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Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan As a Learning Tool Amongst Children with Learning Impairments in Northern Ireland

Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan As a Learning Tool Amongst Children with Learning Impairments in Northern Ireland

Playing with Teaching Techniques: as a Learning Tool Amongst Children with Learning Impairments in Northern

Jonathan McIntosh

ABSTRACT: This article examines gamelan as a community musical tool in Northern Ire- land, . In particular, the article demonstrates how traditional peda- gogic practices are changed in to suit the needs of those who learn gamelan. A gamelan is an that includes (large -like instru- ments), and . Originating from , particularly from the In- donesian islands of and , gamelan ensembles have long been used in the teaching of in academic institutions and for purposes of applied eth- nomusicology, as a musical tool, in the wider community. In these contexts, a gamelan instructor acts as a ‘mediator’ (Naughton 1996: 16) in the transmission of gamelan knowledge; mediating not only between the and the learners, but also between the role of gamelan in its original sociocultural context and its newly adopted milieu. Drawing upon my experiences as a gamelan instructor, in particular, teaching children with visual and hearing impairments, I demonstrate how traditional teaching tech- niques are adapted to facilitate the learning of gamelan in the Northern Irish context.

KEYWORDS: teaching and learning; gamelan; applied ethnomusicology

Introduction tices from and how they are applied to the learning of gamelan in academia; next, it Gamelan in is constrained by sketches a framework for the teaching of gam- its setting within short intensive periods of tu- elan as a musical tool in the wider community ition after which there is little or no subsequent with able-bodied students; finally, it demon- follow up. As a result, in order to learn more strates how this framework is adapted to suit than the rudimentary techniques of gamelan the needs of physically challenged students in playing, traditional methods of instruction must a school for children with visual and hearing be extended to incorporate the musical bound- impairments. It concludes by highlighting the aries and limitations of its newfound context. fact that the teaching of gamelan in such con- Wiggins (1996: 29) observes that ‘this process texts must be sensitive to, and creative with, of mediation and translation is a delicate one traditional teaching practices. However, before and it is the individual teacher who must make moving on to discuss the specific case of gam- most of the decisions’, according to specific elan in Northern Ireland, it will briefly be ex- pedagogic situations. This article discusses the plained how gamelan came to be used as a tool teaching of gamelan in three contexts: first, it in the teaching of ethnomusicology in academia outlines traditional gamelan pedagogic prac- and then in wider community contexts.

Anthropology in Action, Volume 12, Issue 2 (2005): 12–27 © Berghahn Books and the Association for Anthropology in Action Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan | AiA

Gamelan in Western Academia has been published concerning the teaching and Beyond of gamelan in the wider community context. Research published in this area includes work The teaching of gamelan in higher education concerning the use gamelan for crosscultural institutions stems from the work of the US eth- musical learning purposes (Diamond 1983), nomusicologist Ki . In 1954, Hood gamelan as a sociotherapeutic musical tool for purchased a Javanese gamelan for the Univer- music making with physically challenged indi- sity of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), which, viduals (Sanger and Kippen 1987; MacDonald along with other world music ensembles, was and Meill 2002), a study of Javanese gamelan utilised in the teaching of ethnomusicology at in the United Kingdom (Mendonça 2002) and, UCLA. The reason for the purchase of various most recently, the applied use of gamelan in world music ensembles developed from Hood’s prisons in England (Eastburn 2003). In turn, premise that in order to study the music of other these researchers owe a debt to the work of cultures it is necessary to try and comprehend Hood, without whom the use of gamelan as a such music in its own terms (Hood 1982: 32). tool for the teaching and dissemination of a As a result, Hood developed a performance- form of world music would perhaps not have practice approach to the study of ethnomusicol- occurred. ogy, called ‘bi-musicality’ (1960). It was hoped that bi-musicality would provide ethnomusi- cology students not only with the opportunity Gamelan in Northern Ireland to play the music they studied in lectures but also to develop a certain degree of ability in other It was John Blacking, the late professor of Social musical systems. Today, performance-practice Anthropology and Ethnomusicology at Queen’s learning, involving the teaching of world mu- University (QUB) who, in 1982, insti- sic ensembles, is an important element in the gated the purchase of a gamelan for QUB. At teaching of ethnomusicology (see Ramnarine first, the procurement of a gamelan did not 2004). However, I do not wish to imply that all meet with wide-ranging approval because it students who participate in gamelan, or other was thought that a gamelan might not be rele- world music ensembles, in the university con- vant in the Northern Irish context.2 Nonethe- text necessarily become bi-musical. Only a few less, Blacking, realised that the purchase of a students go on to study a musical tradition in gamelan would not only further the teaching more depth and do fieldwork. The majority take possibilities of QUB, but he also saw the poten- a gamelan (or Andean, Brazilian or Korean tial for using gamelan as a recreational tool in music) course only for a semester or two. the wider community outside of the academic However, because of Hood’s concept of bi- context. Blacking asked Annette Sanger, one of musicality, the opportunity to learn gamelan is his research students at that time, to find a gam- now commonplace in many academic institu- elan for purchase. Sanger was already conduct- tions where ethnomusicology is included in the ing fieldwork in Bali during 1981–1982. The curriculum.1 Moreover, the teaching of game- gamelan chosen for QUB was a twentieth-cen- lan in these institutions has become the subject tury genre of gamelan, Gamelan Kebyar. In of recent debate amongst ethnomusicologists a strange twist to this story, Hood also tried to (cf. contributors in Solís 2004). Outside of the purchase the same gamelan at the same time as realm of academia, gamelan has actively been Blacking. Hood, who was by this time teaching used as a community musical tool for the wider at the University of Maryland, Baltimore, like ‘public practice of ethnomusicology’ (Titon Blacking, wanted to purchase a Balinese gam- 1992: 315). But despite this fact, little research elan to increase the teaching possibilities of the

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Music Department at the University. However, Open Arts’s mission is to provide access to Blacking secured the purchase of the gamelan music and other art forms for physically chal- for QUB. When the gamelan arrived in Belfast lenged and able-bodied individuals and groups. in 1984, it was given the Balinese Gam- In spite of the fact that the majority of the com- elan Widya Santi, ‘Gamelan of Knowledge and pany’s outreach involves projects with physi- Peace’. Sanger’s Balinese music teacher, the cally challenged individuals, it does not regard great and performer, I Wayan Sinti, this work as . Moreover, the com- had suggested the name.3 Furthermore, during pany seeks to enable and empower such indi- her subsequent appointment as lecturer in eth- viduals through participation in arts activities. nomusicology at QUB, Sanger earnestly pro- Although other research (Sanger and Kippen moted the newly arrived gamelan not only 1987; MacDonald and Meill 2002) involving within the confines of the university but also physically challenged individuals and game- actively sought to introduce the gamelan into lan has stressed the possible therapeutic val- new community contexts in Northern Ireland ues of gamelan in such circumstances, this (see Sanger 1989a). Outside of its formal, edu- article, in keeping with the policy of Open cational context, the QUB gamelan was used in Arts, does not explore this area. Similarly, be- various workshop forums and as a sociothera- cause , and not music therapists, are peutic tool in areas such as music therapy (see employed by Open Arts, it is not my intention Sanger and Kippen 1987). to engage in debates concerning gamelan and As a direct result of Sanger’s applied ethno- clinical practice. musicological work with the Balinese gamelan at QUB, community arts organisations in North- ern Ireland began to realise the possibilities of Traditional Methods of Teaching using gamelan in their own work. However, and Learning Gamelan due to its role in the ethnomusicology teaching programme, it was difficult to move the en- Gamelan playing involves the holistic practice semble outside of the university to partake in of direct sociomusical participation in an en- other music-making arenas. Consequently, in semble where knowledge is acquired through 1995, Open Arts, a Belfast-based community developed modes of intuitive and experiential arts organisation, brought a Javanese gamelan learning. This assimilated approach is a conse- from , , to Northern Ire- quence of the integration of cultural values land. Purchased as a touring gamelan, with no and human relationships common to many In- permanent home, Gamelan , donesian art forms, where social aspects of ex- named after the Indonesian national motto of perience are seen as essential to ultimate modes ‘’, has for the past ten years of artistic expression (Mead 1970; Sanger 1989b). travelled extensively throughout the north and Below are some of the key aspects of teaching south of Ireland.4 Primarily, basing itself in and learning gamelan in Indonesia which will community arts centres, schools and museums, be drawn upon to propose a framework for the the Open Arts’ gamelan provides both the ac- teaching of gamelan in Northern Ireland. Each cessibility and availability needed to facilitate category emphasises a specific factor impor- practical world music making. Thus, consider- tant to the pedagogic practice of gamelan.5 ably more people have had the opportunity to experience and play gamelan than if the ensem- Methods of Learning, Practising and Performing ble was housed in one location. Specialising in the teaching of single introductory gamelan Gamelan playing is an inclusive, group proc- workshops and long-term residential courses, ess where the general effect does not depend

14 | Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan | AiA so much upon the excellence of the individual allows those with little or no gamelan experi- as upon the unity of the group. The pedagogi- ence to join an ensemble and still contribute cal context of gamelan teaching relies on the something essential to the musical texture of a ‘transmission of knowledge’ (Brinner 1995: 45) piece. At the same time, novice players gradu- through teacher–student demonstrations and ally acquire more detailed knowledge by intu- interactions. In Bali, this directed method of itively observing and imitating more experi- learning is known as ‘teaching with the ’ enced players in the group. (maguru panggul). ‘Teaching with the mallet’ is, There are two main instrumental groups in turn, dependent on another traditional teach- in a gamelan: keyed metallophones of various ing method that emphasises imitation and rote sizes and gong-like instruments.7 In accordance learning (nuwitin). In addition to the impor- with these instrumental groups, the playing of tance of teacher–student interactions, gamelan gamelan involves two main methods of strik- is usually taught in a group context. Not only is ing the instruments in the ensemble: ‘damped’ group learning crucial to the creation of a co- and ‘undamped’ techniques. ‘Damping’ is the hesive ensemble but it also facilitates the learn- technique used to play all in- ing and teaching process of all the various struments and involves the striking of a key instruments in an ensemble, i.e. once one in- with a wooden hammer or mallet held in one strumental part has been learnt all the other hand, and then, to stop the key from sounding, parts are then learnt in relation to it.6 The ab- damping it with the other hand when the next sence of explicit instructions, beyond correc- key is struck. ‘Undamped’ striking refers to the tions or explanations, highlights the limited playing technique required to strike the gongs verbal interaction involved in the process of in an ensemble, which are struck with padded learning. Consequently, nonverbal forms of mu- beaters on the protruding boss of the gong. sical communication such as eye signals and Whatever the particular playing technique, hand gestures have been developed to assist gamelan playing involves the coordination of the intuitive learning process (ibid.: 292–307). individuals who are responsible for articulat- ing their individual parts in the correct place, with the appropriate aesthetic quality. Instruments With Defined Roles Each instrument in a gamelan has a defined role Gamelan Music is an Oral Tradition within the ensemble. Although some instru- ments are more technically demanding than Gamelan is essentially an oral tradition and others, each player is regarded as equal and es- music is almost always taught from memory. sential to the overall effect and success of the When learning a new composition the mel- ensemble (Sanger and Kippen 1987: 12). Never- ody is taught first. Even if members of the theless, in reality there are varying degrees of ensemble will not ultimately play it, every- technical ability amongst the participants of a one is expected to know and be able to tap gamelan ensemble. Such differences are mani- out the because this ‘nuclear theme fested in individual levels of experience of the provides the melodic basis for the elaborat- musicians and the technical ability and knowl- ing instruments’ ( 1975: 3). In the edge required by an individual to play differ- teaching of Javanese gamelan the melody is ent instruments. Most individuals, when they usually taught in full. However, McPhee (1970 start to learn gamelan, play one of the simpler [1955]) and Bakan (1999) conclude that, due to instruments and then move on to play other the construction and length of Balinese com- instruments as ‘their repertoire and knowledge positions, segmentation of pieces occurs in the of technique develops’ (Lindsay 1979: 27). This teaching process.

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Notation mean that there is not room for improvisation, which, in relation to gamelan, is usually car- Although gamelan is an oral tradition, notation ried out within a set of musical perimeters. has been used and developed in conjunction with the establishment of national academies for the performing arts in Indonesia. The main Applying Gamelan in Northern Ireland form of notation used in gamelan music is the Javanese cipher system, kepatihan. Formulated The transferral of gamelan from Indonesia to in Java, the system uses numbers to represent Northern Ireland has meant that teaching tech- pitches correlating to specific scales and tun- niques have had to change in order to facilitate ings. In Bali, the Javanese cipher system is used the learning of the ensemble outside its socio- (Sanger and Kippen 1987: 12; Tenzer 2000: 125), cultural context. For the most part, the teach- but has not been completely adopted. Tenzer ing of gamelan in Northern Ireland attempts to emphasises that Balinese indigenous notation adhere to the traditional pedagogic practices is still used for the preservation of musical ma- but such techniques only serve as the basis for terial (ibid: 126). However, notation in gamelan teaching. Moreover, due to the short time frames playing is generally used to refresh players’ within which gamelan is taught in Northern memories and is rarely used in performance. Ireland, teaching methods must ultimately suit Tenzer (1998[1991]: 106) states that reading no- the needs of those learning gamelan in various tation ‘is a process of translating symbols into contexts. Such an approach allows for greater sound; Balinese musicians bypass this stage access to the music by those in the instrument’s entirely and learn by transforming a received newfound context (cf. Eisentraut 2001: 96), by musical gesture directly into a physical act of ‘assembling [traditional] traces into [newfound] playing’. If notation is used it is usually trans- patterns’ (Perlman 1996: 128). In an article about mitted as a handwritten source from either a Blacking (1985: 1) writes that teacher or a gamelan leader. Despite this, the ‘the score is only an approximate guide to per- use of notation in the learning of gamelan only formance’ and that ‘the purpose of arts educa- serves as a guide to the interactive approach tion should be to help individuals to develop to gamelan playing. The interactive teacher– their aesthetic experience and understanding student transmission of knowledge still re- by exercising their powers of discrimination’ mains the main mode of gamelan instruction. (ibid.: 17). Below I propose a ‘score’ for the teaching of gamelan in Northern Ireland. This assimilated Musical Structure framework is a result of many years of experi- Gamelan is essentially a cyclical . ence of working with Beverley Whyte, the As such, it enables players to grasp parts quickly music facilitator for Open Arts. Beverley first and develop playing techniques (Harnish 2004). studied Balinese gamelan with Sanger in the late Furthermore, the structure, form and intricacy 1980s and went on to study music at Queen’s of the music ensure that there is discipline and University Belfast. When Sanger left Belfast in control amongst the players (Tenzer 2000: 8). 1989, several postgraduate students took over Each instrument has its own particular role to the teaching of Balinese gamelan but with the play in the overall texture of the ensemble, such departure of Sanger the profile of the ensemble as pitch, tuning, technique, timing and . began to diminish. However, when, in 1995, As a result, players are able to make the ‘ap- Open Arts brought a Javanese gamelan to North- propriate choices of musical and social conduct’ ern Ireland, the teaching of gamelan was reju- (Brinner 1995: 46). But restricted choices do not venated. As a result, Beverley has established a

16 | Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan | AiA teaching tradition particular to Northern Ire- 4. Treat the instruments with care. In addi- land. Drawing upon the traditional pedagogic tion, participants are shown which beaters practices of gamelan discussed above, this to use for individual instruments, how to framework approximately describes Beverley’s hold them and the appropriate manner approach to the teaching of gamelan. And as with which to strike them. will be pointed out, in the ethnography con- 5. No one should talk when the instructor is cerning children with visual and hearing im- speaking; respect should always be given pairments, this framework is flexible and can to the teacher and if s/he signals for si- be adapted to suit the needs of those learning lence, or to stop playing, everyone should gamelan. do so without question. (Source: Roth 1987: 5) Welcome, Introduction and Background Introduce Basic Techniques At the start of any gamelan workshop the in- structor welcomes the participants. This wel- After introducing all the instruments of the come is not only meant to introduce the instruc- gamelan and allowing the participants to ‘set- tor and the participants to each other but to tle’, the basic techniques of gamelan playing also introduce the gamelan. The instructor also are introduced. First of all, the instructor asks provides information regarding the cultural the participants to listen to, and then explain, the background of the ensemble in Indonesia. The difference in sound quality between ‘damped’ exact detail provided to the participants de- and ‘undamped’ striking of a metallophone. pends on the purpose of the gamelan work- The aim of this demonstration is to draw the shop, whether it is a ‘taster’ session or part of participants’ attention to the fact that if one suc- a project intended to be long term. In either cessive key on a metallophone instrument is case, it is important for the instructor to tell the damped at the same time as the next key is participants by the end of the session that they struck then the sound of the first key is stopped. will be able to play a piece of music. However, When ‘damping’ is used the sounds produced before any playing begins, certain ground rules by the two keys do not ‘mix’ with one another are quickly introduced to the group to facilitate and the overall sound effect is much clearer. Af- the learning process. These include: ter this, the instructor explains how to ‘damp’. To explain the ‘damping’ playing technique, 1. When playing gamelan, participants participants are asked to hold the or should respect one another and the in- hammers appropriate for their particular in- struments; everyone must work together struments in their writing hand.8 All partici- and listen to one another. pants are encouraged to try ‘damping’ and, if 2. No one in the ensemble is more impor- possible, use the thumb and index finger of tant that anyone else; in order for gam- their free hand to squeeze the end of the note elan music to work everyone has to take to stop it vibrating and, thus, sounding. After responsibility for their own individual this, everyone practises damping collectively part. using simple exercises. It is important that 3. Everyone should conduct themselves in everyone in the ensemble be given the oppor- the correct manner when sitting, standing, tunity to try damping because this allows the entering and exiting the gamelan room, participants to orient themselves with the in- (removing their shoes if possible—as a struments. Moreover, by actually playing the sign of respect to the gamelan) and wear- keys of metallophones, whilst learning to damp, ing suitable clothes for playing gamelan. participants have the opportunity to listen to

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the different pitches produced by the instru- wish to make it clear that it is not my intention ments and to become used to the tuning system to compare the teaching of physically challenged of a gamelan. children with that of able-bodied individuals. Instead, I wish to emphasise how the tradi- tional techniques, and the proposed teaching Introduce ‘Melody’ framework above, are adapted to facilitate the After introducing ‘damping’ the instructor will learning of gamelan in Northern Ireland. The usually move on to teach the participants a tra- following ethnographic examples show how ditional piece of music, usually a short, eight- such techniques are adapted in an attempt to or sixteen-, cyclical melody. These ameliorate physical impairments, to enable in- can be taught and mastered in a short time dividuals and groups to participate in gamelan frame and are used in ‘taster’ workshops to to the best of their ability. allow participants to achieve a sense of confi- dence and cohesiveness in their performance. Everyone in the workshop is taught the mel- Gamelan in the British National ody and only once the melody has been learned Curriculum for Children with are other instruments introduced into the en- Visual and Hearing Impairments semble, i.e., gongs and elaborating instruments. It inevitably takes time for metallophone play- During November and December 2001, the ers to learn the melody and those playing gongs Open Arts gamelan was in residence at Jordans- or other instruments can sometimes feel ex- town Schools for the auditory and visually cluded from this process. To combat this, these impaired children, in Jordanstown, County players are asked to either sing along with the Antrim.9 During the six-week residency, the melody or they swap places with the metallo- gamelan was housed in the music room of the phone players to be given the opportunity to school where weekly workshops for six classes learn the melody that way. It is important that took place every Tuesday and Wednesday. players do not feel excluded form this melody The instructors for the sessions were Beverley learning process and are not just kept waiting Whyte, the Open Arts music facilitator, and to learn their part. myself, then a final-year ethnomusicology un- dergraduate student at QUB. The aim of the project was to use gamelan within the context A Final Performance and Conclusion of the British National Curriculum to demon- The aim at the end of a workshop is for partic- strate how gamelan, as a crosscultural medium, ipants to perform the material they have learnt. could be applied to classroom music making. The end performance will be as good as it pos- For the purposes of the gamelan workshops, sibly can be, taking into consideration circum- pupils were organised into small groups of ap- stances such as the time constraints and the proximately fifteen children, and as is the case abilities of the participants. A final perform- with the organisation of regular classes in the ance should instil a sense of achievement in in- school, the groups were segregated by auditory dividuals and the group as a whole; a sense of and visual impairment; the two, because of achievement that should be affirmed by the in- timetabling difficulties, were never mixed. The structor when the workshop is concluded. two short ethnographies that follow, recount Having sketched the above framework, I will some of the approaches to the teaching of gam- now describe how it was applied in the teach- elan in relation to two particular groups at the ing of gamelan to children with visual and hear- school. Furthermore, the approaches adopted ing impairments. However, before doing so, I were also dependent on the ages of the chil-

18 | Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan | AiA dren involved. The first group consisted of ado- to explore them. Moving from one instrument lescents aged fourteen to sixteen, all of whom to another, the children commented upon how had various degrees of visual impairments, the size of individual instruments affected their studying music at General Certificate of Sec- pitch, i.e. large instruments produced lower ondary Education (GCSE) level. The children pitches and smaller instruments produced in the second group, aged eight to ten, had a higher pitches. By touching the bars on the variety of auditory impairments. These children metallophones (), examining the curvature were chosen to participate in gamelan sessions of the small individual gong chimes (), for the simple reason that they attended music feeling the large expansive dimensions of the lessons on the days that the gamelan tutors deep-sounding gongs (suwukan and ) were at the school. Moreover, gamelan, as the and rough texture of the goat’s skin used to medium to explore crosscultural, musical learn- cover the drums (), the children began ing, was chosen due to the success of similar to associate different sounds and sensations projects in other schools by Open Arts. Both with individual instruments. They also exam- groups consisted of children with a wide range ined the carved wooden cases of the instru- of abilities, including several individuals with ments and commented on the intricacy of the severe learning difficulties. However, the fact designs. By examining the size, shape and, in that these students had visual or hearing im- some cases, weight of the instruments, the chil- pairments did not in any way obstruct their en- dren discovered more about the physical dimen- thusiasm for playing gamelan. Throughout the sions of the ensemble than Beverley and I could project, the gamelan was used to explore the have ever told. In addition, the students were possibilities of music in the classroom, where told that the Javanese gamelan used a pélog scale everyone, no matter what their ability, was in- that comprised of seven notes. Furthermore, the cluded in collective music making. seven notes in the pélog scale corresponded to the seven bars on the saron that were numbered one to seven, with number one representing the ‘Feeling’ Gamelan lowest pitch, situated to the left on each saron, The children in the visually impaired GCSE and number seven representing the highest music class in Jordanstown Schools had visual pitch, situated to the right. This also explained impairments ranging from poor sightedness to why there were seven and , and complete blindness. At the start of the resi- why both bonang chime racks had fourteen dency, as is the case in any workshop situation chime gongs. where the participants have not played game- lan before, background information, concern- Teaching Gamelan-Playing Technique ing the origins and practice of gamelan, was provided by the instructors. The children were Beverley and I approached the teaching of gam- told that the gamelan had been made in Java, elan to the class of mixed visual impairments Indonesia, after which it had then been brought with the same objectives as we would approach to Northern Ireland. When asked if anyone in a class of sighted individuals. At the start of the class knew where Indonesia was, one child every class, exercises were used to develop the volunteered that Indonesia was situated to the technique of damping saron keys. However, it north of and, for those who were able was not possible to explain the technique us- to see, a map was passed round for the children ing visual demonstrations. We could not rely to examine its exact location. Next, the different on the children to watch Beverley’s hands instruments of the ensemble were introduced when she demonstrated damping at the front to the children, who were given the opportunity of the class. Instead we had to imagine that we

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were in the place of our pupils—how would petently. In order to do this, musical games and we explain damping if we had a visual impair- other teaching strategies were developed to ment? Consequently, we asked the pupils to dif- achieve this. One game, called ‘pass the beat’, ferentiate between a damped and an undamped where everyone in the class played a note in example. The class was unanimous and quick in sequence, one after another—each child using its response to the two examples, stating that damping after they struck a note—helped de- the undamped demonstration sounded ‘jum- velop not only damping but also listening skills bled’, whereas the damped example sounded of individuals and the group as a whole. The ‘clearer’. To teach damping, every aspect of the ‘counting’ or ‘number game’ was used to im- process, such as how to hold the mallet and prove children’s musical counting and their where to strike the metal bars with it, had to be orientation to the particular instruments they patiently explained. In some circumstances, played in the ensemble. In this game, the chil- we achieved this by gently taking hold of chil- dren had to repeatedly count silently from one dren’s wrists and moving their hands in a way to eight in their head. At the same time one that was similar to that involved in the proc- of the instructors played a steady beat on the ess of damping. During the initial introduction to keep time. As the children counted, to damping the children found it difficult to Beverley would shout out a number for every- strike one key and then move on to strike the one to call out, e.g. number three, and the class next because they often found the distances would then count through the sequence until between keys difficult to predict. As a result, they got to number three and shout out the most of the children needed to use their damp- number. Gradually more numbers would be in- ing hand to act as a guide, to orientate them- cluded in the sequence until all of the numbers selves around the different instruments of the from one to eight had been included. Once this ensemble. When, after some time, we asked the point had been reached, Beverley would start children if they could possibly ‘damp’ more, taking numbers away, and the children would one child responded exasperatedly, ‘It’s all right have to remain where they had just previously for you, you’re not blind. For you it’s easy!’ In called out a particular number in the sequence. some ways the response was true, but in others Once this exercise had been sufficiently mas- it was not. The process of explaining the damp- tered orally, it was then applied to the gamelan ing technique, which we as instructors had em- and, instead of calling numbers out, the chil- bodied, was very unnatural for the children in dren played the numbers corresponding to the the class, particularly since none of the children specific keys on the gamelan. As more num- had played gamelan before. With sighted indi- bers were added to the sequence, the children viduals, Beverley and I relied on visual demon- began to damp keys more regularly and with strations of gamelan playing to aid the learning more confidence. Moreover, this exercise not process. By asking the group to learn to damp, only allowed the pupils to practice and develop we were asking them to try something which, their damping technique, but also allowed for to begin with, felt very unnatural and, for some the orientation of an individual’s body in rela- members of the ensemble, disorientating, due tion to their instrument. These musical exercises to the different sizes of the sarons (which made attempted to improve the children’s playing it especially difficult to know where notes were technique, as well as other aspects important without using their free hand to orientate the to gamelan playing, such as counting, musical spaces between specific keys). timing and the collective striking of instru- However, in spite of this initial setback to ments; and finally improving each individual’s the learning of damping, the class was deter- orientation of their particular instrument in the mined to succeed and learn how to damp com- ensemble.

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Learning Melody one hour. Furthermore, by the end of the work- shop, all of the children attempted to play the Equally, because of the children’s various visual melody using damping, although most of the impairments, traditional teaching methods spe- pupils still required their free hand to orientate cifically employing visual modes of learning themselves round their instruments.10 For those could also not be employed. During the teach- who had particular difficulties playing the mel- ing of traditional pieces to this class, an oral ody on the saron, other instruments such as the ‘call and response’ method for learning the notes gong ageng, kempul, kenong, kethuk and kempyang of a gamelan melody was used. The piece taught (see Appendix 1) provided less technically de- to this class was a sixteen-bar, thirty-two-note manding alternatives, but also new challenges melody () called Ladrang Uyun-Uyun of playing such parts at the correct moment of (Figure 1). In accordance with traditional meth- the melody. By means of contrast, other instru- ods, the melody was played once for the chil- ments, such as the drum (kendang) and gong dren, who initially responded that they thought chimes (bonang barung), provided those chil- the melody was too long and, as a result, they dren proficient at playing the melody the op- would not be able to learn it. To make it easier portunity to learn a more challenging part. to teach the melody to the children, it was seg- mented into four-note phrases, i.e. 2, 3, 2, 1, and then 3, 5, 3, 2, etc. Groups of four numbers The ‘Crocodile’ and Musical Story at a time, representing four consecutive pitches Telling: Modes of Interactive Learning of the melody, were recited first of all by the gamelan instructors and then repeated by the Whereas the teaching of gamelan to children children: this was learning by means of rote with visual impairments at the school mainly repetition and the gradual extension of the used oral teaching methods, to develop listen- phrase, from four notes to eight, twelve, six- ing and memory skills, the teaching of gam- teen, etc., until all thirty-two notes comprising elan to children with auditory impairments the melody had been learnt and memorised. relied more upon visual teaching methods. All Only when this process had been completed and of the children who took part in these gamelan all the numbers of the melody could be confi- classes used hearing aids whilst some children dently recited by the group were the aural num- had cochlea implants. And, although the ma- ber sequences integrated in the playing of the jority of the children could lip-read, the main number sequences on the gamelan. The proc- form of communication in these classes was ess of learning to play the melody on the sarons (BSL). Thus, the instruc- was exactly the same as that of reciting the notes tions given by the gamelan instructors to the of the melody; the melody was segmented into class were translated into BSL, by either the class four-note phrases, with the initial phrase grad- music teacher or a signing assistant, and signed ually extended to include the next four notes. to the class. In order for this teaching method to Aresult of this adapted teaching method was be effective, all the children in the class needed that the children learnt the above melody in to pay attention not only to the gamelan instruc- tors but also to the person signing in order to | . 2 . 3 | . 2 . 1 | . 3 . 5 | . 3 . 2 | fully comprehend instructions. This extended | . 5 . 3 | . 2 . 1 | . 3 . 5 | . 3 . 2 | process of translation, through the use of sign | . 6 . 3 | . 5 . 6 | . 2 . 1 | . 6 . 5 | language, had an impact on the way that play- | . 3 . 6 | . 3 . 2 | . 5 . 3 | . 5 . 6 | ing instructions and explanations were phrased. FIGURE 1: Cipher transcription of the melody Explanations and instructions for the class had (balungan) for Ladrang Uyun-Uyun to be clear and concise so that information spo-

| 21 AiA | Jonathan McIntosh

ken by the gamelan instructors was not abated of letters from the BSL alphabet (also known as through the further process of translation. To ) where used to denote particular start with, this extended process caused a few instruments, e.g. the great gong (gong ageng) problems. Just like any other workshop or gam- was signed as the letter g followed by a second elan session, the children were given some ap- letter g; saron was signed as the letter s followed propriate information concerning the sociocul- by the letter r; as sl; kenong as kn; kem- tural background to gamelan music. However, pul as km; etc. (see Figure 2). Despite the fact even this process was difficult, especially due that we were only learning, attempting to use to the fact that not one of the signers in the elementary signs and spell out individual words school knew the sign for Indonesia. The next allowed Beverley and me to communicate with best option was to point to Indonesia, and the the children on a more personal level. Moreover, island of Java, on a world map and explain that the children were excited to see that we, as their it was ‘near Australia’, which, in turn, then be- teachers, were willing to try and learn from came the adopted hand sign for Indonesia. them and they were as eager to learn about gam- Throughout the six-week residency, in ar- elan from us. The children also taught us par- rangement with the class music teacher, a vocab- ticular signs, such as the sign for ‘soft’—which ulary of ‘gamelan’ hand signs were developed involved repeatedly circling the three middle to use as part of the teaching. Combinations fingers of the right hand on the right cheek-

Gong Ageng = GG Saron = SR Slenthem = SL

Kempul = KM Kenong = KN Kethuk = KT

Bonang Barung = BB Bonang Panerus = BP Kendhang = KD

FIGURE 2: Gamelan instrument signs used in workshops for the auditorily impaired at Jordanstown Schools

22 | Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan | AiA bone, and ‘loud’—placing both hands over the impaired class, was segmented. It was taught ears. These two signs were very useful in trans- in four segments, and each segment consisted mitting performance aesthetics to the children, of four repetitions of two notes: firstly, 5, 3; and who at the start of every class were so excited then 6, 5; followed by 3, 2; and lastly, 7, 6. that they almost always struck the instruments Whilst learning the melody, the class would forcefully. The children did this for two rea- watch the instructor’s hands and then copy the sons: first, they enjoyed hearing the sounds of damping technique. The children were told to the instruments, and second, the harder they play each of the segments four times, and the struck the instruments the greater the vibra- individual segments were practised as such, tions they could feel through the wooden floor i.e. first segment—5, 3, 5, 3, 5, 3, 5, 3, etc. The of the Music Room. There were times, however, children were also asked to say the notes, i.e. to when the children struck the instruments with repeat the number sequences aloud, in time such veracity that we thought they might pos- with a steady beat played on the drum, while sibly break something.11 The teaching of gam- also signing the numbers. Once this exercise elan relied on the class teacher or signer to had been repeated several times, the children translate knowledge about the gamelan to the were asked to say and sign the numbers as a children. In order to do this, Beverley and I had group on their own, without the instructors. to develop a close working relationship with When it came to actually playing the melody those responsible for signing to the children. on the saron, although the pupils could play As a result, signers had to take part in the gam- the melody, they did not play together with elan in order to understand how to play the steady tempos set by the drum (kendang). The instruments and, thus, explain the learning reason for this was that the children looked process to the children. down to concentrate on the movement of their The children with hearing impairments learnt hands when they damped the keys. As instruc- damping with almost no verbal or signed ex- tors, Beverley and I had no way of attracting planation. The children were simply asked to their attention to the fact that they were not in watch my hands whilst I played a traditional time with the beat (although the children as- Javanese melody, Lancaran Manyar Sewu (Fig- sured us that they could feel the vibrations of the ure 3). After I had played a melody a few times drum through the wooden floor of the class- the children were then asked to explain what I room). Over the six weeks of the residency, had been doing to stop notes from sounding. Beverley developed a method of signing the The response to the question was instant, with numbers of the melody with both hands. This all of the children raising their hands, but be- method worked to some extent. However, the fore they were asked to answer some of them children found it difficult to watch Beverley, picked up their mallets and began copying the who was seated at the front of the class, whilst hand movements I had demonstrated only mo- at the same time looking at their hands. Never- ments before. theless, as they became more and more secure In order to facilitate the learning of Lancaran in their ability to sign, speak and play the mel- Manyar Sewu, the melody, just as in the visually ody numbers, they also managed to look up from their instruments at Beverley more often | . 5 . 3 | . 5 . 3 | . 5 . 3 | . 6 . 5 | and to learn when to play in time. As a result, | . 6 . 5 | . 6 . 5 | . 6 . 5 | . 3 . 2 | the overall cohesiveness of the ensemble im- | . 3 . 2 | . 3 . 2 | . 3 . 2 | . 7 . 6 | proved and as a class the children began to learn | . 7 . 6 | . 7 . 6 | . 7 . 6 | . 5 . 3 | how to play and strike instruments together. In FIGURE 3: Cipher transcription of the melody order to develop the visual awareness of the (balungan) for Lancaran Manyar Sewu children whilst they were playing, the ‘croco-

| 23 AiA | Jonathan McIntosh

dile’ game was used. The game involved one elan in Northern Ireland. In doing so, I have child volunteering to stand at the front of the also demonstrated how procedures for teach- class with one raised arm in the air and with ing and teaching techniques are context spe- the other hand outstretched below—like the cific and I have emphasised how musical skills jaws of a crocodile. We explained to the children were learnt through a process involving social that when the hands of the ‘crocodile’ came to- elements. Unlike the traditional Indonesian ped- gether they were all to play one note, on their agogic approach, where gamelan knowledge instruments, together. The children enjoyed this is accumulated from a young age over a long game and were eager to be given the opportu- period of time, the transmission of gamelan in nity to be the ‘crocodile’. Northern Ireland is always confined by a finite Apart from the learning of traditional melo- time frame. Thus, in order to teach effectively, dies and playing techniques, story telling in- instructors must develop techniques that best volving music was an important part of many suit the needs of those who learn gamelan. classes. In particular, stories were taken from the Through clear and concise explanations and Indonesian version of the Indian epic the Rama- demonstrations, the gamelan teacher must in- yana, which are used as the basis for shadow- struct and shape a group of individuals into a puppet performances ( kulit) in musical community through the creative proc- Java and Bali. The sounds of different instru- ess of the music making. He or she is responsi- ments in the ensemble were used to represent ble for organising knowledge so that musical characters in each story and every time a char- skills may be easily acquired and learned effec- acter was mentioned, the instrument or musi- tively (Blacking 1987: 117). Such an approach cal motif associated with that character would should not only teach musical factors but also have to be played. During these story telling communicate information regarding the wider exercises, Beverley adopted the role similar to sociocultural background of gamelan to partic- that of a puppeteer () in a ipants. As such, the transmission process of gam- performance. By watching Beverley and fol- elan is no longer confined to traditional modes lowing the story, the children were involved in of teaching and learning, but is re-arranged, the production of a multimedia event, where borrowed and applied to its newly transcultur- understandings of visual signs and their mean- ated context (Becker 1983). Since its introduc- ings were translated into musical sound. The tion to the academic arena in the 1950s, due to process of story telling combined narrative di- the work of Ki Mantle Hood and his theory of alogue with musical elements, and because the bi-musicality (1960), gamelan has acquired a pupils decided what sounds would represent role as a community and educational pedagogic particular characters, the group became respon- tool. sible for the composition of their own short In Northern Ireland, the teaching of ethno- musical motifs. at QUB has had, and continues to have, a strong impact on both teaching and the dissemination of gamelan knowledge to the Conclusion: Learning, Playing wider community. In addition, the institution and Experience has also been responsible for the training of those now working with gamelan there. Due to In describing some of the techniques used to the formative work of Annette Sanger and John teach gamelan to children with visual and hear- Blacking in the 1980s, and current work by Open ing impairments, I have tried to show how tra- Arts and Beverley Whyte, gamelan has allowed ditional pedagogic practices of gamelan have world music education to be included in both been adapted to facilitate the teaching of gam- educational and recreational community con-

24 | Playing with Teaching Techniques: Gamelan | AiA texts. Community projects involving the use of As a result, I will use it in this article. In addi- gamelan have allowed for the learning of a dif- tion, for reasons of confidentiality, the of ferent form of musical expression and perhaps individual children have not been used. 10. Outside of the gamelan workshops some stu- an opportunity to gain a ‘deeper understand- dents requested a transcription of the melody ing of some of the principles on which the so- in Braille in order that they could study and re- cial and cultural experience of its makers is fresh their memory of it at home. founded’ (Blacking 1990: 272). Gamelan, as a 11.I realise that some readers may find it ironic communitywide tool, offers numerous possi- that gamelan was taught to deaf children at Jor- bilities and only some of them have been ex- danstown Schools. It was obvious from the children’s reactions that they enjoyed playing plored here. But most importantly, it can offer gamelan. Moreover, out of all of the groups those who participate and play in a gamelan taught during the residency this class of chil- ensemble the opportunity to gain an insight dren with hearing impairments was the most into the sociocreative process of another musi- enthusiastic. cal world and possibly the chance to reflect on the music that surrounds them in their every- day life. References

Jonathan McIntosh is completing a Ph.D. in Bakan, M. 1999. Music of Death and New Creation: Experiences in the World of Balinese Gamelan ethnomusicology in the School of Anthropological Beleganjur, Chicago: Chicago University Press. Studies, The Queen’s University Belfast, Northern Becker, J. 1983. ‘One Perspective on Gamelan in Ireland, U.K. His email is jonathanmcintosh America’, Asian Music 151: 82–89. @yahoo.com. Blacking, J. 1985. ‘A False Trail for the Arts? – “Multicultural” Music Education and the Denial of Individual Creativity’, in M. Ross (ed.) Curriculum Issues in Arts Education 5—The Notes Aesthetic in Education, Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1–27. 1. See Mendonça (2001) for a concise history of –––– 1987. A Commonsense View of All Music: gamelan outside of southeast Asia. Reflections on Percy Grainger’s Contribution to 2. From email communication with Annette Ethnomusicology and Music Education, Sanger, March 2002. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 3. From email communication with Annette –––– 1990 [1977]. ‘Some Problems of Theory and Sanger, April 2005. Method in the Study of Musical Change’, in 4. See appendix 1 for a description of the Open K. Kaufman Shelemay (ed.) The Garland Library Arts Javanese gamelan. of Readings in Ethnomusicology, vol. 6—Musical 5. The category headings are taken from Sanger Processes, Resources and Technologies, New York: and Kippen (1987). Garland Publications, 259–84. 6. Exceptions are made in the gamelan learning Brinner, B. 1995. Knowing Music, Making Music, process. An example of this process can be Chicago: Chicago University Press. found in Bakan (1999: Ch. 8). Diamond, J. 1983. ‘Gamelan Programs For Children 7. There are other instruments, such as spike- From the Cross–cultural To the Creative’, Ear fiddles () and (), that do not fit Magazine 84: 27. into these two broad categories. Eastburn, C. 2003. Gongs Behind Bars: Evaluation 8. In Indonesia, the mallet/beater is always held Report of The Good Vibrations Gamelan in Prisons in the right hand and the left hand is used to Pilot Project 2003. http://eamusic.dartmouth damp. However, during my involvement with .edu/~gamelan/gamelanlist/papers/gongs_ gamelan in Northern Ireland this rule has never behind_bars.pdf, accessed 4 May 2005. been enforced. Eisentraut, J. 2001. ‘Samba in Wales: making sense 9. I realise that this term is somewhat problematic of adopted music’, British Journal of but it is the term used by Jordanstown Schools. Ethnomusicology 101: 85–106.

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Harnish, D. 2004. ‘“No, Not ‘Bali Hai’!”: Chal- Central Javanese Music’, Asian Music 28: lenges of Adaptation and Orientation in Per- 116–140. forming and Teaching Balinese Gamelan’, in Ramnarine, T. 2004. ‘Performance and Experiential T. Solís (ed.) Performing Ethnomusicology: Learning in the Study of Ethnomusicology’, in Teaching and Representation in World Music D. Drackle and I. Edgar (eds) Learning Fields: Ensembles, Berkeley: Teaching Anthropology Across , Oxford: Press, 126–37. Berghahn Books, 227–40. Hood, M. 1960. ‘The challenge of “bi-musicality”’, Roth, A. 1987. Javanese Gamelan: A Brief Ethnomusicology 42: 55–9. Introduction, London: South Bank Centre –––– 1982. The Ethnomusicologist, Kent : Kent Gamelan Programme. State University Press. Sanger, A. 1989a. ‘From Bali to Belfast: The Lindsay, J. 1979. Javanese Gamelan, Kuala Lumpur: Queen’s University Gamelan’, Balungan 41: 35–6. Oxford University Press. –––– 1989b. ‘Music and Musicians, Dance and Macdonald, R.A.R. and D. Meill 2002. ‘Music for Dancers: Socio-musical Interrelationships in Individuals With Special Needs: A Catalyst for Balinese Performance’, Yearbook of Traditional Developments in Identity, Communication and Music 21: 57–69. Musical Ability’, in R.A.R. MacDonald, D.J. Sanger, A. and J. Kippen 1987. ‘Applied Hargreaves and D. Meill (eds) Musical Identities, Ethnomusicology: The Use of Balinese Oxford: Oxford University Press, 163–78. Gamelan in Recreational and Educational Music McPhee, C. 1970 [1955]. ‘Children and Music in Therapy’, British Journal for Music Education 41: Bali’, in J. Belo (ed.) Traditional Balinese Culture, 5–16. New York: Columbia University Press, 212–39. Solís, T. 2004. (ed.) Performing Ethnomusicology: Mead, M. 1970. ‘The Arts in Bali’, in J. Belo (ed.) Teaching and Representation in World Music Traditional Balinese Culture, New York: Columbia Ensembles, Berkeley: University of California University Press, 331–40. Press. Mendonça, M. 2001. ‘Gamelan, §II: Outside South- Sumarsam 1975. ‘Inner Melody in Javanese east Asia’ in S. Sadie and J. Tyrell (eds) The New Gamelan Music’, Asian Music 81: 3–13. Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians II: vol. 9, Tenzer, M. 1998 [1991]. Balinese Music, : Oxford: Oxford University Press, 505–7. Periplus Editions. –––– 2002, Javanese Gamelan in Britain: Communitas, –––– 2000. : The Art of Affinity and Other Stories, unpublished Ph.D. Twentieth-century Balinese Music, Chicago: thesis: . Chicago University Press. Naughton, C. 1996. ‘Thinking Skills in Music Titon, J. 1992. ‘Music, the Public Interest, and the Education’, British Journal of Music Education Public Practice of Ethnomusicology’, 132: 15–20. Ethnomusicology 363: 315–22. Perlman, M. 1996. ‘Conflicting Interpretations: Wiggins, T. 1996. ‘The World of Music in Education’, Indigenous Analysis and Historical Change in British Journal of Music Education 13: 21–29.

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Appendix 1: The Open Arts Javanese Gamelan: Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (Unity in Diversity)

The gamelan uses a pélog (seven-tone, nonequidistant) scale:

1=D, 2=E↓, 3=F↓, 4=G sharp↓, 5= A, 6=B flat↑, 7=C↑ (↑/↓ = a quarter-tone sharp/flat approximately)

Instruments

Metallophones—struck with hard mallets 1 × Peking/Saron Panerus—seven-note small metallophone 4 × Saron Barung—seven-note metallophone an octave below peking 4 × Saron Demung—seven-note metallophone an octave below barung 1 × Slenthem—seven-note metallophone with resonators

Chime Gongs—struck with beaters wound with chord 7 × Kenong—cradled gongs 1 × Kethuk—low-pitched, cradled gong (usually plays on the offbeat) 2 × Kempyang—high-pitched, cradled gongs, usually placed beside kethuk 1 × Bonang Panerus—set of fourteen small, cradled gongs 1 × Bonang Barung—set of fourteen small, cradled gongs an octave below panerus

Gongs—struck with padded beaters 7 × Kempul—small hanging gongs 4 × Suwukan—large hanging gongs 1 × Gong Ageng—largest hanging gong

Drums—struck with the hand 3 × Kendang—two-sided drum

Instruments not used at the Jordanstown Schools residency, but that belong to the Open Arts’ gamelan ensemble, include:

1 × —wooden-keyed instrument 4 × Gender—fourteen note metallophones with resonators

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