Evaluation and Application of GPS and Altimetry Data Over Central

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Evaluation and Application of GPS and Altimetry Data Over Central Evaluation and application of GPS and altimetry data over central Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica: annual elevation change, a digital elevation model, and surface flow velocity Dissertation zur Erlangung des Grades Dr. rer. nat vorgelegt dem Fachbereich Geowissenschaften der Universitat¨ Bremen von Christine Wesche Alfred-Wegener-Institut fur¨ Polar- und Meeresforschung Bremerhaven August 26, 2008 Gutachter Prof. Dr. H. Miller Prof. Dr. K. Huhn Pr ¨ufer Prof. Dr. T. Morz¨ Prof. Dr. T. von Dobeneck Promotionskolloquium am 16. Januar 2009 Name:............................................ Datum:................................................ Anschrift:.................................................................................................... Erklarung¨ Hiermit versichere ich, dass ich 1. die Arbeit ohne unerlaubte fremde Hilfe angefertigt habe, 2. keine anderen als die von mir angegebenen Quellen und Hilfsmittel benutzt habe und 3. die den benutzten Werken wortlich¨ oder inhaltlich entnommenen Stellen als solche kenntlich gemacht habe. , den (Unterschrift) Wussten sie schon, dass der Gipfel der Zugspitze am oberen Ende des Berges abgebracht ist? Loriot Contents Contents i List of Figures iii List of Tables v Kurzfassung viii Abstract x 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Antarctica and area of investigation . 1 1.2. Existing elevation models . 3 1.2.1. JLB97 . 4 1.2.2. RAMP . 5 1.3. Motivation . 6 2. Scope of papers 9 3. Data and Methods 11 3.1. Global Positioning System (GPS) . 11 3.1.1. Positioning with GPS . 11 3.1.2. GPS errors . 12 3.1.3. Differential GPS processing . 13 3.2. Airborne altimetry . 16 3.2.1. Radar altimetry . 17 3.2.2. Radio echo sounding . 19 3.3. Ice, Cloud and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) . 20 4. Applications of the Data 25 4.1. Annual elevation change . 25 4.2. Generating a DEM . 31 i 4.3. Re-location of the ice divides . 34 4.4. Determining ice flow and strain rates . 35 5. Summary and Outlook 39 Bibliography 43 Danksagung 47 Appendix 49 A. Reference stations 49 B. Elevation changes 51 B.1. Coast . 51 B.2. Plateau . 52 C. Maps of DML 55 D. Publications 57 PaperI ................................................. 59 PaperII ................................................. 69 Paper III . 93 PaperIV................................................. 109 ii List of Figures 1.1. Overview of the Antarctic continent . 2 1.2. Area of investigation . 3 1.3. The JLB97 DEM . 4 1.4. The RAMP DEM . 5 3.1. GPS pseudorange positioning . 12 3.2. DGPS concept . 13 3.3. GPS reference stations . 14 3.4. Reference station network . 15 3.5. Kinematic GPS profiles . 16 3.6. Airborne altimetry . 17 3.7. ARA data . 18 3.8. RES data . 20 3.9. ICESat altimetry . 21 3.10.2D-profile of a ICESat ground track . 22 3.11.Cloud residuals . 22 3.12.Standard deviations against the elevation differences of GLA12 data at crossover point with regard to the three areas (A) and the different slopes (B). 24 4.1. Mean elevation change . 27 4.2. Standard deviation of elevation change . 28 4.3. Mean annual elevation change at Ekstromisen¨ . 29 4.4. Standard deviation of annual elevation change at Ekstromisen¨ . 29 4.5. Annual elevation change from JLB97 minus GLA12 L3h . 30 4.6. The improved DEM . 32 4.7. DEM comparisons . 33 4.8. Ice divides in DML . 35 4.9. Strain field and velocity around EDML . 37 B.1. Elevation differences at coast in winter . 51 iii B.2. Elevation differences at coast in spring . 51 B.3. Elevation differences at coast in fall . 52 B.4. Elevation differences at plateau in winter . 52 B.5. Elevation differences at plateau in spring . 53 B.6. Elevation differences at plateau in fall . 54 C.1. Slope map . 55 C.2. Direction of the slopes . 56 iv List of Tables 3.1. GPS errors . 13 3.2. Used GLA12 data . 21 3.3. GLA12 errors . 23 4.1. DEM accuracy . 33 4.2. Velocity measurements . 36 A.1. Permanent GPS reference stations . 49 A.2. Non-permanent GPS reference stations . 49 A.3. Static GPS points . 50 v Kurzfassung Die polaren Eisschilde der Erde sind einzigartige Palaoklimaarchive¨ und spielen im rezenten und zu- kunftigen¨ Klimageschehen eine große Rolle. Ein Abschmelzen dieser großen Sußwasserreservoire¨ ließe nicht nur den Meeresspiegel deutlich ansteigen, sondern hatte¨ veranderte¨ Meeresstromungen¨ zur Folge. Daher ist es von großem Interesse, die derzeitig vorhandenen numerischen Klimamodelle standig¨ zu verbessern, um Klimaveranderungen¨ und deren Folgen so genau wie moglich¨ darstellen zu konnen.¨ In dieser Arbeit wird die Evaluierung von GPS- und Altimeterdaten, sowie deren Anwendungen hin- sichtlich der Verbesserungen von Modellen beschrieben. Das antarktische Untersuchungsgebiet, Dron- ning Maud Land (DML), spielt fur¨ die deutsche Polarforschung eine große Rolle, da sich sowohl die Uberwinterungsstation¨ Neumayer als auch die Sommerstation Kohnen in diesem Gebiet befinden. Im Umkreis dieser Stationen wurden in verschiedenen Messkampagnen hochgenaue kinematische GPS Messungen durchgefuhrt,¨ welche die Grundlagen fur¨ das hier prasentierte¨ Hohenmodell¨ bilden. Da diese jedoch nur sehr kleinraumig¨ vorliegen, werden sie mit verschiedenen Fernerkundungsdaten erganzt.¨ Dazu gehoren¨ zwei Methoden der flugzeuggestutzten¨ Altimetrie, sowie satellitengestutzte¨ Laserhohen-¨ messungen des Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat). Wichtigstes Werkzeug fur¨ die Kom- bination dieser Datensatze¨ ist die Kreuzungspunktanalyse. Hierbei werden Hohendifferenzen¨ zwischen zwei Datensatzen¨ an gleichen Positionen (sogenannten Kreuzungspunkten) ermittelt. Mit Hilfe dieses Verfahrens werden zum einen die Genauigkeiten der Datensatze¨ und zum anderen die Hohendifferenzen¨ der Fernerkundungsdaten zu den hochgenauen GPS Daten ermittelt. Diese berechneten Werte werden dann zur Anpassung der Fernerkundungsdaten an die hochgenauen kinematischen GPS Daten verwen- det. Mit Hilfe des geostatistischen Interpolationsverfahrens ”Ordinary Kriging” entstand ein verbessertes Hohenmodell¨ mit der Auflosung¨ von 2.5 km £ 2.5 km im Gebiet zwischen 20° W und 20° O sowie 69° S bis 86° S. Vergleiche mit bereits existierenden Hohenmodellen¨ fur¨ die komplette Antarktis zeigen, dass gerade in der Kustenregion¨ des Untersuchungsgietes sehr große Hohenunterschiede¨ von teilweise mehreren 100 m existieren. Durch die Verwendung von bodengebundenen GPS Daten wird gerade in den Kustenregionen¨ DMLs die Genauigkeit erheblich verbessert. Eine Anwendung des Hohenmodells¨ ist die Neupositionierung der im Untersuchungsgebiet existieren- den Eisscheiden. Eisscheiden sind die Grenzen ziwschen benachbarten Einzugsgebieten und konnen¨ mit Hilfe der aus dem Hohenmodell¨ ermittelten Exposition der Topographie bestimmt werden. Erganzend¨ dazu wurden statische GPS Messungen ausgewertet, um die Oberflachengeschwindigkeit¨ und daraus vii die Deformation des Eises im Umkreis der Kohnen Station zu ermitteln. Diese Ergebnisse tragen dazu bei, die Interpretation des zwischen 2001 und 2006 an der Kohnen Station im Rahmen des European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica (EPICA) gebohrten Eiskerns (EDML) zu verbessern. Mit Hilfe der ICESat Altimeterdaten aus verschiedenen Messperioden zwischen 2003 und 2007 wurde zusatzlich¨ zu den oben beschriebenen Arbeiten der Trend der jahrlichen¨ Hohen¨ anderungen¨ im Un- tersuchungsgebiet berechnet. Aus Kreuzungspunktanalysen wurde das jahrliche¨ Mittel der Hohen-¨ anderungen¨ in der Kustenregion¨ und auf dem Plateau im Inneren Dronning Maud Lands ermittelt. Die mittleren jahrlichen¨ Hohen¨ anderungen¨ von 0.06 m (Kustenregion)¨ bzw. -0.02 m (Plateau) zeigen einen abnehmenden Trend der Hohe¨ im Untersuchungsgebiet. Die neu gewonnenen Datensatze¨ geben Aufschluss uber¨ die Gegebenheiten im Untersuchungsgebiet und konnen¨ als Eingangsgroßen¨ der numerische Modellierung diese verbessern. viii Abstract The polar ice sheets are unique paleoclimatic archives and play an important role in recent and future climate. The melting of the big freshwater reservoirs will not only increase the global sea level, but will also influence the ocean currents. Therefore, it will be of particular interest to improve the currently available numeric climate models to achieve more accurate statements about climatic change and its consequences. In this work, the evaluation and the different applications of GPS and altimetry data will be described in respect to enhance models. The antarctic area of investigation, Dronning Maud Land (DML), is of particular interest for German polar research, because both the overwintering station Neumayer and the summer station Kohnen are located within it. In the surroundings of these two stations, highly accurate kinematic GPS measurement were made, which will be the basis for the digital elevation model presented here. Because these data are spatially limited, they are supplemened with remotely sensed data. For this purpose, two airborne altimetry data sets and spaceborne laser altimetry data of the Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) are used. The basic tool for the combination of these data sets is the crossover-point analysis. In this process, the elevation differences at equal positions (crossover points) of two different data sets are determined. On the basis of this process, the vertical accuracy of the different data sets and the elevation differences to the ground-based kinematic GPS data are determined. These differences are used to shift the remotely sensed data to the highly accurate ground-based GPS data. With the aid of the geostatistical interpolation method ”Ordinary Kriging” an improved digital elevation model with a resolution of 2.5 km £ 2.5 km of the region within 20° W to 20° E and 69° S up to 86° S was generated. A comparison with commonly used digital elevation models, covering the whole continent, shows high elevation differences up to several 100 m in the coastal region. Due to the use of ground-based highly accurate GPS data, the elevation model could be significantly.
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