Exploring a Golfer’s Mental Game:

An Intrapersonal Communication Study

A Thesis

Presented to

The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Arts

Marisa Oeltjen

2016

Exploring a Golfer’s Mental Game:

An Intrapersonal Communication Study

Marisa A. Oeltjen

Thesis

Approved: Accepted:

______Advisor Interim Dean Dr. Kathleen Clark Buchtel College of Arts and Sciences John Green

______Committee Member Dean of Graduate School Dr. Yang Lin Chand Midha

______Committee Member Date Dr. Mary Triece

______School of Communication Director Dr. Theodore Avtgis

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ABSTRACT

This study explores a golfer’s use of intrapersonal communication during competition. A thematic analysis of interviews with four golf professionals in Northeast Ohio examines their individual mental game. Additionally, it explores how golf professionals use the practices of (1) mindfulness (2) self-talk (3) being in the zone as they seek success during competition. Three major themes emerged during the analysis including: (1) Making an intentional decision to be completely present during competition; (2) Managing self-talk to enhance confidence during play; and (3) Using mindfulness and self-talk to reach for the zone. This study is designed to take a more in depth look at how golf professionals use their intrapersonal communication during competitive play.

Keywords: intrapersonal communication, self-talk, mindfulness, in the zone, golf

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DEDICATION

To my Gram. Thank you for passing down your love of sports to me. Because of you, I will forever be a sports fan. All my love.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I first would like to thank my graduate school and thesis advisor, Dr. Kathleen

Clark. Words cannot express how grateful I am for your kindness, patience, and unwavering support during this process. You have been an incredible mentor throughout my whole graduate school career. Honestly, I could not have done this without you and I am forever grateful.

My thesis committee, Dr. Mary Triece and Dr. Yang Lin, thank you for your time, encouragement, and direction. Thank you for challenging me in the best way. I have learned so much from both of you.

Lastly, I would like to thank Josh. Your support throughout this crazy journey has been undeniable. Your faith in me has led me to be the best version of myself. Thank you for being you.

v TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

I. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………….………1

Preface ………………………………………………………………………..1

Sport and Communication …………………………………………………....3

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE ……………………………………………...…8

Intrapersonal Communication………….……………………………………..8

Professional Athletes and Self-Talk ……………………………………….....9

Mindfulness …………………………………………………………………11

Being in the Zone: Peak Performance and Play …………………………….13

Research Questions …………………………………………………………18

III. METHOD ………………………………………………………………...…19

Participants ………………………………………………………………….20

Data Collection ……………………………………………………………...21

Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………..23

IV. FINDINGS ………………………………………………………………….25

Theme One: Deciding to be Completely Present during Competitive Play ...25

Theme Two: Managing Self-Talk to Enhance Confidence during Play ……29

Theme Three: Using Mindfulness and Self-Talk to Reach for the Zone ……32

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ……………………………………....37

Limitations and Future Directions …………………………………………. 39

VI. REFERENCES …………………………………………………………...…42

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VII. APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………47

APPENDIX A: INSTITUTIONAL REVIEW BOARD APPROVAL ….….48

APPENDIX B: INFORMED CONSENT LETTER ………………………..49

APPENDIX C: PGA OF AMERICA MEMBER CLASSIFICATIONS …..51

APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW QUESTION GUIDE ……………………….54

APPENDIX E: CODEBOOK ……………………………………….……...58

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CHAPTER ONE

“Golf is the closest game to the game we call life. You get bad breaks from good shots; you get good breaks from bad shots - but you have to play the ball where it lies.” - Bobby Jones Describe golf in your own words: “Very, very stupid (laughs)…insane way of doing something fun.” –Caleb, 35

“Thrill of competition and opportunity to be outdoors.” -Mike, 58

“Learn a lot about yourself, how to overcome adversity, accomplish something positive, realization you are never going to be perfect and opportunity of meeting a lot of different people never would meet.” -Ross, 36

“It’s a game of a lifetime, you can play it at any age. It reflects life: you get out of it what you put into it.” – Stan, 48

Preface

I have been a sports fan since I was a little girl. I can remember sitting on my grandma’s lap cheering for tennis star Chrissy Evert. This is my first memory as a sports fan; I was 4. To many, I was considered a tom boy throughout the first decade of my life.

I refused to wear dresses and always played with the boys. I was an active child and this continued through my junior high and high school years when I participated in organized sports. I have always believed being an athlete was more than just playing a game.

Furthermore, I have always thought athletes contain something deep within them that sets them apart from the rest. This is what sparked my initial interest in the inner workings of athletes, and although my participation in organized sports ended with high school, my passion for sports, did not. The end of high school signaled the beginning of a new chapter in my life as well as the beginning of my journey into the sports world.

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My fascination with athletes started at a young age and when I set out to college it only expanded more. I became a more avid sports fan and this eventually led to me graduating with a Bachelor’s degree in Sports Management. My interests in the sports world didn’t end there; I worked for a variety of sports teams throughout my twenties which ultimately led to my decision to return to graduate school and produce this paper. I wanted to explore a different aspect of academia, one that I could apply to the world of sport, which is why I chose the area of communication.

Throughout my life my love of sports and competition has grown considerably.

Additionally, my past work experience in the sports world steered me towards one sport in particular which completely captivates me. Those who are familiar with the world of golf know golfers need to be just as strong mentally as physically, perhaps even stronger.

Famous professional golfer, Arnold Palmer once said “Golf is deceptively simple and endlessly complicated; it satisfies the soul and frustrates the intellect. It is at the same time rewarding and maddening - and it is without a doubt the greatest game mankind has ever invented” (http://www.bluecollargolf.co/golf-quotes.htm, 2013).

Golf takes passion, strength, and above all mental toughness. Golfer Bobby Jones once said “golf is a game that is played on a five-inch course - the distance between your ears” (http://www.mindtrainingforgolf.com, 2014). My hope for this paper is to find a connection between a golfer’s intrapersonal communication and success on the golf course.

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Sport and Communication

The popularity of sports and our fascination with athletes is on a continual rise in the United States. “Sports, with their impact and influence, have always had a place in society” (Nikpour, 2011; www.sun-sentinel.com). As a culture, we give athletes a considerable amount of power and deem them a highly influential part of our society. As fans, we hold certain expectations for our athletes. Steinberg (2013) says, “It is inescapable. Athletes will be figures of admiration and emulation in this sports obsessed society” (www.forbes.com). Previous research from the Kaiser Family Foundation also reported, “Many kids are learning lessons about sports and life from watching famous athletes” (Ziemer, 2000). Additionally, “sport and communication have existed since humans began interacting with one another, with organized sport and planned communication formalized for hundreds of years” (Abeza, O’Reilly & Nadeau, 2014 p.

289). Today, many individuals have participated in, been involved with, or been affected by sports at some point in their life. Douglas and Carless (2015) note:

Aside from these personal experiences, there exists a multitude of public portrayals of sports. Perhaps more so than almost any other area of life, sport is represented to the public on a daily basis through thousands of public portrayals including: television coverage, interviews, documentaries and features; newspaper, magazine and online articles; autobiographies and biographies; films and plays; policy documents; research papers and academic texts; ‘how-to’ manuals…the list is endless (p.7). The study of sport and communication is not a new one, however, Abeza, O’Reilly and

Nadeau (2014) state, “the area of sport and mass media account for 49% of the

International Journal Sport Communication’s publications” (p. 302), meaning almost half of the research about athletes reported in IJSC has been done through the lens of mass media outlets. Little to no research has been done on an athlete’s personal communication perspective and whether, if any, the process of inner dialogue affects an athlete’s level of

3 play. Athletes as well as coaches recognize “communication also could help people to learn and maximize their potential. Athletes realize the unlimited potential of the human body, mentally as well as physically. Furthermore, most coaches and athletes agree that at least 50% of the process of playing well is mental. In addition, mentally speaking, athletes have various skills available to them to enhance their performance including positive self-talk, goal setting and relaxation techniques to name a few” (Gesler & Todd,

2006, p.149).

Today, there is an idea within our society that professional athletes possess something within them that is unattainable to the everyday person. Simply put, “They’re

[professional athletes] just like us with the exception that they are still ridiculously good at the sports they play while you and I peaked in middle school” (LaFauci, 2013, para.

5). They have the ability to successfully perform in the most intense and competitive situations. Professor Richard Gaillardetz of the University of Toledo explains what makes athletes different from the everyday person. Gaillardetz (2005) states:

It’s easy to forget that great athletes differ from us in degree and not kind. Tempted though we are to make them into gods, they are humans like ourselves who display the greatness of our common humanity on the field of competition. What we share- and it is vital that we not lose sight of this-is not their athleticism, but their capacity for transcendence, their ability to face and overcome difficulty. (p. 32) Consequently, we tend to hold professional athletes in high regard not only from a physical aspect but a mental one as well. Mental health strength coach Gregg Swanson

(2012) states, “The evidence for sports performance enhancement through mental strength training is particularly prevalent because coaches are now recognizing the importance of psychology in sports, and develop relaxation and visualization regimens for their athletes” (para. 5). An athlete’s mental game could be considered just as

4 important if not more important than how they can physically perform. Mental toughness is a term heard throughout the sports world and in layman’s terms is defined as “relating to an internal locus of control and self-efficacy” (Jones, Hanton, & Connaughton, 2002, p. 206). This is the idea that an athlete’s physical approach to their game is only as good as their mental state.

This study will specifically focus on one of the most mental games played today, the undeniably maddening and mentally exhausting game of golf. Golf by nature is seen as more of an individualized sport rather than a team sport. “Golf is the ultimate individual sport. It’s you against the golf course” (Cohen, 1994, p. 2). Furthermore, the game of golf is considered by many to be the most difficult game to master. As Karp

(2010) explains:

The difference between golf and most other mainstream sports is this: the ball doesn't move unless you make it. There is no action to anticipate. No physical event to react to. No one is passing to you. Nobody is going to chase, tackle, or tag you. You never have to fight for the ball. And all of those are things that put you in a reactive state, where you are pulled from your thinking brain into your body -- which has no thoughts. It's easy to feel grounded when you don't think. He goes on to say: “In golf, however, there is almost nothing that makes you react other than your own actions. It's just you, the ball, the course, and -- perhaps most harrowing of all -- your thoughts, which are often the single biggest obstacle standing between you and par.” (Karp, 2010, para. 6) The game of golf is a tricky one. It has the ability to destroy one’s own mental game with a single swing of a club. This paper explores the athlete’s use of intrapersonal communication to ignite peak performance. As stated earlier, much of the previous research conducted within sport communication is dedicated to sport mass media category (Abeza, O’Reilly and Nadeau, 2014). Furthermore, although considered an important part of their model, intrapersonal communication as the focal point of research

5 concerning athletes has been particularly understudied. Likewise, according to Abeza,

O’Reilly and Nadeau (2014), intrapersonal communication in sport has received little attention in IJSC. As of 2014, their coverage is only about 4%. It is important to offer a working definition of intrapersonal communication in order to be clear of the context it will be studied. “Intrapersonal communication refers to an inner dialogue created with one’s self that essentially forms our own individual perception of reality” (Jemmer, 2009, p. 39).

I have chosen to study the game of golf in attempt to better understand if and how the inner communication process could ultimately lead to success within the game.

Interviews with current Northern Ohio Professional Golf Association players will allow exploration of the role intrapersonal communication plays within these athletes. Although this paper doesn’t focus on the physical aspect of golf, it is understood that you must have some physical ability as well as a mental game to be fully victorious in this challenging game.

Specifically, this study will explore aspects of intrapersonal communication that golf professionals use to help with their individual game. Various concepts that have not been thoroughly studied from an intrapersonal communication perspective include: (1) the use of self-talk; (2) the use of the practice of mindfulness; and (3) the objective of achieving “the zone.” It is important to consider the roles of self-talk, mindfulness, and seeking the zone because of their potential to have a significant impact on the mental status of an athlete. These concepts are not new to the sports world; however, they have clearly been understudied from a communication perspective.

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Therefore, this study intends to go beyond the scope of a mass media or social media perspective and investigate an athlete’s inner dialogue to see how intrapersonal communication may affect a golfer’s game. Specifically, how does an athlete communicate within him or herself? What is their inner dialogue while competing? Could the use of intrapersonal communication lead to success during competitive play? Areas of self-talk, mindfulness, flow, and zone will be explored throughout this paper in regards to an athlete’s ability to communicate within themselves. Jones, Hanton and

Connaughton (2002) explain that “One of the main advantages of qualitative research is that it allows researchers to gain an in-depth understanding of the participants’ personal constructs and experiences” (p. 207). This qualitative inquiry into the intrapersonal communication experiences of professional golfers by means of face to face interviews in intimate settings rather than a public forum will hopefully shed more light on the relationship, if any, between their inner dialogue and their performance.

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CHAPTER TWO

Review of the Literature Intrapersonal Communication

The phenomena of intrapersonal communication have been significantly understudied from a communication perspective and thus the research for this specific area is limited. Gesler and Todd (2006) state,

At the very core of intrapersonal communication are the changes which occur within human beings…. A dynamic pattern of attitudes, habits, internalized values, and modes of thinking by which each person relates to the world of things and people, observes and judges that world and expresses one’s self to ones’ self and surroundings (p.152).

It is important to offer various definitions of intrapersonal communication in order to understand the very nature of this concept. Citing Hyatt, Gesler and Todd (2006) go on to indicate that, “…intrapersonal dialog describes the relationship one has within one’s self, with the subject matter, and with the medium that links one to thought itself” (p.

152). They note that Myers and Myers state that intrapersonal communication is, “How people respond to symbols and how they make decisions or store and retrieve data in their brains…Managing information and processing data about your world goes on inside your head, but effects of those processes show up in your behaviors (Gesler & Todd, p.

152). All these definitions incorporate an aspect of how this study will look at the use of intrapersonal communication. Perhaps the most relevant definition for this study remains

Jemmer’s (2009), “Inner dialogue created with one’s self that essentially forms our own individual perception of reality” (p. 39).

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Three aspects of intrapersonal communication include self-talk, mindfulness, and seeking to move one’s mind into “the zone,” in other words to achieve a sense of flow that is believed to lead to higher levels of performance on the golf course and to lead to competitive success. Since the purpose of this study is to explore the role of intrapersonal communication within an athlete and explore whether it contributes to their individual success on the golf course, the next section will focus on self-talk.

Professional Athletes and Self-Talk

One of the more common topics associated with intrapersonal communication is a concept called imagined interaction, which occurs when an individual rehearses conversations in the mind prior to engaging in any interpersonal communication (Honeycutt & Wiemann, 1999). More specifically Honeycutt, Vickery and Hatcher (2015) define imagined interactions as, “A process of social cognition in which individuals imagine, and therefore, indirectly experience themselves in anticipated and/or past communicative encounter with others” (p. 201). If intrapersonal communication is your inner dialogue, then imagined interaction is the representation of how that dialogue will be executed. For the purposes of this paper, the intrapersonal interaction imagined remains within oneself. It is typically referred to as self-talk.

Athletes and coaches alike are consistently trying to find ways to improve not only an athlete’s physical ability but also their mental game. Writer Juliene Berk says this about self-talk, “We all have voices in our heads which talk to us on an almost constant basis. Our voices give us messages continually, and what they say to us affects us”

(http://www.famous-quotes.com). The concept of self-talk has been of ongoing interest of sport psychologists throughout the last decade (Hardy, 2006; Tovares, 2010 &

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Fendereski, Norbakhsh, Sepasi, & Harati, 2011). Self-talk is defined by Fendereski,

Norbakhsh, Sepasi and Harati (2011) as “a strategic method and refers to a set of statements people make to themselves, whether internally or out loud” (p. 569). Past research has shown self-talk is widely and consistently used amongst professional athletes to increase and generate motivation as well as provide reminders about physical performance (Fendereski et al., 2011).

Mousav and Meshkini (2011) state the purpose of self-talk is “to provide mental imagery that helps regulate arousal, reduce maladaptive behaviors, reconstruct negative thoughts, and to increase one’s concentration and focus” (p. 342). Furthermore,

Fendereski1 et al. (2011) declare that “self-talk improves performance through improving skill acquisition, creating self confidence and self-efficiency, changing bad habits, and controlling effort” (p. 570). Consequently, studies have shown self-talk can be applied in different conditions and for a variety of purposes. Likewise the previous research done in this area has shown a connection between self-talk and peak performance (Tovares, 2010;

Donohue, Barnhart, Covassin, Carpin, & Korb, 2001; Hatzigeorgiadis, Theodorakis, &

Zourbanos, 2004; Van Raalte, Brewer, Lewis, Linder, Wildman, & Kozimor, 1995).

For the purpose of this paper we are going to use the concept of self-talk as a dialogic process. Tovares (2010) states sports psychologists specifically identify self-talk as a “dialogue [in which] the individual interprets feelings and perceptions, regulates and changes evaluations and convictions, and gives him/herself instructions and reinforcement” (p. 262). Additionally, previous research in this area focused strictly on the idea of positive and negative self-talk and its effect on an athlete’s performance.

Several studies have been done on this topic from a positive and negative standpoint,

10 which concluded equivocal and contradictory results, leaving sport psychologists to question the topic even more (Tovares, 2010). Moreover, in order to be fully aware of the effects of self-talk on athletes, Hardy ( 2006) explains that, “ Self-talk is an underexplored phenomenon and urges researchers to go beyond the issue of positive versus negative self-talk by placing an interdisciplinary focus on the multidimensionality of self-talk” (p.90).

Additionally, the examination of self-talk in sport employs both quantitative and qualitative data. Typically researchers use some form of questionnaire to identify the phenomenon and although such methods figuratively provide empirical data, these approaches may limit how athletes actually account for the phenomenon. Furthermore, such investigative accounts potentially exclude how these phenomenal elements are actually created among athletes (Tovares, 2010).

Throughout this study, the goal is to go beyond the aspect of positive and negative self-talk and its effects on performance but also explore if and how athletes’ success on the golf course is influenced through self-talk. This paper will continue to explore the use of intrapersonal communication by examining how mindfulness may lead to a heightened level of performance.

Mindfulness

The concept of mindfulness is important to include in this study because it considers the relationship between oneself and being present in an exact moment. The term mindfulness comes from Buddhist tradition. Nhat Hanh (1987) defines mindfulness as being fully aware of and being present in what one is doing. According to Huston,

Garland and Farb (2011), “Mindfulness meditation is an ancient spiritual practice

11 introduced over 2,500 years ago as a means of calming the mind and gaining insight into the impermanent and interdependent nature of the self” (p. 406). Symington and

Symington (2012) explain that, “mindfulness is the process of keeping one’s mind in the present moment, while staying non-judgmentally detached from potentially destructive thoughts and feelings” (p. 71). This discipline of mindfulness, which is a form of meditation, emphasizes attentiveness to activities of the body, sensations and feelings, and mental activities (Symington & Symington, 2012). Furthermore, over the last few decades studies of mindfulness show it helps people lead happier, more productive, and more fulfilling lives through the process of coming to know themselves (Huston, et al.,

2011).

WinStar Golf Club understands the impact of mindfulness and how it contributes to a successful golf game. According to their website, “Practicing mindfulness is simply the intentional practice of bringing ourselves fully into the present moment and continuing to bring ourselves back to it whenever we notice we’ve drifted away. The act of bringing our mind into the present moment is an act of self-discipline as the tendency of the mind is to move from past to the future and back again”

(http://winstar.rexacademies.com).

Mindfulness in the field of communication has mainly been considered in terms of how consciously people plan their approach to a communication exchange or the extent to which they identify and respond to relevant or irrelevant information in a given situation (Burgoon, Berger, & Waldron, 2000; Folkes, 1985; Langer, Blank, &

Chanowitz, 1978). Understanding the concept of mindfulness is an essential part of this study in order to explore how athletes, specifically golf professionals, approach their

12 individual game from a mental perspective. Mindfulness relates to intrapersonal communication not by the verbal behavior of self-talk, but the non-verbal choice to intentionally move one’s attention to what is happening in the present moment.

Physician’s Assistant and refined healing advocate Jodi Hutchison explains that,

“mindfulness involves bringing your awareness back from the past, or future and irrelevant judging to now. It is an activity that can be done at any time. It is accomplished by bringing the mind to focus on what is happening in the present moment, while simply noticing the mind’s usual ‘commentary’. Without mindfulness we make the same mistakes again and again allowing the patterns to become part of muscle memory”

(Hutchison, 2013). Ultimately, an athlete’s goal is to consistently perform at high level.

The idea of mindfulness is an important piece to consider while evaluating an athlete’s mental game. This study explores how and if an athlete’s mindfulness contributes to a higher level of performance.

Boatright and McIntosh (2008) state, “ If mindfulness means paying close attention to moment-to-moment reality, as free of filters and judgments as possible, then the more mindful people are, the more in tune they should be with (and the more accurately they should be able to assess) their strengths and weaknesses, their accomplishments and failures” ( p. 561). Professional athletes, in order to be successful, must be continuously aware of their strengths and weaknesses as well as being in the present moment to perform to the best of their abilities.

Being in the Zone: Peak Performance and Flow

Since Ancient Greece people have used sports as a form of entertainment. Sports are a way to continuously stay healthy, can be a social outlet and are enjoyable (Jackson

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& Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Our individual value of life depends largely on how we feel toward and about our specific experiences. Sport provides not only great physical pleasure but also mental enjoyment. Certain athletic performances and events have been so intense that in many cultures they become center pieces for religious celebrations.

From the Olympic games of the ancient Greeks to the Mayan ball games, ordered athletic competition “served as a concrete demonstration of spirit over matter, of the divine essence potentially present in the physical body” (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999, p.

4).

Furthermore, the involvement in organized sports has gradually changed. People today involve themselves with sports because of more practical reasons, whatever the motivation is. For many athletes the bottom line of sports is the quality of experience it provides. Sports, unlike any other part of life, can offer a state of being that is so rewarding one does it for the sole purpose of just being a part of it (Jackson &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). However for many competitive and professional athletes sport goes a step further. The concept of “flow” and “being in the zone” are familiar to athletes of a certain caliber. Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999) state “achieving peak performance is an all-important goal for competitive athletes and coaches, and flow can facilitate such outcomes. Flow tends to push a person to his or her limits, and this is one reason why flow is so important to athletes seeking to do their best” (p.13). In order for professional athletes to be successful while competing at such a high level achieving a state of “flow” or “being in the zone” is essential.

Defining flow or optimal experience is different for every athlete that has encountered this conscious state. For this study I use the definition given by Jackson and

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Csikszentmihalyi in 1999 in their book Flow in Sports. “Flow is a state of consciousness where one becomes totally absorbed in what one is doing, to the exclusion of all other thoughts and emotions” (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999 p. 5). They state:

Flow is about focus, communication between your inner spirit and physical spirit but even goes beyond where it becomes a harmonious experience where mind and body are working together effortlessly, leaving the person feeling that truly something special has occurred. Flow is also about enjoyment; some athletes associated flow with their peak performance but flow is not necessarily connected with winning (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). Flow offers something more than just a successful outcome; flow lifts experiences from ordinary to extraordinary and in those moments is when these athletes truly feel in tune with what they are doing and totally alive.

Additionally, author of Back to the Zone: Sport and Inner Experiences, Damien

Lafont (2012) says athletes who have achieved optimal experience or peak performance within sport describe the experience in a variety of ways. He says:

Men and women have reported similar experiences in many very different sports: sensations of speed and power; out-of-the-ordinary moments of deep well-being, wonder, ecstasy, control, peace, tranquility; instinctive action; feelings of unity detachment, floating lightness, and freedom; even a sense of immortality (p. 13).

He also explains “the zone- is a universal experience lived by athletes in all disciplines.

Some speak of flow, peak experience, being on autopilot, white moments, or being in a bubble” (p. 14). In many cases achieving a state of flow is a different experience for each individual athlete.

Athletes seek specific moments that keep them always wanting and searching for more (Lafont, 2012). These moments contain feelings that are among the most intense, most memorable experiences one can get out of life. Athletes describe these states using various terminologies such as flow, optimal experience, being in the zone, and achieving

15 peak performance. Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999) state that “once attained, flow experiences remain etched in the memory and provide the blueprint for returning to this optimal state” (p. 4). The experience of flow, however, is not easy to attain. Some athletes only experience flow a few times in their life and some not at all (Lafont, 2012).

Participants in sports report experiencing a positive state of consciousness, a total engrossment, effortlessness, and transcendence of self that can be achieved independent of performance (Dillon & Tait, 2000). Flow is a state with universal qualities that is experienced by people in a wide range of contexts, not only in the aspect of sports.

Nevertheless, sports provide a special opportunity for flow to occur. Even though sports offer opportunities for flow to happen, not all participants are able to achieve this mental state. Many people who have experienced flow associated it with peak performance, a time where they were at the highest happiness while doing a specific activity (Jackson &

Csikszentmihalyi, 1999). This activity could be an everyday day activity that brings you joy and releases your inner spirit.

Often studies refer to flow or the zone without distinguishing the difference between them. Lafont (2012) explains these two concepts in this way: “The flow is the path by which we can access the Zone, which in turn is much more than the sum of its parts” (p. 40). Moreover, flow is the process whereas the Zone is the ultimate experience or “the flow is the path by which we can access the zone” (Lafont, 2012, p.41). Sport provides an intense outlet for flow to occur and reoccur if handled in a positive and rewarding way.

Competitive athletes set major goals for achieving their individual peak performance and flow can enable such outcomes. The connection of the mind, body, and

16 soul of an athlete can be a powerful and rewarding experience. The mindset accompanying flow tends to push a person to his or her limits, and this is one reason why flow is so important to athletes seeking to do their best (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi,

1999). Coaches and athletes know all too well that it is difficult to have their body perform at high levels when the mind is not focused. The frequently used phrase “mental mistakes” comes from the mind and body not working as one, resulting in the athlete not performing at their highest level. Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999) explain:

While flow is important for those seeking peak performance, flow experiences are also rewarding for their own sake, regardless of the outcomes they may produce. When you focus on outcomes, you can easily miss the experience. If you are so concerned about winning an event, you may miss the mental state that is likely to help bring it about. This can be disastrous for performance. Even worse, if you miss the feeling of enjoyment that justifies the existence of sports in the first place, what have you really gained (p. 13)?

Flow starts with simple absorbing moments at one end of the field and the defining moments of optimal experience at the other end. Consequently, both types of these experiences help make sport involvement worthwhile.

The following research questions are proposed to investigate intrapersonal communication and its relation to peak performance within golf professionals during competition.

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Research Questions:

RQ1: How do golf professionals describe their intrapersonal communication

during competition?

RQ2: How do golf professionals describe their use of self-talk, mindfulness, and

being in the zone as they seek success during competition?

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CHAPTER THREE

Method The focus of this paper is to look beyond the public portrayal of the game of golf and golf professionals in order to investigate a deeper and more personal aspect of a golfer’s game, to consider a golfer’s intrapersonal communication and explore how it impacts their success on the golf course, particularly during competition. Self-talk, mindfulness, and flow (also called “being in the zone”) were the concepts that were used to guide this inquiry.

Gesler and Todd (2006) state that, “Intrapersonal communication is not only communication with ourselves, but rather, intrapersonal communication includes the encoding and decoding of messages within our own heads, a kind of constant internal dialogue with ourselves” (p. 152). Subsequently, this study investigates each golfer’s intrapersonal communication to explore what effect, if any, it has during competitive play. Through the use of in depth interviews followed by a thematic analysis, these athletes were able to express their perspectives, and describe their use of intrapersonal communication that leads to successful play.

For the purpose of this qualitative study, in-depth interviews were conducted with four golf professionals who are all current members of the Northern Ohio

Professional Golfers Association (NOPGA). Experience from conducting interviews during a pilot study of golf professionals suggested this method would work well for gathering this data. Furthermore, for clarification purposes and based on the PGA of

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America standards, golf professionals interviewed for this study hold a variety of member classification statuses (See Appendix C). The significance of the member classification is to determine at what level each golfer is recognized by the PGA. Additionally, although the benefit of conducting interviews with A-3 members of the PGA (Exempt PGA

TOUR, Champions Tour, Nationwide Tour, LPGA Tour and Futures Tour players) such as Jason Day, Jordan Spieth, and Tiger Woods would be pertinent to this study, the accessibility to these athletes is vastly restricted. Therefore, research participants were sought from the NOPGA because of their ability to play competitively at a high level but also because of their convenience to be interviewed.

Golf professionals are expected to play competitively throughout the season and be successful in doing so but are also required to run a golf club, cater to its members and maintain sales of the golf shop. Although most golf professionals compete at a local level, their primary job is not to play competitively. However, their ability to play competitively at a high, local level throughout the season makes these golfers appropriate research participants for this study.

Participants

Participants’ names were obtained off the Northern Ohio Professional Golf

Association website. These participants were selected because their place of employment was within an hour drive of the researcher’s university. Each participant also had to have completed in at least 5 competitive tournaments in the 2014-2015 season in order to be considered an expert in this area. The initial connection for the interviews was made through email with follow up communication via email and phone. The first email briefly described the study, described the criteria for choosing participants, and included

20 a copy of the consent form they were asked to sign. Additionally, snowball sampling was used by asking potential participants if they would recommend other golf professionals who might be interested in participating in the study. Lastly, to maintain participants’ confidentially and anonymity, pseudonyms are used.

Because the world of golf is dominated by males and there are few female golf professionals in Northeast Ohio, only 9 out of 385 golf professionals in this area are female, thus males were thought to be representative for this study. In addition, the age range of the golf professionals who fit the criteria of competitive play ranged from 35-58.

All research participants played competitively in Northern Ohio for a minimum of ten years. In addition, all have played competitively outside of the state. Each golfer is currently or previously has worked at country clubs in Northern Ohio and two of the four have/had careers within the golf industry but not at a country club. The four golfers who participated in this study were all males: Caleb 35, Ross 36, Stan, 48 and Mike, 58. Caleb and Ross each have competed in tournaments for over 20 years. Both were introduced to competitive golf in similar ways, stating they started playing in organized leagues through their school system beginning in junior high. Stan and Mike, being a little older in age, have played a combined over seventy years of competitive golf and both were introduced to the game by local junior recreation programs.

Data Collection

Many previous studies of golfers were done using quantitative instruments to measure experiential states and therefore did not allow for depth exploration in the research (Gesler & Todd, 2006, Mousavi & Meshkini, 2011). Other qualitative studies

21 used narrative inquiry to explore the tensions experienced in the profession (e.g., Douglas

& Carless, 2015). The use of face to face interviews in this study allowed participants to describe their intrapersonal communication experience in detail. Since the characteristics of intrapersonal communication studied here, mindfulness, self-talk, and being in the zone, are personal, this allowed the participants to deeply explore their individual experiences of intrapersonal communication (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011; Connelly &

Clandinin, 1990).

Approval to conduct research on human subjects was obtained from The

University of Akron’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) (see Appendix A). All participants signed an Informed Consent Form (See Appendix B) before data collection began. Interviews were scheduled for times convenient to participants and were conducted at the participant’s job sites. Face to face interviews lasted about forty-five minutes to an hour based on the participant’s availability.

The bulk of each interview focused on addressing the foci of the research questions. A general interview guide approach allowed for both focus and freedom

(Turner, 2010). The interviews were conducted in a conversational style with the use of an interview guide to ensure all the questions were covered (See Appendix D). The set of questions sought demographic information, situational examples, and included prompts to encourage more in-depth responses. Although the prompts were available as a resource for the interviewer, the participants didn’t need them; all the golfers were able to explain their experiences relative to the questions without using the prompts.

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Interviews were audio recorded using a hand-held digital recorder. (Participants agreed to this by signing an Informed Consent Form (see Appendix B) and were reminded of this before the interview started). The audio recordings were then transcribed. Along with the interview guide and recorder, the researcher had note paper and pen to write down any additional information.

Ethical considerations taken into account throughout this study included the awareness of the personal relationship between the athlete’s self and their intrapersonal communication. Furthermore, since the interview questions were geared to explore internal feelings, opinions, and inner dialogue, the researcher was aware of the types of questions asked throughout the interview as well as how the questions were presented.

This ensured the participants were comfortable with the material that was being covered.

Data Analysis

For this study, thematic analysis of the interview was conducted. Interviews were first transcribed, then coded and re-coded in order to allow themes to emerge (see

Appendix E). All the transcripts were read as a whole initially, with the intention to allow topics to surface that could be explored more deeply. Once fully transcribed, interviews were analyzed through the constant comparison method of Glaser and Strauss’ (1967)

Grounded Theory approach. First, categorizations (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011) were made using both the sensitizing concepts of the zone, self-talk, and mindfulness as well as unique terms that emerged from each interview to identify key categories and a code book was formed (see Appendix D). Next, axial coding (Lindlof & Taylor, 2011) was utilized to assist in the development of connections between categories emergent from the

23 categorization process. Lindlof and Taylor (2011) state “coding can help analysts locate cultural and interpersonal patterns in talk, stories, media content, and other narrative texts” (p. 249). Finally, this data analysis allowed themes to surface from each participant’s interview, identified based on instance of repetition (use of same words), and recurrence (use of different words but having the same meaning). Significant themes that emerged from this process will be discussed in the next chapter.

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CHAPTER FOUR

Findings

As interviews were conducted, transcribed, and codes developed, significant themes emerged from the golf professionals’ responses. Through the analysis of the research participants’ interviews three themes emerged, including: (1) Deciding to be completely present during competitive play. Making an intentional decision to be completely present during competition; specifically, the act of being mindful and aware of one’s thoughts during the course of play. (2) Managing self-talk to enhance confidence during play. Self-talk can enhance or hinder confidence and/ or performance (the overall idea of talking to oneself during competition and the effects it has on the individual player whether positive or negative). (3) Using mindfulness and self-talk to reach for the zone. This belief suggests that using self-talk to focus the mind in the present moment and on the present action (mindfulness) will create a greater likelihood of reaching the desirable mental state of flow, referred to as “in the zone,” which is believed to lead to greater success during play.

Theme One: Deciding to be Completely Present during Competitive Play

All the golf professionals agreed that competitive golf was more mentally demanding than other sports. In addition, all the golfers’ said the physical demands of the sport were obvious but one’s mental game was up for exploration. The golfers describe ways they actively decide to use aspects of intrapersonal communication during competitive play.

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Stan, 48, summed it all up by saying:

Yes, [golf is] more mentally demanding because it is not a reactionary sport; whereas like tennis and baseball you have to react to that ball coming at you. The golf ball is sitting on the ground and it is not going to go anywhere until you do something to make it go somewhere. So you have all the time in the world to clutter your mind with all kinds of thoughts. You don’t want to do that. The ability to make a conscious effort to be present in the moment was stated to be a crucial factor by all the research participants. The concept mindfulness of sheds light on the components that contribute to being mindful by defining it as being fully aware and being present in what one is doing (Nhat Hanh, 1987). The following are examples that surfaced throughout the interviews. Stan said “Being mindful/present in that exact moment, not allowing yourself to think about raising the trophy or passing the test, etc.

Or getting ahead of yourself. More successful when mind is clear, for sure.”

Furthermore, a golfer’s pre-shot routine is said to be essential part of a golfer’s success. Typically, a golfer’s pre-shot routine is made up of being present in the moment, the art of visualizing a shot and usually is a habitual practice before the actual competitive shot is taken. For example, one’s pre-shot routine could include three increasingly fast swings, standing behind the ball, taking a deep breath, visualizing the desired shot and using a trigger, such as tapping a coin to get focused. Every player is different but most players would agree with Ross, 36, “I would be out of rhythm, out of sorts if I didn’t have my pre-shot routine.” Additionally, Stan explains establishing a rhythm immediately is imperative to being successful. “Try to do the same thing throughout. The more you can repeat something successfully, the more you can be competitive.” The golfers agreed being consistent with one’s pre-shot routine is vital to playing a successful round. Caleb, 35 describes the physical part of his pre-shot routine:

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Very first swing of the day with a driver, so if we are playing driver hole…. 3 swings, slow, medium then really fast just to get the back stretched out and relaxed. Then step behind and pick my target. Try to hit on in the center of the face, try to give myself good positive start…

Normal pre shot routine on the golf course from there on out is stepping behind the ball, picking my spot. If I really have to hit a specific shot, I will take an extra practice swing in front of the golf ball. If it is clear shot I will just aim for center of the green. If I have to hit it over bunker or something I will take an extra practice swing.

He continues by describing what mentally happens on his first shot of competitive play:

Usually humming a song on my initial drive, to take the focus off of trying to hit a perfect shot. Whatever song is in my head, last song I heard on the radio, more of a beat and rhythm….swing to the beat and the rhythm for my first swing of the day. Not necessarily thinking about what I am doing, I let muscle memory kick in because I have done it so many times, the humming are rhythm so I don’t ‘try’ and hit the golf ball, and I just make the golf swing. Only swing of the day I do it for. It gets me going. If I hit a good one then I know usually it is going to be a good day. The idea of having a clear mind during one’s pre-shot routine was a common factor throughout all the golfers. In addition, the concept of visualization during one’s pre-shot routine was mentioned by all of the golfers. Mike, 58, the oldest of the golfers interviewed, describes how he visualizes his shot in his pre-shot routine. “I stand behind the golf ball, pick out a line I want to aim at and mentally see myself hitting that shot, visualization…I continually am trying to see the shot I want to hit.” Ross’s practice is similar:

I am trying to visualize the shot I am trying to hit. In my mind, I am seeing the shot I want to hit and trying to execute that shot. More visualization than anything. I don’t necessarily close my eyes…I am just trying to see the shot I am trying to hit, whether that be right to left, etc. In my pre-shot routine I am trying to feel that too, the type of shot I am trying to make. My pre-shot is pretty much the same on every shot, I am rehearsing and visualizing that hit for the particular shot. The idea of “seeing” one’s shot prior to execution and being mindful of that exact moment is fairly common with most golfers. The conscious clearing of one’s mind to

27 focus on a particular shot is considered essential to be successful in golf. The golf ball will not move until you move it. Where it goes relies on the combination of your mental and physical strength.

Furthermore, the ability to see the shot before the shot was actually taken was deemed necessary for success. Stan explains visualizing his shot, “[I have] picked my target and communicated that to myself where I want to hit the ball before I actually get up to the ball. I already know where my target is and how I want my ball to get there.”

In addition to visualization, the concept of a ‘trigger’ surfaced in the interviews.

The idea of a trigger is to remind yourself to focus and clear your mind. For example, a trigger might be tapping a coin or whatever before your golf shot, Ross explains.

Something that gets you locked in your shot...always something I try to stick too.” A trigger is a physical reminder to focus on the task at hand, and be present in that exact moment you are taking the shot. Stan reveals:

They say that some people’s mind can’t imagine that, visualize it. I can and ah that’s definitely …if it is something in my golf swing that I visualize doing or whether it’s the ball traveling in a certain direction. It is one of those two things. Almost like a trigger to start the thought process, something that starts your swing…a point that starts the process. That thought I would, yeah consider that my trigger. I think so. A trigger to a golfer like Stan is the beginning of a thought process in visualizing a shot.

He continues by saying “[I have] picked my target and communicated that to myself where I want to hit the ball before I actually get up to the ball. I already know where my target is and how I want my ball to get there.”

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Theme Two: Managing Self-talk to Enhance Confidence during Play

Using self-talk was also a commonality among all of the golfers interviewed. This is the idea of talking to oneself throughout competitive play, whether in a positive or negative manner, in a way that could enhance or hinder performance. All of the participants agreed that they talk to themselves on a regular basis while competing. They all admitted to using both positive and negative self-talk at some point during their career. Ross confesses,

[Negative self-talk is] something I have always fought, there is a lot of negative self-talk out there. It is something personally, I have always fought. I think over the years that is what’s held me back, find ways to stay positive and the cliché one shot at a time. It’s true, you have to. Somehow stay positive. The idea that one can control how they physically play on the course by how mentally strong they are was clear throughout all the interviews. Caleb states “If I bogey the first hole, I am ‘ok dude let’s get this going’ or make a birdie’ ok let’s keep this going…

Simple thoughts…like a pep talk… like you going to do alright today or c’mon man use your brain.” Mike admits the way to make up for the use of negative self-talk is to let that bad shot go and move on.

Oh yeah, I probably have used [self-talk] in a negative way, called myself an idiot a few times. [I then] make it a point to get even. Have the mentality to hit a good shot to make up for it. I don’t know if I am that strong of mental player but I don’t get down on myself, so I think that helps. Don’t get real negative, I see how that hurts people. Let one bad shot get to them and next thing they know they have had 4 bad holes in a row. Stan acknowledges that at a younger age, he had a harder time handling his mistakes on the golf, course saying, “Yes, sure, when I was younger I didn’t know handle a bad shot as well as I do now. I don’t know if I would yell at myself but I would slam a club

29 occasionally. (Laughs) Internally I would tell myself ‘hey, what the hell are you doing?’”

But now Stan realizes that,

Negative self-talk doesn’t work- it just doesn’t work…it turns into a disaster. You got to focus on what you believe at the time you need to do. You may not be right but…at [the] time you have to do what you believe it right you may figure better solutions after the round but you have to do what you believe at the time.

Not only realizing the negative self-talk doesn’t work, but believing in yourself and relying on your experience were key topics addressed in all the interviews.

Ross, for the most part, agrees with the rest of the golfers on their view about negative self-talk but he also addresses a different angle. He says “To be honest, there are days where I do stay calm when I am making mistakes, I almost need to get a little angry because it gives me a kick in the butt, sometimes I need to get a little negative to increase my performance.” Even though he was the only golfer to talk about negative self-talk from this perspective, he brings up an interesting point, that it can be motivating.

One golfer indicated during his interview that negative self-talk does not only affect the individual doing the talking. Mike reflects on playing with another golfer whose self-talk affected Mike’s game. He explains,

I get distracted when I am playing competitively when there is someone playing bad in my group, always kind of been a negative for me. Somebody that is having a bad day, they are complaining, pissing and moaning about their game. Their negative self-talk bothers me. All the golfers agreed that the effects of positive self-talk outweigh that of negative self-talk. Ross, Stan, Caleb and Mike all mentioned the self-talk they have used throughout competitive play. In addition, they were aware of how self-talk as on-going inner dialogue enhanced their performance or hindered it. All agreed that controlling their

30 thoughts and communicating positive affirmations throughout the course of play contributed to a successful round.

In particular, a deeper look into the use of positive self-talk throughout the interviews revealed the use of persuasion by all of the golfers. The golfers mentioned that during competitive play, they told themselves that they “had been here before,” meaning they reminded themselves of their previous experiences, both challenging and successful, as encouragement, using their experience in competitive play to continuously persuade themselves they could be successful. Caleb gives an example of what he has said to himself prior to starting a competitive round. “You can do this, you know how to do this… I know I have done this before, making a birdie in tournament it’s like nothing to me…because I have done it so many times.” Stan reports saying “You have been here before, you can do this, this isn’t hard, rely on what you know, you have practiced, you know how to get this done.”

Self- coaching as defined by Ed Batista (2013), an executive coach, is the

“process of guiding our growth and development, particularly through periods of transition, in both the professional and personal realms (para. 1).” He continues by stating self-coaching starts with our attitude towards ourselves, involves an ongoing process of reflection and increased self-awareness. The idea to use the tools within self-coaching to achieve success is not a new concept but the awareness all the golfers had about using these tools to their advantage was clear. Mahatma Gandhi was quoted as saying,

Your beliefs become your thoughts, your thoughts become your words, your words become your actions, your actions become your habits, your habits become your values, your values become your destiny. (http://golfstateofmind.com/self- talk-in-golf, 2016)

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Caleb reveals this about the persuasive effects of self- talk. “[I] do it a lot especially when I am trying to pump myself up, if I am playing well, “alright c’mon man, nice job, keep it going….more reassurance than anything.” They believe the ability to reaffirm and allow themselves to be convinced they are capable of success allows them to be successful. Ross mentions this about positive self-talk. “[It is essential to] find ways to stay positive and the cliché one shot at a time. It’s true, you have to. Somehow stay positive.” Positive self-talk along with mindfulness, unsurprisingly, contributed to the golf professionals’ success on the course during competitive play.

Theme Three: Using Mindfulness and Self-Talk to Reach for the Zone

The idea of mindfulness and self-talk to create a pathway to be successful was apparent in all the golfers’ interviews. Additionally, the belief that one could use mindfulness and self-talk intentionally to create a pathway to the heightened level of play referred to as “the zone” was discussed. As stated earlier in the literature review by

Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999), “the zone” has been studied as flow is a state of consciousness where one becomes totally absorbed in what one is doing, to the exclusion of all other thoughts and emotions.

Furthermore, Lafont (2012) explains that the experience of flow or being in the zone is not easy to attain and some athletes only experience this state a few times in their life, if at all. However, throughout all the interviews when the concept of the flow or being in the zone was mentioned, all the participants had similar views on the subject.

When asked about being familiar with this heightened level of play, golf professionals

Mike and Ross laughed and said, “not as often as I would like to be” and “if I knew how to get into that mental state, I would definitely trying to be getting into it more.” Note

32 that both were familiar with the experience nonetheless. When asked why they thought it

[being in the zone] happened, Ross exclaimed “If I knew the answer to that I would shoot a lot of good golf!” Mike and Ross reiterate the idea that getting into a state of flow and zone is not easy obtainable. Caleb also mentions that “being in the zone…it doesn’t happen often …hard to articulate what happens.”

Although not frequent, all the participants were familiar with the experience of being in a heightened level of play, in the flow or being in the zone. Most described their experiences in this state as being able to limit their mistakes that day on the golf course.

Stan says, “Golf is not a game of perfect, this game is about how your misses are. Your good shots are going to be good but it’s all about minimizing your misses, the dispersion.” They described a sensation that in that particular moment of competitive plays everything felt right. Even when a mistake was made, it didn’t affect the overall outcome of the round. Mike describes his experience this way. “I have had days that everything seems to go right even when I make a bad shot the ball still ends up on the green or the putt goes in, yeah, I have had that.” Ross reports, “I remember I felt pretty good about my game that day, some days maybe you don’t always feel it, but that day I remember I felt good about it. I limited my mistakes that day.” Mike describes his zone experience as follows,

I don’t know if I can recall a specific time but I have had days where it just, putts are going in and the shot you have are going the way you are visualizing them and it didn’t happen just for a couple holes, it happened for whole round. That was one of those days I was in the zone. Everything I did was right, and worked and the putts were falling.

Additionally, Ross says this about his experience with the zone,

Couple holes into the round there was nothing different, it just was all the sudden it all just kind of clicked for some reason. It was feeling…it was pretty weird.

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Happens once a year maybe for me… very unexplainable, guys strive to get there, it’s something I can’t explain how we get into and out of that state.

Ross expresses this after a round of being in the zone and realizing the impact it had.

Sense of accomplishment when it was over, I was on [a] high you could say after it was over. Knowing that you accomplished something you have been working hard all year for. That feeling of accomplishment, I remember that feeling. It was one of those rare feelings you don’t get it much but you felt so good. I knew where the ball was going; I knew I was going to make the putt, it was kind of weird…

Caleb recalls “experiencing [the zone] only a couple of times, I am trying to remember…

I was so locked and focused; I shot a 68 and don’t remember much of the round.” When asked how he felt over this particular round he says,

Actually I was tired, it wasn’t an overcome of emotion but I remember feeling tired and why do I feel tired? I shouldn’t be tired I have played this course a thousand times, I shouldn’t be this tired. It like coming off a high or something…

Caleb brings up an interesting point when he notes that upon exiting the zone he realized the mentally heightened level of pay took a physical toll on this body.

Ross, Mike, and Caleb described their experiences with the zone in similar fashions. All mentioned that achieving this state only has happened a few times throughout their career thus far. In addition, they all mentioned how most of the experience was unexplainable, hard to articulate and tough to recreate. Stan, however, experience with being in the zone was a little different. Out of all the golf professionals interviewed, Stan has played more competitive golf when comparing the number of competitive rounds played. He describes his familiarity with being in the zone

Things happen pretty easy, when you are in….I’ll call it the zone, when you are in that competitive mode, just seems like your mistakes don’t get you in that much trouble, hit a few bad shots but maybe not as many , you can play from those positions, you don’t compound your mistakes…

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Yes [I have been in the zone often], I think so. A lot of times when you get the zone, you are just out there playing golf, letting it happen, generally for me when I am in the zone. I have one good swing thought that works, produces a repetitive ball flight, or whatever.

[I have] been in the zone, where you can’t really do much wrong, just looking, staying in the present, not getting ahead of yourself. You are not thinking about what if I shoot this or shoot that. The minute you start doing that, the minute that happens, things start to go awry. Bad things start to happen.

Stan confirms this idea that allowing yourself to be present and focused is a key path to entering the zone. Allowing yourself to not over think the situation but clearing your mind of everything else.

Most athletes describe their experiences of flow and zone as an optimal experience. A state of being an athlete strives to achieve but often doesn’t obtain. As previously identified in this paper, Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi (1999) state that, “Once attained, flow experiences remain etched in the memory and provide the blueprint for returning to this optimal state” (p. 4). Most athletes desire to be in the zone, however most recognize they can’t intentionally put themselves there. For most, being in the zone only happens a few times throughout ones career, however, it doesn’t prevent athletes from continuing to make the intentional decision to create a pathway to this optimal experience. Using tools such as mindfulness and self-talk have been proven to be a gateway to the being in the flow and zone. Even though being in a heightened level of play isn’t always the end result, it doesn’t stop these golfers from continuing to seek to create a pathway to access the zone.

Surprisingly, the golfers interviewed found it hard to describe the zone state. Ross says, “[It is] very unexplainable, guys strive to get there; something can’t explain how we

35 get into and out of that state.” All the golfers described their experience with flow/zone as a time when “everything clicked.” They defined this as an overwhelming feeling when they knew where the ball was going to go and how it was going to get it there. Stan says,

A lot of times when you get the zone, you are just out there playing golf, letting it happen, generally for me when I am in the zone... I have one good swing thought that works, produces a repetitive ball flight, or whatever. This describes a golfer’s internal thought process and how clearing the mind of all but one thought can contribute to heightened experience.

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CHAPTER FIVE

Discussion and Conclusion

How do golf professionals describe their intrapersonal communication during competition? Throughout the interviews, the golfer’s explanation of their intrapersonal communication fell into three main themes: (1) Making an intentional decision to be completely present during course of play. (2) The overall idea of talking to oneself during competition and the effects it has on the individual player. (3) Using self-talk and mindfulness to reach a state of flow/zone.

Although these concepts aren’t new ideas about the game of golf, one factor that was exposed throughout this study was the golfers’ surprise at their ability to reflect on their game. When asked certain questions about their individual golf game throughout the interviews, all the golfers at one point stated something similar to, “I have never thought about that,” “you made me think,” “that is interesting,” and “I have never considered that.” Although each golfer was aware of the things they did to be successful in competitive play, like a pre-shot routine, visualization, and positive self-talk, reflecting on their success after the fact had been limited. Questions about their internal dialogue, and communicative practices during a competitive round were answered as if it was the first time they explicitly thought about it. Yet, although these questions were being answered as if it was the first time they had been considered, the golfers had no problem telling reflective stories about their experiences and were able to give specific examples to illustrate their awareness.

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How do golf professionals describe their use of mindfulness, self-talk, and being in the zone as they seek success during competition? The tools previously discussed: visualization, one’s pre-shot routine, rhythm and the use of a trigger fall into larger categories examined throughout this paper; specifically the use of mindfulness, self-talk, and being in the zone.

Specifically, the concepts of visualization and one’s pre-shot routine were apparent throughout the golfers’ descriptions of their experiences of intrapersonal communication. Moreover, it was confirmed throughout the interviews that a golfer’s pre-shot routine, although executed differently by each golfer, was essential for a successful round. It falls into the larger concept of mindfulness and being completely present in what one is doing. Likewise, the ability to create a rhythm and routine during competitive play were mentioned as contributing factors to success. Furthermore, the concept of a ‘trigger’ to ignite one’s concentration was mentioned. Interestingly enough having a physical reminder to initiate focus was common throughout all the interviews. It was clear that using all these concepts deemed necessarily for the golfers’ success

The use positive self-talk to persuade and remind the golfers of previous successes during competition to ensure a positive outcome was another assumption confirmed through the interviews. The ability to use self-talk in this form encouraged the golfers to be confident in their game which they believe led to more successful rounds.

Going beyond the scope of what tools a golfer uses to be successful this study investigated what one’s inner dialogue is while golfing. In particular, the emphasis was on exploring what might contribute to a pathway through which one could access being

38 in the flow or zone. The ability to reach the zone for athletes is rare experience but is one that is consistently trying to be obtained, because the zone provides a heightened level of play and an optimal experience for athletes. As stated previously, Jackson and

Csikszentmihalyi (1999) refer to achieving peak performance as an all-important goal for competitive athletes that tends to push a person to his or her limits. Athletes and golfers alike use tools like mindfulness and self-talk to create a pathway to this optimal experience.

The concepts of self-talk, mindfulness, and flow, although often studied from a psychological point of view, have not been analyzed from an intrapersonal communication standpoint. As the field of sport and communication grows, adding a study focusing specifically on intrapersonal communication and sport is imperative.

Limitations and Future Research

This study investigated how golfers internally communicate with themselves and how this intrapersonal communication affects their competitive game. A limitation includes the number of golfers interviewed. This study had four participants but accessibility to more golfers could potentially lead to the discovery of profound results.

Another detail that was only mentioned in one interview was whether the tournaments were one day events or were they longer, for example, a three-four day tournament? This is important because if one is playing in a one day tournament compared to a three day tournament, there is not the opportunity to look ahead to the other days. If one is playing a three day tournament, it could be beneficial to have the time to make up for previous mistakes or it could negatively affect one’s game because there is too much time to think.

Mike made the comment that all the tournaments he had won were one day tournaments,

39 and whereas in three-day tournaments where he was in contention, he ended up losing.

Future research could explore the possible significance in how long the tournament is and how that might influence a golfer’s mindset.

Additionally, this study only interviewed male participants because of the lack of female golf professionals in the studied area. This could possibly change the extent of the study because men and women may think differently in some significant ways. Or a continuation of this study could compare male and female golfer’s internal communication. Also, an all-female study could produce interesting results and contribute to the research.

Finally, the practice of using negative self-talk to enhance your performance is a subject that could be researched on a deeper scale. As noted in the literature review, much of the research on self-talk asserts that it is positive self-talk which will result in improved results. Further study of situations in which negative self-talk is beneficial to performance and when it is detrimental could lead to further development of the intentional use of negative self-talk as part of creating a pathway to successful competition.

Lastly, future studies could include an aspect that was not discussed in the findings, but was brought up in one of the interviews, exploring the intersection of spiritually and intrapersonal communication and how, if at all, it might help attain a heightened level of play. During his interview, Mike mentioned these details about a time when he experienced the zone:

I had one tournament, year after my mom died, 2010, [I] played in a pro-am and my wife was with me, very seldom does my wife go with me on golf

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tournaments but she happens to go with me to this one every single year. Shot 67 on a hard golf course which is better than I normally shoot. That was one of those days I was in the zone. Everything I did was right, and worked and the putts were falling… One of those days and I thought this is for my mom, she just died, her watching over me and it was great…Kept saying, thinking my mom was watching and she was making sure that stuff was happening right. I don’t know if she was or not but that was the thought of the day…Everything clicked, that was a particular time I remember. A recent increase in public demonstrations of prayer in sport has led to an unprecedented academic interest in the connection between sport and spirituality (Preece

& Hess, 2009). Often times, spectators can observe a baseball player mouth a quick prayer in the on deck circle, a football player ‘take a knee’ in the end zone after scoring a touchdown or a soccer player stop and point to the sky after scoring a goal. There are likely other spiritual aspects of sport occurring unseen by the public eye. It would be an interesting topic for future research to investigate the spiritual side of sports and how it relates to communication and a heightened level of play.

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APPENDICES

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APPENDIX A

IRB Approval

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APPENDIX B

Informed Consent Letter Exploring a Golfer’s Mental Game: An Intrapersonal Communication Study You are invited to participate in a research project being conducted by Marisa

Oeltjen, a graduate student in the School of Communication at The University of Akron.

Marisa is under the direction of Dr. Kathleen Clark, Associate Professor in the School of

Communication at The University of Akron. This study is going to explore how golf professionals communicate with themselves during their course of play in order to enhance their playing ability. Furthermore, in this study I am interested in learning what is happening in a golfers mind while he/she is absorbed in the actions of golfing. You are being invited to participate in this research because you are golf professional.

Face to face interviews will be conducted at the golfer’s office to ensure highest level of comfort for the participant. The semi-structured interviews will be facilitated with the use of an interview guide, note paper and pen and an audio recording device to aid in the accuracy of the study. Questions in the interview guide are designed to evoke reflection of the communicative practices made by the participant during competitive play. Follow-up questions will be developed and asked during the course of the individual interviews as deemed appropriate by the researcher. The interviews are anticipated to last between 60 minutes to 90 minutes in length.

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There are no inherent risks or discomforts to you as a participant resulting from participation in this study. You will receive no direct benefit from your participation in this study, but your participation may help us better understand the value of how golf professionals use communication strategies to enhance their playing ability.

Participation in this study is voluntary and you can decline to answer any particular question for any reason. Moreover, you have the right to refuse to participate or withdraw from the study at any time.

Personal identification of participants and data collection will be confidential.

Your name will not be used in any publication or presentation of results and no one will be able to link your responses to you. Furthermore, I will assign a pseudonym for you instead of using your true name in order to withstand the highest level of privacy. Also, the name of your current place of employment will not be identified in the study.

If you have any questions, concerns, suggestions or complaints at a later date, please contact the researcher Marisa Oeltjen (330) 687-1226, [email protected] ( the principal investigator) or Dr. Kathleen Clark at (330) 972-7485, [email protected] ( graduate project advisor). You may also contact the School of Communication at The

University of Akron, (330) 972-7600, Kolbe Hall 108, 328 Buchtel Common, Akron, OH

44325. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, you may call the IRB at (330) 972- 7666.

Indicate your agreement to participate in this study as explained above by signing below:

______(Participant signature) (Date of Consent) ______(Researcher signature) (Date)

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APPENDIX C

PGA of America Member Classifications

Member Apprentice Description Classification Classification

A-1 B-1 Head Professional at a PGA Recognized Golf Course

A-2 B-2 Head Professional at a PGA Recognized Golf Range

Exempt PGA TOUR, Champions Tour, Nationwide A-3 Not Applicable Tour, LPGA Tour and Futures Tour players

A-4 B-4 Director of Golf at PGA Recognized Golf Facilities

A-5 Not Applicable Past Presidents of the Association

A-6 B-6 Golf Instructor at a PGA Recognized Facility

Head Professional at a PGA Recognized Facility A-7 B-7 Under Construction

Assistant Golf Professional at a PGA Recognized A-8 B-8 Facility

Employed in Professional Positions in Management, A-9 B-9 Development, Ownership Operation and/or Financing of Facilities

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A-10 B-10 Golf Clinician

A-11 B-11 Golf Administrator

A-12 B-12 College or University Golf Coach

A-13 B-13 General Manager

A-14 B-14 Director of Instruction at a PGA Recognized Facility

A-15 B-15 Ownership or Management of a Retail Golf Facility

A-16 B-16 Golf Course Architect

A-17 B-17 Golf Course Superintendent

A-18 B-18 Golf Media

A-19 B-19 Golf Manufacturer Management

A-20 B-20 Golf Manufacturer Sales Representative

Tournament Coordinator/Director for Organizations, A-21 B-21 Businesses or Associations

A-22 B-22 Rules Official

A-23 B-23 Club Fitting/Club Repair

A-24 Not Applicable Employed within the golf industry and not eligible for

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another Active classification

HM Not Applicable Honorary Member

Not eligible for classification as Active, Life Member IN Not Applicable or Retired Member

Not eligible for classification as Active Member and LM/LMM Not Applicable who have held a minimum of 20 years in an Active Classification (whether continuous or not)

Not eligible for classification as Active Member and LMA/LMMA Not Applicable who have held a minimum of 20 years in an Active Classification (whether continuous or not)

MP Not Applicable Master Professional

Members who are fully retired (cannot be working in either a golf or non-golf position) and who have RM Not Applicable achieved a combined 65 years of age and Active membership and who are not eligible for Life Member

Failure to meet the requirements of the Professional F Not Applicable Development Program

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APPENDIX D

Interview Question Guide

Demographics Questions:

1. Name

2. Age

3. Gender

4. Current Job Title

5. PGA Classification

Starter Questions:

1. When you were first introduced to game of golf?

a. At what age?

b. How?

2. At what age did you start playing golf competitively?

3. How many years have you competed?

4. What different types of tournaments do you play in?

a. Have you won any of these tournaments?

There is this narrative in the golf world about golf mainly being a mental game. I would like to hear about your personal experiences of golf as a mental game.

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Dr. Leif Smith Clinical & Sport psychologist, The Ohio State University says, [The mental game is] really important for golf because you spend so much time thinking. A lot of sports like football, basketball spend more time playing than thinking. Prompts: 1. From your experience would you agree with Dr. Leif? 2. Can you describe what your mental game consists of when you are competing? Are you familiar with the concept of an athlete’s ‘flow’? I would like to read you a definition of flow: Flow is a state of consciousness where one becomes totally absorbed in what one is doing, to the exclusion of all other thoughts and emotions (Jackson & Csikszentmihalyi, p. 5). Flow is about focus, communication between your inner spirit and physical spirit but even goes beyond where it becomes a harmonious experience where mind and body are working together effortlessly, leaving the person feeling that truly something special has occurred. The concept of flow is often mentioned when it comes to playing golf. I’d like to read a quote about it and then hear what it brings to mind for you about your game. Professional Golfer Tiger Woods has said, “I tend to have these black out moments where I don’t remember. I know I was there but I don’t remember actually performing the golf shot” “The more intense a situation gets, the calmer I feel, the more things slow down. It’s a weird sensation it’s hard to kind of articulate on it. For some reason the last few holes take forever. They may be happening a lot faster for some reason but seem to be taking a lot longer. There are a lot of times I don’t hear noise. I don’t hear anything I have become so enthralled in that particular moment. Hitting that shot being mentally prepared. Almost as if I get out of the way because of the training. The training takes over and I get out of my own way.” Prompts: 1. Have you experienced flow?

2. What was it like?

3. Describe a time when you experienced flow when playing.

4. Anything else you would like to add?

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Professional Golfer Matt Kuchar has this to say on the concept of flow: “Time slows down and fairways, holes look bigger. Yes, particularly on the putting green when you are in the flow state even if you have 25 foot putt you know you are going to make it because the hole is huge. Something we wish we could do a better job of recreating. Something we all would like to do more is getting in the flow state.” “[There is this idea that] The athlete in the peak performance zone is really in a heighten state of awareness, absorbed focus, there is an element of relaxation response, their always in the here and now, clear uncluttered mind just absorbed in the moment. Letting the performance happen rather than thinking about or helping the performance happen. Looking to get that focus and process to take place within a time frame. I call it the 40 second sanctuary of the pre-shot routine.”

Prompts:

1. Have you experienced a heightened state of awareness while playing?

2. Can you describe the experience you had?

3. Can you describe your pre-shot routine?

Winstar Golf Club in Thackerville Oklahoma suggests: “ Practicing mindfulness is simply the intentional practice of bringing ourselves fully into the present moment and continuing to bring ourselves back to it whenever we notice we’ve drifted away. The act of bringing our mind into the present moment is an act of self-discipline as the tendency of the mind is to move from past to the future and back again” Prompts: 1. Considering the above statement about mindfulness, have you every practiced

being mindful while competing?

2. Can you describe your experience?

3. Anything else you would like to add?

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Let’s move on to the idea of self-talk:

Self-talk is defined by Fendereski, Norbakhsh, Sepasi and Harati (2011) as “a strategic method and refers to a set of statements people make to themselves, whether internally or out loud” (p. 569). Past research has shown self-talk is widely and consistently used amongst professional athletes to increase and generate motivation as well as provide reminders about physical performance (Fendereski et al., 2011). Prompts:

1. Could you describe a time where self-talk was used on the golf course.

a. Positive self-talk

b. Negative self-talk

2. Could you describe a time where self-talk, whether positive or negative, effected

your performance?

Final Questions:

1. If you could describe the game of golf in 3 words what would they be?

2. What is your favorite aspect of playing golf?

3. Is there is anything else you would like to add that relates to this study?

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APPENDIX E

Codebook

Code Definition/Explanation Examples from Interviews

Mentally challenging Having time to think before  Not a reactionary sport taking a shot can lead to  Mostly played individually distraction. Need to rely solely  Time to clutter your mind with on one’s own performance. thoughts before taking a shot. Intentionally present Intentionally being fully aware  Not allowing yourself to think and present in the moment to about raising the trophy or what one is doing during passing the test, etc. competitive play.  Not getting ahead of yourself. Focusing one’s mind The ability to focus by using a  Tapping a coin trigger, pre-shot routine, or  Seeing the shot you want to visualizing the shot make  Getting in a consistent rhythm Self-talk to motivate: The ability to convince  Pep talks positive yourself you are able to  You going to do alright today or succeed because you have c’mon man use your brain before. Using self-persuasion  You can do this, you know how to convince yourself you can to do this… I know I have done this before be successful.  You have been here before, you can do this, this isn’t hard, rely on what you know, you have practiced, you know how to get this done. Self-talk to motivate: Using negative self-talk can be  To be honest, there are days negative motivational when you get where I do stay calm when I am fired up and yell at yourself. making mistakes, I almost need This might seem negative but to get a little angry because it gives me a kick in the butt, and in fact leads to a positive sometimes I need to get a little result. negative to increase my performance.  Constantly saying, hey it’s not that difficult, you are making harder than it needs to be.

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Negative self-talk Yelling and getting upset with  Oh yeah, I probably have used hinders oneself for making a mistake negative way, called myself an potentially leads to making idiot a few times more mistakes.  I don’t know if I would yell at myself but I would slam a club occasionally.  Internally I would tell myself hey, what the hell are you doing? Creating a pathway to Using the practices of  Ability to limit mistakes for the the zone mindfulness, being present, day. visualization, routine, rhythm,  Limiting mistakes self-talk to create a path that  Putts dropping could lead to the zone.  Golf is not a game of perfect Being in the zone Being in a locked and focused  It doesn’t happen often state results in a heightened  Hard to articulate what happens level of play.  Feeling of everything I did was right  Feeling of extreme focus

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