Jun Ray

1894 Tonghak Rebellion

Context: ● Religious cult founded 1800s inspired by the Taiping Rebellion in China ○ Founded by Ch’oe Ch’u by incorporating traditional Korean Shamanism, Neo-Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism ● Gained popularity amongst peasants, over 100 peasant uprisings during 1860s ○ Movement was banned and Ch’oe was decapitated in 1864 but continued to gain adherents ● Religious movement moved into socio-political movement that advocated Tonghak, “Eastern ​ ​ learning” ○ Nationalist, anti-imperialist against Sohak, “Western learning”. ​ ​ ○ Pushed for democracy and equality against exploitation by Korean Yangban class

Tonghak Rebellion ● Peasant uprisings emerged in spring of 1894 ● Movement which had moved underground

Cause #1: Foreign encroachment bred anti-foreigner mindset (External)

Western intrusion (LT) LT: Series of altercations with American and European ​ First American Mission 1866 powers bred distrust and animosity ● General Sherman attempted to open up Korea → Nationalistic response towards external pressures French Mission 1866 from powers China, Japan, USA and European ● France sent expedition of 7 ships colonial powers

1871 American Mission ● 5 ships, 85 guns, 1230 personnel ● Americans destroyed forts Choji, Tokchin, Kwangsong

1875 Japan gunboat expedition Hsu - Tonghak Rebellion was religious in nature with ​ ● Unyo Japanese ship entered Korean waters nationalistic overtones that morphed its political ● Korean coastal defence fired upon Unyo in nature Ganghwa Bay Intensification in mid-term: 1876 Japanese gunboat diplomacy Reaction towards Japan’s economic and political ● Sent 6 naval vessels imperialism ● Forced Korea to open up 3 ports and grant extraterritoriality LT cause: Hermit Kingdom, isolated from West. ​ ● No foreign vested interests to deter Japanese Catalysed a series of concessions encroachment. ​ Jun Ray ● 1882 Treaty of Amity and Commerce with America Accelerated crumbling of sovereignty following 1876 ​ ● 1883 treaty with Britain Ganghwa Treaty ● 1884 treaty with Russia → Led to a reactionary surge in anti-foreign ● 1885 Britain occupied Port Hamilton and sentiments amidst Korean population Geomun island

Cause #2 : Economic distress due to class divisions and systemic exploitation (long-term, internal)

Long-term exploitation of peasant class Seth: Primary cause of Tonghak rebellion was chronic ​ resentment of corrupt local officials Exorbitant tax rates extorted by corrupt officials ● 3 major taxes: military, farmland and grain Evaluation against Hsu: Internal more significant ​ ​ ● Aristocratic Yangban class did not pay taxes than external Long-term undercurrent of animosity of peasants due ​ ​ → Incited series of uprisings in 1860s to punitive taxation rates ● Over 100 peasant rebellions, predominantly ● Gave rise to ideological roots of Tonghak in South movement ● March 1862: tax-resistant peasant revolts in ● Founder Ch’oe Ch’u disillusioned with social Chinju (southern city) structure of Korea ○ Spread to 79 out of 330 districts ○ Advocated class equality and ○ Thousands of peasants murdered democracy local officials and merchants Wider scale of societal degeneration and decline ​ Trade resulting from 1876 Opening ● Korean political leaders inept, unable to 1. Influx of Japanese merchants in trading ports govern internal affairs ● Forced opening of ports to Japan ● 1864: Decapitation of Ch’oe and banning of ○ Busan, Wonsan, Incheon Tonghak movement, but it flourished ● Permitted Japanese merchants to unhindered underground trade, residence in open ports ○ 1892 - 100,000 members, strong political ambitions 2. Exploitation of Korean resources ○ Came up with 27 proposed reforms ● Korean rice and soybean exported to Japan ○ Shortages: substitutes like millet External: Exacerbated by foreign encroachment ​ ● Japanese zaibatsu and fishing companies ● 3-fold grievances: taxes, corruption and entered Korean seas foreign encroachment ○ Undercut Korean fishermen ○ Compounded long-term frustrations disillusioned peasantry 3. China ● 1882 China-Korea treaty → SETH accounts for long-term trends ​ ​ ○ Chinese merchants right to conduct overland and maritime business freely

Cause #3: Government inciting nationwide revolts through bogus laws to extort taxes (TRIGGER, 1894) Jun Ray Cho Pyong Gap, ruling official in Kobu Evaluation: Construction of Manseokbo Reservoir ● Built Manseokbo reservoir under existing Min greatest source of fury Reservoir ● Needless construction caused flooding, ○ Extorted water taxes from peasants creating widespread damage on agriculture ○ 2 sacks of rice for upper reservoir, 1 sack of rice for using lower Trigger: Rebellion originated in rural South ​ reservoir ● Scale rapidly broadened due to network of ​ ○ Collected 700 sacks of rice Tonghak ● Fined peasants for questionable crimes like ○ Many regional leaders “lack of harmony” and “infidelity” ● Spread to neighbouring Taein ○ Collected 20,000 nyang (US$1.4 ● Seized fort at Jeonju, signed Jeonju truce million) ● Taxed 1000 nyang to build monument to father ● Forced peasants to settle in unowned lands to collect taxes ● Corruption: sent sacks of spoiled rice to central government in Seoul

→ widespread unrest and demonstrations broke out in Kobu.

Consequence #1: Intensified Sino-Japanese rivalry, catalysed outbreak of Sino-Japanese War

Kyung: Long-term inexperience of Korean FP Escalation of Chinese and Japanese military presence ● Chronic over-reliance on foreign intervention ​ to prop up tenuous rule ● Gojong appealed to Qing government for

assistance in quelling rebellion Cumings: Japan sought imperialistic privileges in ○ YSK led 1500 troops Korea akin to Western privileges in Japan and China ● Japan sent in reinforcements without

warning nor permission, crushed peasant Opportunism of Japan: army ​ Created crucial opportunity for Japan to escalate ○ 8000 troops by June 1894 Sino-Japanese rivalry over Korea under the pretense → Japan accused China of violating 1885 Tianjin of aiding Joseon government in suppressing rebels Convention, inflaming tensions

Outbreak of SJW 1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki ● July 1894 Pungdo Incident 1. Shifted regional geopolitical balance of power ○ Japan fired on British steamer and Korea’s position within it Kowshing carrying Chinese ○ Tributary state of China gained reinforcements to Korea “independence” ● 1 August 1894 war declared ○ Under Japan’s sphere of influence Jun Ray 2. Long-term: Would culminate in annexation of ​ Korea in 1910 ○ Pro-Japanese government formed ○ Economic + political imperialism to territorial imperialism

Consequence #2: Impetus for period of modernisation through Gabo Reforms

Peasants of Tonghak rebellion proposed 27 reforms, Seth: Rebellion forced government to break away some of which were included in the Gabo reforms from historical tradition by making concessions to (1894-96) peasants

Deliberate Council issued 208 reform bills :) Evaluation: Shifted traditional structure by allowing ​ ​ ● Korea became sovereign country, no longer most oppressed sector of society to gain political homage to China representation ● Abolishment of feudal system ○ Ending class discrimination :) Scale: Wide and sweeping set of reforms ​ ​ ● Abolishment of slave trade ● Korean politics, education, society ● Right for widows to remarry :( Depth of penetration - ​ ​ ● Superficiality of government concessions - ​ refused to grant land reform, most urgent demand from peasants ○ Instead Japanese owned 40% of Korean land

:( Decentralised nature of Tonghak movement ​ ● Provinces pushed for reforms instead of streamlined nationwide movement ● Limited political bargaining power

:( Carried out under Japanese coercion ​ ● Pro-Japanese cabinet created Deliberate Council as reform organ ● Reinforced underlying problem of growing Japanese political encroachment ● Modernisation historically under foreign aegis ○ EG 1881 Tongdo Sogi movement ​ ​ under Chinese

→ Korea unable to divorce from foreign influence

Consequence #3: Ideological influences of Tonghak movement

Tonghak religion modified Cumings: Donghak influenced Korean peasants for ● Son Byeong Hui renamed Tonghak decades thereafter as an early stimulant of Korean Jun Ray “Cheondoism” due to persecution of rebels nationalism ○ Legalised in 1905 ● Former rebels became nationalists and Sparked revolutionary spirit and notion of collective ​ independence activists political consciousness ● Awakened Korean nationalism amongst lower social classes that would persist even after being suppressed ● Long-term, post-1910 : peasant-organised ​ militias, raids and ambushes against Japanese colonisation

Longevity of Tonghak ideology in the Heavenly Way ​ Movement ● Paved the way for modern reforms through the lifting of semi-feudal restrictions on Korea ● Commercial and industrial efforts less limited by class restrictions