defects, discussed sions to dogmatize, distort, and fi c- at the outset of this essay, are referred tionalize, and to otherize and tribalize. to as distress, dissension, degradation, Each of these compulsions can also be disenchantment, displacement, and de- described as habits, such as the habit spair. The delusional habits that perpet- of ideologizing, of reducing, of hy- uate these defects are, fi rst, the macro per-consuming, and so on. habit of totalizing reality (with related The second objective, addressed in terms being the totalistic mindset and Part Two of this essay, is constructive. totalism3), and, second, the macro hab- It is to propose that in order to tran- it of fragmenting reality (the fragment- scend these delusional habits of mind, ed mindset and fragmentism4). Tied what is required is a wholehearted embrace of an inclusive historical, or 3 The term “totalism” is typically narrative, consciousness which both associated with systems of government informs, and is enriched by, a diver- such as authoritarianism, absolutism, and sity of micro narratives, and which is totalitarianism. It also refers to the cluster vitalized by our capacities to think and of strategies used by certain groups to con- act in accordance with a number of trol the thought and behavior of their mem- fundamental interplays. These include bers (see, for example, Lifton). As outlined the interplays between unity and diver- below, the habit of totalizing reality refers sity, the individual and the collective, in this essay to the proclivity to encapsu- worship and service, tribulation and late as much of reality as possible within a progress, moment and time, consisten- particular worldview and to repudiate as ir- cy and fl exibility, material reality and relevant, senseless, or antagonistic all that spiritual reality, quality and quantity, does not align with it. Totalism refers to the cognitive and/or social condition in which truth and relativity, subjectivity and the habit of totalizing reality predominates. objectivity, and science and religion, It can also refer to the view or philosophy that it is normal, natural, or desirable for by Kit Fine to explain his novel approach this condition to predominate. Totalitarian- to the philosophy of time. As discussed ism and thought control are types of total- below, fragmentism, in this essay, refers ism as the term is employed here. to the cognitive and/or social condition 4 The term “fragmentalism” could in which the habit of fragmenting reality have been chosen instead; however, while predominates. It can also refer to the view there are similarities between “fragmental- or philosophy that it is normal, natural, or ism” and “fragmentism”, the former is used desirable for this condition to predominate. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 51

among others. It is further suggested now, more than at any other time in our that the capacities to think and act in history, we are enjoying greater over- line with such interplays give rise to a all wealth, literacy, equality, and food new form of freedom referred to here quality, among other factors related to as dynamic freedom. To make this our welfare. point, particular focus is placed on the Equally evidential in this regard is fi rst three interplays. the process of global integration itself. While this essay may be of interest This integration is being facilitated by to a more general audience, it is aimed radical developments in technology primarily at individuals who are con- but is also, notably, being impelled by cerned with correlating, where possi- crises that transcend national boundar- ble, the teachings of the Bahá ’í Faith ies. For many (but certainly not every- with the ideas of thoughtful minds one) around the world, the coronavirus from the larger community. It is hoped pandemic, arguably the greatest calam- that some of the insights and the lan- ity humanity has faced since World War guage herein will be of some assistance II, is helping to disclose the reality that in advancing various discourses that humanity is one and that it needs to act are relevant to their areas of study and as such. The House of Justice assures focus. us that “humanity will ultimately pass through this ordeal, and it will emerge D B, D, on the other side with greater insight A and with a deeper appreciation of its inherent oneness and interdependence” There is much evidence to suggest that (Naw-Rúz 177). Longstanding crises humanity has made notable progress such as the worsening state of the en- over the last couple of centuries in vironment and the recent trenchant terms of material wellbeing and human challenges caused by mass migration rights. Steven Pinker, for example, are highlighting the same fundamental makes the case that, especially since truth.5 the inauguration of the Age of Reason, One could also argue that, overall, we have advanced signifi cantly in re- there have been signifi cant advances ducing the prevalence of poverty, dis- in equality and civil rights over, say, ease, violence, and war. Hans Rosling the last one hundred years. There is et al. off er a similar assessment, main- unquestionably a long way to go as taining that the common refrain that the world has gotten worse is belied 5 In a similar vein, Jeff rey Sachs by actual facts, which indicate that we makes a compelling case for coming to are better off today than we have ever terms with our technologically driven glo- been in terms of healthcare, education, balization and the need for governance at and reduction in poverty. In the same the international level that can eff ective- vein, Johan Norberg contends that ly guide humanity through its crises and achieve sustainable development. 52 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

highlighted, for example, by the #Me- be overcome through compassion. Eric Too movement and the recent deaths of Fromm argues that we are caught up in George Floyd, Breonna Taylor, and Ah- a cycle of anxiety, loneliness, unfulfi ll- maud Arbery, among others, as well as ment, and depression because we have the recent shooting of Jacob Blake. Yet, fallen into a “having” mode rather than even here, progress can be observed a “being” mode, owing to a consumer- when one considers how conscious- ist culture that compels us to compete, ness has expanded as demonstrated by compare, and value greed and accu- the growing diversity of people across mulation at the expense of sharing and diff erent nations who feel compelled to solidarity. Mohandas Gandhi main- raise their voices to combat the forces tains that liberalism has subverted the of systemic discrimination. At the time very human dignity it claims to uphold, of writing this essay, there is a mount- and he advocates in its stead a super- ing sense that because of such crises, normal life of self-mastery character- we might be approaching an infl ection ized, among other things, by austerity point, one that has the possibility of and continuous non-violent struggle giving birth to much-needed change to liberate others from suff ering. John in the name of social justice. Certain- Lame Deer teaches that modernity is ly, the political will to abolish racism permeated with the wrong symbols once and for all appears to be growing, (most predominantly the square), at least in some quarters. which signify separation from rather Yet, simultaneous with the process than harmony with nature (symbolized of integration is the irrepressible pro- instead by the circle). Similarly, Leo cess of disintegration.6 In this regard, a Tolstoy laments the loss of premodern faithful reading of reality would seem spiritual values; for him, life in secular to expose numerous indicators of ram- society is meaningless and superfi cial, pant societal decay, some of which discourages us from truly considering have been highlighted by many authors our existential situation, and seduces across a range of traditions—from us into living lives of triviality, the re- at least Jean-Jacques Rousseau on- ality of which only becomes apparent wards—who maintain that society has to us when we face our own death. become degenerate and sick. The Dalai Lama, for example, draws attention to S I D how the fundamental interdependence of all things has been obscured by There are a number of ways to describe commodity fetishism, which can only the phenomenon of disintegration that society faces, particularly (but not ex- 6 The Universal House of Justice clusively) in the West. One way is to states: “The inexorable advance of the world expand upon Shoghi Eff endi’s obser- towards the unifi cation of the human race is vation that humanity is plunging “into driven by irrepressible processes of integra- greater depths of despair, degradation, tion and disintegration” (22 Mar. 2006). Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 53 dissension, and distress” (Citadel). In be devastating predicaments related to this connection, it is helpful to think in health, social relations, the economy, terms of the following six interrelated the electoral process and the struggle defects of being, doing, and associat- for power, and the incapacity of those ing, namely, the defects of in positions of authority to unify and 1) distress, or desperation. For chart a steady course forward—though, many, this defect is the result of an it should be acknowledged, there are acute awareness that, for all the ad- notable exceptions around the world as vances that have been made, there re- well as some determined eff orts to re- mains an exasperating paucity of the shape politics to be more constructive. focused, united, collective will neces- A corollary of such distress is sary to address the ominous calamities 2) dissension, or discord, which now facing humanity on both a global occurs between various groups—coun- and a national scale (climate change tries, political parties, races, cultures, and the coronavirus pandemic being religions, sexes, and so on. While dis- clear examples of the former; the dis- cord is often ideologically driven, it proportionate prevalence, at the time of is also fueled by a cult of individual- writing this paper, of COVID-19 cases ism and the associated perception that and related deaths in America being life amounts to a series of zero-sum an example of the latter). Others are games. It is, moreover, perpetuated desperate because they feel their way by reductionist, dogmatic, antagonis- of life is being eroded by unwanted, tic, and polarizing thought and speech ever-encroaching change, and thus re- with fl imsy (or deliberately distorted) spond by retreating into various forms links to reality, which, in turn, create of tribalism, factionalism, and fanati- an environment in which constructive cism as an ostensible way to channel dialogue becomes all but impossible their energies and give voice to their while the voice of demagoguery—and angst. Yet others are desperate because the delusions of grandeur and cult of they are the targets of persistent, sys- personality that accompany it—be- temic discrimination—and the dispari- comes increasingly brazen. This defect ties in material wealth that result from is correlated with it—an insidiously rampant feature of 3) degradation,7 by which is meant society that has never been snuff ed out, the dissipation of morality, courage, but rather, as Shoghi Eff endi states in and intellectual curiosity, and the con- relation to racial prejudice, “has bitten current escalation of corruption, de- into the fi ber, and attacked the whole bauchery, hypocritical opportunism, social structure of American society” sycophantism, and what seems to be a (Advent), and which is yet again being laid bare in all its vileness. Many now 7 Recent authors have arrived at also feel that society is veering out of similar assessments. One notable example control in the face of what appear to is Ross Douthat, who views the current moment as one of collective decadence. 54 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 well-groomed, if not a deep-rooted, de- thinking, but it has also been a major sire to backbite, vilify, scapegoat, and theme since at least the Romantics and persecute, as well as to erode political is refl ected in much recent literature and social norms. This is a common concerned with how to achieve mean- theme today, amplifi ed by, for example, ing and contentment in one’s life.8 Dis- the obstinacy and hateful pettiness of enchantment is associated directly with partisan politics and the now-pervasive the next defect, namely instinct to react impetuously and share 5) displacement, the meaning of one’s basest thoughts over various which is captured by such words as forms of media, both social and main- anomie and alienation—alienation stream. On this point, the Universal from the world, from others, from House of Justice states the following in one’s community, and from one’s cre- a letter written on its behalf: ative self. Here, the prevailing sense is one of rootlessness not only caused by One conspicuous symptom of so- calamities such as forced migration but ciety’s deepening malaise is the also exacerbated today by our consum- steady descent of public discourse erist culture, caught up as we are with into greater rancour and enmi- identity, images, and signs—some of ty, refl ecting entrenched partisan which are more ephemeral than others, points of view. A prevalent feature but all of which can become the subject of such contemporary discourse is of dispute. In such an ethos, moreover, how political disagreements rap- sincerity and the potential for construc- idly degenerate into invective and tive change are displaced by ubiquitous ridicule. However, what particu- skepticism. larly diff erentiates the present age The last interrelated defect in this from those that preceded it is how proposed scheme is so much of this discourse occurs 6) despair—very much a Kierkeg- in full view of the world. Social aardian theme. Despair refers to both media and related communication the anxiety we feel and to our attempt tools tend to give the greatest ex- to escape it by habitually seeking di- posure to all that is controversial . . . versions and mindlessly committing (1 Dec. 2019) ourselves to rituals and trivialities. Living in a sea of confl ict, polariza- A major factor related to such degrada- tion, moral fl uidity, groundlessness, tion is an overarching sense of 4) disenchantment with the world, 8 Examples include publications or the sense that it lacks purpose, in- by Emily Esfahani Smith, Scott Galloway, spirational mystery, or narrative cohe- Ryan Holiday, and Jordan B. Peterson. sion. Max Weber speaks of this trend Then there is, of course, Viktor Frankl’s in his analysis of the rationalization of infl uential refl ections on fi nding person- society and the rise of instrumentalist al meaning under the most deleterious of circumstances. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 55 and materialism, many of us are more D H M: than happy to settle for mediocrity as T C it pertains to our creative, social, intel- lectual, and spiritual potential, and to In considering the following delusional do so while unwittingly laboring to de- habits of mind which, it is argued, per- ceive ourselves into thinking we have petuate the six defects of being, doing, done all we can do to be the best we and associating outlined above, it is can truly be. important to remember three caveats. Taken together, these defects recall The fi rst caveat is that these habits Shoghi Eff endi’s warnings in a letter of mind take hold of people in diff er- dated 28 July 1954 regarding the “ex- ent ways and to diff erent degrees de- treme seriousness” of the “spiritual, pending on various social, cultural, and moral, social and political” crisis be- psychological factors, which cannot be fore America. He says that “the most properly addressed in a paper of this arresting and distressing aspect of the length. In general, for example, one decline that has set in, and can be clear- could say that the proclivity to totalize ly perceived, in the fortunes of the en- is more a feature of Eastern societies tire nation” is whereas the proclivity to fragment is more a feature of the West—at least the steady and alarming deterio- since the demise of overtly fascist (or ration in the standard of morality more totalistic) societies in the wake of as exemplifi ed by the appalling World War II. But there are certainly increase of crime, by political cor- strains of totalism and fragmentism ruption in ever widening and ever in both the East and the West. There higher circles, by the loosening is reason to believe, for example, that of the sacred ties of marriage, by fascist tendencies are resurfacing in the the inordinate craving for pleasure West. Madeleine Albright, who sees and diversion, and by the marked fascism as a recurring phenomenon, and progressive slackening of pa- has made a compelling case in this re- rental control . . . . (Citadel) gard, as have a number of other com- mentators who have recently worried In the same letter, he also highlights on cable news and other media that the “crass materialism” that is “per- American democracy itself could col- vading all departments of life,” the lapse if attacks on its political norms “ominous laxity in morals,” the “dark- and institutions—from both without ening of the political horizon,” and the and within—were allowed to continue. “ingrained racial prejudice,” which, On a related note, over the last number “if allowed to drift, will, in the words of years, many have debated whether of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, cause the streets of we have been moving towards George American cities to run with blood . . . .” Orwell’s depiction of a dystopia dom- inated by totalitarian mind-control 56 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 achieved through, for instance, fear, found in the Western tradition. It is the methodical erosion of language, acknowledged that much would be the unscrupulous revisioning of histo- gained by also drawing upon other ry, and thus the enfeebling of our abil- traditions. Consequently, thinkers with ity to engage in independent thought, greater knowledge of, say, Eastern, In- or towards Aldous Huxley’s depiction digenous, and African thought may be of a society of people tranquilized by interested in sharing their insights on shallow pleasures and distractions. how such traditions bear on the ques- What follows would suggest that both tions and arguments advanced in this writers were prophetic to an extent. essay. The second caveat is that these mac- ro habits of mind, while inherently de- T M H fective, can manifest in diff erent ways, T R some of which are more problematic than others. The racist worldview, for The macro habit of totalizing reality, example, is infi nitely more problemat- which perpetuates the six defects of ic (not to mention repugnant) than the being, doing, and associating, refers to pluralistic one, although, as alluded to the proclivity to encapsulate the world, below, the latter is not without its own or as many perceivable aspects of it as diffi culties. As Derik Smith argues re- possible, within an increasingly regi- garding the metaphor of the “pupil of mented worldview—to grapple with the eye”, which Bahá’u’lláh likens to and explain more and more of what is people of African descent, seen of reality in terms of the world- view’s organizing logic. To identify the anomalous nature of the met- this habit is not to condemn the search aphor—the fact that Bahá’u’lláh for intelligible explanations of reality; seems to have reserved this ex- it is only natural for us, as human be- ceptional favoring for black peo- ings, to want to understand the world ple—highlights the particularly we live in and to do so by striving virulent role that anti-black ideol- to develop cohesive lenses through ogy has played in the constitution which to perceive it, lenses which of modern social and philosoph- we believe adequately describe it and ical thought, and suggests that provide suitable explanations of our anti-blackness is a distinctively place within it. Rather, to totalize, as ominous impediment to human the term is being employed here,9 is to oneness. (10) take this longing to the point where we summarily dismiss whatever does not The third caveat is that, in addition fi t neatly within the parameters of our to the teachings of the Bahá’í Faith, the analysis that follows, except for a few allusions, is informed by ideas 9 The term typically means “to make total.” Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 57 worldview as anomalous, absurd, or P N S senseless, or repudiate it as deviant or antagonistic; as such, it is contrary to Kuhn uses the term paradigm in a va- the idea of “reading society with higher riety of ways, but the most applicable and higher degrees of accuracy” as “an one here is the concept of a paradigm- explicit element of the methodology of as-shared-set-of-values (Hacking 10), learning” (Offi ce of Social and Eco- a scientifi c worldview that stipulates nomic Development). the community’s theoretical orienta- The supreme manifestation of this tion and set of fundamental beliefs, habit on the collective level is totalitar- principles, vocabulary, and standards ianism, but it also takes on other forms for scientifi c practice. It is, moreover, such as various political ideologies, a worldview that is incommensura- religious fundamentalism, and mate- ble—or not readily comparable—with rialist scientism. Regarding the latter, other worldviews, a comprehensive for example, some advocates of sci- theoretical construct that powerfully entism—the conviction that no area of conditions the way in which its adher- investigation has merit unless it prop- ents observe and deal with phenomena. erly applies the methods of natural sci- A related concept is what Kuhn ence—in fact hold that the reaches of calls normal science, which scientists science are immeasurable, that its po- are habitually involved in, and which tential knowledge is boundless. Rudolf amounts to puzzle solving within a Carnap declares that “[w]hen we say specifi c scientifi c paradigm. By puz- that scientifi c knowledge is unlimited, zle solving, he means that the par- we mean: there is no question whose adigm sets out the rules, standards, answer is in principle unattainable by and problems to be addressed and that science” (qtd. in Sorell 6, italics orig- scientists, abiding by these rules and inal). Thus, science, from this perspec- standards, embark on missions to solve tive, is the totality through which all of these problems. In this way, science is reality should invariably be understood. able to progress. Without the paradigm In what follows, the focus will pri- and the comforting supposition that marily be on the compulsion to ide- certain fundamental questions have ologize, or the habit of ideologizing, been settled and important criteria es- which is an off spring of the macro hab- tablished, science is rendered aimless it of totalizing reality. To facilitate un- and ineff ectual. derstanding of this habit, a useful con- At the same time, according to cept to have at our disposal is that of Kuhn, normal science has its limits. the paradigm as employed by Thomas What drives the scientist within a para- Kuhn (Structure) in relation to what he digm “is the conviction that, if only he calls normal science. [sic] is skillful enough, he will succeed in solving a puzzle that no one before has solved or solved so well” (Structure 58 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

38). Moreover, like the jigsaw puzzle without endangering that which is fun- where only one solution is acceptable, damental to it.10 the scientist resolves the problem only The alternative is to acknowledge the when his or her solution conforms to anomalies for the challenges they pose the expectations of the paradigm. The to the paradigm, but this would require trick is to arrive at an explanation that a probing re-evaluation of what the works in accordance with such stan- defenders of the paradigm have come dards. Normal science, then, is about to champion. It may threaten the very “fi tting” phenomena within the para- foundations upon which their (normal digmatic construct better than anyone scientifi c) work is based; it would, in else has done, about successfully con- any case, mean entertaining the lim- structing phenomena from the paradig- itations of their worldview. These are matic point of view. When he or she tough notions. So, attempts are made manages to do so, the scientist proves to neutralize anomalies, to assimilate his or her brilliance. them within—albeit modifi ed, but not fundamentally so—paradigmatic pa- Contending with Anomalies rameters, to repackage them. But not all anomalies can be suc- In the process of puzzle solving, scien- cessfully assimilated. Some are too tists run into what Kuhn calls anoma- persistent, ringing with blatant clarity, lies. “The more precise and far-reach- challenging with seeming impudence. ing [the] paradigm is” (Structure 65), They can also accrue over time and so the more extensively it is compared come to exert formidable pressure on with the world, and hence the greater the conceptual walls of the paradigm. the likelihood that it will encounter In other words, these anomalies may instances of novelty. This is generally become conspicuous and glaringly so. a good thing for the paradigm, since As such, they defy articulation and so if it were not for anomalies, paradig- cannot be ignored or made intelligible, matic articulation would be impossi- let alone be integrated. Instead, now the ble and conceptual sterility would set paradigm is forced to conform itself to in. Anomalies are often regarded as the point where it inevitably falls into puzzles that one can expect to solve if one is ingenious enough. Here the 10 On this point, Kuhn says, “All the- paradigm holds sway. It takes these ories can be modifi ed by a variety of ad hoc phenomena in, bandies them about, adjustments without ceasing to be, in their and renders them conceptually intel- main lines, the same theories. It is import- ligible—that is, it makes them para- ant, furthermore, that this should be so, for digmatically meaningful or agreeable, it is often by challenging observations or fabricated in line with its prevailing adjusting theories that scientifi c knowledge expectations. The paradigm may grows. Challenges and adjustments are a adjust in the process, but it does so standard part of normal research in empiri- cal science. . .” (Essential Tension 281). Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 59

crisis, “set[ting] the stage for its de- the way we have come to see the world mise” (Barnes 91). And when a viable when challenged by countervailing rival paradigm emerges, the result is evidence; of, in fact, laboring to mold paradigmatic shift, or revolution—a the anomalous in accordance with our leap into a whole new way of under- particular worldview, or to explain it standing and coping with the world, away when we are not able to? Fur- a conceptual switch into a brand-new ther, is it not reasonable to claim that, totality that demands of its adherents in more extreme cases, we can end its own articulation through the puz- up diminishing and even persecuting zle-solving activity of normal science. those who challenge our conceptions of the way things are or should be and Relevance of Kuhn’s Account that it can take a massive amount of anomalous push before we are willing There is much debate about the ac- to seriously question the adequacy of curacy of Kuhn’s accounts of normal our worldview and see things diff erent- science and scientifi c revolution. A ly? In the discussion of ideology that prominent alternative is Imre Lakatos’s follows, there is much to suggest that model of a scientifi c research program the answer to each of these questions is (see Godfrey-Smith 103–107), which “yes” and that the six defects of being, consists of a hard core of theoretical doing, and associating are perpetuated assumptions and concepts combined as a consequence. with a protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses that can be sacrifi ced or T C I altered in the face of anomalies, thus safeguarding the hard core. The main As already noted, there are certainly point, however, is that such concepts benefi ts associated with the impulse to as the paradigm, normal science, and/ totalize reality which are important to or the research program, or, more re- consider. Mark Lilla can be understood cently, Daniel Kahneman’s concepts as drawing attention to some of them of confi rmation bias and cognitive co- in his 2014 article “The Truth about herence, help to clarify what it means Our Libertarian Age.” In this article, to totalize in the more general sense, he distinguishes between ideology and even if they do not exactly describe dogma, arguing that the former is pref- what happens in a given (scientifi c) erable to the latter, but that we have community. unfortunately lapsed into the latter. He For example, is it not fair to say in fact seems nostalgic for the age of that we are prone to developing the ideology which, in his view, character- habit—through parenting, education, ized the Cold War. socialization, particular experiences, Lilla makes a good case for his wist- social media, and so on—of seeing the fulness, portraying our current age as world in a certain way; of rationalizing one in which we have lost our capacity 60 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 to read reality. He says, for example, time,” quite the opposite has happened. that “[w]e lack adequate concepts or Instead, in an age where self-determi- even a vocabulary for describing the nation, or individual autonomy, is most world” and that “[t]he end of ideology highly prized, the will to inquire has has not meant the lifting of clouds. It withered. Because ideologies are to- has brought a fog so thick that we can talizing, there is the problem that they no longer read what is right before us. lead to totalitarianism. On the other We fi nd ourselves in an illegible age.” hand, An ideology, in his mind, “does something diff erent: it holds us in its Our libertarianism operates diff er- grasp with an enchanting picture of ently: it is supremely dogmatic, reality. To follow the optical metaphor, and like every dogma it sanctions ideology takes an undiff erentiated vi- ignorance about the world, and sual fi eld and brings it into focus, so therefore blinds adherents to its that objects appear in a predetermined eff ects in that world. It begins with relation to each other.” In other words, basic liberal principles—the sanc- an ideology, like Kuhn’s paradigm, tity of the individual, the priority provides a worldview, coherence, a of freedom, distrust of public au- way of reading reality that is consistent thority, tolerance—and advances and meaningful to those who adhere no further. It has no taste for real- to it. It provides a map that helps us to ity, no curiosity about how we got picture the world and get on with our here or where we are going. projects. It upholds grand narratives, such as historical materialism, that Libertarian dogma, moreover, does not make sense out of what is otherwise in- foster the generation of knowledge or coherent, that “[try] to master the his- say anything decipherable about the torical forces shaping society by fi rst way the world actually is or works. It understanding them.” does not, for example, question the ad- vantages of democracy as practiced in Ideology versus the West, which, incidentally, is a rela- Libertarian Dogma tively new form of governance. It just assumes it is the way to go. Invoking By comparison, Lilla equates dogma Kuhn, it might be said that the anom- with libertarianism. Whereas many, alies our democracy faces are, for all such as the sociologist Daniel Bell, intents and purposes, ignored, or not thought that the erosion of ideology even noticed; the attempt to puzzle would, in Lilla’s words, “free up minds solve doesn’t even take place.11 to investigate the subtle and unex- pected interactions between the polit- ical, economic, and cultural spheres of 11 It should be acknowledged that modern social life as they develop over one could now reasonably dispute this con- clusion given, as alluded to in this essay, Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 61

Further, with ideology, one locates disenchanted and displaced, and have oneself in relationship to the collec- given up on exploring anything deeper tive. With libertarian dogma, this re- or more meaningful than the superfi - lationship falls apart; the notion that cial. We have thus brought upon our- any synergy could exist between indi- selves an overarching sense of despair. vidual and collective purposes evapo- rates. Again, this result is detrimental The Relative Strengths and and certainly the opposite of being in Challenges of Ideology a learning mode. As Lilla goes on to explain, the libertarian age “has given Like Kuhn’s account of normal sci- birth to a new kind of hubris unlike that ence, there is surely merit to Lilla’s of the old master thinkers.” “Our hu- account, but there are also problems bris,” he says, “is to think that we no with it. On the one hand, it makes sense longer have to think hard or pay atten- that with the collapse of ideology, as he tion or look for connections, that all we sees it, a case can be made that we can have to do is stick to our ‘democratic no longer make intelligible sense of values’ and economic models and faith the world and how we should live in it. in the individual and all will be well.” Without it, it is fair to ask how we are Moreover, to map reality and advance collective- ly. His criticism of libertarian dogma is Having witnessed unpleasant also compelling and fi ts well with the scenes of intellectual drunkenness, discussion of fragmentism discussed we have become self-satisfi ed ab- below. On the other hand, there are stainers removed from history and reasons to take issue with his account, unprepared for the challenges it is some of which—outlined briefl y here already bringing. The end of the as little more than points of departure cold war destroyed whatever con- for further inquiry—are as follows. fi dence in ideology still remained The fi rst reason has simply to do in the West. But it also seems to with word choice. Whereas Lilla uses have destroyed our will to under- the term libertarian, it seems prefer- stand. We have abdicated. able to replace it with a more generic term to avoid linking the dogma and Drawing upon the typology of the six intellectual vacuity he condemns with defects of being, doing, and associat- a particular conservative worldview ing, it might be added that, having em- that is not shared by all. One could braced a culture of intellectual degra- make the case, consistent with his dation, we have consequently become general theme, that such dogma now infects a host of worldviews, particu- larly in the West. In the remainder of the growing concern over the threat to de- this essay, the term piecemeal is used mocracy with the rise of populism and fas- instead. Thus, piecemeal dogma refers cist tendencies over the last several years. 62 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 to dogma that sanctions the abdication a system of thought that “philosophi- of attempts to delve beneath surface cally and politically presents itself as a reality or achieve coherence. It relates kind of liberal relativism; economical- specifi cally to the macro habit of frag- ly and socially, as capitalism—two val- menting reality discussed below. ue systems that have now so adjusted Second, it seems hardly contestable to each other and become so mutually that ideologies such as, but not limited reinforcing as to constitute virtually a to, fascism, communism, Nazism, and single, comprehensive world-view” nationalism, can lead to havoc in the (Century of Light). Perhaps, in line world, thus contributing signifi cantly with Lilla’s account, this worldview is to such defects as dissension, displace- no longer as systematic as it may have ment, and degradation. As explained in been; nor, perhaps, is it as cohesive as the statement Century of Light: “The other forms of ideology that dominat- consequence of humanity’s infatuation ed in the twentieth century. Yet, it still with the ideologies its own mind had holds powerful sway over the Western conceived was to produce a terrifying imagination. The same could be said acceleration of the process of disinte- of the many varieties of totalism we gration that was dissolving the fabric see today, such as the tribalism that of social life and cultivating the bas- has emerged out of an identity politics est impulses of human nature.” The that is in many respects fueled by this nineteenth and twentieth centuries are liberal relativism. As discussed further fraught with examples. below, present-day tribalism can be Third, totalism in the form of ideol- understood to be the result of totalism ogy is arguably still a force today. As and fragmentism working together, the further stated in Century of Light: latter of which weakens the internal coherence of such worldviews while The overthrow of the twentieth concurrently furnishing them with an century’s totalitarian systems has us-or-them character that holds each not meant the end of ideology. On one intact, if only superfi cially. the contrary. There has not been a Fourth, certain forms of totalism, or society in the history of the world, ideology, still tend to foreclose many no matter how pragmatic, exper- legitimate ways of understanding reali- imentalist and multi-form it may ty, which means they are also dogmatic. have been, that did not derive its Like Kuhn’s scientifi c paradigm, they thrust from some foundational in- work to align the anomalous with their terpretation of reality. underlying assumptions, sometimes with dangerous consequences. This From this perspective, one could argue totalistic tendency can also be referred that the libertarian dogmatism that Lil- to as paradigmatic colonization, which la criticizes (or piecemeal dogmatism) denotes the process of actively incor- is itself a species of ideology, that is, porating (anomalous) phenomena into Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 63 a paradigm’s purview—into its way of exceedingly narrow understanding of organizing reality. It consists of taking religion and spirituality,” but which such phenomena in and molding them “continues to gather strength, threaten- until they obtain paradigmatic palatabil- ing to engulf humanity in rigid dogma- ity. More than this, to paradigmatically tism” (2 Apr. 2010). Furthermore, colonize is to construct more and more facets of reality from the paradigmatic In its most extreme form, it con- point of view without necessarily doing ditions the resolution of the prob- so in a manner that is attuned to those lems of the world upon the oc- facets. And when other worldviews are currence of events derived from subjugated as a consequence, it is also illogical and superstitious notions. to paradigmatically imperialize. It professes to uphold virtue yet, Scientism—as opposed to science in practice, perpetuates oppression itself—is, as noted above, arguably and greed. Among the deplorable a good example of such totalism, or results of the operation of such paradigmatic colonization, in action. forces are a deepening confusion Its aim is to extend the methods and on the part of young people ev- concepts of materialist science to other erywhere, a sense of hopelessness spheres where they may not truly be- in the ranks of those who would long. In other words, drive progress, and the emergence of a myriad social maladies. The thought behind the forging of this unity—that it is highly desir- Drawing upon the six defects of being, able for the concepts and method- doing, and associating, such mala- ology of established sciences to dies include the defect of displace- be spread, and unsatisfactory for, ment, which involves the “deepening for example, ethics or history to confusion” described in the passage be left in their prescientifi c state— above; the defect of dissension, which captures the scientism in scientifi c manifests as the drive to conform, to empiricism. (Sorell 9) subjugate, and, in some cases, to rid the world of the “evil other”; and, by More radically, the thought is that extension, the defect of degradation, such fi elds must become scientifi c if which, among other ways, surfaces they are to have any credence or val- as the moral degeneracy of fanatical ue. Consequently, fi elds untouched by leaders who employ ideology in the science may be dismissed as irrelevant form of doctrinal distortion to beguile or nonsensical. their devoted followers into carrying The concept of paradigmatic col- out such brutal atrocities as the tor- onization also applies to religious turing and killing of people they are fundamentalism, which, as the House conditioned to regard as exemplars of of Justice explains, brings with it “an depravity in the world. In this regard, it 64 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

is worth noting that William S. Hatcher to be challenged in order for the op- relates the power of such ideology to the pressed to see past it and get at what diffi culty of pursuing authentic relation- is real. From this perspective, social ships,12 stating that reality consists of oppressive contra- dictions that ideology seemingly irons ideology gives moral justifi cation out and rationalizes, thus producing to inauthentic behavior, even the false consciousness. Antonio Grams- deliberate perpetration of cruelty ci’s insights are helpful here. For him, towards others. Therein lies both the exploitive social order remains the attraction and the power of largely intact through ideological sub- ideology. Belief in an ideology jugation, or the strategic promulgation relieves us of the necessity of the of ruling class ideas which invariably disciplined pursuit of authentic come to be taken as common sense by relationships by authenticizing all classes. He calls this condition “he- inauthentic behavior, including gemony,” and the challenge, he feels, active cruelty and hatred towards is to see through the illusions that are certain appropriately defi ned oth- systematically packaged as ordinary ers. Thus, the fact of inauthentic and necessary. Otherwise we remain behavior is conjoined with a moral alienated from our true potential, we justifi cation for that fact, thereby aspire to little more than mediocrity, allowing “good people” to do truly and we thus wallow in the defective bad things. (Italics original) state of despair.

More generally, it could be main- T M H tained, in line with the critical tradition F R inspired by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels’ The German Ideology, that The second macro habit which perpet- ideology obfuscates reality in the inter- uates the six defects of being, doing, ests of those in power and thus needs and associating is the macro habit of fragmenting reality. This habit entails a number of related tendencies which 12 Hatcher defi nes an authentic rela- tionship between two people as “a totally can be observed at both the analytical reciprocal relationship based on the mutual level and the social level. At the analyt- recognition of the universal value which ical level, it involves the compulsions they each share as human beings and which to break phenomena down, to reduce is inherent in their essential nature. This them, to compartmentalize the result- value is their uniquely human capacities ing fragments, to divorce them from of consciousness, of intellect, of feeling context, and to fabricate unwarranted (heart), and of will. The mark of authen- dichotomies. The predominant drive ticity in human relations is the presence is to delimit rather than to correlate, a of self-sacrifi cing (unconditional) love, or predilection that informs many arenas altruism.” Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 65

of activity, including academia, the le- to analyse but not reduce, to pon- gal system, and both party and identity der meaning but not dwell on politics. At the social level, its preem- words, to identify distinct areas inent form is the compulsion to atom- of action but not compartmen- ize, or to live individualistically, which talize. We realize that this is no often entails retreating into the private small task. Society speaks more sphere and which has become associat- and more in slogans. We hope ed in recent decades with the compul- that the habits the friends are sion to hyper-consume, as discussed forming in study circles to work further below. As discussed earlier, with full and complex thoughts fragmentism refers to the cognitive and to achieve understanding will and/or social condition in which this be extended to various spheres of habit of mind predominates. It can also activity. refer to the view or philosophy that the Closely related to the habit of habit of fragmenting reality is natural, reducing an entire theme into normal, or desirable. one or two appealing phrases is the tendency to perceive dichot- T C R, omies, where, in fact, there are C, none. It is essential that ideas D forming part of a cohesive whole not be held in opposition to one To draw attention to the macro habit of another. (28 Dec. 2010) fragmenting reality is not to condemn the activity of analysis itself, an essen- In the same letter, it also explains that tial feature, for example, of science. “a signifi cant advance in culture, one Rather, it is, in part, to highlight the which we have followed with partic- problem of doing analysis to excess, ular interest, is marked by the rise in that is, of doing it without paying due capacity to think in terms of process,” attention to complexity, context, co- and it warns that if “events are im- herence, interrelationships, process, posed on the natural unfoldment of and the possibility of synthesis. It is to a process, they will disrupt its sound ignore, as David Bohm states, the fact evolution.” Instead, events should be that reality is “unbroken and undivid- treated as part of the evolving tapestry ed, and all phenomena are simply per- of the process itself. turbations in this single whole” (qtd. in On a related note, the House of Jus- Butler-Bowdon 62). tice emphasizes the dangers of the ac- In this respect, the Universal House ademic fragmentation that is a feature of Justice states: of society today, and calls, instead, for the integration of knowledge. In a let- The institutions and agencies of ter written on its behalf, it states: the Faith should help the believers 66 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

One of the problems of modern community-building endeavors. As the times is the degree to which the House of Justice explains: diff erent disciplines have become specialized and isolated from From one perspective an educa- one another. Thinkers are now tional process with three distinct faced with a challenge to achieve stages appears in sharp relief: the a synthesis, or at least a coherent fi rst for the youngest members correlation, of the vast amount of of the community, the second for knowledge that has been acquired those in the challenging transition- during the past century. (Compila- al years, and the third for youth tion no. 430) and adults. In this context, one speaks of three educational imper- In another letter written on its behalf, atives, each distinguished by its it affi rms “that, with patience, self-dis- own methods and materials, each cipline, and unity of faith, Bahá’í aca- claiming a share of resources, and demics will be able to contribute to a each served by mechanisms to sys- gradual forging of the more integrative tematize experience and to gener- paradigms of scholarship for which ate knowledge based on insights thoughtful minds in the international gained in the fi eld. Quite natu- community are increasingly calling” rally, then, three discussions take (20 July 1997). shape around the implementation of the programme for the spiritual Specialization and Coherence education of children, the junior youth spiritual empowerment pro- The idea being put forward here is not gramme, and the main sequence of that specialization is inherently defec- courses. (12 Dec. 2011) tive. In the 24 July 2013 message writ- ten on its behalf, the House of Justice Thus, in one regard, each educa- draws attention to the merits of special tional imperative has its own logic, interest groups coming together “to dynamics, and objectives. No one of intensify their eff orts.” It also states: the three imperatives can be reduced to “In the decades ahead . . . a host of be- either one of the other two. But while lievers will enter diverse social spaces distinct, they are also not autonomous and fi elds of human endeavour.” Yet, from one another. That is, while atten- the guidance does appear to suggest tion needs to be given to each stage of that taken too far and divorced from the educational process in accordance context and other areas of learning, with its specifi c requirements, consid- specialization becomes problematic. eration also needs to be given to how A helpful analogy is how Bahá ’í s are the three stages relate to and reinforce encouraged to understand the edu- each other, and how the entire process cational process at the core of their is evolving coherently. As explained Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 67 in the same letter, periodic meetings expression over collective volition. must Here, the atom is supreme while the whole pales in signifi cance. In its pure be created for the three coordina- form, it suggests that there is in fact no tors appointed by the institute— collective will, which is considered a or, where applicable, teams of good thing, for its absence grants the coordinators concerned with study individual the fl exibility to experiment circles, junior youth groups and with diff erent ways of living. In the ab- children’s classes respectively— sence of collective constraints, people to examine together the strength are free to pursue their own projects of the educational process as a as they see fi t. Such experiments, the whole. argument goes, are good for society, keeping it alive to new and potentially In short, and as discussed in Part Two vitalizing possibilities. of this paper, it seems that for the dis- tinct parts and the whole to evolve, the Problems with Individualism dynamic interplay between them needs to be understood and fostered. The individualistic mindset has its ben- efi ts. It has contributed to, for example, T C A the conviction that all individuals have I certain rights and freedoms that are in- alienable and cannot be transgressed. In terms of how it manifests at the It has also contributed to innovation in social level, the macro habit of frag- various forms that have proven benefi - menting reality leads ultimately to cial to society. intense individualism. The individual- However, taken to its logical con- istic mindset takes as its starting point clusion, it is also arguably riddled with John Stuart Mill’s principle that each problems, not least of which is the par- individual should be able to do as he or adoxical strain that arises between the she wishes so long as doing so does not individualist impulse itself and the con- cause harm to anyone else. It is gener- comitant pluralism—and the toleration ally associated with negative freedom for diversity—it ostensibly champions. (freedom from constraints) and aligns Ironically, advocates of pluralism often with the desire to liberate the individual end up being tolerant only on condition from the tyranny of either the minority that their particular conceptions of who or the majority as well as from the in- or what should be tolerated are shared. tellectual colonization and hegemonic When they are not shared, the “toler- shackles of totalizing theories. This ant” ones are prone to labelling the “of- notion is a common libertarian mind- fending” or “ignorant” others as phobic set, which elevates the individual over or politically incorrect. They may be the collective and celebrates personal right in certain cases, but such labeling 68 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

is contradictory as it undercuts the very Even less consistent is the me-cen- notions of individualism, pluralism, trism that combines a longing to be and the freedom of conscience and individually free with a posture of enti- speech that the “tolerant” ones claim tlement. Here, the individual essentially to espouse. As such, individualism can wants three freedoms: the freedom to easily degenerate into self-righteous- make choices without constraints, the ness, chauvinism, confl ict, and, ironi- freedom to avail oneself of the requisite cally, a tyranny of the majority (to say means society or others have to off er in nothing of the fact that those who re- order to exercise the fi rst freedom, and main “tolerated” can feel patronized). the additional freedom to take those In its pure form, it is paradoxical in the means for granted. It is not diffi cult to way that relativism is paradoxical: the see how this mentality is problematic. committed relativist cannot claim to be At the very least, it contributes to a cul- right without falling into contradiction. ture in which individuals end up treat- Some relativists might be fi ne with ing each other instrumentally, that is, as living with the contradiction, but they little more than means to personal ends will always be at pains to demonstrate rather than as ends in themselves (a how their view is rationally sound. Kantian concern). As such, me-centrism A second problem with individual- writ large undermines itself, contribut- ism is that it is impossible to live as ing directly to the defects of dissension a consistent individualist. While indi- and displacement. It defeats the whole vidualists ostensibly devalue anything ethos of individualism as an ideology. larger than the individual, like the A third, related, problem is that such community or the state, they invariably atomism hollows out its very objective, cannot help but rely on that which they namely, achieving authenticity and the devalue. Some individualists are more meaning that derives from exercising consistent than others, priding them- freedom of choice. It renders this objec- selves on their relative self-suffi ciency tive frivolous or devoid of signifi cance, and integrity as unique persons. But it exacerbating in this way the defects of is never the case that they achieve total distress and disenchantment. Charles autonomy: there is always something Taylor addresses this point, stating that society has to off er (infrastructure, the danger before us is “fragmenta- vital services, law enforcement, etcet- tion—that is, a people increasingly less era) which they cannot do without and capable of forming a common purpose which helps them to pursue their indi- and carrying it out. Fragmentation aris- vidual projects.13 es when people come to see themselves

13 It should be acknowledged that governmental oversight and/or assistance, much has been written about this topic even if they see it as a necessary evil. What which cannot be properly considered in is being suggested here is simply that it is this paper. Many libertarians, for example, impossible to practically take individual- acknowledge the need for at least some ism to its logical conclusion. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 69

more and more atomistically, otherwise journey in which all are protagonists” put, as less and less bound to their fellow (Universal House of Justice, 18 Jan. citizens in common projects and alle- 2019); and 2) scrutinizing and trans- giances” (112–113). This atomistic view forming reality from this progressively is problematic because “[t]hings take on articulated standpoint. As discussed in importance against a background of in- Part Two of this paper, this approach is telligibility,” which Taylor calls “a hori- indispensable if meaning, authenticity, zon” (37). In this connection: “It follows and freedom are to be realized and con- that one of the things we can’t do, if we tinuously refi ned and the six defects of are to defi ne ourselves signifi cantly, is being, doing, and associating are to be suppress or deny the horizons against resolved. which things take on signifi cance for A fourth problem with individual- us.” As he continues: “Authenticity is ism relates directly to the next compul- not the enemy of demands that emanate sion associated with the macro habit of from beyond the self; it supposes such fragmenting reality. demands” (41). In fact, the value of any given choice “depends on the under- T C standing that independent of my will H-C14 there is something noble, courageous, and hence signifi cant in giving shape to According to Bahá’u’lláh, we have my own life” (39). The alternative is to been created noble. In the Hidden slip into treating relationships as little Words, He states that God has engraved more than instrumentalities of individu- upon us His image (Arabic no. 3) and al self-fulfi llment, an eventuality which that each of us is “even as a fi nely tem- Taylor considers “a self-stultifying trav- pered sword concealed in the darkness esty” (22). of its sheath and its value hidden from Part of Taylor’s solution to the at- the artifi cer’s knowledge” (Persian no. omistic worldview is to “undertake a 72). Our duty is to “come forth from work of retrieval…[to] identify and the sheath of self and desire that [our] articulate the higher ideal behind the worth may be made resplendent and more or less debased practices, and manifest unto all the world.” then criticize these practices from the For the most part, humanity has yet standpoint of their own motivating ide- to heed this call. We largely persist al” (72). We can go further and suggest that the solution involves 1) recogniz- 14 George Ritzer and other sociol- ing that there are certain foundational ogists discuss what they call “hypercon- realities—such as the oneness of hu- sumption”—the largely unrefl ective, often manity and the inherent nobility of ev- manic, consumption of goods that serve no ery single human being—that require ostensibly functional purpose—a condi- ongoing articulation in light of the con- tion that characterizes the world we live in viction that “humanity is on a common today, particularly in the more materially affl uent capitalist societies. 70 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 within our sheaths of self and desire, operates today, it is the consumer rather and thus, as the House of Justice ex- than the worker that needs to be con- plains in a letter written on its behalf, trolled. Neo-Marxists such as Theodor prolong an age that has largely “bowed Adorno and Herbert Marcuse raise sim- to the dictates of materialism” (19 Apr. ilar concerns. For them, too, the focus 2013). This persistence, moreover, has has become the buyer. In order to drive had tremendous consequences for how the capitalist engine and keep rebellion we perceive reality, ourselves, and at bay, false needs must be artifi cially our purpose as human beings. As the generated and promulgated. Consumers House of Justice expounds on the sub- need to be lured into purchasing well ject in the same letter, beyond what is necessary to live and prosper, into seeing the superfl uous as the expenditure of enormous ener- central. Hence the growth of the mass gy and vast amounts of resources media and pervasiveness of advertising, in an attempt to bend truth to con- the consequent inundation of sensory form to personal desire is now a stimulants, and the rise and increasing feature of many contemporary so- sophistication of what critical theorists cieties. The result is a culture that call “the culture industry”—all of which distorts human nature and purpose, serve to manipulate and anesthetize the trapping human beings in pursuit population, gratify fabricated desires, of idle fancies and vain imaginings and thereby curtail the stirrings of dis- and turning them into pliable ob- content (in a manner akin to Huxley’s jects in the hands of the powerful. conception of a dystopia). The state of fragmentation, more- In such a culture, moreover, we view over, is especially dizzying in consum- ourselves as sophisticated animals that er society. Historically the fragmen- are naturally egoistic, atomistic, com- tation may have been more static, or petitive, and even confl ictive. We are formulaic, in the form of distinct, en- concerned with the pursuit of happi- during, and predictable roles and iden- ness, which is often equated, wittingly tities wrapped, for example, around or not, with the acquisition of material occupation, gender, and religious af- goods. fi liation. More recently, however, it has taken on more fl eeting, haphazard, Fixed and Fluid Fragmentation and eclectic forms, especially in what some, like Baudrillard (Simulacra), This yearning to consume is a theme have identifi ed as a hyperreal world that has been addressed by many social in which signs, social codes, and per- critics during this and the last century. sonal identities are constantly being It is one of the major preoccupations juxtaposed, negotiated, replicated, and of Jean Baudrillard (Consumer), who exchanged to the point where it seems claims that, given how capitalism that reality itself is composed of little Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 71 more than an ongoing play of images. consume. The possession of goods be- This is a condition that has only been comes a matter of status. We purchase heightened by the rise of social media, and own certain commodities not be- the proliferation of online infl uencers, cause we need them to subsist, but etcetera, the impact of which is to con- rather to stand out. This is Thorstein tinually bombard the individual with Veblen’s major insight. The leisure overt and subtle messages about who class consumes conspicuously in order and how to be. Thus, we can think of a to create invidious distinctions—to in- continuum of fragmentation that spans cite envy—while those “below” seek from the more established to the more to emulate the leisure class in order to evanescent—from what can be re- close the distinction gap. Pierre Bour- ferred to as fi xed fragmentation to fl uid dieu says something similar, although fragmentation. he places greater emphasis on how the Zygmunt Bauman’s distinction be- divisions between classes are high- tween solid and liquid modernity gets lighted. The beverages we drink, the at a similar point. For him, the former cars we drive, the resorts we choose is associated with the age of industri- for vacation, and so on, are all coded al production and the relatively stable with cultural values. Our purchasing norms, traditions, social structures, habits reinforce class distinctions and and jobs to which identities were tied. fashion how we perceive ourselves The latter is associated with consumer and others.15 In view of the distinction culture, which has largely witnessed between fi xed and fl uid fragmentation the dissolution of such norms and discussed above, one could argue that structures and the consequent desta- such habits develop partly as an at- bilization of the social self. In liquid tempt to stabilize the fl uidity by fi xat- modernity—characterized by rapid ing on such distinctions. communication, transnational orga- In any case, the results are defective. nizations, unprecedented population Drawing upon the exercises in Section movement, the relentless bombard- 30 of the Ruhi Institute’s The Covenant ment of images, and so on—deep of Bahá’u’lláh: The Universal House meaning is no longer distinguishable of Justice, we might conclude, for ex- from surface meaning. This condition ample, that in a consumer society our creates a sense of disequilibrium and purposelessness, which are features of 15 They also have tangible conse- the defects of displacement and disen- quences in times of crisis, as is clearly the chantment, respectively. case today. With the onset of the corona- virus pandemic, the more well-off have Identity in Consumer Culture been able to self-isolate in relative comfort while the less well-off have had to face the Further, in such a culture, we are prone additional stresses that come with the lack to identifying ourselves with what we of adequate means to sustain themselves economically and otherwise. 72 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 conception of beauty is coupled with example, there would be no charity the desire to be praised and idolized; in the world; nor would we see the business is conducted such that profi t is many who are striving today to fi ght often sought at the expense of justice; for justice and well-being on behalf of friendships are premised on the desire the oppressed in the face of pandem- to feel good and are frequently vacuous ics, racism, and autocratic assaults on and unrewarding as a consequence; democratic freedom. This is one quali- and freedom manifests itself as a re- fi cation to keep in mind when thinking jection of standards and authority in about the destructive, diversionary, and favor of the unbridled pursuit of base enervating eff ects of consumerism. desires. But—it is worth adding—the Another qualifi cation, on the neg- search for such fulfi llment is largely ative side, is the fact that long-term in vain. Humans never achieve satis- societal diseases like racism exist, sug- faction under such conditions, at least gesting that at least some of the frag- not for very long. Because we are not mentation in our consumer society is tapping into our true, spiritual selves, presently at the more fi xed end of the lasting contentment eludes us. We end continuum rather than at the fl uid end. up leading empty lives instead, prop- On the one hand, it may certainly be agating the defect of despair. Kierke- the case that we fi nd ourselves large- gaard arrived at similar conclusions ly at the mercy of the dizzying fl ux of some 170 years ago: commodifi ed diversions. On the other hand, underneath this veneer persist So much is spoken about wasting longstanding social fi ssures that the one’s life. But the only wasted life fl ux has been unable to wash away is the life of one who has so lived (one could argue because of its frivoli- it, deceived by life’s pleasures or ty). While the fl ux may have succeeded its sorrows, that he never became at masking these fi ssures for a time, as decisively, eternally, conscious of present-day events are making clear, himself as spirit, as self, or, what some of the fragmentation remains is the same, he never became largely entrenched, or fi xed, in our col- aware—and gained in the deep- lective consciousness. est sense the impression—that Even more, the fl ux may have ac- there is a God there and that “he” tually exacerbated such longstanding himself, his self, exists before this fi ssures. As discussed, consumerism— God . . . (57) and the egoism it feeds—exerts a pow- erful sway over how we see ourselves Perpetuating Our Defective State and interact. Through the egoistic impulse to fulfi ll material desires, we It is certainly true that other, more pos- are prone to embracing competition itive, assumptions inform our thinking as the natural mode of relating to each about human nature. Otherwise, for other, an us-or-them mentality, and Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 73

the conviction that in order to prosper of despair—or the alienation, medioc- and fl ourish, one must advance at the rity, cynicism, and lack of fulfi llment expense of, but also (ironically) in the that come with being addicted to sim- eyes of, others. This impulse is tied, as ulations, the fl urry of soundbites, and we have seen, to a fetish with material all manner of meaningless distractions; products and an obsession with status. and the defect of distress—or the fore- It also encourages backbiting, gossip, boding sense, when we actually put our an ethos of perpetual antagonism, an minds to it, that we are largely incapable emboldening of the insistent self and of taking hold of reality and changing the base desires it seeks to satiate, it for the better. For these reasons and and, again, the manufacture of artifi - others, such as those outlined below, cial needs—many conditions to which one might conclude with Shoghi Ef- Rousseau,16 the Romantics, Tolstoy, fendi that “humanity itself” is “crying Gandhi, Fromm, Lame Deer, and the out for deliverance at a time when the Dalai Lama, draw our attention from tide of mounting evils has destroyed its their various standpoints. equilibrium and is now strangling its Taken together, we end up back at very life” (Decisive Hour). all six defects of being, doing, and associating—namely, society being in C a state of dissension, perpetuated, for H T example, by consumption for the sake F R of distinction as well as by longstand- ing prejudice in its many ugly forms; So far, this essay has largely treated the degradation, particularly of norms, habits of totalizing and fragmenting re- morality, integrity, and what is truly es- ality as distinct macro habits of mind. sential to the human condition; disen- However, as already alluded to under chantment, because we are caught up the section on ideology, there are sim- in instrumental thinking along with the ilarities between them as well as ways ephemerality of simulated images and in which they work together. fabricated status; and displacement, in the sense that we feel unrooted and T H D, thus in a constant state of instability. D, F All this, moreover, leads to the defect In terms of how they are similar, it 16 For Rousseau, humans are nat- would seem that both mindsets are, in urally sympathetic creatures, but society the last analysis, dogmatic. Both blind has made us unnaturally selfi sh, needy, the investigator to certain possibili- and socially ill. His On the Social Contract ties, limit exploration, and thus coun- was an attempt to articulate how humanity tenance ignorance on his or her part. could fl ourish individually and collectively Paul Lample explains that “[a]lthough in a condition where there was no going we are created to fl y, our fi rst reaction back to nature. 74 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 is to remain inert, avoiding the diffi cul- underlying assumptions for granted; ties this exertion implies” (6). He states they also, to the extent possible, align further that “the community becomes anomalies with their prevailing ex- like a population of birds, left to fl ut- pectations, and when they cannot, as ter about under a canopy of wire. The discussed above, they do their best to canopy, in this case, is woven from the explain them away or to ignore them. limitations imposed by our conscious- Treating anomalies in these ways is ness.” Both habits of mind are forms of achieved through such means as pro- consciousness that impose such limita- pagandizing, lying, gaslighting, and tions, that function as canopies. spreading disinformation; hyperboliz- In the case of totalism, these limita- ing and boasting; creating and propa- tions were Karl Popper’s main theme in gating conspiracy theories; rewriting his two-volume opus The Open Society history for personal or tribal gain; and Its Enemies, which was primarily cherry-picking facts, developments, or concerned with criticizing ideologies events; and interpreting those facts, de- that champion the whole over the parts. velopments, or events in line with par- Whether stemming from the theories tisan agendas or personal whims while of Plato, Hegel, or Marx, according to also downplaying, or even repudiating, Popper, such ideologies curtail open the signifi cance of inopportune facts, inquiry, the stimulation of challenging developments, or events. It is further insights, and the capacity to falsify the achieved through projecting, defl ecting assumedly essential. blame, and playing the victim; praising Maybe the diff erence is that, where- and rewarding loyalists, discrediting as both totalism and fragmentism in- experts, scapegoating, and persecuting variably result in myopia, the former, dissenters; incessantly repeating reduc- in the form of ideology, like Kuhn’s tive, often divisive, slogans and moni- paradigm, at least provides intelligible kers; and cheating, pursuing loopholes, criteria for grasping reality (though and cynically sowing seeds of doubt the criteria may be limited and/or dis- regarding well-established process- torted). Fragmentism in the form of es and institutions. It is also achieved piecemeal dogma, on the other hand, through the fabrication of truths that does not. Instead, it leads to haphazard are then rationalized and reifi ed as their trivialities and to an uncritical accep- socially constructed origins are unwit- tance of that which promotes personal tingly, or conveniently, forgotten.17 In autonomy without regard for histor- such ways, reality is (again, wittingly ical consciousness, societal wisdom, or not) distorted—even fi ctionalized— and the potential consequences of and normalized to suit totalistic or certain actions and policies for future generations. 17 The extent to which diff erent truths In any event, adherents of both are actually socially constructed is itself a fragmentism and totalism take their major epistemological issue. See Karlberg; Smith, Relativity; and Smith and Karlberg. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 75

fragmented worldviews. The result is totalitarianism, as Orwell warned); to a dogma, or at least a form of it, and it is rise in human rights abuses—as Payam inauthentic, to say the least. Akhavan poignantly observes; and/or to collective exhaustion.18 At the very T H O least, othering opens the way to pop- T ulist movements in which piecemeal dogma is conjoined with a basically Finally, in terms of how they work to- cult-like devotion to certain personal- gether, the totalistic mindset and the ities in authority and the often fantas- fragmented mindset conjointly lead to tical thinking they espouse, notwith- the habit of othering. With the totalistic standing the devotees’ personal beliefs mindset, meaning is often fortifi ed by about what actually constitutes right relying on the fragmented mentality, as and wrong. Again, the contradictions discussed above, that there is an “us” are explained away or simply ignored. versus a “them.” Holist ideologies such Whatever the impending result, as fascism, Nazism, and communism humanity, as explained by the House (as manifested under Joseph Stalin), of Justice, is thereby “gripped by a for example, suppress what they con- crisis of identity, as various peoples sider anomalous or deviant, often hor- and groups struggle to defi ne them- rifi cally as the last century made clear. selves, their place in the world, and Internally they promote homogeneity how they should act” (18 Jan. 2019). of thought and highlight the signifi - Moreover: “Without a vision of shared cance of their totalistic worldviews by identity and common purpose, they fall blatantly distinguishing them from the into competing ideologies and power worldviews of other groups. Some go struggles. Seemingly countless permu- further and demonize those groups to tations of ‘us’ and ‘them’ defi ne group buttress their own sense of importance, identities ever more narrowly and in solidarity, and mission, or in an attempt contrast to one another.” The result of to compensate for their collective feel- “this splintering into divergent interest ings of angst or the wounded pride that groups” is a weakening, over time, of comes with, say, national disgrace after “the cohesion of society itself.” losing a war. The result is also needless anguish There are obvious examples from and death as, again, the response to the twentieth century, but this tendency the spread of COVID-19 at the time persists today in the form of religious of writing this essay has made clear: and secular fundamentalism, party pol- in some countries, instead of contain- itics, and the tribalism that has recently ing the pandemic to the extent possi- emerged out of identity politics—as ble, competing ideologies and power Amy Chua and others argue—and that once again beckons, if we are not care- ful, to autocratic rule, even fascism (or 18 See also Goldberg; Levitsky and Ziblatt; Mitchell; and Snyder. 76 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

struggles have led, on social media insights and language that may be of and elsewhere, to hyper-partisanship, assistance to Bahá’ís and their collabo- the fragmentation of politics from rators who are seeking to contribute to science, the misrepresentation and the advancement of relevant discourses disparagement of scientists, the polit- as well as to an evolving understanding icization of well-tested public health of how to overcome the forces of to- solutions, and the propagation of sham talism and fragmentism that currently solutions and conspiracy theories, all inform their areas of service, work, or of which has, in turn, produced much study. greater suff ering, consternation, and The main thesis of this part of the economic turmoil than was necessary. essay is that central to such an en- If anything, the pandemic in such deavor is the development of a glob- places—combined with other crises ally inclusive historical, or narrative, fueled by systemic racism, retalia- consciousness—understood to be a tory politics, media echo chambers, fundamental element of an evolving and acerbic, preemptory speech—has unifi ed consciousness of our purpose disclosed the defects of distress, dis- as human beings—that imbues our sension, degradation, disenchantment, lives with meaning while also inform- displacement, and despair in all their ing, and being enriched by, the ongo- potency. ing articulation of narratives at the na- tional, local, and neighborhood levels carried out in a mode of learning. Such PART TWO: historical consciousness, moreover, TOWARDS provides the inspirational context for DYNAMIC FREEDOM building our capacities to think and act in accordance with a number of vital I interplays—between unity and diver- sity, the individual and the collective, Having critically examined the delu- worship and service, tribulation and sional macro habits of mind—those of progress, moment and time, consisten- totalizing and fragmenting reality— cy and fl exibility, material reality and which perpetuate the six social defects spiritual reality, quality and quantity, of being, doing, and associating (dis- truth and relativity, subjectivity and tress, dissension, degradation, disen- objectivity, and science and religion, chantment, displacement, and despair), among others—which are alien to the second part of this essay turns to both the totalistic and the fragmented the constructive task of proposing how mindsets, and which are essential to to transcend these macro habits and the the progress of humanity. Of these in- compulsions, or more specifi c habits, terplays, for reasons of space, the fi rst related to them. As noted at the outset three receive sustained attention while of Part One, the objective is to off er the latter eight are briefl y introduced. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 77

A related thesis of this part of the E I essay is that learning to think and act H C in accordance with these interplays broadens and deepens our narrative One factor exacerbating the fragment- consciousness, contributes to the ed mindset is our increasingly troubled constructive unfolding of the narra- relationship with grand narratives. As tive itself while also giving rise to discussed below, embracing an inclu- dynamic freedom. This freedom is sive historical consciousness involves understood to be an evolving one in confronting this challenge, which which the wealth of possibility latent has received much attention in recent within each individual and within the years. community as a whole is dialectically released for the ongoing benefi t of all. T C It recognizes that humans as social G N beings are intrinsically inter-reliant, that our natural state is one of unity A key thinker in this regard is Jean- in diversity, and that our natural mode François Lyotard, who argues that we of association is one of collaboration have become disillusioned with such in which every person feels empow- narratives, and that this disillusionment ered, in line with his or her developing defi nes our postmodern condition. For capacity, to materially, intellectually, him, modernism is characterized by the and spiritually elevate him- or herself quest for truth and is premised on the along with his or her fellow citizens, belief that we have the ability to prog- family, community, nation, and the ress towards it. More than this, modern- world as a whole. As such, dynamic ism also privileges certain paradigmat- freedom has signifi cant implications ic approaches (science, for example) for the manner in which speech and over others. And their dominance is authority are practiced, a fundamental legitimated by what Lyotard terms the aim of which is to build unity while metanarrative or grand narrative. Met- eliciting potential in all its vibrant di- anarratives—such as G.W.F. Hegel’s versity to more eff ectively lift us out of dialectical progression of Spirit, Karl our current defective state, contribute Marx’s historical materialism and the to the process of integration, and bring emancipation of the worker, the nar- about the oneness of humankind. As rative of Christian salvation, and the noted at the conclusion of this essay, Enlightenment story that humanity is such freedom also has implications progressing and achieving greater and for how humanity deals with both greater liberty through the application shorter- and longer-term crises, such of reason—are encompassing stories as the coronavirus pandemic and the that guide us on our journey. They, disease of racism. in other words, provide the totalistic criteria for identifying what in fact 78 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

constitutes relevant knowledge, what specifi c aims they propound. Foucault speaks faithfully about the world and employs his genealogical approach19 as what does not, and in what direction a means for contributing to the emanci- the world is heading. pation of local knowledges from such Yet, as far as Lyotard is concerned, tyranny. In his view, the sciences and we have moved into a postmodern age social sciences have increasingly oper- now, and fortunately so. Postmodern- ated to normalize and to regulate bod- ism, as he sees it, is characterized by ies and populations. They have there- an increasing incredulity towards, and fore stifl ed human potentiality. Thus, ultimately a collapse of, the metanarra- tive and its role as legitimator. No mat- in contrast to the various projects ter their form, metanarratives no lon- which aim to inscribe knowledges ger inspire confi dence in our systems in the hierarchical order of power and our approaches to the generation associated with science, a gene- of knowledge. In their stead, we have alogy should be seen as a kind of seen the emergence and diversifi cation attempt to emancipate historical of “indiff erent, disparate, linguistic knowledges from that subjection, practices” (Schroeder 329), that is, of to render them, that is, capable of micro-stories that do not appeal to a opposition and of struggle against single grand narrative for legitimacy. the coercion of a theoretical, uni- Each of these local knowledges has its tary, formal and scientifi c dis- own logic which can only be viably as- course. It is based on a reactivating sessed from within itself. There are, in of local knowledges . . . in oppo- fact, no objective criteria to which we sition to the scientifi c hierarchiza- can turn that transcend these language tion of knowledges and the eff ects games—to use Ludwig Wittgenstein’s intrinsic to their power: this, then, phrase—to adjudicate between them. is the project of these disordered The best we can do is to create an envi- and fragmentary genealogies. (85) ronment of mutual tolerance. Michel Foucault is very much in In short, Foucault is for diversity of favor of the demise of metanarratives. knowledge and is so at the expense He advocates the “insurrection of sub- of unity of knowledge. For him, unity jugated knowledges” (81, italics origi- is uniformity, constraint, and subju- nal). He is interested in little stories, lo- gation. Diversity, contrarily, is liber- calized knowledges, knowledges that, ty, and therefore to be promoted and in our modernist quest for truth, have celebrated. been suppressed, trampled on, and disqualifi ed as naive and insuffi cient 19 A critical approach to systems of to the goals laid out by the more total- thought that seeks to uncover their con- izing theories or disciplines that have tingent historical origins and thus demon- managed to impose themselves and the strate that they are not rationally grounded, justifi ed, necessary, or inevitable. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 79

The disenchantment with metanar- its fi ndings do not align with political ratives is understandable from the per- agendas (McIntyre; Oreskes). It would spective of Foucault’s goal to liberate seem that scientism, particularly in its local knowledges—although the value devotion to materialism, both informs of local knowledges is not so simple, collective consciousness and spawns as discussed below. It is also under- rival, more fringe narratives that would standable from the perspective that rather see things otherwise. totalistic stories have both engendered and entrenched fragmentation. To take T N G N the dominant example in the West, the Enlightenment story’s emphasis on There are diffi culties with this post- reason’s supplying the ultimate means modern account. In the fi rst place, by which to progress towards freedom there is a tension between, on the one and expel superstition was defi nitely hand, Lyotard’s suggestion that with an advance in humanity’s path to ma- the collapse of grand metanarratives turity. However, as Max Weber and there has been a rise in local knowl- Charles Taylor explain, the Enlighten- edges, and, on the other, Foucault’s ment story has also proven problem- concern that local knowledges have atic in that, in its one-sidedness, it has not yet been truly liberated and that led to the ascendency of instrumental they need to be. It could be addition- reason (which is concerned with max- ally argued that science is not nearly as imizing the effi ciency of means to fragmented as Lyotard describes, and achieve designated ends) and thus to that, instead, there are some trends in an increasing disenchantment with the the opposite direction (Schroeder 341). world—to the loss of wonder and to an There is, for example, the emergence overriding sense that we are alienated of cross-disciplinary workgroups from ourselves, from others, and from that have subsumed disciplinary sub- the world itself. The attendant rise of groups; physics is working towards one scientism, discussed in Part One, is a grand unifi ed theory; and genetics has similar case in point. The idea that sci- consolidated many sub-disciplines of ence has unparalleled reach arguably biology, while evolutionary theory has informs the thinking of many, and even provided a relatively stable unifying captures the imagination at times, but basis for the discipline. More broadly, it has not prevented fragmentation or some grander narratives continue to in- the emergence of rival paradigms. In spire confi dence among certain groups. fact, it has occasioned resentment and They may not be eternally stable, and insurgency instead. The debate over their philosophical foundations may the relationship between science and have to be revisited and refi ned time religion is just one example. Another and again, but they still equip religious is the facile skepticism that many har- groups, revolutionary movements, bor towards science, especially when and those who champion the notion of 80 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 scientifi c and technological progress tyrannize the present and the future” with validation for their beliefs. As (135). Put less provocatively, we can such, it is probably more accurate to apathetically fall into a mode of doing maintain that, in our world today, there what we have always done just because is an incoherent muddle of totalizing that is the way we have always done it and fragmentated narratives, some of (including being antagonistic towards which are grander than others. each other). But there is another option. Nevertheless, such narratives, no As Schroeder goes on to explain, an matter how grand, fail to sustain, let understanding of history and our place alone supply, a unifying, coherent, within its unfoldment “can contribute meaningful, and inspiring vision of our to the enhancement of life and culture.” purpose as human beings. Instead, they That is, historical consciousness frequently operate at cross purposes— as partisan politics, tribalism, nation- can facilitate the understanding of alism, and the penchant to propagate exemplary human beings, chal- conspiracy theories make abundantly lenging the present to think more clear—and consequently perpetuate creatively about the future, and needless confl ict, suff ering, conster- force present actors to think more nation, and bewilderment among the eff ectively, discovering necessary peoples of the world. Shoghi Eff endi’s means to successfully realize description in a letter dated 11 March their goals. Historical examples 1936 seems just as applicable today as can also motivate self-sacrifi ce. it was then: Hence cultures must learn both to forget and to remember. A culture Sore-tried and disillusioned, achieves unity by building on its humanity has no doubt lost its true strengths and discarding (or orientation, and would seem to compensating for) its weaknesses have lost as well its faith and hope. . . . (135) It is hovering, unshepherded and visionless, on the brink of disaster. Additionally, we might say that cul- A sense of fatality seems to per- tures need to learn how to learn about vade it. An ever-deepening gloom themselves—to read reality; to build is settling on its fortunes as she re- on strengths; to compensate for gaps; cedes further and further from the to devise realistic goals and strategies outer fringes of the darkest zone of that address them; and, inspired by its agitated life and penetrates its achievements and noble exemplars very heart. (World Order) from the past, to engage in sacrifi cial eff orts towards the realization of such There is also the potential problem, objectives. But more important than as Schroeder points out in his discus- simply learning how to learn is the sion of Nietzsche, that “[t]he past can need to do so in a way that builds unity Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 81 amongst all peoples and nations, not next natural stage in this evolutionary just amongst those who belong to the process is the oneness of humankind, culture itself. Otherwise, the fragmen- a consummation that will entail a mo- tation persists and, consequently, the mentous transformation in our current defects outlined at the outset of this material, social, and spiritual state as essay persist. a species. The result will in fact be a In other words, the proposition here global commonwealth that “is organi- is that what is needed is an inclusive cally unifi ed in all the essential aspects global narrative that both cultivates and of its life, its political machinery, its is enriched by a diversity of micronar- spiritual aspiration, its trade and fi - ratives—that is, a unity in diversity of nance, its script and language, and yet narratives. What is concurrently needed infi nite in the diversity of the national is the ability on our part, even the habit, characteristics of its federated units” of situating our pursuits and micronar- (Shoghi Eff endi, World Order). As ratives within the context of this global such, it will be a world in which unity narrative—this evolving worldview of and diversity pulsate in dynamic inter- our unfolding collective history. Situat- play, continuously propelling humani- ing ourselves in this way would resolve ty to ever-evolving heights of material the problems Lyotard identifi ed with and spiritual prosperity. metanarratives while also defusing the Given humanity’s present state of fragmentation that comes with his and turmoil, Bahá’ís are under no illusion Foucault’s little stories. that its path to full maturity will be The Bahá’í Faith off ers such an in- easy. Currently, humanity is facing clusive concept of history. what is characterized as its age of ad- olescence—one with many positive A I C H developments, but which is simultane- ously fraught with the defects of dis- Bahá’ís believe that humanity has pur- tress, dissension, degradation, disen- pose and that it is inexorably moving chantment, displacement, and despair. towards its ultimate goal, the acme of It is a painful time, but, as Shoghi its evolutionary process, referred to Eff endi explains, we are “destined by the Universal House of Justice as to emerge, sooner or later, out of the “the hallmark of the age of maturity” carnage, agony, and havoc of this great (2 Mar. 2013). According to this tele- world convulsion” and achieve a world ological view of history, humanity has civilization that will “fl ourish, and gone through many stages in its mat- perpetuate itself, a civilization with a uration process, developing ever-more fullness of life such as the world has complex societies that have been orga- never seen nor can as yet conceive” nized successively around the family, (Promised Day). the tribe, the city-state, and now, most That we will do so, moreover, is in- predominantly, the nation-state. The herent in who we are as a species. Just 82 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

as the fruit of a tree is latent within the state of the environment, growing con- seed, so the fruit of divine civilization cern for human rights, the eff orts of is latent within the reality of humani- various organizations and individuals ty. The mandate of each Manifesta- to contribute to social and economic tion of God has, accordingly, been to development, and technological ad- progressively awaken “humankind to vancements, including in the form of its capacities and responsibilities as social media, that facilitate interna- the trustee of creation” (One Common tional connections. On this last point, Faith) and to its evolving potential integration has been facilitated by hu- to eff ect personal and social transfor- manity’s progressive understanding of mation and palpably contribute to an natural laws, such as those of electro- ever-advancing civilization. At His magnetism, which has enabled the very appearance, each Manifestation of God contraction of the planet to become a brought the teachings necessary to en- defi ning feature of social reality. The able humanity to progress to the next disintegrative process is evident in the stage on the path towards its destined splintering of institutions, the demise oneness. Now, with the Revelation of of social norms, the persistent con- Bahá’u’lláh, unprecedented powers fl ict and violence in all corners of the and teachings have been released in the world, the extreme disparity between world that make it possible to advance the poor and the rich, the intransigence towards a state of individual and col- of certain political leaders when deal- lective fl ourishing never enabled under ing with matters of global impact, and any erstwhile condition. This state, the fragmentation, racism, sexism, ex- the inevitable oneness of humankind, tremism, alienation, and anxiety that is in fact “the pivot round which all tenaciously burden human conscious- the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh revolve” ness, and which are also exacerbated (Shoghi Eff endi, World Order). and legitimized through social media. Finally, according to this view of And while painful, Bahá’ís recognize history, humanity is being impelled that the disintegrative process is fi nally towards its maturity by two interacting necessary for dismantling and sweep- processes. One is disintegrative and ing aside anachronistic and obdurate the other is integrative. Together these practices, conventions, ideologies, and processes are giving rise to what the habits of mind—such as the habits of House of Justice describes as “a mixed totalizing and fragmenting reality— catalogue of world-shaking tribula- that impede the realization of our true tions and world-shaping developments potential. [that] keeps humanity concurrently At the same time, we have an active dazed and dazzled” (Riḍ vá n 1998). role to play in determining how long The integrative process is apparent in we take to reach our state of maturity developments such as heightened col- and how we get there. We are not sim- lective awareness of the deteriorating ply caught up in the sweep of history, Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 83 although the view of history outlined There are no shortcuts, no for- above “underlies every endeavour pur- mulas. Only as eff ort is made to sued by the Bahá’í community” (Uni- draw on insights from His Revela- versal House of Justice, 2 Mar. 2013) tion, to tap into the accumulating to align with the forces of integration. knowledge of the human race, to The best way to become so aligned, apply His teachings intelligently according to Bahá’ís, is to strive to to the life of humanity, and to con- translate into reality the teachings of sult on the questions that arise will the Manifestation of God for this day the necessary learning occur and which are aimed at eff ecting transfor- capacity be developed. (Riḍ vá n mation at both the individual and so- 2010) cietal levels—to, as Michael Karlberg puts it, “learn our way forward” (1) In short, the most eff ective way of and thereby progressively embody the translating Bahá’u’lláh’s teachings into foundational normative truths so es- reality is to do so in a mode of learning. sential to achieving a just and fl ourish- ing collective life on this planet. In the A G N words of the House of Justice: D

Bahá’u’lláh’s Revelation is vast. It At the social level, this mode of learn- calls for profound change not only ing consists of a process of action, at the level of the individual but refl ection on action, consultation, and also in the structure of society. study, in which all are invited to par- “Is not the object of every Rev- ticipate (Universal House of Justice, 2 elation”, He Himself proclaims, Mar. 2013). As Bahá’ís and their col- “to eff ect a transformation in the laborators engage in community-build- whole character of mankind, a ing activities devoted to spiritually and transformation that shall manifest morally empowering younger gener- itself, both outwardly and inward- ations, enhancing the devotional life ly, that shall aff ect both its inner of the community, raising capacity for life and external conditions?” The service, and participating in social and work advancing in every corner economic development projects and of the globe today represents the relevant discourses, they turn to the latest stage of the ongoing Bahá’í teachings of the Faith and the guidance endeavour to create the nucleus of of the Universal House of Justice and the glorious civilization enshrined strive to put the teachings and guidance in His teachings, the building of into practice through consistent, sys- which is an enterprise of infi nite tematic action. In doing so, their knowl- complexity and scale, one that edge is tested, giving rise to meaning- will demand centuries of exertion ful experience, insights, and questions by humanity to bring to fruition. about which approaches work and 84 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 what adjustments need to be made to At the same time, because this learn- more fruitfully advance the various ing process is taking place all over the endeavors of the community-building world within diff erent cultural settings process. After further refl ection and and social conditions, it fosters the consultation, this new knowledge is development of micronarratives—at again tested in action, generating yet the neighborhood, local, and national more experience, insights, and ques- levels—which have their own diverse tions, which are in turn refl ected upon fl avors, but which ultimately thrive be- and consulted about in light of the cause they are grounded in the inclu- teachings and the evolving guidance. sive concept of history itself. That is, Through this dialectical learning pro- these micronarratives derive their core cess, the community develops its ca- meaning from the global narrative of pacity to overcome obstacles, to make humanity’s progress while also taking adjustments, to build on strengths, and on distinctive characteristics germane to create new opportunities for growth to their respective settings and the consistent with its overarching narra- experiences generated there. An ana- tive of humanity’s path to maturity. logue is the Bahá’í House of Worship, As discussed under the introduction which, no matter where it is erected, to the interplay between consisten- is, according to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “a cen- cy and fl exibility below, this process tre wherein the spirits are gladdened also adds to the complexity of the and the hearts attracted to the Abhá community’s conceptual framework, Kingdom” (“Institution” no. 35), but which both shapes its activities and the design of which “harmonize[s] evolves in response to the resulting naturally with the local culture and the experience. daily lives of those who . . . gather to This process of learning also has the pray and meditate therein” (Universal reciprocal eff ect of inspiring further in- House of Justice, 1 Aug. 2014), while sights into the nature of the core teach- adhering to certain parameters that are ings of the Faith—into, for example, universally shared amongst all Houses what is meant by the oneness of hu- of Worship. Finally, the global narra- manity, the inherent nobility of every tive itself is further refi ned as experi- human being and his or her capacity ence on how to translate the teachings to contribute to the accumulation of of Bahá’u’lláh’s Revelation into reali- benefi cial knowledge, the relationship ty is generated at the micro level in all between unity and justice, and the in- corners of the world and then synthe- terplay between material and spiritual sized and incorporated into the guid- reality. It similarly opens up new hori- ance of the Universal House of Justice zons of shared understanding of the and shared through other means. The global narrative that is unfolding—of result, again, is a unity in diversity of what is required to achieve humanity’s narrative consciousness of how hu- destined oneness. manity, in all its assorted richness, is Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 85

moving towards its destined oneness.20 and diversity, the individual and the collective, and worship and service. E V I For reasons of space, the interplays R H’ between tribulation and progress, mo- I O ment and time, coherence and fl exibili- ty, material reality and spiritual reality, This organic process of learning— quality and quantity, truth and relativ- framed and nourished by this inclusive ity, subjectivity and objectivity, and historical consciousness, or this global science and religion are only briefl y narrative—also enables us to transcend introduced. both the macro habits of totalizing and fragmenting reality and by extension I O: the various compulsions that fuel and U D perpetuate the defects of being, doing, and associating outlined in Part One of It is worth noting that the history of this paper. It is proposed here that a cen- metaphysics in the Western tradition tral way in which the learning process is in many ways a history of an eff ort does so is by building capacity to think to try to come to terms with the rela- and act in accordance with a number of tionship between unity and diversity, vital interplays directly associated with and by extension, eternality and fl ux. and inspired by the narrative that hu- Perhaps the same could also be said manity is moving towards its inherent of Eastern philosophy, African phi- oneness; and, further, that thinking and losophy, Indigenous philosophy, and acting in this way reciprocally advanc- others, but for reasons of space, and es, in conceptual and practical terms, but for a few allusions, what follows that narrative while also giving rise to is primarily concerned with Western a new form of freedom, referred to here thought as it relates to the teachings as dynamic freedom. of the Bahá’í Faith. Future work on There are a number of such inter- the subject would no doubt do well to plays, three of which receive attention correlate the relevant thinking of these below, namely, those between unity various traditions into a more compre- hensive understanding of the subject. 20 The foregoing is meant simply as an introduction to the dynamic interplay Historical Attempts to Describe the between the global narrative and micro nar- Relationship ratives. Future research on the matter would have to account for the fact that the dynamic A common point of departure is Par- will vary in accordance with the nature of menides,21 who argues, on logical each micronarrative, how longstanding and culturally entrenched it is, how tied it is to the local workings of power, how initially aligned 21 The following summaries of it is with the global narrative, etcetera. the pre-Socratic thinkers Parmenides, 86 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 grounds, that the world is in reality like Democritus, attributes plurality one and that multiplicity and change to their temporary amalgamations. are mere illusions. Heraclitus is usual- And then of course there is Plato, who ly contrasted with Parmenides as the attempts to reconcile the idea of one- philosopher of fl ux, famously stating ness/eternality with the idea of diver- that one cannot step into the same river sity/fl ux by assigning the former to the twice (because it is continually fl ow- world of the Forms or Ideas and the lat- ing). His conclusion, however, is based ter to the world of the senses. He thus on an understanding similar to the East- sees two worlds. The latter, and lesser ern concept of the dynamic relationship of the two, is the material world, the between yin and yang. The universe is world of transient things, shadows, and viewed as an incessant back-and-forth common opinion. It concerns him only between opposites and is thus in a insofar as it can entrap us and prevent ceaseless state of tension. But with this us from pursuing our main objective tension there is also a harmony, as is the in life, which is to uncover the secrets case with the lyre, which functions as of the real world—the realm of the a unifi ed instrument because it is being Forms. This, for him, is the world of pulled apart and pulled together at the independent, universal, eternal reali- same time. By the same token, while ties, a world unspoiled by ephemeral- the river is always changing, it is nev- ity. Instead, it consists of changeless, ertheless the same river. As Anthony perfect Ideas (e.g., the perfect good, Gottlieb puts it, “If there were no rivers, justice, tree, horse, bed, color yellow, then obviously they could not be full of triangle), of which every correspond- fl ux, or indeed full of anything” (51). ing material particular is simply a de- Instead, “fl ux and stability, unity and fi cient emulation. diversity are themselves two sides of More recently, Baruch Spinoza the- the same coin, like night and day” (49). orizes, on rigorous logical grounds, For Heraclitus, in other words, unity the existence of a universal, self-suf- and diversity are essential to each other. fi cient substance which he refers to Other classical Greek philosophers interchangeably as Nature and God. off er diff erent solutions to the same This substance, he maintains, has lim- question. Democritus, for example, as- itless attributes of which only two are cribes eternality to an infi nity of atoms, perceptible to humans: extension and and fl ux to the ephemeral variations in thought. This is his way of resolv- their combinations. Empedocles posits ing the interaction problem that René the four elements of fi re, water, earth, Descartes had set up between the two and air, which for him are eternal, and fundamental substances of body (ex- tension) and mind (thought). That is, Spinoza answers the problem of how Heraclitus, Democritus, and Empedocles these substances interact by ostensibly are based on Anthony Gottlieb’s book The dissolving the problem. For him, body Dream of Reason. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 87 and mind are actually one substance towards fellow human beings. The op- conceived by human beings in two dif- timal social condition is one in which ferent ways. humans are considerate towards one Another relevant philosopher is Ar- another, sharing in each other’s joys thur Schopenhauer. Following in the and suff erings. While not directly in- footsteps of Immanuel Kant, and in- spired by Eastern thought when fi rst spired by Plato, he posits two worlds writing his philosophy, Schopenhauer which he calls the “noumenal realm” soon found that his views resonated, and the “phenomenal realm.” The for- for example, with the Hindu concept mer consists of a single entity or prin- that that which is essential to each of ciple he labels the Will—a universal, us, the Atman, is united with the abso- impersonal, purposeless striving— lute principle of existence, or Brahman. which is not accessible to the senses. Henri Bergson is also concerned What we perceive instead is the world with the problem of fragmentation and of phenomena, which is the Will man- that which underpins it. He focuses ifested to human consciousness. As specifi cally on the concept of time. with Kant, it is also a world of illusion, While he respects empirical science a derivative world, because it is shaped and its practical applications, he notes by the categories of space, time, and that the scientifi c approach is selective, causality, all of which are native to quantitative, and pragmatic, and that it the human mind. With these concepts artifi cially organizes reality in a way serving as its lens, the mind thus breaks that detracts from the richness and pos- up what is essentially one reality. But sibilities associated with its underlying Schopenhauer also goes a step beyond continuity. Specifi cally, science, with Kant by maintaining that we can tap its emphasis on empiricism and mea- into the noumenal realm, or the Will. surement, breaks time up into discrete Because the Will is all there really is, moments which do not do justice to the each of us is also this Will. We can, lived experience, or essence, of time. therefore, get some idea of what it is Time, as accessed through intuition, by looking inward and tapping into our has the quality of “duration.” It is an own willing. interlacing of past, present, and future, Importantly, Schopenhauer draws and is thus an indivisible process that ethical implications from his metaphys- is always coming into being, with the ics. Because we all are the Will and are present and future increasingly imbued all, therefore, one, hurting others en- by the past. tails hurting ourselves. Thus, the good Bergson also identifi es this fl ow person looks beyond the illusion of of time with life itself—a productive diff erentiation and embraces his or her force that permeates and pulses through underlying oneness with others. This is everything in the world and creatively the basis of morality and the supreme drives the evolutionary process. He argument for showing compassion calls this life force the “élan vital,” 88 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 and contrasts it with the compulsion to Rather, what should be said is block innovation and to standardize. As that wholeness is the real, and that with Schopenhauer, Bergson’s meta- fragmentation is the response of physics thus has ramifi cations for how this whole to man’s action, guided we orient ourselves towards each oth- by illusory perception, which is er. Specifi cally, he draws a distinction shaped by fragmentary thought. between what he calls open and closed In other words, it is just because morality (Schroeder 111). The latter reality is whole that man, with his is dogmatic, conservative, and exclu- fragmentary approach, will inev- sive. It is rooted in the traditions of a itably be answered with a corre- population and perpetuates the notion spondingly fragmentary response. that some belong while others do not. So what is needed is for man to Open morality, by contrast, stems from give attention to his habit of frag- the élan vital. It is inclusive, explorato- mentary thought, to be aware of it, ry, and vibrant in that it responds and and thus bring it to an end. Man’s adjusts to new evolutionary prospects, approach to reality may then be complexities, and situations. It em- whole, and so the response will be braces otherness and reaches towards whole. novel possibilities. Finally, Bergson’s approach aligns Otherwise put, fragmentation breeds with David Bohm’s observation that, more fragmentation, and the only way while fragmentation can have practi- out is to cling to the underlying one- cal benefi ts for certain purposes, when ness of reality and to keep this onto- generalized, it estranges humanity logical premise at the forefront of our from its inherent oneness. The frag- thinking at all times and under all con- mented world comes to be seen as ditions. Doing so involves overcom- the real world, although it is simply a ing, as observed in Part One, habits of human construction that we have end- mind that promote reductionism, false ed up reifying. The organic oneness dichotomies, formulaic thinking, and and fl ow of reality is thus obscured. discrete pursuits at the expense of pro- The following passage is indicative of cesses. It involves, in Charles Taylor’s Bohm’s perspective: words, “see[ing] ourselves as part of a larger order that can make claims on [S]ome might say: “Fragmenta- us” (89). tion of cities, religions, political systems, confl ict in the form of Proposed Account wars, general violence, fratricide, etc., are the reality. Wholeness is There is much here that correlates only an ideal, toward which we with the teachings of the Bahá’í Faith; should perhaps strive.” But this the same holds for the ideas of many is not what is being said here. other thinkers such as various Stoic Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 89

philosophers, Plotinus, Nietzsche, Em- Social and Economic Development). manuel Levinas, and so on, who are Nothing is autonomous except God. not covered here owing to consider- Instead, while God is self-suffi cient- ations of space. Yet, it is proposed that ly One, all created things are one by to truly surmount the macro habits of virtue of their interdependence, which totalizing and fragmenting reality, all was ordained by Him. of the compulsions related to them, Second—whereas Schopenhauer and the defects of being, doing, and as- refers to Will, Bergson to the élan vi- sociating that they perpetuate, we need tal, and Nietzsche, it might be added, to go further than what these thinkers to the will to power—the essential off er. Specifi cally, surmounting these dynamic in the universe is love, which habits requires building the capacity— ‘Abdu’l-Bahá describes as a unifying, through the organic learning process purposeful force that permeates every- of action, refl ection, consultation, and thing from the material to the social to study—to think and act in accordance the spiritual. He states: with the dynamic interplay between unity and diversity. It thus means pro- Love is the most great law that gressively learning to embrace and ruleth this mighty and heavenly cy- manifest the following interrelated cle, the unique power that bindeth ontological assumptions which are together the divers elements of this central features of the inclusive, global material world, the supreme mag- narrative outlined above. netic force that directeth the move- The fi rst principle is that humanity ments of the spheres in the celestial is inherently one, the oneness of which realms. Love revealeth with unfail- refl ects the oneness of reality, which ing and limitless power the myster- in turn is dependent on the oneness of ies latent in the universe. Love is God, Who, being the All-Powerful and the spirit of life unto the adorned independent of His creation, created body of mankind, the establisher reality and humanity as one. Accord- of true civilization in this mortal ing to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, “every part of the world, and the shedder of imperish- universe is connected with every other able glory upon every high-aiming part by ties that are very powerful and race and nation. (Selections 12:1) admit of no imbalance, nor any slack- ening whatever” (Selections 137:2). He With this principle as our ontological also states that “all things are involved grounding, compassion is no longer in all things” (Promulgation), and that simply rooted in the logic that hurting “all created things are connected one others means hurting ourselves. Com- to another by a linkage complete and passion is rather rooted in the con- perfect” (Selections 21:6). Similarly, viction that reality is organically one Shoghi Eff endi states that “Man is or- and that it has coursing through it the ganic with the world” (qtd. in Offi ce of magnetic and vitalizing force of love. 90 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Such an understanding demands that we Third, and directly on point, unity “[s]trive to become the manifestations and diversity are fundamental to each of the love of God, the lamps of divine other in the human realm. Diversity is guidance shining amongst the kindreds not simply a matter of fragmentation, of the earth with the light of love and although when divorced from unity, it concord” (12:3). “For,” as the Uni- becomes so: without unity, diversity versal House of Justice asks, “is it not invariably lapses into the alienation, love for God that burns away all veils confl ict, and oppression that come of estrangement and division and binds with fragmentism. Reciprocally, uni- hearts together in perfect unity? Is it ty without diversity invariably lapses not His love that spurs you on in the into the homogeneity, normalization, fi eld of service and enables you to see and oppression that come with total- in every soul the capacity to know Him ism. True unity is alive with diversity. and to worship Him?” (Riḍván 2010). It is contrary to uniformity, which is In the same vein, we might ask: Is it stale, lifeless. The relationship be- not such love that breaks down mental tween unity and diversity, therefore, is and social barriers and thus releases the dialectical: each only truly fl ourishes possibilities for mutual advancement? when in dynamic interplay with the As the House of Justice also explains other. A familiar, helpful analogy is in its letter regarding racial prejudice that of the human body: in the United States: Human society is composed not Ultimately, the power to transform of a mass of merely diff erenti- the world is eff ected by love, love ated cells but of associations of originating from the relation- individuals, each one of whom ship with the divine, love ablaze is endowed with intelligence and among members of a community, will; nevertheless, the modes of love extended without restriction operation that characterize man’s to every human being. This divine biological nature illustrate fun- love, ignited by the Word of God, damental principles of existence. is disseminated by enkindled souls Chief among these is that of unity through intimate conversations in diversity. Paradoxically, it is that create new susceptibilities in precisely the wholeness and com- human hearts, open minds to mor- plexity of the order constituting al persuasion, and loosen the hold the human body—and the perfect of biased norms and social systems integration into it of the body’s so that they can gradually take on cells—that permit the full realiza- a new form in keeping with the tion of the distinctive capacities requirements of humanity’s age of inherent in each of these com- maturity. (22 July 2020) ponent elements. No cell lives apart from the body, whether in Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 91

contributing to its functioning or totalistic ideologies.22 In this view or in deriving its share from the of organicism, the individual is a trust well-being of the whole. (Bahá’í of society with certain rights and free- International Community, doms that must be assured. But soci- Prosperity) ety does not lose by providing in this way. Instead, by nourishing its diverse Emphasis on Dynamic Organicism “cells,” it, in eff ect, nourishes itself. By imbuing the individual with cer- It is important to point out here that tain liberties, society enables the indi- others have used organic metaphors vidual to contribute, in his or her own such as the human body to understand unique way, to the well-being of the society. Well-known examples are Pla- whole. In this manner, an otherwise to, Edmund Burke, Johann Gottfried moribund body exudes increasing vi- von Herder, Herbert Spencer (Off er), tality. But it does so, again, only inso- and Émile Durkheim. Hegel takes an far as the creative potential it liberates organicist view of society as well, as is realized in service to its evolving do others who propound more insid- oneness, which is the ultimate com- ious collectivist political ideologies monweal. The same relationship holds such as fascism. Such ideologies, how- between humankind and diff erent cul- ever, often use the analogy in a way to tures. That is: justify the elevation of the state over the individual where the individual is Much like the role played by the considered practically irrelevant to, or gene pool in the biological life of viewed as a pawn of, society. The “cell” humankind and its environment, is only signifi cant insofar as it plays its the immense wealth of cultural assigned function—a manifestation of diversity achieved over thousands totalism. Contrarily, those who reject of years is vital to the social and the analogy of the body tend towards economic development of a hu- the opposite pole. Society, for them, man race experiencing its collec- is not much more than a collection of tive coming-of-age. It represents atoms. The cult of individualism pre- a heritage that must be permit- vails—a manifestation of fragmentism. ted to bear its fruit in a global Bahá’u’lláh shares neither of these totalistic or fragmented orientations. 22 The term “organic” is used often Instead, one could argue that He es- in the writings of Shoghi Eff endi and the pouses a dynamic reciprocity between Universal House of Justice. The claim here the whole and its parts. This view is that this term is employed by them in can be termed a dynamic organicism, quite a diff erent manner from, say, how which will be employed in this article someone like Edmund Burke employs it, to diff erentiate it from organic meta- let alone how it is employed by fascists. In phors used to justify more conservative this essay, “dynamic” is added to empha- size the distinction. 92 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

civilization. (Bahá’í International of knowledge for the progress of hu- Community) manity, it could be further added that to inter-be and -do means to also in- In short, unity without diversity is ter-know. As discussed in this section, uniformity, lifelessness, subjugation. the implications for freedom of speech Diversity without unity is invariably are also profound. ineff ectual and even perilous to both the collective and, consequently (and Qualities of Organic Bodies23 ironically), the individual. Hence the principle of unity in diversity. To explain, any organic body is char- Learning to embrace this principle, acterized by a number of related qual- moreover, is key to learning to em- ities. One is the quality of emergence, brace the second interplay, just allud- the notion that the whole is greater than ed to, between the individual and the the sum of its parts. This phenomenon collective. As with the fi rst interplay, is readily observable in nature, where this interplay is linked with the inclu- properties emerge that do not exist at sive concept of history. As such, by the level of the parts themselves. The developing our capacity to think and property of sight, for example, only act in accordance with it, we are better exists by virtue of a specifi c combina- able to contribute to this same global tion and chemistry between particular narrative, overcome totalism and frag- biological components. mentism, and move towards dynamic The same phenomenon holds for hu- freedom. man communities. Where the emphasis is on individual autonomy and self-ex- I T: pression for their own sake, or for per- T I sonal advancement at the expense of C others, the whole becomes little more than the sum of its parts. In fact, we As discussed, no cell of the body can could argue that the whole ends up fl ourish on its own. Instead, the cells even less than the sum of its parts not (and organs) are bound together in only because the whole is fragmented common purpose and are mutually (it has no combinational chemistry), enlivening. It follows—borrowing a but also because, as discussed in Part theme from Hegel—that if we are to One, many of its individual members achieve our true potential as individuals feel disempowered and aimless within and as a community, the only workable such an environment. Conversely, the option is to “inter-be” (Fox 47). Giv- en the interdependence between being 23 This section is partly inspired by and doing, it might be added that to some of the content that has been covered inter-be means to also inter-do. In fact, at graduate seminars of the Institute for given the centrality of the generation Studies in Global Prosperity; see www. globalprosperity.org. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 93 quality of emergence is realized when together “into an eff ective pattern of cooperation and reciprocity become unifi ed action” (Riḍ vá n 2007). A major the norm—when the individuals that reason for this is that “[t]he power of compose a community are oriented action is unlocked at the level of indi- towards spiritually, intellectually, and vidual initiative and surges at the level materially enriching one another and of collective volition” (19 May 1994). contributing to the betterment of the As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá explains: whole. There are at least two reasons for Whensoever holy souls, drawing this eff ect. First, as discussed in rela- on the powers of heaven, shall tionship to Taylor’s insights in Part One arise with such qualities of the of this essay, freedom of choice and spirit, and march in unison, rank expression means very little in the ab- on rank, every one of those souls sence of a shared horizon of meaning. will be even as one thousand, Second, as also covered in Part One, and the surging waves of that the tendency within atomistic societ- mighty ocean will be even as the ies, for all their talk of tolerance, is for battalions of the Concourse on individuals and subgroups to subvert high. What a blessing that will one another. In an environment where be—when all shall come togeth- some achieve at the expense of others, er, even as once separate torrents, many settle for mediocrity or become rivers and streams, running brooks resentful and blinded to their own pos- and single drops, when collected sibilities. Moreover, even those who together in one place will form a dominate are eff ectively diminished, mighty sea. (Selections 207:3) though they may not realize it given the piecemeal dogma that constrains their In other words, while the whole is consciousness; because of the basic or- more than the sum of its parts, the parts ganic relationship among all members themselves, in a dynamic-organic com- of society, by diminishing others, they munity, transcend their own limita- eff ectively diminish themselves. tions as individuals. Their powers are This point raises another quality of transformed and exponentially mag- organic bodies, which is that they en- nifi ed as they collaborate towards the able the parts themselves to fl ourish, achievement of commonly determined thereby achieving levels of creative ex- objectives. pression the parts could never achieve Drawing on Fox’s discussion of on their own. This is a common theme Hegel (45), one metaphor that may be found in the writings of the Bahá’í helpful here is that of the formation of Faith. The Universal House of Justice, water. Separate from each other, hydro- for example, draws attention to the im- gen and oxygen play particular roles. portance of “individual initiatives and These roles are important and not to be collective endeavours” being woven diminished. But this is not necessarily 94 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 all they are. When they are combined a further release of potential at the indi- in the right proportion, the two atoms vidual level, which again surges at the of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen level of collective volition, giving rise produce a greater whole, that is, water. to yet another, more advanced, mani- This quantitative and combinational festation of collective functioning. In change leads to a qualitative change at other words, the process of individual the collective level. Here, water is the and collective transformation is dia- emergent quality—the whole which is lectically progressive. It can even lead greater than the sum of its three parts. to transformative leaps in the expres- But this quantitative change leads to sion of human and social potentialities qualitative changes at the atomic, indi- along the continuum of progress in the vidual level, as well. The parts are still way that a plant’s blossoming quali- present, but they are transformed, now tatively surpasses its budding, and its manifesting previously unforeseen fructifi cation qualitatively surpasses its powers that would not exist were they blossoming (Fox 44). to remain separate from each other. But this metaphor is insuffi cient Mutual Transformation when thinking of the powers of organ- ic bodies, because water in itself can Again, this dialectic is only possible never be more than water, although in the case of a dynamic-organic mode it can take the form of a solid, liquid, of functioning as the term is being or gas. This raises yet a third quality employed here. We see this mode, for of organic social bodies, which is that example, in Bahá’í administration as the dynamic relationship between the the recent experience with the devel- parts and the whole leads to an ongoing opment of agencies at regional and process of mutual transformation sim- local levels makes clear. The House ilar to the learning process described of Justice states: “Even as a living or- above. Through collaboration and rec- ganism, [Bahá’í administration] has iprocity, the parts give rise to emergent coded within it the capacity to accom- properties at the level of the whole. modate higher and higher degrees of This in turn has transformative impli- complexity, in terms of structures and cations for the individual parts in that processes, relationships and activities, it enables a heightened potential for as it evolves under the guidance of the fl ourishing at that level. Moreover, as Universal House of Justice” (Riḍ vá n this new potential is released amongst 2010). On the other hand, within a individuals, and developed and cana- purely fragmented mode, neither in- lized into unifi ed action, it generates dividual nor social transformation is further qualities at the collective level possible, at least not in any sustainable that build on, but outstrip, previous and mutually benefi cial way. In a more states of collective emergence. This totalistic, or mechanical, mode, one dynamic social state, in turn, stimulates could make the case for emergence: Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 95 analogously, the clock is greater than (Universal House of Justice, 2 Mar. the sum of its parts. But within this 2013). In short, progress is achieved mode, the parts remain what they are when the community serves as an “en- and the whole remains what it is—un- vironment in which individual eff ort til they atrophy. Progressive transfor- and collective action . . . complement mation is not an option in a totalistic each other” (Riḍ ván 2008), in which, mode. It is only when a community op- moreover, “all consider themselves as erates in a dynamic-organic mode that treading a common path of service— both the individual and the collective supporting one another and advancing can truly advance together. together, respectful of the knowledge This advance is possible because, that each one possesses at any given on the one hand, within such a com- moment . . .” (Riḍ vá n 2010). munity, “the circle of participation” is “[thrown] wide open” (5 Dec. 2013), Freedom of Speech and “the constructive contributions” (Riḍvá n 2010) of all are welcomed. Such an environment also has implica- In fact, the community thus allows tions for how we speak to one anoth- “‘free scope’ for ‘individuality to assert er—another key element of dynamic itself’ through modes of spontaneity, freedom and the dynamic interplay initiative and diversity” since this en- between the individual and the collec- sures its viability (29 Dec. 1988). An tive. To explain, the macro habits of animated diversity is necessary if the both totalizing and fragmenting reality community is to thrive in unity rather lead to the impoverishment of speech, than languish in lifeless uniformity. On rendering it shallow and ultimately the other hand, and as discussed under harmful. Owing to these deleterious the fi rst interplay, diversity itself only macro habits of mind, speech today is blooms when it is grounded in uni- often reactive, aggressive, incendiary, ty. Individual fl ourishing, in its truest motivated by the compulsion to belittle sense, can only be achieved through and blame, and regularly suff used with mutuality. As quoted above: “Paradox- sarcasm, hyperbole, or outright lies. ically, it is precisely the wholeness and In the name of “telling it like it is,” it complexity of the order constituting “employs a style of expression which the human body . . . that permit the full robs language of its decorum” (Uni- realization of the distinctive capacities versal House of Justice, 19 May 1994). inherent in each of these component el- Moreover, “in a time when stridency is ements.” Each vivifi es the other so long commonly presumed to be a quality of as each is vigorously responsive to the leadership, candor is crass, and author- other. Their interdependence therefore ity speaks in a loud and vulgar voice.” also requires that the powers of indi- Such speech, furthermore, often ca- viduals be expressed “responsibly in joles both the inciter and the listener accordance with the common weal” into adopting limited, skewed, and 96 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 sometimes utterly deranged views of er possible and empowers each partic- reality, and rationalizes tribalism, con- ipant in a discourse to detach from his fl ict, and hostility using diverse spaces or her ideas in the face of countervail- and media to accomplish its ends. This, ing evidence and jettison perspectives it is suggested, is not true free speech that are demonstrably false. because it estranges, oppresses, and Bahá’u’lláh states: “A kindly tongue dampens mutual learning and collec- is the lodestone of the hearts of men. It tive fl ourishing. is the bread of the spirit, it clotheth the Specifi cally, totalism leads to ten- words with meaning, it is the fountain dentious discourse by lacing it with of the light of wisdom and understand- ideological rigidity through the circula- ing” (Gleanings 132:5). He also states: tion of disingenuous propaganda. It dis- torts truth in line with vested interests Every word is endowed with a through the manipulation of language, spirit, therefore the speaker or the fudging or recasting of history, the expounder should carefully de- deployment of assorted diversionary liver his words at the appropriate tactics, and the diminishment or dehu- time and place, for the impression manization of “others.” Fragmentism which each word maketh is clearly similarly degrades speech through evident and perceptible. The Great crudeness, spiteful partisan position- Being saith: One word may be lik- ing, and the incessant promulgation of ened unto fi re, another unto light, various forms of reductionism, such as and the infl uence which both exert insulting nicknames and simple-mind- is manifest in the world. Therefore ed, yet provocative, pronouncements. an enlightened man of wisdom Both are anti-invitational; both need- should primarily speak with words lessly divide; both suppress genuine as mild as milk, that the children expression. of men may be nurtured and ed- Speech associated with dynamic ifi ed thereby and may attain the freedom, on the other hand, is invi- ultimate goal of human existence tational, courteous, and humble, but which is the station of true un- also honest, forthright, and intent on derstanding and nobility. (Tablets grappling with facts and facing reality, 11:30) scientifi c and otherwise, in all its com- plexity. As such, it attracts rather than The concept of speaking with words polarizes. It uplifts rather than debili- mild as milk is, ironically, a powerful tates. It fi nds points of unity24 whenev- one, as is the notion that each word is endowed with a spirit. In line with the 24 In this regard, the House of Jus- tice states: “whether through deeds or words, the merit of your every contribution point of unity where contrasting perspec- to social well-being lies, fi rst, in your reso- tives overlap and around which contending lute commitment to discover that precious peoples can coalesce” (25 Nov. 2020). Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 97

interplays between unity and diversity, perspectives in their longing to discov- the individual and the collective, and er truth. Moreover, a learning mode the next one, worship and service, it would be fostered in which gaps in un- could be extrapolated from this notion derstanding would be seen in light of that in order to exert proper infl uence, strengths, points of unity would form we need to speak and write in a manner the foundations of continued explo- that conveys a longing to learn along- rations, and all would feel that their side one another, that mistakes are “God-given talents and capacities” okay, that everyone has the potential (Universal House of Justice, 28 July to contribute, and that the solution to 2008) were not only being tapped and an issue can rarely be resolved in di- expressed in service, but that they were chotomous or reductive terms. At the also directly contributing to the global very least, it seems that such speech narrative of humanity’s journey—and, requires moderation, courtesy, which indeed, to the journey itself—towards is “the prince of virtues” (Tablets the embodiment of its inherent oneness. 7:14), and humility, for as Bahá’u’lláh warns, “[h]umility exalteth man to I T: the heaven of glory and power, whilst W S pride abaseth him to the depths of wretchedness and degradation” (6). As discussed in Part One, one of the In this regard, Bahá ’í s are exhorted main preoccupations of the habit to by the House of Justice to “look to the fragment, to atomize, or to individual- lofty standards of the Cause to guide ize, is that of identity, or the individ- them at all times in the way they ex- ual’s having the space and the means press themselves” (1 Dec. 2019). They to discover his or her diverse, authentic are also reminded that speech’s eff ects self, to be recognized as such, and to be are determined by such “critical fac- able to celebrate it. This contrasts with tors” as “[c]ontent, volume, style, tact, the totalistic outlook in which the indi- wisdom, [and] timeliness,” and that vidual’s identity is basically prescribed it must, therefore, be exercised judi- by the whole. As also discussed, both ciously with the aim of “giv[ing] birth outlooks are ultimately wanting, even to an etiquette of expression worthy of counterproductive; both undermine the approaching maturity of the human true freedom. Contrarily, it is sug- race” (29 Dec. 1988). gested that, along with the interplays Lastly, it bears mentioning that by between unity and diversity and the speaking in this way, insights would individual and the collective, dynamic certainly be challenged and theories freedom and the capacity to participate revised, but now they would be so be- in the unfolding of the global narrative cause everyone would be encouraged entails 1) discovering and nurturing the to recognize legitimate anomalies and essence of God’s light within oneself, thus see beyond their own limited thereby achieving reunion with the 98 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020

Eternal; and 2) releasing one’s unique laws as essential to human advance- potential to promote individual and ment, to collective understanding, collective prosperity. That is, dynamic and to refi ning our conduct towards freedom advances through attending to each other. While such laws obviously the “organic unity of the inner and out- constrain action, they simultaneously er realities of human life” (Universal create the conditions in which we can House of Justice, 29 Dec. 1988) and, exercise true freedom by preventing thus, the dynamic interplay between us from succumbing to our baser in- worship and service. stincts—a form of ignorance and im- prisonment we otherwise infl ict upon Nobility and Submission ourselves. As the House of Justice explains: In addition to the ontological assump- tion that humanity is one, this inter- Expounding the theme of liberty, play fl ows from the related belief that Bahá’u’lláh asserted that “the em- every human being is essentially no- bodiment of liberty and its symbol ble and has the capacity to refl ect the is the animal”; that “liberty causeth attributes of God. Bahá’u’lláh states: man to overstep the bounds of pro- “From among all created things [God] priety, and to infringe on the digni- hath singled out for His special favor ty of his station”; that “true liberty the pure, the gem-like reality of man, consisteth in man’s submission and invested it with a unique capacity unto My commandments.” “We of knowing Him and of refl ecting the approve of liberty in certain cir- greatness of His glory” (Gleanings cumstances,” He declared, “and 34:1). “Upon the reality of man,” more- refuse to sanction it in others.” But over, God “hath focused the radiance He gave the assurance that, “Were of all of His names and attributes, and men to observe that which We made it a mirror of His own Self. Alone have sent down unto them from of all created things man hath been sin- the Heaven of Revelation, they gled out for so great a favour, so en- would, of a certainty, attain unto during a bounty” (27:2). Our task is to perfect liberty.” (29 Dec. 1988) blot out the dross from the face of our mirrors, especially at this critical time Similarly, communing with God in history. is essential to the task of purging the Essential to this task is submission dross. The following passage from a to the will of God, which involves letter dated 18 December 2014 from obeying His commandments and wor- the House of Justice captures the es- shiping Him. This is a perennial theme sence of prayer and its power to pu- that deserves much greater attention rify the spirit and unite us with our than can be off ered here. Suffi ce it to Maker: say that it comprises recognizing His Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 99

The Twin Luminaries of this re- to humanity” (Promulgation). They splendent age have taught us this: are also jointly integral to the life of Prayer is the essential spiritual the community, for as the Research conversation of the soul with its Department of the Universal House of Maker, direct and without inter- Justice explains, mediation. It is the spiritual food that sustains the life of the spirit. as essential as is a vibrant devo- Like the morning’s dew, it brings tional life to one’s spiritual devel- freshness to the heart and cleanses opment, worship must also result, it, purifying it from attachments the House of Justice notes, in of the insistent self. It is a fi re that “deeds that give outward expres- burns away the veils and a light sion to that inner transformation”. that leads to the ocean of reunion Shoghi Eff endi points out that the with the Almighty. On its wings “very purpose” of the commu- does the soul soar in the heavens nity—a community that is “di- of God and draw closer to the vinely ordained, organically unit- divine reality. Upon its quality ed, clear-visioned, vibrant with depend the development of the life”—is “regulated by the twin limitless capacities of the soul directing principles of the worship and the attraction of the bounties of God and of service to one’s fel- of God . . . (“Institution” no. 67) low-men”. Indeed, the indispens- able connection between these The letter also stresses the impor- directing principles is integral to tance of prayer for service, stating the oneness of humankind, which, that the sweetness of the melodies of as the House of Justice notes, “is such prayer “must gladden and uplift at once the operating principle and the heart and reinforce the penetrat- ultimate goal” of Bahá’u’lláh’s ing power of the Word, transmuting Revelation. (“Institution”) earthly inclinations into heavenly at- tributes and inspiring selfl ess service The Centrality of Relationships to humankind.” Similarly, in another letter the House of Justice draws at- One way to understand the signifi - tention to “the dynamic interaction cance of the interplay between wor- between worship and endeavours to ship and service is to draw attention uplift the spiritual, social, and ma- once again to the interdependence of terial conditions of society” (1 Aug. human beings. While prayer is essen- 2014). Both, moreover, are essential tial for personal sanctifi cation and de- to achieving nearness to God, which, velopment, the individual’s capacity as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states, “is possible to acquire the attributes of God also through devotion to Him, through en- depends on the quality of his or her trance into the Kingdom and service relationships with others since we are 100 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 organically one with our fellow hu- correlations with the insights of diff er- man beings. As Matthew Weinberg ent thinkers. Certain French feminist explains, “[t]he self . . . cannot evolve philosophers, for instance, have much outside of human relationships. Indeed, to say about the importance of serv- the self develops through endeavours ing or uplifting others, although they that are participatory in nature. Virtues may lay greater stress on individual such as generosity, loyalty, mercy, and authenticity and ignore the devotional self-abnegation cannot be manifested attitude. One such thinker is Luce Iri- in isolation from others.” garay, for whom the celebration of dif- The aim of such relationships, more- ferences is a vital principle. According over, is true friendship, which requires to her, for one to deny the capacities being free of prejudicial thoughts, see- and diff erences of others is to dimin- ing in others their fundamental nobility ish them as well as oneself. Such de- and unique capacities, and perceiving nial deprives one of the opportunity to all relationships as progressing within, challenge one’s perceptions and iden- contributing to, and being nourished tity, and thus of the chance to expand by the evolving matrix of relation- one’s consciousness and enhance one’s ships that make up the community as a understanding. As Schroeder explains whole. It requires taking the following her position, “[t]he proper relation to words of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to heart: “Let other people is wonder—awe at their them purify their sight and behold all distinctiveness and specifi city” (314). humankind as leaves and blossoms and One, therefore, should aim to nurture, fruits of the tree of being. Let them energize, and uplift others, rather than at all times concern themselves with to possess or dominate them. doing a kindly thing for one of their Similarly, Simone de Beauvoir’s fellows, off ering to someone love, con- “ideal is a collaborative society in sideration, thoughtful help . . . staying which everyone helps each other tran- free of prejudice, drawing no lines” scend oppression and the limitations of (Selections 1:2). When so purifi ed, the their situations, in which each is stim- individual’s constant aspiration is to ulated by the achievements of others. serve in a community that itself has This requires reciprocal recognition” become a “spiritually charged arena” (Schroeder 302). In Beauvoir’s own (Universal House of Justice, 28 Dec. words, “only the freedom of others 2010) in which individuals, through keeps each one of us from hardening their worshipful devotion to God, “con- in the absurdity of facticity” (Ethics), sign their own selves to oblivion, strip that is, from becoming thing-like, ob- from themselves the defects of human- jectifi ed, reifi ed—from becoming me- kind, and unchain themselves from chanical. Thus, for Beauvoir, there is human bondage” (‘Abdu’l-Bahá, Se- no true freedom for any individual or lections 84:5). group unless all individuals or groups As always, it is instructive to draw are free—unless there is joint freedom, Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 101 one based on reciprocal empowerment. interplays is consistent with, and fun- Her conclusions resonate with Axel damental to advancing, both conceptu- Honneth’s emphasis on social freedom, ally and practically, the inclusive, glob- and his contention that in order for hu- al narrative of humanity’s development man potential to be fully released, both towards maturity. Among them are the the individual and the collective must following interplays, which are briefl y be emancipated and the contributions introduced as potential points of depar- that each individual makes to the com- ture for further inquiry elsewhere.25 mon good must be cultivated. They also correlate with ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s Tribulation and Progress (Crisis and observation that “[the] stronger the ties Victory) of fellowship and solidarity amongst men, the greater will be the power of The essential aim of thinkers such as constructiveness and accomplishment the Stoics and Nietzsche is to cultivate in all the planes of human activity” those values that promote the enhance- (Promulgation). Egoism, let alone ego- ment of life, fortify human capacities, tism, undermines itself by depriving and enable individuals to constantly the self and others of collective prog- excel notwithstanding the obstacles in ress. Service, on the other hand, nour- their path. They believe in affi rming life ishes both self and others concurrently. and view challenges as “a permanent Even more, when combined with wor- stimulus to improvement” (Schroeder ship, it leads to the repudiation of oth- 144). Nietzsche, for example, would erness qua otherness. As ‘Abdu’l-Bahá doubtless agree with ‘Abdu’l-Bahá admonishes, “Cleanse ye your eyes, so when He states, “The weeping of the that ye behold no man as diff erent from cloud giveth rise to the smile of the yourselves. See ye no strangers; rath- rose, and the crash of thunder maketh er see all men as friends, for love and way for the warbling of the nightin- unity come hard when ye fi x your gaze gale. The intensity of the cold bringeth on otherness” (Selections 8:7). And, as on the beauty of the bloom and the observed above, it is through prayer that such cleansing is achieved. 25 Given the space, even more inter- plays could be introduced, some of which C I are directly related to the ones discussed in this paper. These include those between There are a number of other interplays women and men (related to the interplay associated with dynamic freedom. As between unity and diversity), expansion with the interplays between unity and and consolidation (related to the interplay diversity, the individual and the col- between consistency and fl exibility), cen- lective, and worship and service, it tralization and decentralization (also re- is suggested that building capacity to lated to the interplay between consistency think and act in accordance with these and fl exibility), means and ends, and excel- lence and moderation, among many others. 102 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 chilling rain adorneth the garden with order to make the very best of each blossoms of every hue” (quoted in Uni- moment in service to others as well as versal House of Justice, 18 Mar. 2009). for our own development. However, But more than this is the conviction that the foregoing sections of this essay without tribulation life is actually joy- suggest that we also need to immerse less and meaningless. By fully align- ourselves in, and contribute to, a co- ing ourselves with the will of God, herent global narrative if we are to we fi nd comfort, even delight, in the be genuinely authentic in our interac- crises we face knowing that victories tions. The present invariably becomes will be forthcoming as a consequence, stripped of meaning if the past and and that these, in turn, will give rise the future are expunged from con- to further tests and opportunities for sciousness, just as—to elaborate upon growth. The idea, it seems, is that a Bergsonian metaphor—a particular without such tribulations there can be moment of music loses its power if it no sustained rejoicing—only fragility is extracted from a beautiful song that and a fundamental bereavement. The contains it. The impact of this moment following refl ection of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá is largely a factor of how it commin- upon His sudden liberation from op- gles with the rest of the song—of how pression is a poignant reminder of it blends with the musical continuum this basic truth: “My only joy in this of which it is an integral component. swiftly passing world was to tread the By the same token, the quality of the stony path of God and to endure hard song itself depends upon the integrity tests and all material griefs. For oth- of the moments that comprise it. erwise, this earthly life would prove barren and vain, and better would be Consistency and Flexibility death” (Selections 190:10). Directly related to the interplay be- Moment and Time tween unity and diversity is that be- tween consistency and fl exibility. It is often held that we should live in The House of Justice emphasizes this the present and not worry so much dynamic in relation to the conceptual about the past and the future. There framework of the community-building is defi nitely some truth to this view. process mentioned above. It describes Connecting with the Eternal by im- the framework as “a matrix that or- mersing in prayer and meditation is ganizes thought and gives shape to essential to dynamic freedom. We activities and which becomes more also want to be fully present for every elaborate as experience accumulates” encounter—manifesting, for example, (24 July 2013). As such, the frame- “a readiness to listen, with height- work not only provides coherence ened spiritual perception” (Universal and guides learning, but also grows House of Justice, 28 Dec. 2010)—in in complexity in response to such Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 103 learning. The relationship is dialecti- explained, “is founded upon the cal, encouraging a unity in diversity instructions and exhortations of both of experimentation that paves the the Lord and the admonitions and way for new horizons of understand- altruistic emotions belonging to ing and of narrative consciousness the realm of morality which, like among an ever-widening circle of par- unto a brilliant light, brighten and ticipants engaged in the generation of illumine the lamp of the realities knowledge.26 of mankind. Its penetrative pow- er is the Word of God.” (Riḍván Material and Spiritual Reality 2008)

‘Abdu’l-Bahá states that “[m]aterial Humanity must heed both calls on civilization is like a lamp-glass. Di- its journey to realizing its inherent vine civilization is the lamp itself and oneness. the glass without the light is dark” (Selections 227:22). As such, they are Quality and Quantity intimately tied together. In this connec- tion, the House of Justice explains: The quality of any endeavor to advance the global narrative increases with its ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has extolled “two quantity so long as the endeavor is calls” to “success and prosper- undertaken in a mode of learning that ity” that can be heard from the allows for necessary adjustments to “heights of the happiness of man- be thoughtfully made to it as relevant kind”. One is the call of “civiliza- experience is generated and shared. tion”, of “progress of the material Reciprocally, as the quality of an en- world”. It comprises the “laws”, deavor is improved and the learning “regulations”, “arts and sciences” shared, it stimulates its further multi- through which humanity devel- plication in diverse narrative settings, ops. The other is the “soul-stirring which again sheds greater light on how call of God”, on which depends to increase its quality. the eternal happiness of humanity. “This second call”, the Master has Truth and Relativity

26 In coming to a fuller—albeit not Some conceptions of phenomena are exhaustive—appreciation of the compara- more relative (socially constructed in tive virtues of this conceptual framework, diff erent ways) than others, depend- it is benefi cial to consider, among others, ing on the quality of inter-perspectival Imre Lakatos’s depiction of scientifi c re- investigation brought to bear on those search programs and both Helen Longino’s phenomena combined with the tan- and Naomi Oreskes’s stress on the impor- gibility (perceptible presence) of the tance of diversity, consensus, and humility phenomena themselves. The result is in the scientifi c process. 104 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 the relativity of relativity (Smith, Rela- makes up for the limitations of the oth- tivity; Smith and Karlberg). Relativity, er by attending to diff erent aspects of moreover, can be helpfully reduced reality (S1 and R1); they overlap with through the process of action, refl ec- each other in terms of, for example, tion, consultation, and study, which some of the questions they address, enables greater collective attunement some of the approaches they employ, with reality. However, because of the and their joint reliance on faith (2); and importance of diversity for unity and religion, in various ways, fortifi es the the discovery of truth, relativity can progress of science (3), while science, never be productively eliminated. If it in various ways, fortifi es the progress were to be eliminated, the consequence of religion (4). Both, moreover, are es- would be totalism, thus unduly ham- sential to the welfare of humanity, for pering the progress towards oneness. as ‘Abdu’l-Bahá states, “until perfect, reasoning faith shall be implanted in Objectivity and Subjectivity the minds of men, it will be impossible for the social body to be inspired with Objectivity is a matter of degree and security and confi dence” (Promulga- increases relative to the extent to which tion). Together they give rise to a unity diverse participants, with their subjec- in diversity of knowledge generation tive views, participate in true dialogue that is essential for material and spir- that is grounded in experience and il- itual progress. lumined by relevant divine guidance. Consultation, informed by action, Figure 1. refl ection, and study, and inspired by an inclusive historical consciousness, characterizes such dialogue. Objectivi- ty in turn enhances subjectivity by illu- minating what is in fact worthwhile to pursue and assimilate in a manner that resonates with the individual.

Science and Religion

These two systems of knowledge and practice, in their true forms, comple- ment each other in that they supple- ment, correspond to, and cultivate each other (Smith, “Science and Religion”). depiction of the relationship between sci- As illustrated in Figure 1 below,27 each ence and religion. Two arrows have been added to represent these two systems of knowledge and practice cultivating each 27 The Venn diagram is a common other. Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 105

C to be said regarding how dynamic free- dom is distinguished from both nega- The main argument in Part One of this tive and positive freedom as described, essay was that humanity is currently for example, by Isaiah Berlin, and how affl icted with two delusional macro it relates to various Western philosoph- habits of mind—namely, of totalizing ical traditions such as communitarian- reality and of fragmenting reality— ism and the capabilities approach as that, in various ways, perpetuate six propounded by thinkers like Alasdair defects of being, doing, and associat- MacIntyre, Martha Nussbaum, and Mi- ing—distress, dissension, degradation, chael Sandel. There is also much to be disenchantment, displacement, and said about how it relates to other philo- despair—that currently plague society sophical traditions such as Eastern, In- and that, by extension, hamper our ca- digenous, and African philosophy. For pacity to deal eff ectively with crisis. example, while diverse in scope, much Part Two then turned to an exploration of African ethics is grounded in the of how to move beyond these delusion- notion that the common good is para- al habits of mind and, by implication, mount and that individual fl ourishing is overcome these defects. In this regard, a function of sociality, mutuality, recip- it was maintained that what is required rocal obligation, and interdependence. is for humanity to embrace and, in a The following Akan maxims pithily mode of learning, contribute to the de- capture this social ethic (Gyekye): velopment of an inclusive historical, or narrative, consciousness, the ongoing “The well-being of man depends articulation of which both informs and on his fellow man.” is enriched by a diversity of micronar- ratives. This global narrative also pro- “The right arm washes the left arm vides the motivational context within and the left arm washes the right which to develop the capacity to think arm.” and act in accordance with a number of vital interplays such as those between And, unity and diversity, the individual and the collective, and worship and service. “Life is mutual aid.” Finally, learning to think and act in this way makes it possible to transcend to- While briefl y discussed, also notably talism and fragmentism, contribute to lacking from this essay is a sustained the unfoldment of the global narrative exploration of the relationship between itself, and thereby generate a new form freedom and adherence to the laws of of freedom called dynamic freedom. God given to us by the Manifestation It cannot be claimed that this essay for this day and, by extension, the pow- is much more than an introduction to er of moderation to foster excellence. the subject. For example, there is much Much could also be said about the 106 The Journal of Bahá’í Studies 30.1-2 2020 implications of such freedom for the art rhetorical given the position taken in of governance which, among other fea- this essay, they are nonetheless off ered tures, arguably includes 1) eschewing as potential points of departure for fur- conventional practices of authority that ther research on the subject in light of belong to the fragmented or totalistic the defi ciencies noted above. mindsets, such as the notion that power Would there be so many defects of means domination and “the accompa- being, doing, and associating—such as nying notions of contest, contention, distress over the paucity of collective division and superiority” (Universal will to deal with crisis, dissension be- House of Justice, 2 Mar. 2013); and, tween groups, degradation of morality 2) tapping instead into “the powers of and intellectual integrity, disenchant- the human spirit” such as those “of uni- ment with the lack of meaning in life, ty, of love, of humble service, of pure displacement in the sense of rootless- deeds” so as to “‘release,’ ‘encourage,’ ness, and despair manifesting in ritu- ‘channel,’ ‘guide,’ and ‘enable.’” It alistic mediocrity—if the capacity to also arguably includes 3) a much more think and act in terms of the interplays “holistic and coherent approach to between unity and diversity, the indi- analysis and decision-making” at the vidual and the collective, and worship level of the state, that conscientiously and service was a prevalent feature of grapples with questions such as, “What our society? Would COVID-19 cause will be the global implications of do- so much death, suff ering, and econom- mestic policies? What choices contrib- ic turmoil if the capacity to think and ute to shared prosperity and sustainable act in terms of these same interplays, peace? What steps foster nobility and as well as those between tribulation preserve human dignity?” (Bahá’í In- and progress, moment and time, and ternational Community, Governance). spiritual and material reality, among Finally, while this essay has sought others, fi gured essentially in the indi- to demonstrate that learning to think vidual and collective response to the and act in accordance with certain pandemic? Would there, by extension, vital interplays enables humanity to be such a tendency to politicize public transcend totalism and fragmentism health measures, as some have done, and, by implication, to address the six if it were understood that to truly ad- defects of being, doing, and associat- vance, the individual is best served by ing, it would be benefi cial to explore prayerfully serving his or her fellow more specifi cally how the concomitant human beings? Would racism still exist rise of dynamic freedom addresses as the social plague that it is if human these defects directly as well as the beings embraced an inclusive histori- crises they exacerbate. To this end, it cal consciousness regarding humani- is perhaps helpful to conclude with ty’s path to maturity that both informed the following questions. While these and was enriched by a host of diverse questions admittedly come across as micronarratives? Would the crisis of Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness 107

climate change—and the disasters that come with it—be intensifying at the rate it is if humanity learned to think and act in accordance with the interplays between truth and relativity and science and religion? Would, fi nally, the penchant to distort facts, push partisan agendas, abuse norms, and manipulate minds for the sake of achieving or keeping power be so prevalent and so blatant if individuals were motivated to work alongside each other in the investigation of reality; share in- sights in a spirit of loving detachment, fully recognizing that their perspectives are partial and fallible; seek ways in which to build on each other’s accomplishments; coalesce knowledge into more comprehensive understandings of reality; and refi ne collective vision regarding promising avenues of inquiry? That is, would there be such a drive to fabricate truth in line with paradigmatic expectations if individuals were inspired to operate in a learning mode in which a central concern was “to en- sure that growing numbers participate in the generation and application of relevant knowledge” (Universal House of Justice, 2 Mar. 2013)?

W C

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SHIRIN SABRI is a poet and writer, Biographical Notes currently serving at the Bahá’í World Centre in Haifa, Israel. Her poems have appeared in The Bahá’í World, in Association for Bahá’í Studies–North Hailing from Vancouver Island, Can- America monographs, Imago, Poetry ada, BEN ALTAIR has spent over Australia, and more recently in the a decade shaping light through pho- Journal of Bahá’í Studies, Tokens, and tography. While serving at the Ba- Point by Point: An Anthology of Poems ha’i World Centre in Haifa, Israel, he Occasioned by the Holy Bicentenaries spent many dawn hours capturing the of the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh. In 2018, sunlight across the marble of the Arc Glóir Press brought out her poetry and Shrines. His work focuses on the chapbook, Remembrance Suite: A Son- intersection of technology and people, net of Sonnets. She is a contributing bridging the gap. You can fi nd more of poet to the Choral Tales Project. his photography at benaltair.com. TODD SMITH is a sociologist and LAYLI MARIA MIRON holds a philosopher from Canada specializ- PhD in rhetoric and composition from ing in social theory. He received his Penn State University. Her research PhD from the University of Toron- focuses on the transnational discourses to focusing on the development of a enabled by immigration and religion. consultative epistemology particularly She has witnessed such cosmopolitan as it applies to health, illness and dis- links fi rsthand, as she met her hus- ease. Since obtaining his doctorate, he band, Sergey, who hails from Moldo- has been engaged in a variety of edu- va, while they were both serving at the cational endeavors and has served full- Bahá’í World Centre. Layli invites you time on Bahá’í administrative bodies to read more of her essays on her web- at the regional and national levels. He site, https://layli.net. most recently served as the Coordina- tor of the Research Department at the REZA MOSTMAND aims to convey Bahá’í World Centre. the spirit of Persian and Arabic callig- raphy to new audiences. Combining calligraphy with modern painting and line drawings, his works generate an interplay of words and images that transcends cultural traditions and chal- lenges expectations. https://mostmand.com/ Many articles published in The Journal of Bahá’í Studies allude to the institutions and central figures of the Bahá’í Faith; as an aid for those unfamiliar with the Bahá’í Faith, we include here a succinct summary excerpted from http://www.bahai.org/beliefs/ bahaullah-covenant/. The reader may also find it helpful to visit the official web site for the worldwide Bahá’í community (www.bahai.org) available in several languages. For article submission guidelines, please visit bahaistudies.ca/publications/submission-guidelines/.

ABOUT THE BAHÁ’Í FAITH

The Bahá’í Faith, its followers believe, is “divine in origin, all-embracing in scope, broad in its outlook, scientific in its method, humanitarian in its principles and dynamic in the influence it exerts on the hearts and minds of men.” The mission of the Bahá’í Faith is “to proclaim that religious truth is not absolute but relative, that Divine Revelation is continuous and progressive, that the Founders of all past religions, though different in the non-essential aspects of their teachings, “abide in the same Tabernacle, soar in the same heaven, are seated upon the same throne, utter the same speech and proclaim the same Faith” (Shoghi Effendi).

The Bahá’í Faith began with the mission entrusted by God to two Divine Messengers— the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh. Today, the distinctive unity of the Faith They founded stems from explicit instructions given by Bahá’u’lláh that have assured the continuity of guidance following His passing. This line of succession, referred to as the Covenant, went from Bahá’u’lláh to His Son ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, and then from ‘Abdu’l-Bahá to His grandson, Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal House of Justice, ordained by Bahá’u’lláh. A Bahá’í accepts the divine authority of the Báb and Bahá’u’lláh and of these appointed successors.

The Báb (1819-1850) is the Herald of the Bahá’í Faith. In the middle of the 19th century, He announced that He was the bearer of a message destined to transform humanity’s spiritual life. His mission was to prepare the way for the coming of a second Messenger from God, greater than Himself, who would usher in an age of peace and justice.

Bahá’u’lláh (1817-1892)—the “Glory of God”—is the Promised One foretold by the Báb and all of the Divine Messengers of the past. Bahá’u’lláh delivered a new Revelation from God to humanity. Thousands of verses, letters and books flowed from His pen. In His Writings, He outlined a framework for the development of a global civilization which takes into account both the spiritual and material dimensions of human life. For this, He endured 40 years of imprisonment, torture and exile.

In His will, Bahá’u’lláh appointed His oldest son, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá (1844-1921), as the authorized interpreter of His teachings and Head of the Faith. Throughout the East and West, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá became known as an ambassador of peace, an exemplary human being, and the leading exponent of a new Faith.

Appointed Guardian of the Bahá’í Faith by ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, His eldest grandson, Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957), spent 36 years systematically nurturing the development, deepening the understanding, and strengthening the unity of the Bahá’í community, as it increasingly grew to reflect the diversity of the entire human race.

The development of the Bahá’í Faith worldwide is today guided by the Universal House of Justice (established in 1963). In His book of laws, Bahá’u’lláh instructed the Universal House of Justice to exert a positive influence on the welfare of humankind, promote education, peace and global prosperity, and safeguard human honor and the position of religion. The Journal of Bahá’í Studies

Passing the Torch John S. Hatcher

A Note from the ABS Executive Committee Julia Berger

From the Editor’s Desk Michael Sabet

Spiritual Cosmopolitanism, Transnational Migration, and the Bahá’í Faith Layli Maria Miron

Crisis and the Power of an Inclusive Historical Consciousness: Progressing from Delusional Habits to Dynamic Freedom Todd Smith

POEM The Believer Shirin Sabri

ILLUSTRATIONS “Pillars – Seat of the Universal House of Justice” and “Crest – Shrine of the Báb” Ben Altair

COVER So High a Calling Reza Mostmand