Understanding 2 Equid Welfare Issues Contents Animal Health Eyes

Animal Health Poor Human Practices SEBWAT parameter (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) General Health Hooves and Limbs Eyes 3 Eyes 56 Hobbling 7 Mucous membranes Welfare issue 10 Ectoparasites: Bots t he animal has an abnormality in one or both 12 Ectoparasites: Lice Deliberately Induced Conditions 14 Ectoparasites: Ticks eyes. Problems with the eyes can include 16 Body condition 60 Firing discharge and inflammation, lesions around 20 Nasal discharge 62 Mutilations the eye area, damaged or missing eyeballs, 24 Respiratory noise 66 Castration blindness. 27 Spinal pain 70 Underage working e ye problems are common in working equids, and are often preventable1. The majority of eye problems can be identified at an early stage by a Lesions slight discharge caused by irritation from dust, flies or poorly fitted blinkers. 30 Body lesions 35 Lip lesions n ote that some equids have a blue coloured iris 38 Interference in one or both eyes, known as “wall eyes”. This is natural pigmentation and not an abnormality. Hooves and Limbs s ome animals, particularly white/grey horses, may have areas of mottled skin around the eyes 42 Lameness with areas of both black and pink skin, which 45 Hoof shape and quality could be confused with lesions. Again, this is 48 Frog natural pigmentation, which often also occurs in the muzzle and genital areas of some horses. Horse with wall eye.

Welfare significance Animal Behaviour Pain/discomfort 50 Apathy 53 Fear and aggression e quids, like people, find having a foreign body, dust or an injury to the eye intensely painful. e ye problems may lead to swollen eye lids, eye lids being clamped tightly shut, a change in eye colour (this can indicate changes within the eyeball itself), or redness or inflammation of the cornea or conjunctiva. Pain/discomfort may lead to reluctance to allow examination, and head-shy behaviour. Head- shyness and avoidance behaviours may in turn cause negative behavioural responses from owners.

Eye unable to open normally.

1, 2 Brooke (2013)

2 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 3 Irritation, inflammation, excessive lacrimation Visual disturbance Possible causation e quine eyes are extremely sensitive and will a nything which impairs the animal’s ability Injury Habronemiasis develop an intense inflammatory response to to see clearly is likely to increase the risk of damage or irritation, meaning that the initial accidents or tripping during work. The animal’s a s equids have their eyes on the side of the this is a parasitic condition which commonly problem can quickly escalate to scarring and ability to predict and avoid collision is reduced, head, they are vulnerable to injury through involves the conjunctiva (inner lining of the possibly ultimately to blindness2. The eye’s making them more susceptible to injury. being caught on protruding objects such as nails, eyelids), the outer eyelids and the nasolacrimal response to such irritation is to produce large barbed wire or thorns. Injuries to the eyes are duct (a connecting duct from the eye exiting Visual disturbance may also impair the animal’s quantities of tears (lacrimation) to try and flush also commonly caused by owners whipping or within the inner nostril on each side of the face). ability to interact normally with other equids, the dust or foreign body out of the eye. If the beating the animal around the head area. It is transmitted by house and stable flies feeding as they are less able to detect and interpret problem is not addressed, these tears will attract on discharge from the eyes. behaviour shown by other conspecifics. e ye injuries should be treated as an emergency flies and can “scald” the skin of the face causing and attended to immediately to prevent further t he condition is characterised by lesions and lesions. a s a prey species, the ability to see and avoid problems developing, which could lead to granular tissue around the eye and along the potential prey is very significant for equids. t he amount, colour and consistency of any blindness. skin overlying the nasolacrimal duct as a result It is possible that impaired vision may lead to discharge is important as this can give an of larvae migrating into the conjunctiva and increased fear for some animals, as they are e yelid lacerations usually heal quite well due to indication of the underlying problem. nasolacrimal system. These lesions can be very unable to clearly appraise their environment the good blood supply, however, suturing must itchy (pruritus) or painful, and if left untreated the Clear, watery, discharge is usually a sign of a and identify potential dangers. Fear during work be done with care to avoid distorting the shape cornea can be damaged leading to blindness. foreign body, irritation or an allergic reaction. may also be increased, particularly if they have of the eyelid. This could prevent the eye from Equids working in dusty environments will often memories of previous accidents. closing properly which could lead to keratitis have watery discharge. (inflammation of the cornea) or ulceration in Blindness can be a welfare consequence of the future3. a thick white or yellow discharge is a sign of a various conditions, including cataracts (clouding bacterial infection. Dried, crusted, discharge of the lens), ulceration of the cornea, damage to s erious injury could lead to damage to the around the eye suggests that the problem has the optic nerve or retina from trauma, and even optic nerve or retina from trauma, or loss of been going on for some time. the complete loss of the eyeball. the eyeball. e quids can adapt to blindness if it is gradual Blinkers in onset and the animal is kept in familiar surroundings, so the owner may not be aware Poorly fitted blinkers are a common cause of of a problem until there is a change in routine. eye problems. This means the owner may punish their i ll-fitting blinkers will rub the eye and cause animal for reluctance to go forwards, tripping/ irritation, shown by discharge from the eye and stumbling or for becoming nervous in unfamiliar rubbed hair around the eye area. This will be surroundings. This is likely to cause further Habronemiasis lesions. worsened in dusty or dirty conditions where suffering for the animal. tight blinkers will rub the dust and other debris Equine Recurrent Uveitis into the eye, which may be very abrasive and (ERU, moon blindness or periodic opthalmia) damaging. Uveitis is common in working equids and is most commonly caused by chronic irritation4, and can affect one or both eyes. r epeated damage to the eye ball will result in scarring of the lens or cornea. This is irreversible and, depending on the size and location of the scarring, can interfere with the animal’s vision. Once an animal has developed the condition, it will experience repeated attacks for the rest of its life. Each attack will cause more scarring and eventually total loss of vision5.

Poorly-fitting blinkers, pressing on the eye. Donkey with excessive tears.

3, 4, 5 Brooke (2013)

4 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 5 Animal Health Contamination Other Mucous Membranes a nimals working or living in dusty environments d isease, e.g. bacterial or parasitic infection (e.g. brick kilns, dusty dirt tracks, sandy soil) are in the eye. vulnerable to contamination of the eye with Congenital conditions, e.g. cataracts and SEBWAT parameter debris from their environment. This will cause entropion (inversion of the eyelids so the (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) irritation, which if not addressed promptly, can eyelashes touch the cornea) are hereditary). proceed to more serious eye problems. Mucous membranes a lack of regular eye cleaning, and poor hygiene in the animal’s environment make eye problems Welfare issue due to contamination more likely. t he equid displays abnormal mucous membrane f ly fringes and fly masks can cause eye problems colour in the gums. “Abnormal” in this context by irritating the eyes and contaminating them refers to any deviation from a natural shiny with dirt and debris, especially if the material is pink colour, which includes pale/white, yellow not kept clean. (icteric), red or purple/blue. n ote that some animals have normal areas Means of resolution of black pigmentation in the gums; this is not indicative of a health condition. Daily cleaning of the eyes should occur to Other mucous membranes are found inside the remove discharge and debris, and to check eyes and nasal passage, as well as the genital for any abnormalities. area; however only those in the upper gums are Blinkers should be avoided if possible. If assessed during SEBWAT. Location of mucous membranes and black pigmentation. owners are insistent upon using blinkers, these must have a smooth surface on the Welfare significance inside, be fitted so as not to touch the eyes at all, and be cleaned frequently. Mucous membrane colour reflects the f ly fringes and fly masks should be used with oxygenation and perfusion (flow of blood caution, as they are often a source of abrasion through the body’s blood vessels) of the tissues1. and contamination. If used, these should not rub on the eyes, and must be kept clean. t he tissue in the mucous membranes is very thin and well supplied with blood vessels, so Habronemiasis can be prevented by cleaning changes within body tissue are more visible the eyes daily to remove the discharge in the mucous membranes than elsewhere in and through fly prevention measures the body. Therefore mucous membranes can such as fitting fly fringes and clearing the provide a good indication of the overall health of manure where flies breed from stables and the animal. paddocks6. If infection develops, treatment should be sought promptly. a ny colour abnormality can indicate a potentially serious problem and should be Housing and rest areas should be checked assessed in conjunction with other clinical signs regularly for sources of injury, such as sharp to ascertain the specific cause, because colour edges or protruding nails. changes can be caused by various factors.

Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Top: Unsuitable blinkers with sharp protrusions on the inside. When examining the mucous membranes, the Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines Bottom: Abrasion caused by a badly fitting fly mask. amount of saliva present on the gums can also be before conducting an intervention.. observed, as a dry, sticky mouth is an indicator of dehydration.

Normal coloured mucous membranes.

6 Brooke (2013) 1 Brooke (2013)

6 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 7 Possible causation Red gums Purple/blue Bright “brick red” mucous membranes are a darkening of the mucous membranes to a Pale/white gums symptomatic of endotoxaemia. This is a septic purple/blue colour indicates a prolonged state A pale/white colour indicates that there is a condition caused by bacteria escaping from the of shock. Sometimes it is possible to see blue reduction in red blood cells within the gum tissue. bowel into the bloodstream. (cyanotic) edges to the mucous membranes. This can be due to: t he red colour is caused by blood pooling in t he dark, bluish colour is due to blood pooling a naemia – can have various causes including the capillaries and blood vessels and is most in the capillaries and blood vessels is stagnating severe parasitic infestation, or disease such as easily observed in the mucous membranes. and becoming de-oxygenated. This is a sign of equine infectious anaemia. This generally indicates damage to the serious circulatory problems. intestinal barrier leading to a systemic Haemorrhage – blood leaking somewhere in the a nimals with dark purple/blue mucous inflammatory response7. body, e.g. a bleeding injury or perforated gastric membranes present a poor prognosis and a ulcer. e ndotoxaemia can be a complication of colic or high surgical risk9. As surgery for colic is not Hypovolaemia (low blood volume) – can be enteritis and should be considered a veterinary appropriate in the Brooke’s context, the animal due to haemorrhage e.g. from trauma, surgery, emergency. If left untreated, intestinal shutdown should be considered for euthanasia. neoplasia (abnormal tissue growth/tumour); can occur and the animal may lapse into dehydration or fluid loss from severe diarrhoea, potentially fatal endotoxaemic shock8. renal disease/failure or severe burns; accidental s ometimes foreign bodies (e.g. seeds) can ingestion of anti-coagulant rodenticide (rat become trapped in the gum margins or between 2 poison) . the teeth, irritating the gums and causing them Pain/shock3– due to traumatic injury or toxic to present an inflamed, red appearance. This shock. is localised and easy to differentiate form endotoxaemia. d ehydration – can have various causes including diarrhoea, excessive sweating, insufficient opportunity to drink. Chronic disease – such as equine infectious anaemia; tissue necrosis as a result of cancer of Dark coloured mucous membranes. the internal organs4; bleeding gastric ulcers. Pale coloured mucous membranes.

Red coloured mucous membranes. Yellow gums Yellow (icteric) mucous membranes are usually Means of resolution associated with liver problems, and are caused by bile accumulating in the tissues rather than The means of resolution will depend upon the Yellow, red or purple/blue mucous membranes being excreted by the liver into the intestines specific cause of the colour abnormality as indicate a serious problem which is likely to be (jaundice)5. described above. When changes to mucous beyond the ability of owners to treat without Jaundice can be due to chronic liver disease, membrane colour are identified, quick action veterinary assistance. to address the cause will improve the animal’s parasitic infestation or dietary reasons such as Owners can contribute to prevention by chances of recovery. a diminished appetite (anorexia), malnutrition or ensuring that animals receive a good quality, a diet that is very rich in alfalfa6. Pale/white mucous membranes may be balanced diet; animals remain hydrated, treatable by owners in some cases; for example, particularly during hot weather or when Yellow coloured mucous membranes. l iver damage may be a result of poisoning through the ingestion of toxic plant material or parasite infestation can be treated with an working; grazing and rest areas are free from noxious chemicals including lead, phosphorus, appropriate de-wormer (anthelminthic) toxic plants which could cause poisoning and arsenic, copper or carbon tetrachloride. product, or an external bleeding injury rubbish which could damage the intestines; (depending on location and severity) can be and risks of injury to the animal during work or given first aid. More serious problems, however, rest environment are minimised. will need veterinary intervention. Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Once the cause has been treated, the body Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines will regenerate its blood supply to the correct before conducting an intervention..

volume and the gums will return to their 2 WSAVA (2014) natural colour. 3 field Service Penn Veterinary Medicine (date unknown) 4, 6 Loving (2013) 5 Hayes (1992) 7, 8  Blikslager quoted in Loving (2011) 9 Field Service (accessed 2015)

8 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 9 Animal Health Possible causation Ectoparasites: Bots Bot flies lay eggs on the animal’s hair, predominantly on the forelimbs, neck, chest and mane area. These can be seen as tiny yellow or SEBWAT parameter Welfare issue white eggs stuck to the animal’s hair. (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) e quine has bot fly eggs present on its body, Poor grooming/attention to hygiene may mean Ectoparasites which, if ingested cause gastro-intestinal worms that opportunities to remove bot eggs before the to develop inside the body. animal has chance to ingest them may be missed. t he bot fly eggs stick to the animal’s hair and a dult flies lay their eggs on the host’s hair in are picked up whilst self-grooming. late summer and autumn in temperate climates but have a longer season of activity in warmer t herefore, common sites are areas easily climates. They are killed by frost. This means accessible to the animal’s mouth, such as that owners should be vigilant in removing eggs the fore limbs and flanks. when the flies are active. Bot fly eggs on the coat.

Means of resolution Welfare significance Regular grooming and inspection of the Note that faecal worm egg counts should be Bot flies are generally considered to be less l arvae in the stomach can affect the animal’s coat to find and remove the eggs. used to identify when de-worming drugs problematic than other internal parasites, effectiveness of the digestive system leading should be used and which parasites should be Bot eggs can be removed carefully with a knife, however, their larvae can have an effect if to loss of condition, and occasionally cause targeted; the Brooke does not condone blanket a disposable razor, a very fine comb or by present in sufficiently large numbers. stomach ulcers which maybe fatal if perforation de-worming. rubbing the eggs off with a rough stone. Care of the stomach wall occurs5. Bot eggs are picked up in the mouth during self- must be taken not to cause pain or injury to the Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community grooming, and then hatch into first stage larvae, a fter the larvae have completed the second stage animal when doing this. Eggs should not be Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines which burrow into the gums and tongue1. This of development (around 8 months) they migrate picked off by hand as there is a chance they before conducting an intervention. may cause irritation, which can affect feeding, to the rectum to be passed out of the body with can remain and hatch under the finger-nails. and sometimes causes oral sores. the animal’s faeces, and complete the final stage As the bot fly larvae are generally not a of development in the soil. If excessively large i f feeding is affected the animal may also start to major welfare concern, the use of drugs such numbers of larvae migrate out of the stomach lose condition. as ivermectin to treat bot flies may not be at the same time this can potentially cause a appropriate ; prevention through removal of Pain from mouth sores may affect handling and blockage of the intestine, interfering with the the eggs is preferable. However, in locations bridling, in extreme cases making the animal passage of food and causing discomfort. Any where winter temperatures are very low, the reluctant to take the bit in its mouth. impact on normal gut motility is a potential cause adult flies die, and the bot fly population is of colic. a fter doubling in size in the month (around one only sustained by the larvae over-wintering month), the larvae enter the interdental spaces Occasionally the larvae can hook onto the in the animals’ intestines. Therefore, if broad of the upper molars2 before migrating to the lining of the rectum which can cause the spectrum anthelmintics are used to treat a stomach for the second stage of development3. animal to strain when passing faeces. This is range of internal parasites, including bots, then Once the larvae reach the stomach they burrow uncomfortable and has been associated with the local population of bot flies may also be into the stomach wall which can cause lesions. rectal prolapse in some cases6. reduced. This can cause discomfort or even colic, which could potentially have a detrimental effect on working ability4.

1, 3, 4, 5 Hayes (1992) 2 Briggs (2004) 6 Brooke (2013)

10 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 11 Animal Health Irritation and discomfort Means of resolution Ectoparasites: Lice t he irritation (pruritis) caused by lice crawling on the skin can be considerable. The animal may There are several topical treatments available display a restless demeanour, hoof stamping, to treat lice including pyrethroid insecticides tail swishing, scratching and biting at affected SEBWAT parameter Welfare issue (including permethrin), macrocyclic lactones body parts. 3 (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) (including ivermectin) and benzyl benzoate . t he animal has lice or lice eggs present in t hese behaviours can prevent the animal from Care should be taken to ensure the correct Ectoparasites the hair coat. being able to rest sufficiently or eat normally, dose, frequency of application and storage. and cause the animal to utilise energy on restless t here are two types of lice: “sucking lice” that Louse eggs are firmly attached to the animal’s behaviour rather than maintenance, leading to feed on the animal’s blood, and “chewing lice” hair and can be difficult to remove without exhaustion and loss of condition. 1 pulling out the hair; however, the egg casings that feed on dead skin cells . Both adult lice and should be removed before a de-lousing eggs may be seen, often in the mane, tail and Persistent itching will negatively affect treatment is applied or the lice will hide in dorsal area; but can be anywhere on the body, psychological welfare, through continual them and escape the treatment. particularly if present in large numbers. discomfort and distress which cannot be easily relieved. Repeated treatments are likely to be necessary to kill lice which hatch after the initial treatment. Possible causation Welfare significance All animals who are housed together should be treated at the same time as it is likely that l ice are commonly found on animals kept in Skin damage High animal density (outdoors, indoors, or during all animals will be carrying lice even if not crowded, dirty environments and therefore t he irritation caused by the lice can be so severe transportation) promotes the transfer of lice showing clinical signs of infestation. can be an indication of other welfare issues or as to lead to self-mutilation. In these cases the through body-to-body contact. neglect. Animals suffering from infestations Regular grooming and inspection of animal will scratch, rub or bite itself to the point of lice often present an unkempt appearance l ice are also capable of surviving away from a the animal’s hair coat will provide the of tearing out the hair and damaging the skin. with a thin, patchy hair coat, often with areas host for a period of up to 1-2 days which means opportunity to spot and treat lice before Areas of hair loss can be extensive, and lesions of hair loss. they are easily transferred on shared equipment a widespread infestation can become may be created. and fixed features such as walls and mangers. established. Very large numbers of lice can drain enough s unburn can be a complication of large areas Communal rolling areas can also facilitate the blood to have a detrimental effect on the animal’s Over-stocking (very high density of animals) of hair loss, particularly in animals with pink or spread of lice. health2. Blood loss due to parasites can cause of grazing areas and indoor housing should pale coloured skin. This causes pain, and creates weakness and anaemia (reflected in pale mucous Poor/infrequent grooming and lack of attention be avoided. This will also prevent over- blisters and lesions on the burnt skin. membranes). to hygiene means that opportunities to spot and grazing and allow animals sufficient space a nimals with lice often have thickened, flaky, treat lice are missed by the owner. to move around freely and to rest. scabby skin which is damaged easily and l ong, shaggy hair coats or long manes provide Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community worsened by scratching. harbour for lice allowing populations to Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention. a brasions from scratching can cause pain, and if accumulate. the animal continues to scratch may weep serum and become lesions which are susceptible to local or systemic infection.

Lice eggs and associated hair loss.

1, 2 Hayes (1992) 3 the Brooke (2013)

12 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 13 Animal Health Disease transmission Tick paralysis Ectoparasites: Ticks e quine piroplasmosis (also known as EP, t ick paralysis is caused by a toxin injected babesiosis or biliary fever) is a disease caused by by several species of tick (including Ioxides a tick-borne parasite (babesia caballi or babesia rubicundus in southern Africa) when they bite. equi), which invades red blood cells causing 40 ticks can be sufficient to bring on paralysis in SEBWAT parameter Welfare significance them to break down (haemolysis), which leads to an adult horse. (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) anaemia2. The disease is fatal in more than 10% t he paralysis begins at the hind limbs but can Skin damage of cases and seriously affected equids may die 1-2 Ectoparasites progress throughout the body until paralysis of days from the onset of symptoms (the acute form t ick bite sites can become infected or form the heart and respiratory muscles causes death4. lesions, which are then vulnerable to local or of the disease). The disease is endemic in many Welfare issue systemic infection. tropical and sub-tropical countries when Brooke operates. t he equid is carrying ticks on its body. Bite sites can attract blowflies and screw-worm Possible causation flies which lay their eggs in the wound. Maggots i n some cases the disease can progress more t icks are parasites which attach to their host, hatch from the eggs and invade the animal’s slowly over several weeks (the chronic form of High animal density (outdoors, indoors, or during pierce the skin with their mouth parts and feed living tissue, causing irritation and pain as they the disease). During this time the animal rapidly transportation) promotes the transfer of lice off the animal’s blood. The tick will remain move around and burrow into the tissue. The loses condition. In these instances recovery can through body-to-body contact5. attached to the host until it has completed larvae of the screw-worm fly can cause very take months. After recovery the parasite remains feeding. Whilst feeding the tick will swell to many 1 serious lesions and untreated cases may die . in the red blood cells and can cause relapses for e quids kept in pasture shared with cattle are times its original size, making it relatively easy to years afterwards, particularly following stressful more likely to have ticks6. see compared to some other ectoparasites. Once events such as travelling or illness/injury. Further the tick has completed feeding it will drop off. Irritation and discomfort information on equine piroplasmosis can be Pastures with long grasses and mixed bushes provide harbour for ticks, who hide in the grasses When ticks are located under the tail or in found in the Brooke Veterinary Manual (section awaiting a passing host to attach on to. the girth area they can easily be rubbed by 17.7), including clinical signs and treatment harnessing, causing lesions and increasing options. Poor/infrequent grooming and lack of attention the risk of infection. s ome tick-borne diseases can be transmitted to hygiene means that opportunities to spot and treat lice are missed by the owner. t icks in the ears can lead to head-shyness to humans, e.g. Lyme’s disease, ehrlichiosis, (avoiding handling or contact around the head babesiosis, or tick-borne encephalitis. A high l ong, shaggy hair coats or long manes provide and ears), and a reluctance to have harnessing number of ticks on horses has been found to be harbour for ticks allowing populations to applied to the head. associated with an increased presence of ticks accumulate. on humans3. Heavy infestations of ticks can cause irritation and pruritis (itching). This can be observed in a restless demeanour, hoof stamping, tail swishing Means of resolution and biting or scratching at affected body parts. This can cause poor feeding and even prevent Over-stocking (very high density of animals) to spot and remove ticks before a widespread Skin lesions due to tick bites. the animal from being able to rest sufficiently of grazing areas and indoor housing should be infestation can become established. Care after work, leading to exhaustion and loss avoided. This will also prevent over-grazing should be taken when manually removing of condition. and allow animals sufficient space to move ticks as they can transmit zoonoses. around freely and to rest. When removing ticks ensure the mouthparts Equids and cattle should graze separately if are removed. possible. Separating them with wire fencing Daily tick removal is the best option, in can prevent cross contamination of ticks and comparison to acaracides, which can be eliminated infestations after removing cattle expensive and there is a limit to how 7 from the pasture . frequently they can be safely applied. A spelling (rest) period for grazing areas can The babesia parasite can be transmitted at all reduce numbers of one-host ticks, but the life stages of the tick, including stages when the pasture must be rested for longer than 60 days tick may not be visible to the naked eye. This to be effective so is unlikely to be feasible in the Ticks under the tail means that mechanical tick removal must also Brooke context. be combined with the correct use of acaricides Hiding places for ticks can be reduced by (pesticides that target arachnids including ticks avoiding long grasses. and lice).

Regular grooming and inspection of the Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community animal’s hair coat will provide the opportunity Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention. 1 Hayes (1992) 2 Brooke (2013) 3, 5, 6, 7 Labruna et al (2001) 4 Hayes (1992)

14 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 15 Animal Health Welfare significance

Body Condition t he animal’s body condition is an indication a high body condition score, particularly when of the overall health of the animal, and reflects associated with a thick crest on the neck, is upon work load, feeding practices, quality of a predisposing factor in the development of SEBWAT parameter husbandry, illness and can indicate whether any laminitis4. (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) of these factors are improving or declining. Obesity causes greater strain on the heart during Body condition score a low body condition score is affected by the work, causing the animal to tire more quickly. ratio of energy consumed compared to energy f at equids may also suffer injuries and expended. When too little energy is consumed Welfare issue degeneration of the joints and tendons as the to meet the animal’s energy requirements, the limbs receive additional concussive forces when animal will become underweight, and vice versa. Body condition scoring is a system to estimate Note on donkeys the overweight animal moves. These forces are the levels of fat and muscle coverage, to identify increased further if fast work, or work on hard donkeys may have unevenly distributed fat Low body condition score whether an animal is too fat, too thin or a healthy deposits, called ‘fat pads’, particularly over the surfaces such as tarmac roads, is involved. weight. It can also be used to monitor changes in Working equids with low body condition scores neck and hind quarters. These may be retained an animal’s weight over time. (less than 2.5) are commonly presented for even if the donkey is losing weight1, and should Hyperlipaemia treatment3 to field veterinarians or encountered t he SEBWAT manual and Brooke veterinary be ignored when scoring body condition. donkeys (and some breeds of horse) are during welfare assessments, in communities with manual give details on the system used by the particularly susceptible to hyperlipaemia5. a ged donkeys can be particularly difficult to a low income and can appear to be the norm in Brooke and how to carry out a body condition Hyperlipaemia occurs where more energy is assign a body condition score due to a lack some countries. This does not make it acceptable score assessment. This system scores animals being used than is being taken in, such as in an of muscle and a dropped belly giving a thin for the animals' welfare'. from 1-5, with 1 being very thin and 5 being appearance, even when the animal’s overall animal with a low body condition score being very fat. over-worked. condition may be healthy2. Good body condition score t his causes the body to release stored fat for a nimals with a healthy body condition score conversion to glucose in an attempt to meet (2.5 - 3.5) have the best chance of all round health, energy requirements. This fat floods the less risk of lesions, and are best able to meet the bloodstream causing the liver and kidneys to demands of their working role. They appear well degenerate and ultimately to fail, causing death6. rounded, their bones are not easily visible and they have some, but not excess, levels of fat. t he condition can also occur in overweight animals who are starved in an attempt to reduce High body condition score weight, for example in the treatment of laminitis. Whilst a low body condition score presents a It can also be triggered by stress. dramatic illustration of compromised welfare, it is important to note that a high body condition score (more than 3.5) indicates obesity, which is also a welfare concern.

Donkey with low body condition score. Horse with low body condition. Horse with good body condition.

3 Brooke (2013) 4 Geor (2008) 1, 2 McDowell (2009) 5, 6 Donkey Santuary (2014)

16 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 17 Possible causation Overwork t he other side of the energy ratio is excessive s ince low body condition is a far more prevalent energy output. Overwork can cause loss of problem than high body condition score in the condition even in animals receiving large Brooke context, the following suggestions focus quantities of food, and is the most common on the former. cause of excessive energy output.

Inadequate quantity of feed e quids require adequate rest periods to recover from work. Suitable rest areas should i n the working equine context, feed is often be provided with appropriate bedding or insufficient in quantity and calorific content. comfortable flooring, such as sand or grass, to t o maintain condition, working equids need a encourage lying down and harnesses should be combination of carbohydrate and protein, and removed during rest. sufficient quantities of fibre to aid digestion. e quids should only be worked within their Aggression between individuals at feeding time – note the Equids with poor body condition being worked. g rains like oats, barley and maize are used backwards ear position and muzzle tension. capabilities, i.e. young, aged or unfit animals to provide additional energy for equids in should have lighter workloads, and ill animals hard work. Inappetance or inability to eat should not be worked until they have recovered. Care needs to be taken that the animal is e quids who are reluctant to eat will quickly Disease, pain or fever Means of resolution not overloaded with concentrate by feeding lose condition, therefore the underlying cause too much grain at one time, as a concentrate of inappetance/anorexia should always be a n ill equid will use more energy in carrying out Feed quantity and quality, and workload and overload can cause colic or trigger laminitis. investigated. normal bodily functions than a healthy animal. rest should be adjusted to meet the animal’s Grains (or concentrated feeds) should be spread For example, animals suffering from advanced a nimals suffering from pain in the mouth will requirements and maintain healthy body over several meals and ideally mixed with high respiratory disease will expend more energy have difficulty eating. This pain can come from condition score. fibre feed such as chaff or sugar beet. breathing due to the effort required to force air mouth or lip lesions (see Lip lesions section for out of the lungs (see Respiratory noise and Nasal Animals who are ill, injured, or in pain should further details), poor dentition (e.g. overgrown, Cold discharge sections for further details). be treated in a timely manner, and permitted damaged or missing teeth), or injury (e.g. firing of to rest until recovered. e quids living and working in cold climates or at the palate as a ‘treatment’ for lampas, or damage a nimals suffering chronic pain will lose high altitude will expend additional energy on to the tongue). condition because they move less efficiently De-worming should occur when indicated keeping warm. The digestive process generates meaning more energy is expended for the (by a high fecal egg count) to reduce a n animal may be reluctant to eat due to bullying heat but when this is insufficient to keep the same level of work (see the Lameness, Fear endoparasite burden and associated from more dominant animals at feed time or fear animal warm, secondary processes such as and aggression, Firing and Apathy sections for digestive problems. of injury from foreign objects in the feed. shivering will use energy in an attempt to further links to chronic pain). Oral/dental pain or injury should be generate warmth. Digestive problems addressed in a timely manner, and any n ote: donkey hair coats do not have the same inappetance investigated to identify the i f the digestive system is compromised the waterproof properties as horse/mule coats and cause. animal will not receive the full benefit of nutrition so donkeys should be protected from getting wet from its feed, because nutrients will not be Animals in cold conditions should be or they can quickly become chilled. absorbed correctly or normally. provided shelter and blankets to keep warm. t his could be due to intestinal parasites, Owners should be encouraged to monitor dehydration or diarrhoea (when the food passes body condition regularly and respond to any through the digestive system too quickly for unwanted changes. nutrients to be adequately absorbed).

s ome diseases, such as liver disease, can prevent Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community an animal from metabolising food properly. Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines

Poor quality of feed f eed should be carefully stored to avoid contamination from insects or rodents or the development of mould. Donkey with blanket. Before feeding, feed should be checked for foreign bodies which could cause injury or discourage the animal from eating, e.g. stones, sand or grit.

18 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 19 Animal Health Possible causation

Nasal Discharge Environmental factors t he equine respiratory tract cannot cleanse air as it is breathed in, therefore all air enters, Viral infection SEBWAT parameter Welfare issue regardless of quality. (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) r espiratory viruses are highly contagious t he equid displays discharge from one or both t his means that an animal living or working in and different viruses often have very similar Nasal Discharge nostrils. an environment where air quality is poor, such symptoms4. Respiratory viruses include equine as brick kilns or dusty roads, risks damage to the influenza, equine herpes viruses (EHV) and i n SEBWAT, only opaque liquid discharge or respiratory tract. blood-stained discharge is recorded. However, rhinoviruses. in some cases transparent discharge may be t he use of smoking drums around equids to Viruses are characterised by substantial, thick associated with respiratory problems too. discourage flies is not effective and will also grey/yellow nasal discharge. A secondary contribute to respiratory problems. bacterial infection can develop as a complication d ust, e.g. from dirt roads, dirt paddocks, of a respiratory virus. Welfare significance poor quality feed, poorly-ventilated work or i t has been suggested that working equids are accommodation areas, feeding dry or dusty feed at greater risk of contracting influenza than t he amount, colour and consistency of any in a nose bag dry. nasal discharge are important as this can give an other equids, that infection will be more severe, indication of the underlying problem. Mould spores, e.g. from poor quality feed. and recovery will be longer5. This is due to the additional stresses on the body and weakened t ransparent, watery discharge can be due s moke and other air pollutants, e.g. from cooking immune system common in working equines. to irritation or an allergic reaction caused fires, brick kilns, or smoking drums used as by dust, pollens or a foreign body. Equids fly control. l ike bacterial infections, respiratory viruses are working in dusty environments will often have transmitted by breathing infected droplets and watery discharge. Airborne allergens will Bacterial infection by direct contact with nasal secretions6. initially cause a clear nasal discharge, clear a thick white, yellow or green discharge indicates a frican Horse Sickness, unlike other respiratory ocular discharge, coughing and sneezing and a bacterial respiratory infection that may be diseases, is not contagious between individual increased respiratory rate. They can develop the primary cause of illness, or a secondary equids but is transmitted by the bites of the into more serious and chronic conditions that complication, e.g. a respiratory virus, or a foreign Culicodes midge, therefore fly control is an can reduce the animal’s productivity and health, body. important preventative measure. e.g. allergic respiratory disease and Recurrent Airway Obstruction (RAO – also known as Bacterial respiratory infections include strangles, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease bacterial pneumonia, pleuropneumonia and (COPD) or ‘heaves’). Inflammation due to an glanders (which is zoonotic). Further details allergic response will increase susceptibility on these conditions, including symptoms and to secondary bacterial infections, which are treatment, can be found in the Brooke Veterinary common in working equids 1. Manual. t ransparent discharge may also have a viral a irborne bacterial infections, like strangles, are cause even when only a small amount of bilateral extremely contagious. They can be transmitted watery nasal discharge is present 2. by nose-to-nose contact between animals and also through droplets carried on hands, clothing, a thick white or yellow discharge is often a sign nose bags, communal water troughs, harnesses of a bacterial infection. However, this may also Transparent discharge from nostril. and other equipment, and are often brought into indicate fungal infection in some cases, or even a community of equids by the introduction of a African Horse Sickness which is viral but can new (infected) animal. cause white frothy discharge. Opaque discharge. d ried, crusted discharge around the nostrils suggests that the problem has been occurring for some time. s ome signs of respiratory problems can be very subtle, e.g. a small increase in watery discharge from the nose, a slight cough or sneeze, or reduced vigour 3.

4, 6 Brooke (2013) 1, 2, 3 Brooke (2013) 5 abd El-rahim and Hussein (2004) quoted in Brooke (2013)

20 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 21 Means of resolution

Good hygiene and avoiding of cross- Dampening feed or hay reduces dust and contamination is key for preventing infections mould spores, and is often recommended and viruses. Handlers should wash their hands for animals at risk of respiratory problems8. between animals and take particular care if Beware of soaking hay for longer than 1 hour, respiratory infection is suspected. as this will reduce its nutrient content. Once soaked, the hay should not be stored due to the Quarantine procedures should be followed risk of dangerous mould growth, so should be whenever possible when introducing new fed to the animal straight away. The effluent animals to an existing group. New animals run off is also an environmental pollutant. of unknown origin should be isolated and carefully monitored for signs of infectious The use of nose bags should be avoided, disease for three weeks before mixing with as they reduce ventilation and quality of air. others. Behaviour and social needs (e.g. Vaccination, if available, can prevent some visual contact with other animals) must viruses e.g. equine influenza. be considered. Any respiratory problems should be Drenching (forcibly administering liquid investigated straight away, because the earlier medications orally) should be avoided, as this treatment is started, the better the long term is a possible cause of aspiration pneumonia prognosis. if the medications being administered Blood-stained discharge. accidentally enter the lungs. Dehydration is a Equids suffering or recovering from respiratory serious welfare concern in working horses and problems should be given rest and a reduced workload, particularly in cases where Epistaxis Food regurgitated from the nose donkeys. We strongly advocate that animals are offered clean, fresh water throughout the significant damage to the airway may have e pistaxis is bleeding from the nose. This can be t he most common cause of food being day and that they are given the time and space occurred. from one or both nostrils and can range from a regurgitated through the nose is ‘choke’. This to drink. In circumstances where animals are It should be emphasised to owners and local slow drip to a substantial and life threatening is where an obstruction (usually food) in the unable or unwilling to drink, fluid therapy may service providers that slitting of the nostrils haemorrhage. oesophagus blocks the passing food causing it be required. does not improve breathing, or cure or prevent to be regurgitated through the nose (equines are Bloody nasal discharge may be due to bleeding respiratory problems and will only increase anatomically unable to vomit). from the nasal cavity, from the guttural pouches, We believe oral fluid therapy is the most suffering and risk of infection. (See the or from the lungs. Choke is commonly caused by eating physiological and least invasive way to restore Mutilations section for further information.) inappropriate or very dry food, or eating too hydration. Providing fluids through nasogastric Bleeding from the nasal cavity has a number of quickly, failing to chew food sufficiently before intubation (through the nose to the stomach) is causes, including trauma to the face or nostrils, more practical than IV fluids because owners Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community swallowing. It can also be caused by tooth Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines infection resulting in erosion (e.g. sinusitis, fungal abnormalities, which cause food to become have access to water, buckets and funnels and before conducting an intervention.. infection, granulomas), neoplasia (abnormal trapped and accumulate at the back of the service providers can easily carry a stomach tissue growths), or a foreign body. mouth. tube, lubricant and electrolytes. Bleeding from the guttural pouches can be Choke should be treated as an emergency, as In accommodation, ensuring good ventilation, caused by either fungal or bacterial infection (e.g. food may be inhaled into the lungs causing avoiding overcrowding with too many animals, strangles). aspiration pneumonia. There is also a danger and use of bedding materials that are low in Bleeding from the lungs may occur as a result of that the oesophagus could be ruptured. dust are good practices. exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage, or Older equids with poor teeth are more pulmonary abscess. predisposed to choke.

Fungal infection g uttural pouch infections (e.g. aspergillosis) and sinusitis often have a fungal cause. Coccidiomycosis is a fungal infection found in Central and South America which may affect nasal tissues, leading to nasal discharge and other respiratory symptoms7.

7 Long et al. (2014) 8 University of Kentucky (2014)

22 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 23 Animal Health Wheezes Squeaking/grating sounds Respiratory Noise Wheezes are a continuous noise made both on Known as ‘friction rubs’, these sounds are caused the in-breath (inspiration) and the out-breath by the overlying membranes of the lungs and (expiration). Wheezing indicates inflammation the ribs rubbing against each other. These within the respiratory tract, for example in sounds usually indicate pleuritis, which is an SEBWAT parameter Possible causation chronic allergic conditions where the nasal inflammation of these membranes, often caused (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) passage, trachea and lungs become inflamed, by viral infections. a bnormal breathing sounds have various restricting the passage of air and causing a Respiratory noise t hey are not likely to be heard without a causes or be exacerbated by different factors, wheezing sound as the air is squeezed past the stethoscope. for example: inflamed tissues.

Welfare issue l iving or working in an environment that is r ecurrent Airway Obstruction (RAO, also known Snoring dusty or contaminated with air pollutants, mould as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, t he equid makes an audible noise whilst a snoring sound when breathing is characteristic spores, etc. COPD or heaves) is a common cause of wheezing breathing, which can be heard without the of sinusitis and will usually be accompanied by sounds. Often the animal will show flared use of a stethoscope. Bacterial, viral or fungal infection of the sinus, or a thick discharge of pus from the nostril on the nostrils even at rest, and may also develop a upper or lower respiratory tract. affected side of the face, and there may also be ‘heaves line’ on the flank below the ribs, caused facial swelling and pain on palpitation. Prolonged elevation of the head. by abnormal muscle development due to the Welfare significance Parasitism (e.g. lungworm). extra effort required to expel air from the lungs. i f the condition is chronic or is related to a dental problem, (e.g. an infected tooth), then the r espiratory tract problems are common in a nimals with chronic RAO may lose weight as e xertion (e.g. laryngeal paralysis typically causes discharge often has a foul smell. There may also working equids. Signs of respiratory problems 2 the effort required to breathe burns more calories noise during exercise ). be difficulty in breathing which is made worse by can be very subtle, often just a small increase in than the animal is able to replace. They can also Some examples of different types of respiratory exercise. watery discharge from the nose, a slight cough expend more time and energy on breathing sounds and possible causative factors are given or sneeze, or the animal being described as less than eating3. An equid in this condition has been s inus infections often recur and can be below. vigorous than normal by the owner1. An animal likened to a human suffering end-stage lung frustrating to treat5. with respiratory noise that is audible without a cancer4 and euthanasia may be the most humane stethoscope suggests a serious abnormality. Coughs option. Rattles e quids suffering respiratory difficulties tire more a cough is a reflex action used by the body to loud, moist rattling sounds accompanied Crackles quickly, lose condition and be less productive remove irritants from the airway. Equids may by rapid, laboured breathing; cough, nasal than their healthy counterparts. This is because cough as a result of irritation caused by foreign d iscontinued crackling sounds can indicate discharge and raised temperature in a foal can the body’s muscles require oxygen to work bodies inhaled into the airway (e.g. dust particles, that fluid is present in the lungs, for example indicate rhodococcus equi infection (also known efficiently, therefore any problems with the mould spores, pollen, fragments of fodder, in pleuropneumonia or other disorders which as summer pneumonia, or ‘rattles’). respiratory tract will reduce the amount of etc.); a viral or bacterial infection; or chronic cause lung oedema. t he condition is characterised by abscesses in oxygen the animal can uptake. inflammation of the tissues of the respiratory tract. a s grazing animals, equids are designed to the lungs and the development of pneumonia. breathe efficiently with their heads lowered. Treatment is difficult and the prognosis is poor6. f requent or chronic coughing indicates a Forcibly preventing an equid from lowering the problem and is often accompanied by other head can result in fluid collecting in the lungs, Note on donkeys symptoms such as nasal discharge, raised for example through the animal spending long temperature, or accelerated respiratory rate. d onkeys rarely cough when suffering from periods tied up on a short tie (e.g. when travelling respiratory disease and may display only or not being worked) or harnessed as to prevent subtle clinical signs. Cases in donkeys are often the animal lowering its head. presented for veterinary assistance only once e quids should be regularly offered the the respiratory problem is advanced and severe7. opportunity to lower their heads to ground level to clear the airway, which can be combined with providing opportunities to graze and drink.

Respiratory noise can be subtle, but serious. 3, 4 Smith Thomas (2015) 1 Brooke (2013) 5, 7 Brooke (2013) 2 Horse and Hound (2003) 6 Hayes (1992)

24 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 25 Means of resolution Animal Health

Minimising the animal’s exposure to dust, In accommodation, ensuring good ventilation, Spinal Pain mould, smoke and other air pollutants in the avoiding overcrowding with too many animals, environment, and ensuring rest away from and using bedding materials that are low in Musculo-skeletal problems polluted environments, can reduce risk and dust are good practices. SEBWAT parameter severity of respiratory problems. Dampening feed or hay reduces dust and (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) s pinal pain can have long-term consequences on the animal’s musculo-skeletal system by causing Good hygiene and avoiding cross- mould spores, and is often recommended Spinal contact uneven muscle development on one side of the contamination is key to prevent infections and practice for animals at risk of respiratory Gait 8 body due to atrophy (wasting) of the damaged viruses. Handlers should wash their hands problems . Beware of soaking hay for longer Withers/spine lesions muscles, or overusing some muscles to spare and between animals and take particular care if than 1 hour as this reduces its nutrient content. protect the painful areas. respiratory infection is suspected. Once soaked, the hay should not be stored Welfare issue due to the risk of dangerous mould growth, s igns of abnormal muscle development include Quarantine procedures should be followed so should be fed to the animal straight away. asymmetrical hip or shoulder conformation and whenever possible when introducing new t he equid displays evidence of pain on gentle The effluent run off is also an environmental contact with the spine. lameness. animals to an existing group, during which pollutant. new animals of unknown origin should be t his may be a mild reaction such as tensing of a Brooke study in Pakistan found that isolated and carefully monitored for signs The use of nose bags should be avoided, as they muscles of the back or neck, or flinching of part donkeys with more severe pain responses of infectious disease for three weeks before reduce ventilation and quality of air. of the spine being touched; or a larger reaction to manipulation of the spine showed worse 3 mixing with others. Behaviour and social needs Preventative treatment includes vaccination such as bending the spine, moving away, lifting muscular asymmetry of the shoulders . It also (e.g. visual contact with other animals) must be where available, and anthelmintics when the head, kicking or biting. Restricted movement, found that spinal pain responses were more considered. appropriate. and unwillingness to move the spine, can also likely in donkeys with higher lameness scores. indicate pain. Drenching (forcibly administering liquid Any respiratory problems should be medications orally) should be avoided, as this investigated straight away, because the earlier i f the pain is severe or chronic, the animal may is a possible cause of aspiration pneumonia treatment is started, the better the long term display avoidance behaviour to prevent the if the medications being administered prognosis. spine being touched at all. accidentally enter the lungs. Dehydration is a serious welfare concern in working horses and Equids suffering or recovering from respiratory donkeys. We strongly advocate that animals problems should be given rest and a reduced Welfare significance are offered clean, fresh water throughout the workload, particularly in cases where day and that they are given the time and space significant damage to the airway may have equids have relatively inflexible spines to drink. In circumstances where animals are occurred. compared to other species1. This provides unable or unwilling to drink, fluid therapy may It should be emphasised to owners and local greater strength, enabling them to carry heavy be required. loads and to be ridden, but when spinal problems service providers that slitting of the nostrils occur the added pressure from carrying or We believe oral fluid therapy is the most does not improve breathing, or cure or prevent pulling a load can worsen the effects. physiological and least invasive way to restore respiratory problems and will only increase hydration. Providing fluids through nasogastric suffering and risk of infection. (See the s pinal pain is a key welfare issue because it can intubation (through the nose to the stomach) is Mutilations section for further information.) be difficult to identify, so animals may be living more practical than IV fluids because owners with undiagnosed pain for long periods of time. have access to water, buckets and funnels and Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Pain tolerances are affected by an individual service providers can easily carry a stomach Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention.. animal’s temperament, so gradual changes in tube, lubricant and electrolytes. temperament or behaviour may not be noticed by owners for a long time, or may be viewed as laziness or reluctance to work. This could result in beating or other punishment from owners in an attempt to make the animal work more, missing the cause. a ggressive behaviour in equids is very closely linked to pain2, so aggressive animals should always be assessed for painful conditions before owners attempt ‘corrective’ actions or punishment. Animals should be unharnessed or the pack removed to Better use of nosebag, as it is not attached to the head, so the Asymmetrical pelvis. allow air to circulate around skin, reducing bacteria etc. animal is able to get air more easily.

1 Jeffcott (1998) 2 Brooke (2013) 8 University of Kentucky (2014) 3 reix et al (2014)

26 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 27 Chronic pain Possible causation Spinal pain due to work Chronic pain can lead to the development of Back pain may be directly associated with other problems including a supressed immune s pinal pain can be a secondary result of pain overwork and overloading of badly designed system, which reduces the ability to fight elsewhere causing the animal to change its carts and harness5. infection; disturbed rest or loss of appetite posture. i n equids used for riding, soft tissue damage leading to loss of condition. It can also lead to the Unnatural postural changes and gait adaptations is commonly caused by poorly fitting saddles. animal becoming increasingly withdrawn and can transfer physical stress to different parts of Visible evidence includes lesions and pressure depressed until an apathetic state is reached. the body, e.g. hoof pain causing the animal to sores, but there may also be invisible bruising

walk in an unnatural way, leading to back pain. and ligament damage. Signs of back pain a study showed that 71% of working donkeys in difficulty straddling to urinate/defecate. Checking response to spinal contact. Pakistan had a lesion or scar in the spinal area6. a voidance, aggression or tensing in response to These injuries are painful in themselves but also being touched or groomed over the back, loins or implicate poorly fitting harness as a likely reason hind quarters. Photo 37 for back pain and stiffness. a voidance, aggression or tensing in response to attempts to put on a blanket, saddle or harness. a voidance of or reduced lying down or rolling.

r eluctance to pick up the hind limbs. r ushing forward or pulling in an attempt to run away from the pain, or conversely moving slowly and uncomfortably, showing reluctance to move Severe spinal lesion caused by a poorly fitting and Abnormal posture. forwards. overloaded pack.

d ifficulty moving backwards4. Falls and accidents Means of resolution

l ameness and changes to the animal’s gait. a common cause of spinal pain is accidental Working with owners and harness makers Analgesics can be used to reduce pain to trauma injury e.g. due to a fall or traffic accident. could encourage the use of well made, well- allow recuperation to take place but care f ractures of the thoracolumbar area (the area fitting and well maintained harness7 and carts must be taken that they do not simply mask from the withers to the rump) are seen as a to protect the spine. the problem. They should be combined with efforts to identify and resolve the underlying result of rearing up and falling over backwards. Owners/handlers should be educated on Sometimes this is done deliberately by owners to problem, and provide rest with a gradual return recognising lameness and spinal pain, and to work whenever possible. ‘teach’ the animal not to rear, which is a serious encouraged to reduce over-work and over- welfare concern. loading wherever possible. Some animals may have weaker back conformation than others, so it should never t he lumbar spine (the tail-end of the spine) can Using warm compress and gentle massage or also be fractured by the animal falling on its tail be assumed that all animals can carry the “strapping” the back muscles after exercise can same load. or by being hit from behind e.g. by a vehicle. reduce muscular back pain. Simple massage Lumbar spine fractures have a grave prognosis. techniques can be taught to owners and do not Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community f ractures are slow to heal and the intensive require expensive equipment. Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines treatment required may not be practical in the before conducting an intervention.. working equine context, so euthanasia may be necessary.

Pack designed to provide spinal clearance. Pack designed to provide spinal clearance.

4 Jeffcott (1998) 5, 6 Reix et al (2014) 7 Brooke (2013)

28 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 29 Animal Health Beating and other human causes Body Lesions Work-related lesions may be caused by the handler or driver whipping or beating the animal. These lesions are commonly found on the hindquarters, gaskins (upper thigh), male genitals a compromised immune system caused be SEBWAT parameter and flanks. (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) extended periods of stress and/or poor nutrition will reduce the animal’s ability to fight infection. Whipping causes pain and fear and is evidence Head/ears of underlying problems such as poor handling l esions can attract blowflies and screw-worm Neck technique, inadequate training (i.e. the animal flies which lay their eggs in the wound. Maggots Breast/shoulders not understanding what is being asked of it), or hatch from the eggs and invade the animal’s Forelimbs poor nutrition or lameness causing tiredness or living tissue, causing irritation and pain as they Knee lack of energy. Withers/spine move around and burrow into the tissue. The Ribs/flank larvae of the screw-worm fly cause very serious a ggressive riding practices may also cause Girth/belly lesions and untreated cases may be fatal2. lesions on the flanks, due to the rider’s heels or Hindquarters spurs. Hindlimbs When the noseband material is hard, e.g. chains Tail/tail base or spikes are used over the nose, this often results Genital/rectal in lesions or deformity due to rough handling. Whipping lesion on genitals.

Welfare significance Falls and accidents

t he equid displays lesions (wounds) on the skin l esions on the knees indicate the animal has in the specified body area. suffered a fall. This could be due to uneven terrain, exhaustion, poor hoof shape, lameness, n ote: lesions in the corners of the mouth and hobbling, or being made to work too quickly, around the eye area are covered in the Lip amongst other causes. lesions and Eyes sections respectively. Lesions f alls may also cause lesions on the head or associated with the human practices of firing and hobbling are covered in those sections. shoulders if they make contact with the ground.

Body lesions on the withers / spine. Collision with vehicles or obstacles in the working environment is a common cause of Welfare significance Possible causation lesions on the limbs and trunk of the body. l esions are commonly caused by hazards in the l esions on any body part will cause pain and Working equipment work or rest environment, such as nails, wire, discomfort. Equids with severe or persistent Knee lesions indicating a fall. broken glass, scrap metal etc. lesions experience chronic pain, and will work Poorly constructed, poorly fitting or poorly less efficiently than healthy, pain-free animals. maintained harness, pack and cart equipment This may trigger negative interactions from cause friction and pressure on the skin, which owners, such as beating, in an attempt to make over time causes lesions. Fungal infection Poor hygiene, i.e. dirty, wet skin and dirty the animal work more. Over the long term, Dermatophytosis (known as ‘ringworm’ although The condition is made worse by moisture and animals are at risk of becoming apathetic (see the equipment increases friction and also the likelihood that lesions will become infected. the condition is fungal, not parasitic) presents as abrasion and is characterised by inflamed Apathy section for more details). scattered, circular, superficial skin lesions which skin with tufted hair and crusted scabs. If the a ny wound to the skin leaves the animal Badly made or poorly maintained harnesses will become crusty if left untreated. infection worsens, the skin can develop deep can also break during work and cause a serious cracks or fissures (cracked heels) and the animal vulnerable to local or systemic infection. Lesions i t is usually itchy and affected animals will accident/injury to both the animal, user and may become lame. are at risk of bacterial infection, commonly often rub against fixed objects which then others. by staphylococcus bacteria which causes an become a source of re-infection, and a cause of Other animals itchy (pruritis), crusty lesion which is usually t he following body areas are particularly prone further abrasive lesions. Ringworm can also extremely painful – a condition known as to harness-related lesions: breast/shoulder, be transferred to humans and other animals by i njuries can occur from fighting with other pyoderma. This is often associated with damp withers/spine, girth/belly, tail/tail base. direct contact or via infected equipment3. equids, caused by kicks or bites, particularly skin, poor grooming and contact with blankets, between stallions, by females in heat, or animals Dermatophilosis (‘mud fever’ or ‘greasy heel’) harnesses or cart equipment, particularly if the that do not know each other. animal is sweating and the equipment is dirty1. is commonly found on the caudal pasterns4. e quids can also be injured by biting dogs and hyenas, or by horned animals such as cattle 1 Brooke (2013) or buffalo. 2 Hayes (1992) 3, 4 Brooke (2013)

30 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 31 Means of resolution Root Causes of Lesions

Prevention The table below illustrates some common locations for lesions along with likely causes and suggested means of resolution: Regular grooming and washing by the owner Fighting can be reduced by ensuring all or handler helps keep the skin clean and free animals have equal access to resources such as food, water and shade. Lower ranking animals of sweat and debris, and also provides an Area affected Causation Means of resolution opportunity to identify and address lesions at may need to be fed and watered separately from more dominant equids to prevent an early stage. Breast and Breast plate or neck collar too tight, so sits too Ensure that the breast plate or neck collar is well bullying and to ensure they receive a sufficient shoulders high and puts pressure on the chest area/base of fitted and the correct size for the animal. Thin Ensuring harness and equipment is well fitting share of resources. windpipe. animals or those with narrow chests will benefit and well maintained will reduce harness- from more padding. A narrow or thin breast plate Breast plate or neck collar too loose, so sits too spreads the force over a smaller area is worse related lesions. low moving around and causing friction the Treatment because of increasing pressure. Two-wheel carts chest area. should always have the weight placed over the axle Working with owners and harness makers to Hair around the lesion should be clipped (if encourage the use of padding to raise harness Cart overloaded or two-wheeled cart loaded to ensure they are well balanced and easier for the possible without causing further damage) and with the weight behind the axle, causing it to tilt animal to pull. above the withers, and the replacement of cleaned with topical antiseptics. Large lesions backwards placing additional pressure on the chain and twine with softer materials are may need to be bandaged or covered to protect breast plate or neck collar. important to prevent recurrence of harness- from flies and further infection. related lesions5. Withers Saddle, pack saddle or harness too large and so Ensure that the saddle, pack saddle or harness is Veterinary intervention should be sought there is no clearance of the withers. well fitting, of the correct size for the animal and Regularly removing the harness (e.g. during is correctly fitted when saddling/harnessing. If for large or deep lesions which may require Saddle, pack saddle or harness too small, the load is so heavy it causes a well-fitting saddle rest breaks) allows air to reach the skin and deep cleaning and suturing. Antibiotics or causing pinching of the withers. for the skin to dry, reducing the risk of friction to press into the animal’s back, the load should be antifungal treatments may also be required Load too heavy, causing the saddle or pack reduced. Correct feeding for the animal’s type and sores. This also has the benefit of allowing the depending on the cause and extent of the saddle to press onto the animal’s back. workload will help to maintain body condition, animals more effective rest when not actively whilst recognising and treating lameness early will lesion. Equids with a low body condition score will help avoid muscle wastage (see the Body condition working. have more prominent withers that rub against and Lameness sections for more details). If equipment is the cause of the lesions, this the saddle or harness. People demanding equids for use (e.g. tourists, must be changed or improved (e.g. with Muscle wastage in the back/shoulder area due taxi service users) should be educated that padding) to prevent recurrence. only animals that are healthy, comfortable and to lameness or will make the withers more prominent. free from lesions should be used for riding or Animals with lesions due to infective agents, carriage excursions, therefore increasing the e.g. ringworm, should be isolated to avoid Saddle or harness placed too far forward on the animal’s back, causing contact with the withers. incentive for owners/users to reduce lesions. spread to others; equipment should not be shared. Maintaining healthy body condition reduces Girth and Home-made girths such as rope, chain, twine, Ensure that girths are well made, well maintained the risk of lesions, as there is less natural Rest period off work. belly etc. cause friction. and of the correct size for the animal. Girths should be made from smooth, flat leather or webbing Girth over-tightened in an attempt to make a padding on the animal’s body. and should lie flat against the animal’s skin. The poorly fitting saddle stay in place. narrower the girth, the more pressure is placed Living and working areas should be regularly Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Sweating increases friction in the girth area. on the animal’s skin so a wider girth or one with checked for such hazards and repairs Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines more padding can reduce pressure and be more Cart shafts too narrow causing friction against before conducting an intervention.. comfortable. Keeping harnesses clean and supple implemented when required. the animal’s sides. will reduce friction and make it more comfortable for the animal to wear. Daily grooming and washing of the animal will remove sweat and dirt that can cause the harness to rub. Ensure that the cart is the correct size for the animal.

Hind The breeching strap runs around the hind Breeching straps are essential to prevent the cart quarters quarters of the animal across the buttocks. running into the back of the animal causing injury, A breeching strap that is too tight will cause so should not be removed, but need to be well pressure, whilst one that is too loose will cause fitting and well maintained. Correct feeding for the friction and not function effectively. animal’s type and workload will help to maintain body condition, whilst recognising and treating Equids with a low body condition score will Animal unharnessed at rest. Animal not unharnessed or unloaded Ear injury from fighting with lameness early will help avoid muscle wastage have thinner hind quarters with pointed to rest. other donkeys. (see the Body condition and Lameness sections for buttocks, which rub against the harness. more details). Improving the animal’s condition Muscle wastage in the hind quarters due to will increase its energy and work ability, which may lameness or will make the breeching strap reduce prodding/whipping by owners/users, as can too loose. improving driving technique.

Other lesions in this area can be caused by the driver/handler whipping, beating or poking the animal.

5 Brooke (2013)

32 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 33 Area affected Causation Means of resolution Animal Health

Tail and The crupper has a loop which the tail passes Cruppers should not be used as an alternative to a Lip Lesions tail base through. Its purpose is to prevent the saddle well-fitting saddle or harness. If used, they should or harness from slipping forwards along the be of the correct size for the animal and should be animal’s back. well made and maintained. Keeping harness clean and supple will reduce friction and make it more SEBWAT parameter Welfare significance A crupper with a loop that is too tight for the comfortable for the animal to wear. Daily grooming tail to fit through comfortably will rub. One (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) and washing of the animal will remove sweat and study found that the most severe lesions were e quids have sensitive mouths and lips, therefore dirt that can cause the harness to rub. Regular associated with more padded straps and Lip Lesions inspection and removal of ticks will benefit the abrasions or lacerations in the corners of the that cotton straps caused worse lesions than animal (see the Ectoparasites: ticks section for more mouth are likely to be very painful. synthetic ones6. details). The owner/handler should regularly check Welfare issue A crupper that is too short will pull on the base of under the tail for signs of developing lesions. Bit-related oral damage is often not only the the tail causing pressure and friction. visible lip lesions in the corners of the mouth but t he animal displays lesions in the corners Home-made cruppers made from rope or twine may also include bruising or lesions on the gums, will increase pressure and friction causing (commissures) of the mouth on one or both sides. palate and tongue, which will be more difficult damage to the skin. t hese lesions are usually caused by the bit to see. Therefore, lip lesions are likely to be an Faeces, urine, sweat and dirt can build up in the placed in the animal’s mouth, which is attached under-estimation of the true extent of bit-related crupper area under the tail increasing friction to the bridle and reins, and used to control the injury to working equids. Damage to the mouth and causing any lesion present to become caused by the bit can become permanent1. infected. animal during riding or driving. The presence of ticks under the tail can increase Bit injuries will show as rubbed (abrasions), Bits with a severe curb (long shanks designed the skin’s sensitivity to friction from the crupper. pinches, or tears (lacerations) and will be located to increase the leverage exerted on the animal’s Also, the crupper rubbing off attached ticks mouth) can even lacerate the tongue2. It is leaving the mouth parts behind can cause a in the corners of the mouth. Other injuries in lesion and/or infection to develop under the tail. this area may be caused if the animal has eaten important to remember that the more damage is a caustic substance; however, these can be done to the animal’s mouth, the less responsive differentiated as burns and/or blisters and are the animal will eventually become during likely to also appear on the tongue. The animal riding/driving, as scar tissue is less sensitive may also injure the lips by accidental laceration, than normal tissue. This can be misinterpreted e.g. if falling and scratching the head on the as stubbornness or bad behaviour and increase ground; these lesions are unlikely to be located the rider/driver’s frustration leading to rough specifically at the lip corners. handling and cruelty. Oral pain can inhibit the animal from eating and drinking normally, particularly if the pain is severe or chronic. This may reduce the animal’s ability to eat and drink, potentially leading to a loss of condition3, dehydration or colic in additional to continued pain and suffering. Worsening pain and delayed healing of lesions is likely to occur if owners continue to work the animals with a bit in the mouth before oral wounds have completely healed. In some cases, even after wound healing, there may be continued discomfort. Lesion at the commissure of the lips. Pain in the mouth is likely to have behavioural effects on the animal, such as showing reluctance to be bridled, becoming head-shy, throwing the head up when pressure is applied to the reins, opening the mouth (yawing), headshaking or holding the bit between the teeth4. s ome of these behavioural responses may trigger negative reactions from the owner, as they may interpret that the animal is being ‘naughty’. This could lead to increased aggressive handling interactions.

1, 2, 4 Anderson (2005) 6 Burn et al (2008) quoted in Brooke (2013) 3 Brooke (2013)

34 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 35 Possible causation Means of resolution

Rough handling/driving The use of well-made, well-fitting bits should be Bits must be cleaned frequently. When the bit encouraged. is removed it should be rinsed to remove saliva t he animal’s mouth can be damaged Home-made bits made from materials such and food debris which will increase friction on accidentally through poor technique such as as wire, chain or nylon will do a great deal of Bits should be made of smooth stainless steel or the lips causing sores. a rider using the reins for balance, or pulling damage to the animal’s mouth as the thin wire or smooth rubber (although commercially-made harshly on the reins when driving. rope will increase the pressure on the sensitive bits in other materials such as iron, copper and Riders and drivers should be educated to tissue of the mouth, whilst a chain will increase plastic are available). Soft materials that will handle the reins gently so as not to injure the s ometimes deliberate abuse can occur from friction and cause bruising. wear away quickly and develop sharp edges animal’s mouth. Training could be offered to rough handling as a result of anger or frustration should be avoided. improve handling, riding and driving. Equids with the animal, and the rider/driver may Bits made of iron will rust, whilst materials such should not be tied by the reins in case of injury deliberately pull on the reins sharply to ‘punish’ as nickel or plastic will wear away creating sharp Bits should never be made from materials such if the animal moves suddenly. the animal. edges which can easily cause lesions. as chain or wire, which will damage the mouth. Involving the whole community of relevant e quines naturally run away from painful/fearful Bits with loose rings may nip, either if they are too Whatever material the bit is made from, it stakeholders, including harness and bit makers stimuli (the flight response), this means that an narrow or the equid has thick, fleshy lips. In these should be inspected regularly for wear and tear, as well as owners is important to improve bit equine experiencing pain the mouth may well instances fixed rings may be better. including sharp edges, cracks, damage, and selection, fit and maintenance7. be prone to bolting or become difficult to stop. thin areas which could cause injury or cause s tudies have shown that jointed bits are more Unfortunately, this will often result in greater the bit to break. Applying ointment to the lip lesions is not an likely to be associated with lesions than straight- pressure being applied to the reins by the owner, adequate means of resolution and may be bar bits5. The fit of the bit should be checked to ensure causing more pain. Conversely, some animals counter-productive as the owner may perceive it is not too large, too small or too bulky for the may become reluctant to go forward, which a study in Lesotho found that curb bits were the this as a cure and not adjust the bit. Ointment animal’s mouth. could result in the rider/handler whipping the most common bit type in the area and that these will have no effect on the lesions as it is likely animal to make it go forward. were regularly found to be too large and/or fitted The fit of the bridle is also important. If the bit is to be licked off immediately and topical too low, risking injury to the mouth6. In many too high it will injure the corners of the mouth, applications containing steroids will actually Bit type and fit cases the bridles and bits (and other harness) but if too low it will hit against the teeth and delay healing. were found to be ill-fitting, dirty and in poor cause discomfort. t he materials used to make the bit, the quality condition. Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community of workmanship and condition are important. The bit should be removed during rest so that Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention.. Sharp edges, rough surfaces, or a bit that is too a more severe bit (e.g. a thin bit, a jointed bit, or the animal can eat, drink and rest without the thin will easily damage the mouth. A bit that is one with a curb action) is more likely to cause bit in its mouth. This will also give the lips and too narrow will pinch the lips creating lesions, injury in the wrong hands compared to a thicker, mouth time to rest and give the handler the and cheek pieces that are too tight will cause the straight bit. opportunity to check the lips for early signs bit to be positioned too high in the mouth. of injury.

Badly fitting, uncomfortable bit. Severe, uncomfortable bit, likely to cause pain and damage to the mouth.

Animal with bridle and harnessing removed to enable more comfortable resting during work.

5 Brooke (2013) 6 Upjohn (2011) 7 Brooke (2013)

36 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 37 Animal Health Welfare significance

Interference i nterference lesions are painful and Over-reaching injuries can be slow to heal as the uncomfortable to the animal during work, and pastern is a very mobile area and the wound can can present as lacerations, bruising, swelling be pulled open as the animal moves. Affected SEBWAT parameter and bone or tendon damage. As interference animals should be rested with restricted (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) injuries tend to occur repeatedly in the same movement until the wound has healed, as location, over time they can lead to degeneration slow healing can lead to the development of Interference of the affected joint (usually the fetlock) and the granulation tissue (proud flesh). Gait development of osteoarthritis, leading to chronic Proud flesh in the pastern area can resemble a pain and lameness. tumour, particularly if it grows larger than the Welfare issue l ike any lesion, interference lesions are a risk of original injury, and can be difficult to manage2. local or systemic infection to the animal. Their t he equid displays signs of interference injuries e quids prone to over-reaching are more likely Over-reaching lesions are due to contact between location on the lower limbs means that they to any of the lower limbs. to pull off their front shoes by stepping on the the toes of the hind hooves and the heels of the are close to the ground and therefore may be fore hooves. They are typically located on the back of the shoe with the hind hooves. This t he severity of the injury can range from rubbed susceptible to infection due to increased contact heels of the fore limbs, and are not present on the can damage the hoof wall causing cracks, and hair to a large and severe lesion. Even where with mud, soil, urine, faecal material etc. When hind limbs. increase the risk of falls. the skin is not broken, interference injuries can soil contamination occurs there is a high risk of tetanus. cause bruising, pain and swelling, particularly Note: There are other types of interference Speedy-cutting to the fetlock joint. Over time, this can lead to between limbs, but only those from brushing and i nterference lesions indicate that the animal’s degeneration of the joint and long term lameness. a speedy cut is similar to a brushing injury but over-reaching are captured during SEBWAT due gait may be compromised in some way, and it is the point of contact is higher on the limb, e.g. to being simple to recognise and assess. experiencing difficulty working without collision Brushing (interference) lesions are due to contact closer to the knee or hock, rather than on the between limbs. between the hoof and adjacent limb during fetlock area. motion. They are typically located on the inner Collision between limbs increases the risk sides of the fetlocks, on fore or hind limbs. a s the name suggests, speedy cuts occur in of tripping and falling during work. This is a equids working at speed (moving fast) and can be particular concern for animals carrying heavy very serious, particularly if the horse is shod as loads, as falls can result in serious injury, as well the edge of the shoe acts like a knife against the as fear and distress. soft tissue of the opposite leg. Speedy cuts can

result in serious lacerations and tendon damage. Over-reaching Over-reaching injuries can be deep, particularly if the animal is shod on the hind limbs. These injuries can bleed a lot as the skin in the fetlock area is delicate, and the lack of protective fat or muscle means that there is a risk that the underlying structures of the pastern (bone, tendon or arteries) can be damaged. i t is also possible for the hoof wall or the coronary band to become damaged by over-reaching. As the hoof grows from the coronary band downwards, damage in this area can take several months to grow out; and can lead to slow or abnormal hoof wall growth which may cause long-term lameness1. (See the Hoof shape and quality section for more information on hoof abnormalities). Interference looks like repeatedly struck Severe (brushing) interference lesion. Mild (brushing) interference lesion. at same site over long time. Top: brushing interference lesion, bottom: over-reaching interference lesion.

1 dabareiner quoted in Raia (2010) 2 Cable (2001)

38 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 39 Possible causation Means of resolution

e xhaustion and debility increase the risk of Poor hoof shape has severe effects on an animal’s Any lesions should be cleaned and covered Corrective farriery can help reduce limb collision as animals are less able to move motion, inhibiting the animal’s ability to move to reduce risk of infection. Treatment must interference problems by improving the hoof normally due to muscle weakness and fatigue. freely and comfortably, making limb collision be coupled with preventative measures, balance. Reducing toe length and squaring off Exhaustion and debility can have many causes, and interference lesions more likely. otherwise the lesion will continually recur as the hind toes (known as ‘rolling the toes’) can including dehydration, pain, over-work, under- the animal strikes the same site again during improve ‘break over’ and reduce incidences Overgrown fore hooves have a delayed break- nutrition and disease. work. of over-reaching, although care must be taken over point, as it takes longer for them to be lifted to ensure that too much toe is not removed or Working at speed, (e.g. pulling a cart) increases from the ground than if they were the correct Preventative measures can be taken to avoid pain and lameness will result. It is important the risk of collision occurring between the limbs, shape4. This increases the risk of over-reaching, repeated injury to the interference site. These that owners are aware that corrective farriery and also increases the likelihood that collision as the hind limbs may strike the heels of the fore include bandaging to protect the heels or is a long term process and will require multiple will result in a lesion due to limbs moving with limbs before they break over. fetlocks; ‘doughnut’ devices which inhibit close trims over many months to get a correct hoof greater force at faster speeds3. Over-reaching and contact between the limbs; brushing boots or f actors that slow the movement of the fore shape, and requires a skilled farrier. speedy-cutting are both often associated with over-reaching boots if available in the context, hooves also make over-reaching more likely. fast work. or local alternatives. These measures are Owners should be educated about the benefits These include deep or muddy ground, lameness particularly important to promote in animals of avoiding working animals in a state of Poor farriery is a major cause of interference in a forelimb (causing a shortened stride) or known to have conformation that predisposes exhaustion or debility and encouraged not to lesions, particularly due to protruding nails on tiredness, leading to a lack of coordination. the inner surfaces of the hoof wall, loose shoes, to interference, as other means of resolution work at fast speeds whenever possible. (See Poor conformation can predispose to offset or crooked shoes, shoes that are too wide may not be successful in such cases. Apathy section for further information on interference during motion, for example, means of resolution for apathetic or debilitated for the hoof, poor quality shoes that break or Maintaining correct hoof shape and balance is equids with narrow chests are more likely to animals.) crack easily, etc. important to support free and comfortable limb suffer brushing injuries as their limbs are closer motion during work. (See the Hoof shape and Adequate rest and feed can prevent accidents t he presence of shoes can increase risk of together and more likely to collide during quality section for further information about and injury caused by exhaustion or lack of interference lesions due to the additional weight motion5 ; and toe-out conformation causes limbs other benefits of maintaining correct hoof energy. they add to the hoof, and sharp or abrasive to move in an arc rather than in a straight lateral shape.) materials used for shoes, making it more likely motion. that collision with the hoof or shoe will result in Shoes should be avoided if not essential for the Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines an injury to the limb. working conditions of the animal. before conducting an intervention.. If shod, nail clenches must be neatly turned down and flush against the hoof wall. Shoes must be the correct size for the specific hoof, and should not protrude beyond the hoof wall.

Very poor shoeing, causing risk of lesions to other limbs Very poor hoof shape and (brushing) interference lesion on the and hoof damage. right limb.

Clenches not flush with the hoof – risk of injury to adjacent limb when this is on medial aspect.

7 Wilson (date unknown) 3 Thal, D.O. (2015) 8 Hayes (1992) 4, 5 O’Grady (2003) 9 A. Brown, personal communication. 10 Brooke (2013)

40 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 41 Animal Health Reduced working ability and productivity Conformational problems Lameness a lame equid will work inefficiently compared to l ong-term untreated lameness can cause a sound equid. This means that the lame animal atrophy of some muscles, leading to asymmetry will tire more quickly and be less able to cope in the animal’s skeleton or musculature (i.e. with heavy loads or long hours. differences in one side of the body compared to SEBWAT parameter Welfare significance the other, e.g. uneven muscle development on r educed working ability could lead to increased (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) left and right shoulders, or one hip joint higher negative interaction from owners during work Pain than the other). Gait (e.g. beating, whipping, shouting). Pain in the spine, limbs or hooves causes Musculo-skeletal asymmetry can also suggest d ays off work for recovery may reduce the lameness, as the animal adopts an abnormal poor nutrition and/or overwork at a young age Welfare issue owner’s income, making it more difficult to gait in an attempt to reduce the pain it is whilst the animal was still growing6, making the afford feed and veterinary medicine to treat experiencing. adult animal more susceptible to lameness. e quid displays signs of lameness in one or more the lameness and return the animal to full limb/s. t his will lead to further damage to joints, muscles productivity. l ameness is also often associated with multiple and tendons if not corrected, due to the forces pathological abnormalities within each limb, s tudies show that lameness is highly prevalent i f lameness is left untreated, the animal’s created by the abnormality being transferred with chronic hoof pathology particularly in working horses and donkeys in the developing through other areas of the musculoskeletal productivity may further decline, ultimately 7 1 common . This means that when working equids world , with a high proportion suffering from 3 to the point where it becomes uneconomical system . Musculo-skeletal asymmetry can also have abnormal conformation of the hooves or lameness in more than one limb. Data suggest to keep the animal, creating a risk of neglect or be the result of neurological disorders. If the limbs they are more likely to experience painful that almost all working equids show gait nerve has been damaged then the muscle is no abandonment. 2 lameness and therefore reduced productivity. abnormalities of some sort . longer activated and atrophies. Reduced body condition score Consideration should be given as to the wisdom Chronic pain can also lead to the development and ethics of breeding from equids showing of secondary problems, including a supressed s tudies have found a link between lameness abnormal hoof or limb conformation, as such 5 immune system which reduces the ability and low body condition score . This could be abnormalities are often hereditary and therefore to fight infection; disturbed rest or loss of due to the lame animal expending more energy offspring are likely to suffer too. appetite leading to loss of condition; and the with each stride compared to a sound animal, animal becoming increasingly withdrawn and therefore without additional feeding there depressed until ultimately an apathetic state is will be an energy deficit resulting in a loss of reached. body condition. i f the lameness is chronic or subtle the owner a lternatively, lameness can be a mechanical may not notice anything wrong4 and continue consequence of poor body condition, because to work the animal normally causing persistent malnutrition has inhibited the development of a pain and suffering, and perhaps worsening the strong, sound musculoskeletal system when the underlying cause of lameness. animal was young.

Horse resting a forelimb which indicates lameness.

Equid displaying both low body condition and fore Examples of abnormal conformation of hooves or legs. limb lameness.

1 Broster et al (2009) 5 Pritchard et al (2005) quoted in Broster (2009) 2 Pritchard et al (2005) quoted in the Brooke veterinary manual (2013) 6 Reix et al (2014) 3, 4 The Brooke (2013) 7 Broster et al (2009)

42 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 43 Possible causation Animal Health

The reasons for lameness are manifold and cases Hoof shape and quality are often a result of multiple factors. Common causes include: Poor farriery – e.g. hoof imbalance, toes too SEBWAT parameter short/too long, poor quality and/or fit of shoes, (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) iatrogenic injury by farrier. Hoof shape (fore and hind) Poor conformation of limbs – e.g., misaligned Hoof horn quality (fore and hind) joints in limbs leading to uneven weight Swelling distribution throughout the limb. Poor conformation of hooves – e.g. dropped or flat Welfare issue soles leading to increased sensitivity to stones Example of overwork which could cause lameness and rough ground. t he animal displays poor hoof shape or quality, including hooves that are too long or too short, i njury to the hoof or limb – e.g. sole puncture, cracks or breakage of the hoof wall, or mis- damaged tendon. Means of resolution matched pairs of hooves. Conformation of hoof. i nfection or disease of the hoof or limb – e.g. canker, tendonitis. Over the long-term, reducing the potential causal factors identified above should reduce Welfare significance s pinal pain and stiffness - significantly associated the prevalence and severity of lameness in 8 with lameness . This spinal pain can be the working equine population. t he hoof is a complex structure made up of be contact between the ground surface and the associated with overwork, overloading, and three bones supported by tendons, ligaments, sensitive sole of the hoof. The specific means of resolution for poorly designed carts and harness. cartilage, and other detailed structures. individual cases will depend on the cause Uneven loading of the hoof due to poor trimming Overwork, fast work, work on rough ground – can and extent of the lameness, and requires i t is important to remember that the full weight of has repercussions for the entire limb. The forces cause bruising of the sole and twists/sprains to veterinary assessment. Sometimes the the animal is supported on these four, relatively will be transferred unevenly up the rest of the the joints. Likelihood of injury at speed or on precise cause of the lameness cannot be small feet, so any problems with the hooves have limb, which will put increased strain on joints, 2 rough terrain can be increased by some hoof identified and so the condition must be major repercussions for the overall welfare of tendons and muscles leading to fatigue and abnormalities, e.g. dropped/flat soles, upright treated symptomatically. the animal, and on ability to work comfortably. injury. “boxy” feet or broken hoof pastern axes. Remember: ‘No foot, no horse!’ The primary requirement for the treatment of l ong term hoof abnormalities can lead to e xhaustion - increase the risk of stumbling, falls lameness is rest; however, this can be difficult Chronic hoof pathology is very common in chronic lameness and irreversible arthritis for and interference injuries, particularly if the or impossible for owners of working equids to working equids1. the animal (see the Lameness section for more animal already has a conformational tendency provide10. information). towards interference. When equids have abnormal hoof conformation When deciding on a treatment for lameness it they are more likely to experience painful Many secondary problems originate in the Malnutrition – leading to poor quality hoof horn, must be considered whether the animal can lameness and therefore reduced productivity hooves, such as lower limb swelling, tripping or causing weak and brittle hooves which are prone be returned to a pain-free state. A veterinary and poor mental state. For example, an animal falling, spinal pain, lameness, and interference to cracks. assessment of whether the animal can return with thin or dropped soles will find working on lesions. See the Hooves and Farriery summary for further to work should be carried out in discussion stony or uneven ground very painful as there will information about hoof-related welfare issues. with the owner. If the owner is able to support the animal with a reduced workload and/ Lameness associated with draught work or shorter working hours, perhaps with the support of analgesics, a return to work may More severe lameness in the hind limbs be possible. If the owner cannot provide compared with the forelimbs has been reported this support or the degree of pain from the as being associated with draught animals9. This lameness is too severe, euthanasia may need was found in both draught horses and donkeys to be explored to avoid further suffering. and is considered to be due to the propulsion required to set a heavy cart in motion. Good quality regular farriery. t his effect is intensified by the weight of the cart Not starting work at a young age. causing a caudal (backward) shift in the centre Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community of balance for an animal hitched to a cart. This is Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention. worsened when the cart has only two wheels and the weight is loaded behind the wheels. Bad hoof shape – broken back of the hoof. Badly contracted heels – frog unable to function.

1 Broster et al. (2009) 8, 9 10 Reix et al (2014) Brooke (2013) 2 Brooke (2013)

44 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 45 Donkey and mule hooves Possible causation Shoes s hoes that are the wrong size, worn or broken can Horse hooves should have an angle of t he decision of whether to shoe the equid damage the hooves and cause lameness. Shoes approximately 45-50o in the fore hooves and 50- Hoof problems and poor trimming techniques depends on several factors including the animal’s that are too narrow at the heel will cause bruising 55o in the hind, and the wall at the heels should can both be linked to a lack of understanding type of work, the ground conditions, and the and corns. be approximately half the length of the wall at the of the structures of the foot and how forces are quality of the hoof horn. 4 toes. transferred from the foot up the limb . See the t he action of nailing on a shoe can cause pain 5 i deally the hoof should grow at the same rate as Brooke Veterinary Manual and the Farriery if the nails are too close to the sensitive internal d onkey hooves are smaller and have a more it is worn away, however, if the rate of wear will Quality Monitoring Tool for further information structures (nail bind) or if the nail pierces one of ‘box-like’ appearance than horse hooves. The exceed the rate of growth, the hoof will be worn on the anatomy and conformation of the hoof. these structures (nail prick). Nail bind is more hoof wall is naturally more upright. away unless shoes are fitted7. The rate of wear likely if the animal has thin hoof walls8. Poor conformation, e.g. dropped or flat soles, can will be increased if the animal is working on hard, l ittle information is available on mule hooves, lead to increased sensitivity to stones and rough abrasive surfaces. i n the working equine context, those animals however texts suggest that they should be cared ground. Weak conformation can be exacerbated without shoes almost always have hooves in for similarly to donkey hooves3. Once shoes are fitted, the hooves will require by poor hoof shape. better condition than those with shoes, because regular trimming to prevent the hoof growing too farriery is a very highly skilled task, and is so Poor hoof hygiene can lead to infection or long, since it can no longer wear down naturally. disease of the hoof, e.g. thrush, canker. often done badly9. l ong, overgrown hooves increase the strain on Home-made shoes and home-trimming of the the tendons, cause tripping and stumbling, and Nutrition hooves by untrained owners, or farriers can will increase the risk of interference injuries by cause or exacerbate hoof problems. good hoof quality comes from good nutrition, causing the animal to over-reach. combined with regular and effective hoof trimming6. Poor nutrition can lead to brittle hooves which are prone to cracks and breakage. This can lead to further problems, such as abscesses, where infection has entered the hoof capsule through a crack, or lameness.

Donkey hoof. Malnutrition can also slow the rate of horn growth, making it take longer for defects to grow out. s hod equids with brittle hooves will also lose their shoes more easily, causing further damage to the hoof wall. Clenches not flush with the hoof – risk of Brittle hooves, cracked due to nailing. Sharp edge on shoe (middle) and bad hoof injury to adjacent limb when this is on shape, broken forward. medial (inside) aspect.

Means of resolution

Correct trimming and balancing is essential to Owners should be encouraged to invest ensure that the hoof hits the ground correctly in a trained farrier, as this investment will Mule hoof. Poor hoof quality. Horizontal crack. at each stride, allowing the forces to be be recouped many times through a more distributed evenly through the foot and limb productive animal. so that the animal can move efficiently and Owners should be encouraged to clean hooves without pain. It can take more than a year for daily, and check for any abnormalities or hoof horn to grow from the coronary band to injuries. the ground, so it is important to understand Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community that corrective farriery is not a quick process Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines and problems cannot be rectified in just one before conducting an intervention.. trim10.

7 Wilson (date unknown) 8 Hayes (1992) 3, 5 Brooke (2013) 9 A. Brown, personal communication. 4, 6 Wilson (date unknown) 10 Brooke (2013)

46 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 47 Animal Health Possible causation

Frog disease t hrush is a common degenerative bacterial infection characterised by a distinctive black, foul-smelling discharge in the central sulcus and SEBWAT parameter Welfare significance collateral grooves. If left untreated the infection (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) can affect the sensitive structures, eventually t he frog acts as part of the shock-absorbing causing lameness. Frog mechanism of the foot. When the equine hoof Gait Canker is a bacterial infection which causes touches the ground during motion, the frog overgrowth of some parts of the hoof tissues, should be in contact with the ground. This typically around the frog sulci and heel bulbs. Bloody discharge from frog. Frog completely eroded. Welfare issue should be true, with or without, shoes. Like thrush, it is characterised by a foul-smelling Poor hoof shape, or disease, damage or removal pus-like discharge. Canker often recurs, and t he animal has evidence of disease of the frog of the frog will prevent this happening, thus therefore can require long-term treatment to in one or more hooves. severely disrupt the normal functioning of the resolve. t his may include discharge from the frog or hoof. Penetrating injury to the frog (e.g. from standing associated structures, thrush or canker. i f the frog does not make contact with the ground, on a nail) can be serious, and lead to infection of Note: in SEBWAT, only the fore hooves are the shock of impact will be transferred upwards the internal structures. If veterinary attention is assessed for practical reasons; therefore through the hoof wall into the limb, which can not sought at an early stage, this can progress to prevalence of frog disease is likely to lead to jarring. be untreatable and the animal may have to be be underestimated. euthanased1. t he frog also has an important role to play in promoting healthy blood circulation around s ometimes, service providers who are poorly Thrush of the frog. the equine foot, which can also be disrupted if trained and do not understand the structure and normal ground contact is prevented. function of the equine hoof may excessively trim, or even remove the frog during hoof f rog abnormality can be both a cause and a trimming. This is unacceptable practice, and consequence of poor hoof shape and structure. both owners and hoof trimmers should be A frog that is unable to function correctly may educated about the function and health of the lead to abnormal hoof functioning, affecting frog. growth and conformation, e.g. contracted heels. Conversely, a poorly-shaped hoof may prevent the frog from functioning normally. Means of resolution

Thrush and canker are often caused by with

poor hoof hygiene. The importance of daily cleaning of the hooves with the correct use of a hoof pick should be promoted to owners.

The hygiene of underfoot surfaces is important

to prevent frog infection. Underfoot surfaces in resting areas should be dry and clean. Faeces

and urine-soiled materials should be removed frequently to avoid creating an environment that encourages bacteria to thrive, including

those which infect the frog.

Equids should have ample opportunity to walk around, as locomotion promotes healthy blood

circulation in the hoof. Animals who spend long periods of time standing in dirty stables, or mud, are particularly prone to infection of Owner learning how to clean hoof for the first time.

the frog.

Correct and regular hoof trimming is essential Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community to maintain a good hoof shape, which supports Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention. No disease of frog. a healthy frog.

48 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 49 Animal Behaviour Possible causation Apathy Illness/exhaustion Dehydration t he body’s attempt to fight disease or infection a severely dehydrated animal is likely to present will reduce overall energy levels, producing an apathetic appearance. a lethargic or withdrawn appearance. The Chronic dehydration can lead to problems body’s resources are diverted towards the most including constipation, colic, lack of energy/ important systems (e.g. the immune system) at poor recovery rates, tissue damage and delayed the cost of reduced vigilance and maintenance wound healing. behaviours such as eating and grooming.

t he acute phase of a bacterial or viral infection Rough and inconsistent handling is a primary cause of lethargy4. Possible causes i f the outcome of every attempt to obey a in the Brooke context could include equine handling command is met with a punishment influenza, trypanosomiasis (Surra), strangles, response from the handler (even if this is glanders. accidental e.g. due to poor driving technique) d iarrhoea is a symptom of some types of then the animal will become increasingly infection and can lead to dehydration and severe unresponsive to these commands. electrolyte imbalance, which further contribute Comparison between apathetic and resting posture. t he animal may not understand what is being to lethargy. asked and consequently cannot predict whether SEBWAT parameter Welfare significance a reduced appetite, associated with some or not any ‘punishment’ is to be expected. illnesses, will lead to further loss of condition as (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) When the animal has learned that it has no a n apathetic state is an important indication that energy used during work or to fight illness is not Observer approach control over unpleasant or harmful conditions the animal’s welfare is compromised in some adequately replaced. Chin contact it will give up trying, i.e. it will enter a state way, and should never be ignored. Tail tuck (donkeys only) d epleted energy reserves due to over-work of “learned helplessness” characterised by 2 and exhaustion lead to the animal becoming General attitude a pathy can be a sign of a range of problems increasing lethargy and apathy. which could include: correspondingly less responsive.

Pain/discomfort Welfare issue – Illness a pathy and unresponsiveness have been found – Exhaustion to be associated with a lower body condition i f every attempt to relieve pain or discomfort is 5 t he animal appears lethargic and unresponsive – Chronic pain score, older age and other health problems . unsuccessful, for example, being punished for to external stimuli such as approach by or – Lethargy or depression Animals with a body condition score of 2 were attempting to avoid the pain of ill-fitting harness, contact with the handler or other animals. – Dehydration or severe electrolyte imbalance twice as likely to be apathetic as those with a then again the animal can eventually become score of 3. increasingly apathetic. a n apparently apathetic animal should be When apathy is a response to poor handling, observed closely to establish genuine apathy there is a danger that it can be misconstrued Protective behaviour aimed at reducing pain, as opposed to resting, sleeping or simply being by the owner as acquiescence. As the animal such as reduced mobility and a decrease in relaxed/unconcerned, since equids are able becomes more and more unresponsive to normal activity, can be observed as lethargy and to sleep standing up. However, if the animal is stimuli, even when this has been increased, the unwillingness to interact with handlers or other unresponsive to its surroundings, interactions owner may believe that the animal has “learned animals. with the handler, and to any physical contact, this its lesson” because the desired outcome (i.e. a suggests apathy. A non-apathetic, alert animal submissive animal) has been achieved. should display some reaction or interest in the d ullness and depression is commonly reported handling process and its surroundings. as the only observable behaviour change caused a n apathetic animal should be considered of by abdominal pain in donkeys3. The more as much concern as those showing more overt subtle pain indicators shown by donkeys can behavioural problems, as the causes can be often be missed meaning that opportunities to 1 equally significant to welfare. treat problems can be delayed or overlooked Horse showing poor body condition and apathetic behaviour. altogether. Donkeys with unrecognised chronic pain can become increasingly withdrawn until an unresponsive, depressive-like state is reached.

1 Hall, et al (2008) Donkey showing apathy and head-pressing, suggesting pain. 2 Burn et al (2010) 4 The Brooke (2013) 3 Brooke Veterinary Manual (2013 edition) 5 Burn et al (2010)

50 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 51 Animal Behaviour Means of resolution Fear and aggression The means of resolution will depend upon Longer term solutions the specific cause of apathy as described Consistent handling and welfare-friendly above; for example, if due to illness then it is training are vital. Humane training and SEBWAT parameter Welfare issue likely that responsiveness will return as the ‘starting’ practices and welfare-friendly (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) animal recovers. methods of restraint should always be t he animal is afraid or displays an aggressive Observer approach Opportunities to drink should be provided promoted. Reward-based training methods response during handling. Chin contact throughout the day, particularly in hot/ will prevent animals becoming habituated to Tail tuck (donkeys only) dusty environments to avoid dehydration. violent treatment. General attitude Rehydration salts could be provided by the vet. Working equids will require adequate If linked to exhaustion and low body condition quantities of good quality feed to provide them score, adequate rest and improved feeding with the energy they need to work, which will could help the animal to recoup lost energy also provide the essential nutrients needed reserves. A suitable (warm, comfortable) to maintain general health and fight disease. resting area should be provided for the Feeding should be adapted to the animal’s purpose. individual needs. It may be necessary to remove other animals Equids should be fed a mainly forage diet from the rest area (perhaps by the use of (grass or hay) but working equines are likely partitions) to allow the affected animal to rest to have additional energy requirements without being disturbed. which would need to be provided in the form of “hard” feeds such as grains (e.g. oats, With learned helplessness, there is some barley or maize) or commercially available evidence that this leads to changes within concentrate feeds. Whatever is fed it should 6 the animal’s brain chemistry which could be always be good quality and free from dust, permanent. However, in less severe cases this mould and foreign objects. may be reduced by an improvement in the animal’s environmental conditions. Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention.

Horse showing avoidance (rushing backwards) due to fear.

Welfare significance

Risk of injury f ear responses can lead to unpredictable actions in equids such as shying, leaping away, bolting, etc. which can be dangerous for the animal as well as the handler and/or bystanders. i t is therefore important for animal welfare and human safety that signs of fear are recognised by those handling equids, and handling adjusted accordingly. i f the animal is displaying fear responses that are being ignored, and feels unable to escape due to being restrained, then the animal’s only perceived option is to progress to an aggression response. Donkey displaying aggressive behaviour during handling. Means of resolution – improved feeding.

6 Hall, et al (2008)

52 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 53 Negative handling and distress Possible causation Frustration Means of resolution f earful and aggressive behaviours will often Working animals live by human timetables provoke a negative human reaction as owners Current pain or discomfort rather than their own natural equine time Only actions which are both necessary and useful should be carried out on animals become angry or afraid. Both fear and aggression behaviours can be budgets, meaning that opportunities to eat, drink, rest and socialise and perform other natural displaying fear/aggressive behaviour. If the t his can lead to an escalating cycle of heightened indicative that the animal is in pain or has behaviours are restricted to times convenient to animal is very fearful, consider whether reactions from the animal leading to increasingly experienced pain in the past and is trying to their handler. This unnatural time budget means it is appropriate to continue the activity or violent human responses in an attempt to control reduce the likelihood that the pain will recur. that equine animals do not spend the normal whether it would be better to postpone it. the unwanted behaviour. t he animal may be afraid that the painful body quantity of time doing activities that they would Work more slowly, avoiding sudden part will be touched and so could display fearful i n addition to causing more stress and suffering in the wild. movements, and take time to comfort the at the time, the ultimate outcome of this could behaviour such as avoidance, guarding/hiding e quine animals are highly motivated to perform animal (using a calm, voice, stroking the neck, be that the animal learns that it cannot prevent or aggressive threat displays to prevent contact some natural behaviours, e.g. grazing for long etc.). the negative human interaction despite its best with a painful area. periods of time, staying with a herd. Being The presence of another animal of the same efforts and enters a chronic state of learned a protective response to pain can heighten an 1 prevented from performing highly motivated species nearby can be helpful to reassure the helplessness . (See Apathy summary for more aggressive response in an attempt to reduce behaviours can lead to frustration, which in some animal, however the other animal must be information.) or prevent pain. For example, an animal with cases may progress to aggressive behaviours. calm and relaxed. f ear or aggression responses indicate the animal harness sores may bite when the handler For example, an animal who can see others is becoming stressed. Chronic stress leads to approaches to put the harness on. feeding but is prevented from joining them, Providing timely treatment for injuries or disease can reduce the likelihood of fear/ immuno-suppression, which can make it more s ome causes of pain may not be immediately could display aggressive behaviour towards the aggression behaviours being displayed as a difficult for the animal to fight disease, making apparent, such as abdominal or dental pain so person/people it perceives as preventing feeding. result of pain. illness more severe or longer lasting. handlers should be alert to signs of fear and/or aggression and consider all possible causes. Equids, as a prey animal, may find having Pain their movements restricted frightening, and

t he animal’s natural response to minimise pain Previous pain and discomfort therefore welfare-friendly restraint (well- fitting head-collars) should always be used, (e.g. lying down or standing very still) can mask e quids, especially donkeys, have excellent and attention paid to the animal’s feelings fear responses. memories. When a previous experience is linked during all handling interactions. f or example, pain in the hooves or limbs may to a painful or unpleasant outcome the memory reduce the chance that the animal will display is particularly strong. Longer term solutions avoidance behaviour, or that such behaviour t he animal may have learned in the past that may be less pronounced. the approach of a human is followed by a Positive reinforcement increases the

Conversely, a protective response to pain can painful procedure (e.g. a veterinary procedure likelihood that a behaviour will be repeated,

heighten an aggressive response in an attempt to or beating), therefore makes attempts to avoid however, it is vital that the reward is

prevent further pain occurring. the approaching human, or begins to display delivered immediately or the animal will

aggressive threat behaviours. This may proceed Horse showing aggressive behaviour at time of feeding; be confused and its behaviour will become to genuine aggressive actions directed towards frustrated motivation to access feed. unpredictable2. the human if avoidance is not possible. Unfamiliarity Counter conditioning can be effective in t his can sometimes be mistaken by owners for lessening fear responses, for example, being ‘naughty’ or being unwilling to work, when “Neophobia” is the fear of anything new or exposes the animal to pleasant actually the animal is afraid due to past negative unfamiliar. consequences of being approached by experience. Prey animals like equids are naturally afraid of humans, such as offering food or positive anything unusual or unexpected in case it turns handling interactions so the animal learns Rough handling out to be dangerous. Therefore neophobia, and not to be afraid. When equids are subjected to rough or avoidance of anything new, is a normal equine Negative human interactions should uncomfortable handling (e.g. pulling, hitting, behaviour. be avoided, e.g. beating, or shouting. kicking, shouting, whipping) they can learn t he extent of neophobia varies between Calm and gentle handling must be to associate any attempt at handling with individual animals, according to several factors promoted at all times. unpleasant or painful consequences. such as temperament, previous experience, Speaking to the animal in a quiet voice, f or example, a donkey who has been pulled environment, age. applying equipment or harnessing gently, Horse displaying aggressive behaviour to the by the ears may display a fear response to improving driving techniques to avoid approaching human. e xamples of neophobia include being nervous of movements near the head or ears (head- strange equipment such as buckets or tools, close discomfort, and using comfortable methods shyness). The donkey has learned to associate proximity of other unknown animals, entering of restraint will all help to reduce fear and contact with the ears with pain, and so is afraid a new place, and even unusual smells such as aggression. of this and tries to avoid it. disinfectant. Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines

before conducting an intervention. 1 Hall, et al (2008) 2 McGreevy 2004

54 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 55 Poor Human Practices Welfare significance

Hobbling Injury and infection Hobbles can be tied around any part of the limb Hobbled equids are at increased risk of tripping SEBWAT parameter Welfare issue and they can rub or cut into the skin leading to and falling, as limbs can become entangled in (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) lesions, infection and swelling. the tethering ropes, especially if the animal t he term “hobbling” refers to the practice of tying tries to move quickly or suddenly. Hobbling When tying around the lower limbs, pressure on any part of the animal’s limbs. the tendons can cause damage and inflammation i n addition to the above, the practice of tightly a ny combination of limbs may be tied including: of the tendons, leading to lameness. tying up a limb also risks cutting off the circulation to the limb, causing severe discomfort fore limbs tied together, hind limbs tied together, t he skin around the pasterns is particularly and pain. This practice will make the animal one fore tied to one hind; hind limb tied to neck. delicate, and being near to the ground, injuries particularly susceptible to falls as it cannot use its Hobbling can also refer to the practice of tying in this easily be contaminated by soil, urine or limbs adequately to balance, especially if jostled the animal’s limb to either a fixed point (e.g. a faeces increasing the risk of infection. tree) or a heavy weight (e.g. a tyre); or tying up by other animals or startled. of one limb so only three feet are on the ground. d ermatophilosis (mud fever or greasy heel) is commonly found on the caudal pasterns t his practice can leave characteristic lesions of equids wearing hobbles1. The condition is on the skin which can be easily observed. made worse by moisture and abrasion and is characterised by inflamed skin with tufted hair and crusted scabs. If the infection worsens, the skin can develop deep cracks or fissures (cracked heels) and the animal will become lame.

1 Brooke (2013)

Top to bottom: different types of hobbling. Top: Hobbling injuries. Bottom: Examples of poor hobbling practice.

56 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 57 Inhibiting rest and recuperation Inhibition of normal musculo-skeletal Hobble injuries can be caused by: development Often the hobbled animal cannot lie down a brasive or inflexible materials. Nylon webbing or stand up easily, preventing adequate or When young equids are frequently hobbled, (e.g. car seat belts or lorry webbing straps) and comfortable rest after work. this restriction of natural movement can impact other harsh man-made materials (e.g. plastic on the development of the growing musculo- rope) should not be used as they make a sharp e xhaustion causes suffering and increases the skeletal system. If the animal’s movement is edge against the skin. Soft, natural materials (e.g. risk of injury or collapse during work. consistently restricted the muscles can become leather, cotton, plant fibres) will minimise the risk Hobbles may also prevent the animal from atrophied (wasted). This will be worse if the of abrasion and lesions. accessing resources such as feed, water and hobbles are always used on the same side. t hin hobbles. Hobbles should never be made shade, which can lead to loss of condition, i n the early stages of muscle atrophy this from thin rope or wire as these will cut into the dehydration or heat stress. will cause stiffness and discomfort, but if not skin as the animal moves. Thicker materials are

addressed the muscles will begin to waste away preferable as they distribute pressure over a Detrimental effect on social and defensive and muscle mass will decrease. wider area of skin, reducing the likelihood of skin behaviours breakage. a n animal regularly hobbled, particularly since By restricting movement, hobbles inhibit the a young age, who develops chronic muscular Consistent hobbling of the same part of same animal from normal social interaction with other atrophy may display asymmetrical skeletal limb. Alternating which limbs are hobbled can Safely tethered equine. animals, e.g. play, mutual grooming. As herd and muscle development (one side of the body reduce damage to the skin2. animals, equids benefit from social interaction appears smaller and more wasted compared to with conspecifics, and preventing this can have a t ight hobbles. Slip knots (become increasingly the other). negative impact on psychological welfare. tighter when pressure is applied) should never t his will cause the animal to be weaker, be used to hobble an animal as the knot will r estricting movement may also inhibit rolling less productive at work, and to suffer more tighten and damage the skin or even cut off blood behaviour, which is an important means of self- discomfort and injuries whilst working than circulation to the hoof. grooming and relaxation for equids. one with correct and even musculo-skeletal Hobble ropes becoming tangled and putting e quids are highly attuned to signals from others development. greater pressure on limbs. within the herd; preventing an equid from responding to, or retreating from, aggressive Owners pulling on hobble ropes to lead or drag threat displays can cause stress. This can lead to Possible causation the animal. bullying and fear within the herd, and increased risk injury from aggressive interactions such as Reasons why hobbles are used include: bites or kicks. This likelihood is further increased when animals are kept in crowded conditions. t o prevent the animal straying, especially Means of resolution near roads or private land. i njuries may be caused by dogs or other Tethering by the neck is recommended as an t o make the animal easier to catch. Animals should be tethered close enough to predators, as hobbled equids can neither defend alternative method of preventing animals from see one another, but far enough apart to avoid themselves sufficiently nor escape if attacked. When turn out/grazing areas are unfenced/ straying. Tethering has the advantage over tethers becoming tangled. inadequately fenced. hobbling because it gives the animal greater i ll-intentioned humans may harm, harass or Animals should be able to access water, shade freedom to express natural behaviour, feed, steal hobbled equids, who are unable to defend t o prevent the animals from fighting with and feed when tethered. drink, rest and defend themselves, whilst still themselves or escape. each other. being suitably restrained. Limb hobbling should only be used as a a s a prey species, equids have a natural instinct t o prevent the animal from kicking. temporary means of restraint, not as a Equids should be tethered using either a head- to run away from any frightening stimuli (flight substitute for providing more comfortable t o increase the density of animals that can be collar or wide neck-strap (whichever is chosen response), for example perceived predators resting opportunities for the animals. such as dogs or humans. Restricting this natural housed in one area. must be well fitting to avoid injury or being pulled over the animal’s head) and a strong response can cause fear and stress. If the animal i ndoors, to prevent the animal soiling its feed If limb hobbling is used, the limbs should be rope. Nylon webbing should be avoided as lives in an environment where perceived or around the stable. closely monitored so that early signs of injury predators commonly roam near to hobbled it tangles up very easily, thus shortening the can be identified and remedial action taken. length of tether available to the animal. equids, accidents and chronic stress may occur. Further advice on tethering/hobbling can be The end of the rope should be attached to a found in the Hobbling and Tethering Factsheet tether spike driven into the ground so it is flush produced by the Brooke3. with the ground surface to prevent injury. Care should be taken if tethering to trees or posts, Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines as the animal can wind its rope around the tree before conducting an intervention. to the point where it becomes immobilised or choked.

2 Zaman (2008) 3 Brooke (date unknown)

58 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 59 Poor Human Practices Welfare significance

Firing Pain and fear Poor healing/skin damage f iring is an extremely painful and traumatic f iring causes a thinning of the skin and produces SEBWAT parameter Welfare issue procedure and will cause a great deal of distress an acute inflammatory response in the sub- to the animal. dermis (the deepest layer of the skin)7. (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) t he animal displays evidence of the practice of f ear responses and escape attempts during Where the skin over a joint has been fired Firing: severity firing on its body. and after the procedure can make the animal’s (commonly the knee, fetlock or hock joint) the Firing: size behaviour unpredictable, which is potentially f iring (also known as thermocautery) is the repeated flexion of the joint as the animal moves dangerous for handlers, bystanders and the practice of burning or branding the skin with red will pull the wounds open. This prevents the animal itself. hot irons or wires. wound from generating new epithelial (skin) cells which will ultimately prevent the skin from t he process has been found to cause pain and f iring marks can be seen as lines, dots or healing correctly. The result will be extensive stress for at least 24 hours after the procedure2. patterns. They are commonly found on the scarring and potentially the formation of “proud limbs, but can be located anywhere on the body When animals are subjected to repeated firing, flesh” i.e. granulated tissue. Proud flesh can including on the face/head, neck, shoulders and/ the trauma can lead to a state of depression, prevent the formation of epithelial cells and are or hind-quarters. lethargy and even learned helplessness. (See the rich in blood vessels which can lead to excessive Fear and Aggression and Apathy summaries for f iring of the palate (roof of the mouth) is carried bleeding if damaged. If severe, proud flesh can further information on behavioural responses.) out in some countries to treat “lampas” (swelling protrude beyond the area of the wound and can inhibit joint action8. of the hard palate)1. When firing was carried out historically by veterinary surgeons, the area to be fired would a study into the effects of firing on limb tendons Examples of different forms of firing marks. be anaesthetised. The animal would then be found that skin subjected to firing became supported with analgesics (painkillers) until the thinner and weaker9, making it more susceptible wounds had healed, and completely rested (often to future damage. for over a year for tendon firing). i t was also found that scar tissue formed “cores” e ven under these conditions the practice is of permanent weakness within the tendon10 now widely recognised as being an ineffective making future injuries much more likely. Some treatment causing unnecessary suffering3/4, and horses also developed areas of necrotic (dead) detrimental to the health of the animal5. In many tissue on the firing site11. countries, the practice is considered as unethical and cruel6. When local healers or owners conduct firing without the use of anaesthetics and analgesics, the pain and suffering endured by the animal will be extreme, particularly as working equids are unlikely to be rested for a significant period of time after the procedure.

Firing marks on a joint displaying poor healing,

Close up of an injury where proud flesh has been generated.

2, 6 Hayward and Adams (2001) 7 McCullagh, Goodship and Silver 9, 10 Silver and Rossdale (1983) 11 Larsen LH (1960) quoted in Animal displaying an apathetic posture and firing marks. 3 Hayes (2007) quoted in Hayward and Adams quoted in Hayward and Adams Hayward and Adams (2001) 4 Schultz (2004) (2001) (2001) 1 Brooke (2013) 5 BEVA (2010) 8 Cable (2000)

60 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 61 Infection Possible causation Poor Human Practices a ny wound to the skin leaves the animal Mutilations vulnerable to local or systemic infection. a ttempt to prevent or treat injuries. There may be a belief that the “counter irritation” of the skin or a compromised immune system caused be other tissues is an effective remedy for lameness extended periods of stress and/or poor nutrition and disease (which evidence has shown is not SEBWAT parameter Welfare significance will reduce the animal’s ability to fight infection. correct). (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) Pain and infection risk l arge or deep areas of firing, and those over d ecoration of the animal. In some cultures, Ear mutilation joints, will heal slowly which increases the firing is used to create patterns on the skin or the Muzzle mutilation a mputation or cutting of body parts will lead to potential for infection to set in. equids or other animals (sometimes humans). Tail mutilation pain and risk of local or systemic infection. Both the nostril and the ears in particular are sensitive i f an infection is able to penetrate into the tendon i dentification purposes. Equids may be branded structures so these procedures will be very fibres or the bone (due to deep pin firing) then the in order to signify ownership or differentiate Welfare issue painful. prognosis for recovery is likely to be poor. from others. t he animal presents evidence of mutilation t here is risk of tumours (neuroma) and even l ack of access to veterinary facilities and Difficulty eating and drinking to the tail, ears, nostrils/lips. phantom pain in the amputated body part. treatments. Where veterinary services are Although this is not well studied in equids, When firing inside the mouth has occurred, the scarce, under-resourced or unaffordable, owners t his can include cutting, slicing or piercing the phantom pain is a well-recognised side pain and swelling of the palate, tongue and lips are more likely to use local healers or traditional ears; cutting the nostrils, lips, or piercing the consequence of amputation in humans and so can inhibit the animal from eating and drinking. remedial practices. septum (the cartilage dividing the two nostrils); is likely to also occur in other mammals as the This can potentially lead to dehydration, amputation of the tail; or any combination t raditional beliefs and practices. There may be tissue structure is similar (REF TO BE ADDED). colic and loss of body condition, in addition of these. peer pressure from other owners or those who to extreme pain. With any mutilation to the nostril area, large conduct firing to continue the traditional firing quantities of bacteria present in the nasal s evere pain coupled with delayed healing is practices despite no scientific evidence for Examples of various mutilations. passage can lead to the wound becoming likely to occur if animals are worked with a bit in its efficacy. the mouth before oral wounds have completely infected easily. healed. In some cases, even after wound healing, l ack of basic health care knowledge. Owners there may be continued discomfort. may not understand the basic physiology Stress of the animal and therefore why firing is an t he animal is likely to become stressed by being inappropriate response to, or prevention for, restrained for the procedure to take place and the injury or disease. painful procedure itself. equids have extremely good memories for Means of resolution events that they find frightening and/or painful, which means there can be longer-lasting Challenge the traditional belief in firing psychological effects even after the wounds have through the use of evidence-based discussion healed. This is even more likely where multiple with owners and local healers. procedures are performed. For example, animals subjected to ear and/or muzzle mutilations may Promote injury and disease prevention become head-shy after the mutilation if they through good nutrition, well-fitting harness, have learned to associate restraint of the head adequate rest and safe handling techniques. with a traumatic procedure. Note: “the inability This will reduce the need for firing as both a to [verbally] communicate in no way negates the preventative and remedial measure. possibility that an individual is experiencing Alternative, non-invasive, means of decoration pain or is in need of appropriate pain relieving such as braids, ribbons or non-toxic pigments, treatment”1. should be promoted. Alternative, non-invasive, means of identification, such as hair dyes or coloured ties around the animals’ necks should be promoted.

Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines before conducting an intervention. Animals with other means of identification such as dyes (top) and coloured ties (bottom).

1 West et al (2009)

62 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 63 Discomfort i ncreasing the size of the nostrils by slitting Tail mutilation them in this way will not increase the volume e quids need their tails for a variety of reasons Historically, equine animals’ tails were docked of air the animal is able to inhale as this is including protection from insects and for to prevent them becoming tangled in the determined by the animal’s lung capacity protection against inclement weather (observe harness, plough or reins during draught work. rather than nostril size. how horses turn their hindquarters towards the However, there is no evidence that docking wind or rain during poor weather, the long hair i n other instances the nostrils may be slit and the the tail improves the safety or welfare of provides warmth and guides water away from septum pierced in order to enable a rope or other draught horses4. the skin). material to be passed through a ring through the nose in the manner commonly used with cattle/ e quids also use their tails to indicate mood buffalo. Equine animals are better controlled and towards other horses and people e.g. an angry restrained by the use of a well-fitting head-collar horse may thrash its tail, whereas a frightened or bridle, which uses pressure on the outside of donkey will clamp its tail down to its quarters. the nasal bone, poll and the mouth rather than Shortening or removing the tail means that the on the septum. Leading them via the septum is animal will be tormented by flies and will find it a painful and unsafe method of restraint. difficult to signal its feelings which could lead to attacks or bullying from other horses. Tail swishing away flies. Means of resolution Possible causation Although there are various reasons for Scientifically proven preventative measures mutilations, all should be challenged as for disease should be promoted where these Cultural beliefs. There may be a mistaken belief Nose/muzzle mutilation exist and are available, e.g. tetanus anti-toxin. that these procedures are beneficial to the animal ineffective and contrary to good standards of i f an equid is performing poorly the owner may and will improve health and performance. In equine welfare. Non-invasive, welfare-friendly means of believe that improving the animal’s airflow will some cultural traditions amputating a body part identification, such as hair dyes or coloured ties increase oxygen intake and so improve energy, Owners should be educated that performance means that the power or energy invested in that around the animals’ necks should be promoted which may be attempted by slicing the nostrils is improved by correct feeding, good handling, body part is made available for the rest of the as an alternative to ear mutilations. to enlarge the airway. This is a very painful avoiding over-loading and adequate rest, not body. procedure and will cause a great deal of bleeding by nostril slitting and shown the scientific Tying up, braiding or bandaging of the tail can Convenience or safety. This applies and distress for the animal3. evidence for this. be used to keep it clear of the harness rather predominantly to tail mutilations which may It should be explained that respiratory than cutting. occur in some work types to minimise tangling problems can be alleviated by providing with harnessing. clean, dust-free feed, bedding and rest areas. Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines l ack of welfare knowledge. There may be little This is particularly important where working before conducting an intervention. or no understanding of the true causes of health conditions are dusty to allow the animal a problems and how they can be rectified. break from air-borne pathogens. l ack of access to veterinary facilities and treatments. Where veterinary services are scarce, under-resourced or unaffordable, owners are more likely to use local healers or traditional remedial practices.

Ear mutilations e ar mutilations are often carried out for identification reasons, as any mutilation will be permanent. In some locations, cutting the ears is traditional believed to prevent tetanus2 (which is of course ineffective).

2 Brooke (2013) 3 Harris (2010) Pierced septum/ring/rope through nose. 4 Cregier, S and Lefebvre et al quoted in the Canadian Veterinary Association (2013)

64 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 65 Poor Human Practices Welfare significance

Castration Severe pain and suffering e quids have excellent memories, particularly of painful or unpleasant experiences. Therefore i n locations where castration is carried out an equid exposed to such a traumatic procedure by untrained people using crude (cruel) SEBWAT parameter Welfare issue may develop a deep-rooted fear of humans, methods, the animal is not anaesthetised for the (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) making handling more challenging, or even procedure, or provided with pain relief. Castration (also known as ‘gelding’) is the Sex impossible, in some cases for most of their life. procedure of removing a stallion’s testicles for Castration carried out without anaesthetic Genital/rectal lesions Conversely, the animal may be so traumatised the purpose of making it infertile, and to reduce is excruciatingly painful and owners should by the procedure that changes occur within the stallion-like male behaviour. be made aware that “the animal’s inability to brain chemistry2 (which could be permanent) [verbally] communicate in no way removes the t his makes the animal more docile and easier causing a state of ‘learned helplessness’, possibility that an individual is experiencing to handle, particularly in the presence of other characterised by an apathetic demeanour. See pain or is in need of appropriate pain relieving equids. the Apathy section for more information on this treatment”1. Mules are born infertile, so castration may still be welfare issue. Crushing, tearing or twisting of the testicles is carried out to reduce unwanted male behaviours. poor welfare practice and is likely to have both Ineffective or dangerous procedures short and long term negative welfare effects a ppropriate surgical castrations are carried out on the animal, causing both physical and using either the standing method (with local psychological trauma. anaesthetic and sedation) or under general

anaesthetic. Donkeys should never be castrated Fear, distress, psychological trauma standing as they have a tendency to bleed more, g eneral anaesthetic renders the animal which requires the spermatic vessels to be tied unconscious and therefore acts as a means off3. Older stallions (i.e. more than 3 years old) of chemical restraint. Without anaesthetic, should be castrated under general anaesthetic physical restraint will be used, generating fear for the same reason. This risk of excessive, and aggression responses from the stallion and possibly fatal, bleeding and other complications making the procedure dangerous for the animal is far higher in the Brooke context when and the handlers. castration is by untrained people using crude procedures. i n some cases the stallion may be ‘cast’, i.e. its legs tied together and then pulled out, causing Only equine emasculators are suitable for use on the animal to fall to the ground. Equids are prey equids. Cattle castrators should never be used as animals and being pulled to the ground by a they will not stem the blood flow sufficiently and ‘pack’ of humans simulates being attacked by the animal could haemorrhage and die4. predators, so the stallion is likely to suffer great Crushing, tearing or twisting of the testicles fear and distress, and resist violently to attempt may not be entirely successful in removing to free itself, risking physical injury too. If several ordestroying the testis, meaning that the people pile onto the animal to pin it down this animal may still be fertile despite a ‘castration’ will cause even more psychological trauma. procedure. Therefore the animal’s welfare has t he stress, trauma and pain experienced means been severely compromised, and the desired that an animal castrated in this manner will take outcome may not even be achieved. longer to recover and is more likely to succumb t his also has welfare implications for female to infection than one castrated using a more equids who are impregnated unplanned by an welfare-friendly method. High stress leads to improperly castrated stallion. immuno-suppression, making it more difficult for the animal to fight disease and infection, thus Animal is normally kept isolated therefore displays excitement, and becomes difficult to handle when in the company of other equids. making illness longer or more severe.

1 West et al (2009 2 Hall, et al (2008) 3, 4 Brooke (2013)

66 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 67 Infection Castration of foals i n other instances, owners attempt to prevent Possible causation natural masturbation behaviours by attaching When castration is carried out by untrained Castration can be carried out at any age but rings or tying sting to the penis, or devices persons, in unsanitary conditions, or with generally it is done in younger animals (1 to 3 Castration can be perceived as a solution to with bristles or nails to the underside of the inadequate post-operative care, there is a high years) to reduce complications and prevent the ‘aggressive’ behaviour from stallions, or to make abdomen. Anti-masturbation devices not only risk of infection within the scrotum or urinary development of stallion-like behaviours. male equids more docile and easier to handle. fail to reduce masturbation, but in many cases tract, by tetanus or staphylococcus bacteria This can help to protect owners/handlers and Castration of foals less than 1 year old is actually increase the frequency and duration which can prove fatal. other animals from injury caused by stallion-like controversial. Advocates state that a foal is of episodes9. These devices can also cause behaviour. i n some cases a scirrhous cord infection can easier to restrain and that there are fewer abrasions, lesions and scarring to the penis and develop. This is when an abscess develops on accidents and complications castrating foals; become a source of pain and infection. i t may be performed to reduce stallions making the spermatic cord, characterised by openings in however, disadvantages include increased attempts to escape to seek mares. i n some cases, stallions are isolated from other the scrotum discharging pus, accompanied by a distress and psychological trauma due to the equids to avoid accidental impregnation of i n contexts where it is considered inappropriate hard lump in the groin area. There may also be foal being less used to being handled, the testes females, or fighting with males. As a herd animal, for some members of the household to observe signs of lameness and colic (colic is a veterinary being smaller and more difficult to handle and isolation is extremely stressful for equids and natural reproductive behaviours from stallions, emergency which can quickly become fatal). possible negative consequences on the animal’s many stallions housed in isolation exhibit castration may occur for cultural reasons, so Such abscesses may take years to develop and development7. stress-related stereotypic behaviours such as that male equids can be housed near the owner’s are extremely difficult to treat. If the infection When older stallions are castrated, stallion-like box walking, crib biting, aggression and self- home. spreads into the abdomen then the prognosis is behaviour may already have become learned mutilation. hopeless5. rather than being governed by hormones, f or male equids not intended for breeding, meaning that castration will not have as Complications welfare-friendly castration can enable an noticeable an effect on reducing the stallion-like opportunity to mix with other equids safely, Other serious complications from castration include: behaviour. therefore having potential to improve welfare in

Haemorrhage – a serious haemorrhage requires contexts where the alternative would be isolation Some welfare benefits of castration the location and ligation (tying off) of the blood and punishment for displaying natural stallion vessel, which requires competent veterinary Whilst many forms of castration carried out behaviour. intervention. within Brooke countries are cruel and carry a high degree of risk, castration carried out by Prolapse of the bowel (eventration) – a rare trained veterinarians with access to suitable occurrence where a section of bowel protrudes facilities does carry a number of welfare benefits through inguinal canal and out through the for stallions. castration wound. In the Brooke context this String tied around penis. condition is untreatable and euthanasia is s tallions exhibiting natural behaviour such as necessary6. guarding or mounting mares can cause accidents and provoke negative interactions from handlers s crotal swelling – some swelling is expected even Means of resolution and owners of both the stallion and the mares. after a welfare-friendly veterinary castration, In Afghanistan, owners reported beating but should subside within 4-12 days. Excessive Owners should be encouraged to understand Improved, welfare-friendly training methods stallions that were approaching their mares swelling, or swelling which persists beyond this why the animal is displaying ‘aggressive’ will make stallions easier to handle and can with hammers and shovels causing substantial behaviour. Is this natural stallion behaviour be promoted as a welfare-friendly alternative time suggests an infection has developed. 8 injuries . or a result of frustration, fear or pain caused by to castration (improved training will also have ‘Champignon’ – a characteristic mushroom- negative human interactions? The Fear and many other benefits for both equines and shaped growth of proud flesh developing from aggression section has more information on owners). the castration wound. Proud flesh is prone to identifying causes of aggressive behaviour. excessive bleeding if damaged. Improvements to fencing or tethering can Improvements to handling techniques prevent roaming and escape. and encouraging positive interactions (e.g. grooming, feeding, etc.) to create a bond Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community between the animal and owner can reduce Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines the risk of injury and make stallions easier before conducting an intervention. to handle. Aggressive behaviour in stallions is often increased due to owners behaving aggressively towards the animal, thus forming a vicious circle.

Disclaimer Should evidence suggest castration is a priority welfare issue, please 5, 7 Hayes (1992) contact the Brooke UK’s Service Provision Team for further discussion on 6 Brooke (2013) next steps. This is the due to the high degree of welfare risk involved with 8 K. Wells, personal communication 9 McDonnell (2000) quoted in McGreevy (2004) this management practice.

68 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 69 Poor Human Practices Developmental Abnormality Cartilage and Joint Damage Underage Working When immature bones are placed under stress a s well as damage to the ends of the bones, this can affect their growth. If the growth plate underage working can also damage the cartilage has been damaged, uneven growth can occur; in between the two growth plates. this means that one side of the bone grows faster SEBWAT parameter Welfare significance t he cartilage can harden due to the than the other, resulting in an angular deformity1. (Standardised Equine-Based Welfare Assessment Tool) inflammation sclerosis( ). Severe pain and suffering t his deformity affects foot placement, which Age t here could also be varied irregularities within in turn affects the wear pattern of the hoof, i.e. a Work type Underage working, and particularly weight- the growth plate, such as lysis (rupture) or even limb bent outwards will put additional stress on bearing work, is likely to cause discomfort and premature closure (bone bridging across the the inner wall of the hoof, and vice versa. Welfare issue lameness both in the short- and long term, in cartilage plate)3. additional to psychological issues, and thus is a i f this abnormality is not identified and corrected i f not detected and addressed early, extensive serious welfare concern. before the bone finishes growing it will become t he equid is too young and underdeveloped for areas of damaged cartilage can develop, which permanent and can lead to chronic, incurable the work being performed. will trigger arthritis (degeneration of the smooth Physitis lameness. t he SEBWAT guidance notes provide details on surface areas within joint capsules) and the 4 how to estimate the age of equine animals. l ike all mammals, immature equids have spaces i n other instances the limb can take on an prognosis for soundness in adult life is poor . between the ends of their bones filled with ‘hourglass’ shape, when the growth plates at t he age at which an equid is physically mature Osteochondrosis is a condition affecting cartilage (known as the metaphyseal growth the ends of the long bones become enlarged or 5 varies between species. Generally smaller 2 horses (it has not been reported in donkeys ) in plates). As the animal grows and matures, the flared . horses and ponies reach physical maturity by which the cartilage within the growth plates is bones lengthen and the cartilage matures into age 3-4 years old, and larger draft breeds can take Chronic lameness associated with joint pain damaged. The cartilage fails to ossify (turn to bone (ossification), which causes these spaces longer than this. can lead to asymmetry in the animal’s skeleton bone), resulting in cartilage defects, such as a to ‘close up’ (in adult mammals this space has or musculature (i.e. differences in one side of separation of the cartilage from the underlying d onkeys and mules are slower to develop than completely closed as bones fuse together). the body compared to the other); for example, bone, cracking and weak spots. horses and therefore mature later. uneven muscle development on one side of the Physitis refers to the inflammation of these f ragments of cartilage can even break off within body, or one hip joint higher than the other when i n SEBWAT, the first age category includes equids growth plates, and is characterised by localised the joint (osteochondritis dissecans) as a result viewed caudally (from behind). up to 3.5 years. All animals in this age group are heat, pain and swelling. There may also be of excessive force on weak bones or cartilage. considered too young for weight-bearing work, lameness or stiffness. t hese musculo-skeletal abnormalities become Osteochondritis dissecans can occur in most and some animals in the next age group (3.5 – 7 Physitis is sometimes referred to as ‘growing increasingly difficult to correct as the animal gets joints, but occurs most frequently in the hock, years) may also be too underdeveloped for the 6 pains’, but when the inflammation is due to stress older, so exposing young equids to these stresses stifle and fetlock joints . type of work being conducted, due to individual is highly likely to lead to a lifetime of lameness, or trauma from overwork, the growth plate can Where osteochondrosis develops in the spine it breed/species differences as described above. pain and compromised welfare. suffer a crushing injury due to excessive weight can lead to instability, leading to a neurological

bearing. This leads to chronic and incurable condition known as ‘wobbler syndrome’7.

lameness.

Psychological Effects

i n addition to the negative physical effects of working equids too young, it can also have harmful psychological effects on the young animal. i f young animals are subjected to discomfort due to any of the factors above, this can establish a negative association for the animal between work and pain, which can be very difficult to erase. t his also increases the risk of negative interactions (such as shouting or whipping) from the handler in the mistaken belief that the animal is being ‘naughty’ or ‘lazy’, when in reality they are in pain or unable to move properly.

Leg deformity, traditional treatment was applied to the skin in attempt to heal lameness. Young mule. Donkey adults and foal at a brick kiln.

1, 2, 3 Cable (2005) 4, 5, 7 Brooke (2013) 6 American College of Veterinary Surgeons (2016)

70 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 71 References e quids have excellent memories for unpleasant Means of resolution situations, so introducing a young equid to such situations risks creating handling and behaviour Education of owners about the importance problems at an early stage in life, which can of not working equine animals too early increase the animal’s welfare risks later. (See should emphasise that short-term gains the Fear and Aggression summary for further from working a young animal are hugely Eyes Lameness Lip Lesions information on welfare risks associated with The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Anderson, M. (2005) Bits: Pain in the Mouth outweighed by the shortening of the animal’s Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. - http://www.thehorse.com/articles/14895/bits- these behaviours.) useful working life, increased days off work pain-in-the-mouth, accessed January 2016. Foss, R. (2005) Vision of the Horse; Equine Broster, C. E., Burn, C. C., Barr, A. R. S., Whay, i n addition, working very young equids means due to lameness and reduced productivity. Medical Services; http://www.equmed. H. R. (2009) The range and prevalence of The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid com/?cat=21, accessed January 2016. pathological abnormalities associated with Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. they have less opportunity and energy for In addition to the (potentially chronic) pain and suffering of the animal. Owners should lameness in working horses from developing socialising and play, which are very important Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse countries. Equine Veterinary Journal 41: Gantz, T. (2012) Bitting Problems and Your Horse be encouraged to appreciate that there is a Owners; Stanley Paul, London. 474-481. – http://www.thehorse.com/articles/30981/ developmental activities. Equids not given the bitting-problems-and-your-horse, accessed juvenile stage, when the animal may look Ortis, H. (2010) Eye Injuries; Equine Medical opportunity to socialise normally don’t learn to Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for January 2016. like an adult, but does not yet have an adult’s Services, http://www.equmed.com/?cat=21, Horse Owners; Stanley Paul, London. communicate with other equids and therefore accessed January 2016. Upjohn, M. M., Shipton, K., Pfeiffer, D. U., are more likely to display fear or aggression physical strength or stamina. Reix, C.E., Burn, C.C., Pritchard, J.C., Barr, A.R.S., Lerotholi, T., Attwood, G., Verheyen, K. L. Voris, N. (2005) Eye Wasn’t Aware of That…; Whay, H.R. (2014) The range and prevalence P. (2012), Cross-sectional survey of owner behaviours towards conspecifics. These can Owners should be educated about welfare Equine Medical Services, http://www.equmed. of clinical signs and conformation associated knowledge and husbandry practices, tack lead to bullying, fights, injuries and negative friendly ‘starting’ and training methods com/?cat=21, accessed January 2016. with lameness in working draught donkeys in and health issues affecting working horses in intervention from owners. for young animals, and the importance of Pakistan. Equine Veterinary Journal 46: 771-777. Lesotho. Equine Veterinary Journal, 44: 310–318. building strength and stamina slowly over Mucous membranes Wilson, R.T. (2007) Specific Welfare Problems The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Associated with Working Horses. In: Waran, Exhaustion 8 Body Condition time (conditioning) . Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. N. (ed.) The Welfare of Horses, pp 203-218; Allen and Page, Feeding Glossary; http://www. Springer Netherlands. allenandpage.com/Products/Feeding-Glossary. Young animals do not have the strength, stamina Minor angular deformities can be slowly Field Service Penn Veterinary Medicine (2016) Mucous Membranes: Character and Colour of aspx, accessed March 2016. or concentration levels of mature animals and so corrected by corrective farriery to balance the Mucous Membranes/CRT; http://research. Ectoparasites The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid will tire more quickly. the hoof and allow the bone to straighten; vet.upenn.edu/Equine/PhysicalExam/ American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. this requires a highly skilled farrier and GastrointestinalExam/MucousMembranes/ to Animals (ASPCA) (2016) Fleas and Ticks; e xhaustion increases the risk of stumbling, falls tabid/3774/Default.aspx, accessed The Donkey Sanctuary (2014) Hyperlipaemia; cooperation of the owner. More severe https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/general-pet- and interference injuries, particularly if the December 2015. care/fleas-and-ticks, accessed October 2015. https://www.thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/sites/ deformities are likely to require surgical sanctuary/files/document/142-1404405754- animal already has a conformational tendency Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Borges, L.M.F., Oliveira, P.R., Lisboa, C.L.M., donkey_health_and_welfare_9.pdf, accessed towards these forms of interference. (See the intervention, (such as the use of screw plates), Horse Owners; Stanley Paul, London. Ribeiro, M.F.B. (2001) Horse Resistance to March 2016. Natural Infestations of Annocentor Nitens which is not realistic in the working equine Loving, N. (2011) Endotoxemia Explained; Interference section for more information.) ; Veterinary Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse context. http://www.thehorse.com/articles/28436/ and Amblyomma Cajennense Parasitology 104; 265-273. Owners; Stanley Paul, London. i t may also mean that the animals are too tired endotoxemia-explained, accessed December 2015. The Donkey Sanctuary (2014) Feeding to eat or drink sufficiently after work, leading to Osteochonditis dissecans treatment depends Briggs, K. (2004) Bots and Beyond: Little Known Parasite Enemies; The Horse; http://www. the Underweight Donkey; https://www. on the location and severity of the problem, Loving, N. (2013) Mucous Membranes; http:// weight loss, dehydration, or even colic. thehorse.com/articles/14612/bots-and-beyond- thedonkeysanctuary.org.uk/sites/sanctuary/ www.thehorse.com/articles/16456/mucous- but often involves surgery to remove little-known-parasite-enemies, accessed files/document/142-1423235012-donkey_health_ membranes, accessed December 2015. Owners may mistake tiredness for unwillingness fragments. If the osteochondritis lesion is not January 2016. and_welfare.pdf, accessed March 2016. to work, particularly if comparing the output of Physick-Sheard, P. (2015) Hypovolemic Shock; removed, the prognosis for future soundness The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid http://www.thehorse.com/articles/35272/ the young equid to a mature animal. (proper gait) will be reduced9. Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Body lesions hypovolemic-shock, accessed January 2016. The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Providing regular rest breaks and WSAVA (World Small Animal Veterinary Owners; Stanley Paul, London. opportunities to play and socialise with Association) (2014) What is hypovolemic shock Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse Possible causation and how should I treat it; http://www.wsava. Labruna, M.B., Kerber, C.E., Ferreira, F., Faccini, Owners; Stanley Paul, London. conspecifics will greatly benefit young equids org/article/what-hypovolemic-shock-and-how- J.L.H., de Waal, D.T., Gennari, S.M. (2001) being introduced to work. should-i-manage-it, accessed January 2016. Risk Factors to Tick Infestations and Their Owners may feel under pressure to put their Occurrence on Horses in the State of Sao Paulo, Hoof shape and quality young animals to work as early as possible so that Brazil; Veterinary Parasitology 97: 1-14. The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. they can start earning money (and particularly to Refer to the Working Equid Veterinary Manual, Community Lyme Net Europe – www.lymeneteurope.org/ Engagement work plans or strategies and the Handling Guidelines info/tick-removal - accessed October 2015 Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse earn enough money to cover the costs associated Owners; Stanley Paul, London. with keeping the animal). before conducting an intervention. Owners may not understand about equine skeletal development, or that an equid does not progress directly from foal to mature equid.

8 Lesse-Lasserre (2012) 9 American College of Veterinary Surgeons (2016)

72 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 73 Frog disease Interference Spinal Pain Hobbling Facts; The Brooke; www.blog.thebrooke.org/ Castration The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid American Horse Rider & Horses and Horse The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Agriculture Victoria (2015) Code of Practice blog-articles/firing-truth-behind-the-facts, Avondale Veterinary Group – Guidelines for Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Information – Understanding the Abnormal Gait Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex for the Welfare of Horses; The State of Victoria; accessed November 2015. Castration – http://www.avondalevets.com/ – http://www.horses-and-horse-information. http://agriculture.vic.gov.au/agriculture/ wp-content/uploads/2010/01/Guidelines-on- Oke, S. (2016) Thrush in Horses; The Horse; com/articles/0199interfer.shtml (2011) - Broster, C. E., Burn, C. C., Barr, A. R. S., Whay, animal-health-and-welfare/animal-welfare/ Khera, J. (2015) Lets Talk About Myths; The Equine-Castration.pdf – accessed March 2016 www.thehorse.com/thrush, accessed April accessed April 2016 H. R. (2009) The range and prevalence of animal-welfare-legislation/victorian-codes-of- Brooke; www.blog.thebrooke.org/blog-articles/ 2016. pathological abnormalities associated with practice-for-animal-welfare/code-of-practice- letstalkaboutmyths, accessed November 2015. The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid lameness in working horses from developing Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Platz, C., Bean, H. (2010) Health and Diseases for-the-welfare-of-horses-revision-1, accessed Reix, C. (2010) Lameness in Working Equines; Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. countries. Equine Veterinary Journal 41: 474- December 2015. of the Equine Frog, Parts 1, 2 and 3; The Horse’s 481. The Brooke; www.blog.thebrooke.org/ Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse Hoof; www.thehorseshoof.com, accessed April Bryant, J. (2010) Researching Horse Boots The British Horse Society (2015) BHS Advice on blog-articles/lameness-in-working-equines, Owners; Stanley Paul, London. 2016. ; The Horse; http://www.thehorse.com/ Horses and Horse Information (2011) Equine Tethering, http://www.bhs.org.uk/welfare-and- accessed November 2015. Larson, E. (2013) Equine Castration articles/25231/researching-horse-boots, Back Pain and Injuries: Horse Arthritis, Poor care/free-leaflets, accessed December 2015. Loving, N.S. (2011) Hoof Care; The Horse, http:// accessed April 2016. Saddle Fit and Riding Stress Could Cause Schultz, L.B. (2004) Howell Equine Handbook Complications Reviewed; The Horse; http:// www.thehorse.com/free-reports/30195/hoof- Soreness; www.horses-and-horse-information. The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid of Tendon and Ligament Injuries; Wiley www.thehorse.com/articles/31956/equine- care, accessed April 2016. Equi Med (2009) Brushing; http://equimed.com/ com/articles/0396backp.shtml, accessed April Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Publishing Inc. castration-complications-reviewed (2013) – diseases-and-conditions/reference/brushing, 2016. accessed March 2016 accessed April 2016. Department for the Environment, Food and White, C. (2009) Top Vets Call to Outlaw Hoof shape and quality Jeffcott, L. (1998) Equine Back Problems; The Rural Affairs (DEFRA) (2009) The Code of Hot Branding of Horses – Horse and McGreevy, P. (2004) Equine Behaviour: A The Blue Cross (2016) Essential Hoof Care; Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse Horse; www.thehorse.com/articles/10461/ Practice for the Welfare of Horses, Ponies, Hound Magazine. Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientists. https://www.bluecross.org.uk/pet-advice/ Owners; Stanley Paul, London. equine-back-problems, accessed April 2016. Donkeys and their Hybrids; DEFRA. Saunders, Elsevier Limited. essential-hoof-care, accessed April 2016. O’Grady, S.E. (2003) Hind limb interference; Reix, C.E., Burn, C.C., Pritchard, J.C., Barr, A.R.S., Morgane, J. (1999) Care and Use of Working Mutilations Jackman, B. (2013) The Equine Foot, American Therapeutic Farriery; http://www.equipodiatry. Whay, H.R. (2014) The range and prevalence Donkeys; Directorate Communication, The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Underage Working Association of Equine Practitioners. com/hindlimb.htm, accessed April 2016. of clinical signs and conformation associated National Department for Agriculture in Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. American College of Veterinary Surgeons (2016) with lameness in working draught donkeys in co-operation with the National Council of Osteochondritis Dissecans in Horses; https:// The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid O’Grady, S.E. (2003) Fore limb interference; Canadian Veterinary Medicine Association Pakistan. Equine Veterinary Journal 46: 771-777. SPCAs South Africa. www.acvs.org/large-animal/osteochondritis- Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Therapeutic Farriery; http://www.equipodiatry. (2013) Tail Alteration of Horses: Position dissecans-horses, accessed April 2016. com/forelimb.htm, accessed April 2016. Hobbling: An Equine Statement; http://www.canadianveterinarians. Broster, C. E., Burn, C. C., Barr, A. R. S., Whay, Zaman, S.F. (2008) Welfare Issue; Brooke India. net/documents/tail-alteration-of-horses, The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid H. R. (2009) The range and prevalence of Raia, P. (2010) Coronary Band Injuries in Behaviour The Brooke – The Working Equid Veterinary accessed January 2016. Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. pathological abnormalities associated with Horses; The Horse; http://www.thehorse.com/ Manual – Whittet Books (2013). lameness in working horses from developing articles/26827/coronary-band-injuries-in- Firing Harris, L. (2010) The Unkindest Cut; http://blog. Cable, C.S. (2005) Growing Pains: Physitis; The countries. Equine Veterinary Journal 41: 474- horses, accessed April 2016. Burn, C.C., Dennison, T.L., Whay, H.R. (2010) British Broadcasting Corporation (2010) Hot thebrooke.org/blog-articles/the-unkindest-cut, Horse; http://www.thehorse.com/articles/14767/ 481. Relationships Between Behaviour and Health Horse Branding to be Banned in Scotland; accessed January 2016. growing-pains-physitis, accessed April 2016. Thal, D.O. (2015) Interference: Equine limb- in Working Horses, Donkeys and Mules BBC News; http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk- Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse to-limb contact in movement; Horse Side Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse ; Applied Animal Owners; Stanley Paul, London. Vet Guide; http://horsesidevetguide.com/ in Developing Countries scotland-10964442, accessed November 2015. Owners; Stanley Paul, London. Owners; Stanley Paul, London. Behaviour Science 126: 109 – 118. Interference-Equine-Limb-to-Limb-Contact-at- The Pros and Cons of Firing; Kentucky Equine Research (2011) Conformation Baker, G. (2007) Read, K. (2013) Afghan Bread: A Variety of Larson, E. (2012) Understanding Equine Movement, accessed April 2016. The Working Equid of the Pasterns and Hooves of Horses; http:// The Brooke (2013) Horse and Hound Magazine. Traditional Cuts; http://blog.thebrooke.org/ Osteochondrosis; The Horse; http://www. Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. saracen.equinews.com//article/conformation- British Equine Veterinary Association (2010) blog-articles/afghan-bread-a-variety-of- thehorse.com/articles/28971/understanding- pasterns-and-hooves-horses, accessed April Nasal Discharge Hall, C., Goodwin, D., Heleski, C., Randle, H., Firing or Thermocautery of Horses; BEVA. traditional-cuts accessed January 2016. equine-osteochondrosis, accessed April 2016. 2016. The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Waran, N. (2008) Is There Evidence of Learned West, E., Andreoni, E., BJ Keeley, B.J., Self I.A., Leste-Lasserre, C. (2015) Understanding Herd Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Helplessness in Horses? Journal of Applied The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid Reix, C.E., Burn, C.C., Pritchard, J.C., Barr, A.R.S., Jones, B.R. (2009) Analgesic management of Dynamics ; The Horse; http://www.thehorse. Animal Welfare Science 11: 249-266. Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Whay, H.R. (2014) The range and prevalence Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse an 8 year old springer spaniel after amputation com/articles/35555/understanding-herd- of clinical signs and conformation associated Owners; Stanley Paul, London. Hausberger, M., Muller, C. (2001) A Brief Note Cable, C.S. (2001) Proud Flesh; The Horse; of a thoracic limb; Irish Veterinary Journal dynamics, accessed April 2016. with lameness in working draught donkeys in on Some Possible Factors Involved in the www.thehorse.com/articles/10172/proud-flesh, 62: 111-118. Leste-Lasserre, C. (2012) Conditioning Young Pakistan. Equine Veterinary Journal 46: 771-777. Reactions of Horses to Humans; Applied Animal accessed November 2015. Respiratory Noise World Horse Welfare (2014) Can radio Horses; The Horse; http://www.thehorse.com/ Behaviour Science 76(4): 339-344. Hunt, J. (undated) A Beginners Guide to Hoof Ball, M. (1998) Equine Respiratory Disease Dowson, F. (2014) Healthy Hooves, Happy broadcasting really improve the welfare articles/29430/conditioning-young-horses, Anatomy; The Equine Podiatry Association UK; Part 2: The Lower Airway; The Horse, http:// Innes, L., McBride, S. (2007) Negative Versus Horses! The Brooke; www.blog.thebrooke. of working donkeys in a country where accessed April 2016. http://www.epauk.org/about-equine-podiatry/ www.thehorse.com/articles/10499/equine- Positive Reinforcement: An Evaluation of org/blog-articles/healthy-hooves, accessed slitting donkey’s noses to help them breathe Sellnow, L. (1999) Bone Formation With articles/hoof-anatomy-a-beginners-guide/, respiratory-disease-part-2-the-lower-airway, ; November 2015. better is common practice? - http://www. Training Strategies for Rehabilitated Horses Exercise; The Horse; http://www.thehorse.com/ accessed April 2016. accessed February 2016. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 112: 357-368. worldhorsewelfare.org/Article/Can-radio- Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse broadcasting-really-improve-the-welfare-of- articles/10315/bone-formation-with-exercise, Healthy Hooves (2011) Shoeing Versus Barefoot; The Brooke (2013) The Working Equid McGreevy, P. (2004) Equine Behaviour: A Owners; Stanley Paul, London. working-donkeys-in-a-country-where-slitting- accessed April 2016. http://www.jehsolutions.co.uk/healthyhooves/ Veterinary Manual; Whittet Books, Essex. Guide for Veterinarians and Equine Scientists, Hayes, M.H. (2007) Veterinary Notes for Horse donkeys-noses-to-help-them-breathe-better- Smith Thomas, H. (2007) Health Problems of images/PDF/factsheet-pros-cons.pdf, accessed Saunders. is-common-practice#sthash.i17lmP8r.dpuf, April 2016. Hayes, M.H. (1992) Veterinary Notes for Horse Owners; Simon and Schuster, New York. Young Horses in Training; The Horse; http:// Owners; Stanley Paul, London. accessed January 2016. www.thehorse.com/articles/19347/health- Wilson, R.T. (2007) Specific Welfare Problems Hayward, M., Adams, D. (2001) The Firing problems-of-young-horses-in-training, accessed Associated with Working Horses. In: Waran, N. Smith Thomas, H. (2015) A Fresh Look at of Horses: A Review for the Animal Welfare April 2016. (Ed.) The Welfare of Horses, pp 203-218. Heaves; The Horse; http://www.thehorse.com/ Advisory Committee of the Australian articles/35175/a-fresh-look-at-heaves, accessed Veterinary Association; http://www.google. February 2016. co.uk/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&sour ce=web&cd=1&ved=0ahUKEwiVjsSi3c7KAhU HPRoKHSLKDCwQFggfMAA&url=http%3A%2 F%2Fwww.gungahlinvet.com.au%2Fpetcare- info%2Fpublications%2Fthe-firing-of-horses.pd f&usg=AFQjCNFkhYgdYS9OU9hyujiQluUwAtU AIg&sig2=DqHRV2xRZjfNck71RYl0tg&bvm=bv. 113034660,d.d2s, accessed January 2016.

Jaleel, F. (2010) Firing: The Truth Behind the

74 Understanding Equid Welfare Issues Understanding Equid Welfare Issues 75