r • 7 The Behavior Analyst 2005,28,99-131 No.2 (Fall)

B. R Skinner's Contributions to Applied Behavior Analysis Edward K. Morris and Nathaniel G. Smith University of Kansas Deborah E. Altus Washburn University

Our paper reviews and analyzes B. F. Skinner's contributions to applied behavior analysis in order to assess his role as the field's originator and founder. We found, first, that his contributions fall into five categorizes: the style and content of his science, his interpretations of typical and atypical human behavior, the implications he drew from his science for application, his descriptions of possible applications, and his own applications to nonhuman and human behavior. Second, we found that he explicitly or implicitly addressed all seven dimensions of applied behavior analysis. These contributions and the dimensions notwithstanding, he neither incorporated the field's scientific (e.g., analytic) and social dimensions (e.g., applied) into any program of published research such that he was its originator, nor did he systematically integrate, advance, and promote the dimensions so to have been its founder. As the founder of behavior analysis, however, he was the father of applied behavior analysis. Key words: B. F. Skinner, behavior analysis, applied behavior analysis, history

Having made contributions that fected both people's view of life and also their were both profound and practical, B. F. beer, wine, and medical treatment. Skinner's dis­ coveries in the field of the transaction of a high­ Skinner (1904-1990) was arguably the er organism with its environment will have a most eminent psychologist of the 20th greater and more enduring effect on man's view century (Haggbloom et aI., 2002). In of himself than the views of Freud. Meanwhile, 1970, the behavioral pharmacologist slowly but increasingly, education is being influ­ Peter Dews described Skinner's contri­ enced by Skinner's findings, and perhaps some day they may influence broadly how men dis­ butions this way: pense justice and punishment, raise children, handle neuroses, organize an economic system Massive advances in science can affect society and conduct international relations. (Dews, either by changing man's views of himself or by 1970, pp. ix-x) leading to substantive changes in his environ­ ment. The contributions of Copernicus and Dar­ win profoundly affected society through their Dews was prescient. In his research, philosophical implications, though they have Skinner established a science of behav­ made little difference to the contents of one's ior-the experimental analysis of be­ house or how one does things. Dalton's Atomic havior (Skinner, 1938, 1956a, 1966c). Theory and Faraday's Electromagnetism had lit­ tle influence on the nineteenth century Estab­ In applying his empiricist tenets and lishment, although they led, through chemistry selectionist principles to this science, and electricity, to profound changes in man's he formulated its philosophy-radical surroundings. The work of a few people has af­ behaviorism (Skinner, 1945b, 1950, fected society both ways; Pasteur's germs af- 1957c). Skinner was the originator of both (Schneider & Morris, 1987; Var­ Earlier versions of this article were presented gas, 2001, 2004). By integrating, ad­ at the 2004 meetings of the Association for Be­ vancing, and promoting them (Skinner, havior Analysis and the Mid-American Associ­ ation for Behavior Analysis and the 2005 meet­ 1938, 1953a, 1974), he also founded a ing of the California Association for Behavior new system of psychology, if not a Analysis. We thank Todd R. Risley for his com­ new discipline-behavior analysis (see ments and suggestions. Michael, 1985). Whether he was also Correspondence may be sent to the first au­ the originator and founder of applied thor, Department of Applied Behavioral Science, University of Kansas, 1000 Sunnyside Avenue, behavior analysis is, as yet, undeter­ Lawrence, Kansas 66045 (e-mail: [email protected]). mined. Our purpose is to reach some

99 100 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al. conclusions about these matters (on the useful in further analyzing his contri­ originator-founder distinction, see butions, but they are not our present Schultz & Schultz, 1987, p. 55). concern. What we find in the literature, to date, is varied. Some texts mention APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS none of Skinner's applied contributions (e.g., Chance, 1998; Kazdin, 2001), Before beginning, we need a defini­ whereas others offer assessments that tion of applied behavior analysis at the range from the circumspect to the cer­ time the field was founded so that tain. Here are some examples: (a) His Skinner's contributions can be fairly writings "contain insightful examples assessed against those standards, not from everyday life, and they interested later ones. For this, we find the follow­ many people from many disciplines in ing on the inside front cover of JABA's applying behavior principles to a broad first issue: "[JABA] is primarily for the range of topics" (Baldwin & Baldwin, original publication of reports of ex­ 2001, p. vii); (b) "Skinner's writings perimental work involving applications have been most influential ... in ex­ of the analysis of behavior to problems tending the application of his princi­ of social importance." Later in that is­ ples of behavior to new areas" (Coo­ sue, Baer, Wolf, and Risley (1968) ex­ per, Heron, & Heward, 1987, p. 10); panded on this in their article, "Some (c) "His many books and papers on ap­ Current Dimensions of Applied Behav­ plied technology led to the field of ap­ ior Analysis." Applied behavior anal­ plied behavior analysis" (Pierce & ysis, they wrote, "must be applied, be­ Cheney, 2004, p. 10); (d) "B. F. Skin­ havioral, and analytic; in addition, it ner (1904-1990) was a pioneer and should be technological, conceptually founder of behavior modification" systematic, and effective, and it should (Sarafino, 2001, p. 2); and (e) "Skin­ display some generality" (p. 92). This ner's work is the foundation of behav­ definition excludes later refinements ior modification" (Miltenberger, 1997, and advances regarding, for instance, p. 10; see also Krasner, 2001, p. 213). social validity (e.g., Wolf, 1978), pro­ Although applied behavior analysis gram integrity and treatment fidelity and behavior modification should not (e.g., L. Peterson, Homer, & Wonder­ be conflated (see J. M. Johnston, 1996; lich, 1982), and the concept of context J. Moore & Cooper, 2003; Vollmer, (e.g., Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1987). We 2001), we doubt that the authors of are not dismissing their importance in these comments meant to distinguish the evolution of applied behavior anal­ between them in this context. They ysis, just restricting our review of were, presumably, writing in general Skinner's contributions to the field to about Skinner's contributions. What­ the time it was founded. ever their assessments, they seemingly We also restrict our review to did not base them on systematic re­ JABA's main focus at the time it was views of his work. In deciding on the founded-operant behavioral process­ nature of Skinner's contributions, we es analyzed within individuals (Agras, offer one such review and organize it Kazdin, & Wilson, 1979; Martin & chronologically, starting with among Pear, 1996, p. 390; Willis & Giles, his first publications in 1930 and end­ 1976, pp. 15-19). At the time, the jour­ ing in 1968, when the Journal of Ap­ nal did not often address respondent plied Behavior Analysis (JABA) began behavioral relations (e.g., desensitiza­ publication. After that, no one can be tion; Wolpe, 1958; but see Leitenberg, said to have founded the field; it was Agras, Thompson, & Wright, 1968) or founded. Our exercise is inductive. We applied psychology based on between­ neither propose nor test any theories subject analyses (e.g., cognitive defi­ about Skinner's contributions. Theories cits; Fisher & Lerner, 1994; but see may follow from our review and be Guess, Sailor, Rutherford, & Baer, r SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 101

1968) or public health research that 1950, 1956a, 1966c). First, knowledge employed population-based measures was defined as effective action, not and methods (e.g., underage tobacco contemplation. Effective action includ­ use; Biglan et al., 1995; but see Bush­ ed reliable description, accurate predic­ ell, Wrobel, & Michaelis, 1968). Thus, tion, and experimental control, with an we mainly restrict Skinner's contribu­ emphasis on the last two-prediction tions to JABA's main focus. In doing and control. Second, prediction and so, though, we do not mean to diminish control were not based on correlations the importance of other processes and between independent and dependent problems, and methods and levels of variables but on the discovery and analysis. To the contrary, we encour­ demonstration of functional relations age them. They were just not that between them-functional analysis. much present at JABA's founding. Third, the discovery and demonstration To forecast our findings somewhat, of these relations were, respectively, Skinner's applied contributions fall the process and product, not of statis­ into five categories: (a) the style and tical analyses of between-group com­ content of his science, (b) his interpre­ parisons but of direct experimental tations of typical and atypical behavior, control of the subject matter-within­ (c) implications he drew from his sci­ individual research designs. Fourth, ence for application, (d) his descrip­ functional relations that had broad gen­ tions of possible applications, and (e) erality described basic principles­ his own applications to human and principles of behavior. And fifth, when nonhuman behavior. In making these those principles were integrated with contributions, he also addressed the one another, they constituted a theo­ seven dimensions of applied behavior ry-a theory or system of behavior. analysis. As for whether he was the These characteristics were not, in­ field's founder or played another role­ dividually, unique to Skinner. He ac­ for instance, that of its father-the an­ quired them from a number of sources: swer depends on how and where he in­ the empiricist philosopher Francis Ba­ corporated the dimensions into his con (1620/1960; Smith, 1996); Claude work, as we shall see. Bernard, the father of experimental medicine (1865/1949; see Thompson, THE BEHAVIOR OF ORGANISMS 1984); the Nobel laureate physiologist (1938) Ivan P. Pavlov (1927; see Catania & Skinner's most fundamental contri­ Laties, 1999); the philosophical prag­ bution to applied behavior analysis was matist C. S. Peirce (1878; see Moxley, the style and content of his science. By 2002); Ernst Mach, the physicist-phi­ his style, we mean his methodology, losopher of science (1883/1942; see which ranges from his empirical epis­ Marr, 1985); the experimental biologist temology to his experimental practices. Jacques Loeb (1916; see Hackenberg, By the content of his science, we mean 1995); and the general physiologist and what he discovered with this method­ Skinner's mentor W. J. Crozier (1928; ology-the basic principles of operant see Kazdin, 1978, pp. 91-93). In the behavior. Both the style and content of aggregate, however, these characteris­ his science were nascent in his first tics were an original synthesis of mod­ publications (e.g., 1930a), afterwards em advances in science and philosophy maturing into the behavioral system he that Skinner uniquely extended to be­ described in his first book, The Behav­ havior as a subject matter in its own ior of Organisms (1938). right (J. M. Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993; Sidman, 1960; see Lattal & Scientific Style: Behavioral, Chase, 2003; Smith, 1986, pp. 257­ Analytic, and Technological 297). Skinner's style had five characteris­ Skinner's style of science allowed tics (see Sidman, 1960; Skinner, 1947a, him to describe and even make appli- 102 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al. cations that were unlikely to have aris­ tions of its procedures are not only pre­ en in the research programs of his neo­ cisely technological, but also strive for behaviorist colleagues (e.g., Hull, relevance to principle" (p. 96). The ex­ 1943; Tolman, 1932). In fact, his style amples they provided were operant: re­ made applied behavior analysis almost inforcement, fading, and errorless dis­ inevitable. It only need be extended to crimination. Baer et al. continued: Re­ behavior of relatively immediate social lating technological descriptions to a importance, as sometimes seen in the conceptual system shows how "pro­ early volumes of the Journal ofthe Ex­ cedures may be derived from basic perimental Analysis of Behavior principles. This can have the effect of (JEAB, established in 1958; e.g., Ayl­ making a body of technology into a Ion & Michael, 1959). His style was, discipline rather than a collection of moreover, foundational to the three di­ tricks" (p. 96). This point is conveyed mensions of applied behavior analysis by the Chinese proverb, "Give a man that made the field scientific. It was be­ a fish and you feed him for a day. havioral, employing precise, quantifi­ Teach a man to fish and you feed him able, and accurate measurements (Baer for a lifetime." Recast in our context, et aI., 1968, p. 93). It was analytic, we have, "Give students a behavioral demonstrating direct and reliable ex­ technology, and they can solve today's perimental control (pp. 93-95). And, it problems. Teach them behavioral prin­ was technological, thoroughly describ­ ciples, and they can solve tomor­ ing its experimental preparations, pro­ row's." cedures, and materials (pp. 95-96; see In any event, by 1938, Skinner had Iversen & Lattal, 1991; Lattal & Per­ established a science of behavior one, 1998; Skinner, 1966c). whose style and content were founda­ tional to four of the seven dimensions Scientific Content: Conceptually of applied behavior analysis. Its style Systematic was behavioral, analytic, and techno­ logical. Its content was conceptually As already noted, the content of systematic. Skinner's science was the principles of behavior. In The Behavior of Organ­ BEFORE THE BEHAVIOR OF isms (1938), he addressed these in ORGANISMS: 1930-1938 chapters on what we know of today as operant reinforcement and extinction, Toward the end of The Behavior of response differentiation, schedules of Organisms, Skinner (1938) forecasted reinforcement, stimulus control, and the emergence of applied behavior establishing operations. In these and analysis in the following statement: other chapters, he addressed respon­ The reader will have noticed that almost no ex­ dent conditioning and extinction, aver­ tension to human behavior is made or suggested. sive control, conditioned reinforce­ This does not mean that he is expected to be ment, chaining, stimulus generaliza­ interested in the behavior of the rat for its own tion, and response induction. Although sake. The importance of a science of behavior the content of Skinner's science natu­ derives largely from the possibility of an even­ tual extension to human affairs. (p. 441) rally evolved after 1938 (see Mazur, 2002; Pear, 2001), the principles he de­ Although he warned that applications scribed in his book are found in every should not be overly emphasized in the modem textbook on applied behavior early stage of this science, he contin­ analysis (e.g., Miltenberger, 1997). ued, These principles were also the basis of the field's conceptually systematic It would, of course ... have been possible to suggest applications ... in a limited way at each dimension. As Baer et al. (1968) re­ step. This would probably have made for easier marked, "The field ... will probably reading, but it would have unreasonably length­ advance best if the published descrip- ened the book. Besides, the careful reader should

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SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 103

be as able to make applications as the writer.... in card-guessing tasks. Turning to per­ Let him extrapolate who will. (pp. 441-442) ception, he described how, under low Skinner himself "was soon extrapolat­ illumination, white circles appeared to ing" (Skinner, 1989a, p. 131). What he be tinted when set against a black meant by extrapolation, extension, and background (Skinner, 1932). In ex­ application, however, was broader than plaining this, he offered a physiologi­ what applied meant when applied be­ cal "functional-element theory of color havior analysis was founded. They en­ vision" that, he urged, needed testing. compassed the remaining four catego­ Skinner's other applications at this time ries of his contributions: his interpre­ fell into three areas to which he would tations of typical and atypical behavior, contribute more substantively through­ implications he drew from his science out his career: verbal behavior, behav­ for application, his descriptions of pos­ ioral pharmacology, and behavioral en­ sible applications, and his own appli­ gineering. cations. Verbal Behavior Earliest Applications In 1934, Skinner began working on At first, at Harvard University Verbal Behavior (1957c). In the first of (1928-1936), Skinner's applications his related publications-"Has Ger­ were not as closely aligned with the trude Stein a Secret?" (Skinner, eventual style and content of his sci­ 1934)-he pointed out that Stein's ence as we might expect, but this is not prose style was the result of "automat­ unusual in a young science. Research ic writing." This is writing in which methods are often, at first, exploratory, reading and writing occur simulta­ and the subject matter is not always neously yet independently of one an­ well defined. A distinctive program of other, with the content of the writing research may take a while to evolve. being often unconscious. This was As a result, early applications may be Skinner's first publication in the pop­ little more than exercises in critical ular press (the Atlantic Monthly). Af­ thinking, not extensions of established terward, most of his popular press pub­ methods and content. This was true for lications addressed applications, and Skinner as well (see Coleman, 1984). many of his applied publications ap­ For example, one of his earliest con­ peared in the popular press (see Ruth­ tributions-"On the Inheritance of erford, 2004). Maze Behavior" (Skinner, 1930b)­ Skinner's (1936) next relevant pub­ was a critique. He criticized (a) the lication was "The Verbal Summator methods used in a study of the relation and a Method for the Study of Latent between genetic strains of mice and re­ Speech." Through accident and inge­ action times and learning, and (b) the nuity, he invented a recording of vowel conclusions drawn from the resulting sounds (e.g., "uh-oh-ah-uh") that, with data (see Vicari, 1929). Skinner's cri­ instructions to listeners to report what tique was socially important and thus they heard, often yielded responses that "applied" in that, at the time, genetics were "significant," for instance, about had dark implications for cultural prac­ a listener's work and worries. The sum­ tices, among them, eugenics (Garth, mator was soon adopted and adapted 1930; see Gould, 1981; Leahey, 2004, in clinical psychology as a projective pp. 460-468). Skinner was also critical technique, an auditory version of the of research on extrasensory perception. Rorschach test (Shakow & Rosen­ For instance, in a review of J. B. zweig, 1940), but it eventually fell out Rhine's (1937) New Frontiers of the of favor for practical and methodolog­ Mind (Skinner, 1937b), he pointed out ical reasons (e.g., efficiency; see Ruth­ methodological flaws and biases in the erford, 2003a). Finally, in "The Distri­ studies of clairvoyance and telepathy bution of Associated Words," Skinner 104 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.

(1937a) described a logarithmic distri­ AFTER THE BEHAVIOR bution for the rank order of verbal re­ OF ORGANISMS: 1939-1945 sponses associated with verbal stimuli. He referred to the associations as After publishing The Behavior of "simple units in the dynamics of ver­ Organisms (1938), Skinner continued bal behavior" (p. 72). to address the foregoing topics and others, but they remained varied. Only Skinner's basic research was system­ Behavioral Pharmacology atic. Nonetheless, some of his appli­ cations were significant and others be­ After Skinner moved to the Univer­ came famous. sity of Minnesota (1936-1945), he and W. T. Heron (1937) published what has Inheritance been regarded as the first paper in be­ havioral pharmacology-"Effects of A decade after Skinner had critiqued Caffeine and Benzedrine upon Condi­ research that reportedly demonstrated tioning and Extinction" (Laties, 2003; the inheritance of maze behavior, he Poling, 2000, pp. 16-20). They applied himself studied inheritance. Heron and the style and content of Skinner's sci­ Skinner (1940) studied the extinction of ence to analyze the effects of drugs on bar pressing in strains of maze-bright or behavior and vice versa. Although the maze-dull rats. Although the strains dif­ study had no discernible influence on fered in their response rates, Heron and pharmacology at the time (Dews, Skinner attributed this to differences in 1987), Skinner was afterward a strong "drive"-a heightened effect of food advocate of such applications (Morse, deprivation that was correlated with 2005). maze brightness-rather than to inher­ ited differences in learning per se (see Behavioral Engineering J. L. Fuller & Thompson, 1978, pp. 132-151). In light of this research and Also in 1937, Skinner made his first the misconception that Skinner was a public demonstration of behavioral en­ radical environmentalist (e.g., de Waal, gineering, that is, of the power of his 2001, p. 57; Pinker, 2002, p. 20; contra. science to achieve certain ends, usually Morris, Lazo, & Smith, 2004), Heron's practical ones. He systematically rep­ (1935) research on selective breeding licated a study in which chimpanzees is, ironically, now cited as having been learned to exchange poker chips for "holding a place for behavioral genetics food (Cowles, 1937) by training a rat during the period of an ascendant en­ named Pliny the Elder to pull a string vironmentalism in psychology" (Mc­ to obtain a marble that Pliny lifted up Clearn & Foch, 1988, p. 686). and dropped down a tube, which pro­ duced food. Although not an applica­ Verbal Behavior tion of Skinner's science to human be­ Skinner was also studying verbal be­ havior, it was a demonstration of the havior. He and Stuart Cook systemati­ effectiveness of positive reinforcement, cally replicated his earlier study on the a test of the validity of his science, and distribution of associated words, this a microcosm of the token economy time discovering factors that correlated (see Ayllon & Azrin, 1968; Kazdin, with the distributions, for instance, the 1977). Although the demonstration frequency of the words in everyday drew national attention through an ar­ speech (Cook & Skinner, 1939). In ad­ ticle in Life magazine ("Working Rat," dition, he analyzed alliteration in 1937), Skinner's only report of it at the Shakespeare's sonnets, seeking evi­ time was a brief mention in The Be­ dence that words beginning with con­ havior of Organisms (1938, pp. 339­ sonants strengthened the probability 340). that the same first consonants would

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SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 105 appear in words that followed. He giving its content the appearance of found no such effects beyond those ex­ motion; (c) the role of "learned reac­ pected by chance, and concluded that, tions" in art appreciation; and (d) the for Shakespeare, alliteration was not effect of visual patterns in eliciting un­ the product of a poetic process (Skin­ conscious and conscious "emotional ner, 1939). In later extending these reactions." methods to Swinburne's poetry, though, he did find evidence for formal Anxiety strengthening in assonance (1941b). In addition, Skinner (1942) analyzed In a paper with William Estes, data from a national study on guessing; "Some Quantitative Properties of Anx­ guessing was for him "a special kind iety" (Estes & Skinner, 1941), Skinner of (usually verbal) behavior" (p. 495). for the first time experimentally ana­ After challenging a Gestalt interpreta­ lyzed, not just interpreted, an ordinary­ tion of the patterns of sequential guess­ language category of action: emotion. es, he offered a contingency-based ac­ Today, we would call this an animal count: Preceding guesses affected the model of human behavior (Overmier, probability of subsequent guesses. He 1992). Estes and Skinner began by de­ elaborated, scribing the received view on anxiety. Studies of formal patterning in speech have fre­ It was thought to have two character­ quently indicated a substantial tendency to re­ istics: "(1) It is an emotional state ... peat a response already made (see, for example, and (2) the disturbing stimulus which [Skinner, 1941b]), and various lines of evidence suggest that this is a primary characteristic of is principally responsible for it does verbal behavior. Nevertheless, a tendency is set not precede or accompany the state but up in the growing child, through readily observ­ is 'anticipated' in the future" (p. 390). able processes of conditioning, which opposes They then recast these characteristics, repetition. (pp. 499-500) arguing, first, that because a future In a footnote on this point, he wrote, stimulus cannot control present behav­ ior, the emotional state must be due to Reinforcements applied to speech to oppose pri­ or tendencies are fairly common and, indeed, a current stimulus, one that had in the give rise to some of the most important prop­ past been followed by the "disturbing" erties of verbal behavior. There is a special prob­ stimulus. Second, they expanded the lem involved in separating opposed effects for concept of emotional "state" to in­ measurement, but it is not insolvable. (p. 500) clude not just elicited reactions to cur­ Skinner's (1943) response to criticisms rent stimuli but also the effect of those of this paper was among his final pub­ stimuli on ongoing operant behavior. lications on verbal behavior before his Estes and Skinner then experimentally book was published (see also Skinner, analyzed (a) the suppressive effect of 1948a). conditioned preaversive stimuli on schedule-maintained behavior as a Perception function of (b) different levels of drive, In a chapter titled "The Psychology response maintenance and extinction of Design," Skinner (1941a) again conditions, and the presence and ab­ evinced interest in perception. He ar­ sence of the unconditioned aversive gued that, although drawings and stimulus. In the 1950s and 1960s, this paintings could be analyzed formally, study became foundational for alter­ art and its appreciation were neither natives to structural, physiological, and physics nor mathematics. They were purely Pavlovian models of emotion biology and behavior. They concerned, (see Fantino, 1973, pp. 299-302; Mil­ for example, (a) the effects of visual lenson, 1967, pp. 441-455; Skinner, patterns on "looking"; (b) how the phi 1959c), as well as for research that as­ phenomenon was manifested by eye sessed the effects of pharmacological movements between spots on a canvas, agents in relieving emotional distress 106 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.

(see Millenson & Leslie, 1979, pp. Only in a lighter moment in Project 413-433). Pigeon did Skinner discover shaping as we know it today. He and his col­ Project Pigeon: 1940-1944 leagues sought to train a pigeon to bowl by having it swipe its beak at a During World War II, Skinner un­ ball. Although they set up the requisite dertook a program of applied research physical environment, the pigeon did in which he trained pigeons to guide not swipe at the ball before they grew simulated bombs to precise destina­ tired of waiting. Skinner thus rein­ tions. Funded by the General Mills forced the pigeon's first approximation Company and the United States Office of a swipe and then others that succes­ of Scientific Research and Develop­ sively approached its final form. The ment (OSRD) and called "Project Pi­ results "amazed" him (Skinner, 1958a, geon" (Skinner, 1960b), this was Skin­ p. 94). He had never previously ob­ ner's first sustained program of behav­ served such rapid, effective, and di­ ioral engineering. Although he could rected change in behavior. On the basis not overcome differences between his of this discovery, he reformulated his style of science and his disciplinary account of verbal behavior to empha­ outlook and those of the OSRD engi­ size the role of reciprocal social con­ neers (Capshew, 1996), Skinner and tingencies and began more resolutely his colleagues (Estes, Norm Guttman, to extend his science to human behav­ and Keller and Marian Breland) con­ ior (G. B. Peterson, 2004). Although ducted significant use-inspired basic he did not use the term shaping until research over the course of the project on schedules of reinforcement, stimu­ 1951 (Skinner, 1951b), it has become lus control, and establishing operations a technical term for an indispensable (e.g., food deprivation, oxygen pres­ procedure for establishing new behav­ sure, and temperature). ior (Kazdin, 2001, pp. 43-46, 274­ In the course of the project, Skinner, 276; Martin & Pear, 1996, pp. 64-76), Guttman, and Keller Breland discov­ and applications in behaviorally based ered shaping (Skinner, 1958a, 1972d; robotics (Savage, 2001). see G. B. Peterson, 2004). Although Project Pigeon was Skinner's first Skinner had used lever pressing in rats application of his science beyond his as a dependent variable since 1930, ap­ own teaching and research. As he later parently he had never directly shaped related, "The research that I described it. He simply placed his rats in their in The Behavior of Organisms ap­ chambers and waited for lever pressing peared in a new light. It was no longer to occur, sometimes putting food on merely an experimental analysis. It had the lever to induce it. He also did not given rise to a technology" (Skinner, directly shape the feats of Pliny the El­ 1979, p. 274). In later turning to edu­ der. Instead, he modified Pliny's phys­ cation, he noted the "direct genetic ical environment (e.g., drop-off edges), connection between teaching machines waited for an appropriate response to and Project Pigeon" (Skinner, 1960b, occur, reinforced it to strength, and pp. 36-37), that is, the engineering of then modified the physical environ­ behavior. A more extended application ment again. Similarly, in the research of Skinner's science was the Brelands' reported in The Behavior ofOrganisms (1951) founding of Animal Behavior (1938) on the differentiation of re­ Enterprises in 1947 to train animals for sponse intensity and duration, he en­ entertainment and commercial purpos­ gineered the physics of the response re­ es (e.g., circuses, advertising). Perhaps quirements (e.g., the force required to the ultimate test, though, was the Na­ press the lever), waited for a response tional Aeronautics and Space Admin­ that met those requirements, and rein­ istration's use of Skinner's science to forced it. train chimpanzees for its Project Mer- 7 •

SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 107 cury flights in the late 1950s and early Montana. Deborah Skinner Buzan af­ 1960s (see Rohles, 1966, 1992). terward cogently refuted this story in a letter to the editor of The Guardian Baby in a Box (Buzan, 2004).

Skinner's next application-referred WALDEN TWO to as the "air crib," "baby tender," and "heir conditioner"-was actually We now come to Skinner's (1948d) not much of a behavioral application. novel, Walden Two, written in 1945 As described in his 1945 article, and published in 1948. The book was "Baby in a Box" (Skinner, 1945a), the patterned, in part, after Bacon's (1624/ air crib was a self-contained, sound-at­ 1942) utopian work, New Atlantis, in tenuating living space with a full front which the physical and biological sci­ window, air filters, controls for heat ences were used to improve the human and humidity, and a continuous roll of condition. In Walden Two, behavioral sheeting for changing the bed. Skinner science was applied to the same end. constructed it in 1944 for his wife, The impetus for Skinner's book was, in Eve, and their second daughter, Debo­ part, both social and personal. First, in rah, to enhance Deborah's comfort, the course of a dinner conversation health, and development, and make in­ with a friend whose son-in-law was fant and child care more enjoyable stationed in the South Pacific, Skinner (e.g., increasing the opportunities for mused about what young people would joint play by reducing the time spent do when World War II ended. "What washing clothes; see Benjamin & Niel­ a shame," he said, "that they would sen-Gammon, 1999; Jordan, 1996). abandon their crusading spirit" (Skin­ Although a contribution to domestic ner, 1979, p. 292). When asked what engineering, as well as another of they should do, he responded, "They Skinner's inventions, the air crib should experiment: They should ex­ served biological functions as much as plore new ways of living, as people behavioral ones, and was equally a test had done in the communities of the of materials science in the mid-1940s nineteenth century." Although many as a test of behavioral science. In fact, of those communities had failed, Skin­ Skinner conducted no experiments ner was optimistic: "Young people to­ with Deborah beyond adjusting the day might have better luck. They could crib's heat and humidity so that she build a culture that would come closer would play and sleep comfortably. to satisfying human needs than the "Baby in a Box" was, at best, a case American way of life" (1979, p. 292). study of the air crib's contributions to The personal impetus for writing the Deborah's and Eve's health and hap­ book lay in dissatisfactions with Skin­ piness. Today, the application that most ner's own life: closely resembles the air crib is medi­ I had seen my wife and her friends struggling to cal-isolettes used in neonatal infant save themselves from domesticity, wincing as care units. they printed "housewife" in those blanks asking The air crib, of course, is the subject for occupation. Our older daughter had just fin­ of urban legends, a recent one appear­ ished first grade, and there is nothing like a first child's first year in school to tum one's thoughts ing in Slater's (2004) Opening Skin­ to education. (Skinner, 1976, p. v) ner's Box: Great Psychological Exper­ iments of the Twentieth Century. Here, Applications: Cultural Practices Skinner had allegedly confined Debo­ rah to the air crib for 2 years and meted Given Skinner's interest in extend­ out rewards and "mean punishments," ing his science to human behavior, his making her psychotic, which led her to optimism about cultural design, and his commit suicide by gunshot at the age dissatisfaction with the status quo, we of 31 in a bowling alley in Billings, would expect him to have described 108 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al. the process of establishing community much misrepresented the whole system practices (i.e., the style of Skinner's if you suppose that any of the practices science), not so much the community's I've described are fixed. We tryout already established practices. His many different techniques. Gradually book, however, mainly described the we work toward the best possible set" latter. Among these were practices in (p. 106). In speaking to this theme lat­ childrearing (e.g., group care), educa­ er, Skinner commented, tion (e.g., learning by discovery), work (e.g., labor credits), and environmental I had no idea how the principles could be ap­ stewardship (e.g., sustainable agricul­ plied to real live people in a fairly complex or­ ganism, but we've found out since then.... To­ ture). Given that the book described es­ day we have much more relevant information in tablished practices, it likely had little setting up communities like Walden Two and, direct influence on the process of de­ by experimenting, I am sure we could arrive at riving, implementing, and validating a viable pattern. If it turns out to be the pattern of Walden Two, I'll have made one of the most specific behavioral technologies. In remarkable guesses in history. (Hall, 1972, p. fact, terms such as the "principles" of 71) behavioral engineering were used spar­ ingly throughout the book, the "sci­ Skinner's vision, then, was not about ence of behavior" only twice, and "re­ particular community practices but inforcement theory" seemingly just about an empirical approach to deriv­ once. ing, implementing, and validating practices that worked. Skinner's Utopian Vision: Like the practices in Walden Two Processes or Practices (1948d), the practices now so often identified with applied behavior anal­ Perhaps because Walden Two's ysis-for instance, discrete-trial behav­ (1948d) practices were established and ioral interventions for children with the process mainly implied, the prac­ autism (e.g., Lovaas, 1981, 1987) and tices have been taken to be Skinner's "behavior modification" in general utopian vision and thus a blueprint for (Kazdin, 2001; Sarafino, 200l)-are intentional communities (Altus & Mor­ also not essentialist, but contingent. ris, 2004). Skinner, however, had no They have been selected for by their blueprint, which is a common misun­ effectiveness in biological, individual, derstanding (e.g., Kuhlman, 2005), and social, and cultural contexts. The only his utopian vision was different. His constant is the process of deriving, im­ vision was that intentional communi­ plementing, and validating those prac­ ties take an empirical approach to dis­ tices through the experimental analysis covering and demonstrating cultural of behavior (Baer, 2001). On this view, practices that worked. On this view, there are no "ABA" interventions, only Walden Two's practices were contin­ interventions that have been discov­ gent, not essentialist. They were con­ ered and demonstrated to be effective tingent on what worked in the com­ through empirical research. Even munity's historical and then-current though these applied practices (behav­ American context. Experimentation ior modification) and experimental was the only constant. Skinner made analyses of them (applied behavior this point several times through the analysis) may share a common concep­ character of T. E. Frazier. For example, tual system, they are different activities "The actual achievement is beside the (Deitz, 1978, 1983). If the distinction point. The main thing is, we encourage is not respected, then their unique con­ our people to view every habit and tributions to improving the human con­ custom with an eye to possible im­ dition may be misunderstood in the be­ provement. A constantly experimental havioral, social, and cognitive scienc­ attitude toward everything-that's all es, and by funding agencies, to the det­ we need" (p. 25). And, "I've very riment of the discipline and the culture SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 109 at large (J. M. Johnston, 1996; J. Moore Stimulus-Response Analysis of Anxi­ & Cooper, 2003; Vollmer, 2001). ety and Its Role as a Reinforcing Agent," offered an interpretation of Applications: Scientific Processes psychoanalysis based on Pavlov's (1927) research on conditioned reflexes Although Walden Two's (1948d) and Hull's (1943) drive-reduction the­ practices were mainly established, ory of instrumental conditioning (see Skinner did occasionally describe the Dollard & Miller, 1950; Miller & Dol­ process of how his science could be lard, 1943). These theories and this re­ applied to solving problems. The more search contributed in important ways conspicuous of these practices, though, to the emergence of behavior therapy were aversive. Although not now nor­ in the late 1950s (e.g., Eysenck, 1960; mative in applied behavior analysis, Franks, 1964; Wolpe, 1958; see aversive practices were evident in O'Donohue, Henderson, Hayes, Fisher, JABA's first issue (e.g., Powell & & Hayes, 2001), but played less of a Azrin, 1968; Risley, 1968). One such role in applied behavior analysis. The practice in Walden Two was the use of scientific style and content of behavior an electric fence to control the grazing therapy in the 1960s-for instance, sta­ patterns of sheep (pp. 14-15). Of this tistical rather than experimental con­ use of punishment, Frazier commented trol, and respondent behavioral pro­ dismissively, "It's a primitive principle cesses-were not the focus of applied of control" (p. 251). As for punish­ behavior analysis. ment with humans, he noted, "we Notwithstanding Kazdin's (1977) don't punish. We never deliver an un­ comment that Skinner's "most ambi­ pleasantness in the hope of repressing tious extension of operant principles or eliminating undesirable behavior" was in '" Walden Two" (p. 22) or (p. 104). Some of Walden Two's appli­ Krasner's (2001, p. 217) more recent cations, though, did use negative rein­ remark that "behavior therapy was forcement, for instance, to teach self­ given [its] classic expression" in the control and to reduce destructive emo­ book, the book described little about tions through systematic desensitiza­ therapy per se. Its main contribution tion, but this was far from the norm for was the very idea of application-a be­ Skinner. Although he did not deny the havioral zeitgeist for those who would usefulness of aversive control in ex­ later apply Skinner's science. treme cases (e.g., to suppress life­ threatening self-injurious behavior; Applied and Effective Skinner, 1988b), he was deeply critical of punishment as a personal, social, or Skinner did describe one practice in cultural practice (Skinner, 1971b, pp. Walden Two (1948d) that became 62-100; 1973a). foundational to applied behavior anal­ Aversive conditioning and desensi­ ysis, specifically to its applied and ef­ tization were not new in 1945, of fective dimensions. By applied, Baer et course. In the 1920s, John B. Watson al. (1968) meant that "the behavior, and Rosalie Rayner (1920) had condi­ stimuli, and/or organism under study tioned a child's fear of a rat (see B. are chosen because of their importance Harris, 1979) and, under Watson's to man and society, rather than their oversight, Mary Cover Jones (1924b) importance to theory" (p. 92). By ef­ eliminated a child's fear of a rabbit (see fective, they meant that an application's also Jones, 1924a; Ollendick & King, "practical importance, specifically its 1998). In 1935, Hobart and Molly power in altering behavior enough to Mowrer (1938) developed the bell-and­ be socially important, is the essential pad method for treating nocturnal en­ criterion" (p. 96). As for the instanti­ uresis (see Houts, 2003). A few years ation of these dimensions in Walden later, Mowrer's (1939) article, "A Two, its members were surveyed about 110 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al. their "satisfaction" with community Paranormal Phenomena practices, that is, with the importance Skinner (1947c) was also again crit­ and effectiveness of those practices. In ical of research on paranormal phe­ this, Skinner anticipated the role of nomena, this time on psychokinesis, consumer satisfaction more than two that is, the purported ability of the decades before Baer et al. (1968) ad­ mind to control matter, for instance, to dressed the ethical basis of social in­ bend spoons. In addition to raising his terventions and three decades before earlier objections about the lack of ex­ Wolf (1978) made a case for what we perimental control, he noted that, by know today as social validity. their very definition, paranormal phe­ nomena were "out of reach of scien­ AFTER WALDEN TWO: tific inquiry" (p. 34). They were part 1945-1953 of a literally dualistic worldview (see also Skinner, 1947a). He voiced these Between writing Walden Two in criticisms again a year later in a letter 1945 and publishing Science and Hu­ to the American Scientist, objecting to man Behavior in 1953, Skinner re­ its having published a column on "pre­ turned to topics he had addressed ear­ cognitive telepathy" (Skinner, 1948a). lier (e.g., Skinner, 1951a) and took up new ones. After moving to Indiana Applied Psychology University (1945-1947), he criticized analyses of human nature based in folk In 1947, Skinner (1947b) published psychology rather than in natural sci­ a remarkable chapter titled "Experi­ ence (Skinner, 1946); social sciences mental Psychology," in which he de­ that gathered facts but did not establish fined the field as the functional analysis functional relations among them (Skin­ of behavior. Its goal was to understand ner, 1948b); and "thinking machines" behavior through prediction and con­ trol, where prediction and control were that modeled human action on cyber­ a means for understanding, not ends in netics rather than on the principles of themselves. He then criticized applied behavior (Skinner, 1951c). psychology for not being experimental, that is, for using correlational meth­ Superstition ods-prediction without control. Yet, he was optimistic: Applied psychology Perhaps because of its simplicity and would become experimental when its inherent interest, Skinner's most wide­ practitioners started working with be­ ly cited research at this or perhaps any havior directly. This was not a "matter time was another animal model, this of bringing the world into the labora­ one of superstition (Skinner, 1948c; see tory, but of extending the practices of Todd & Morris, 1983). He found that an experimental science to the world at fixed-time, response-independent de­ large. We can do this as soon as we liveries of reinforcers produced idio­ wish" (p. 24). Until this happens, syncratic, yet often stable, patterns of though, he wrote, "Our definition of behavior in pigeons, for example, "a the experimental field is ... not yet pendulum motion of the head and complete, since [experimental psychol­ body" (p. 168). He likened these ac­ ogy] does not exclude the applied in­ tions to human "rituals for changing terest in functional control" (p. 26). one's luck at cards" and a bowler's In Skinner's view, applied psychol­ "twisting and turning his arm and ogy should be experimental psycholo­ shoulder" after releasing the ball (p. gy, a psychology that enhances our un­ 171). For a modern review of this and derstanding of behavior through dis­ related research, see Vyse's (1997) Be­ coveries and demonstrations of how it lieving in Magic: The Psychology of is controlled and how it can be con­ Superstition. trolled in everyday life. In this, he was SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS III proposing that applied psychology be ethical implications of the social and behavioral, analytic, and technologi­ behavioral sciences. In the resulting ar­ cal-the three dimensions needed for it ticle, "The Application of Scientific to become a science. Soon afterward, Method to the Study of Human Behav­ Paul Fuller (1949), a graduate student ior" (Brinton, Krutch, Kroeber, Skin­ at Indiana, conducted a pioneering ner, & Haydn, 1952), he argued that a study on the application of operant re­ science of behavior could help "make inforcement. He selectively increased decisions on some very important arm movements in an institutionalized problems" (p. 209) that had not been l8-year-old "vegetative human organ­ solved by the social sciences or hu­ ism" who was thought incapable of manities. Although these disciplines any learning at all. The application of might bring actuarial data and case Skinner's science was in the air. studies to bear on societal problems, they offered no principles of individual Application behavior. He also pointed out that a science of Only after returning to Harvard in human behavior can help address the 1947 did Skinner (195lb) publish his "naturalistic fallacy" (G. E. Moore, first paper describing actual applica­ 1903/1966). This is the fallacy that we tions-"How to Teach Animals." In it, can derive ethics and values about how he related how "some simple tech­ the world "ought" to be (e.g., that we niques of the psychological laboratory ought to do something about global can also be used in the home" (p. 26) warming) from statements about how (a) to train dogs, with a clicker, to lift the world "is" (e.g., the global tem­ their heads and tum around; (b) to perature is rising). Only ethics is teach pigeons to "read" words and thought capable of addressing the for­ play a toy piano; and (c) to instruct mer, and only science the latter. In parents on how to extinguish their chil­ Skinner's view, though, a science of dren's "annoying behavior" through human behavior could address both. the differential reinforcement of other "Ought" statements are verbal behav­ behavior. ior about values; values concern short­ The article prompted a writer from and long-term positive and negative re­ magazine to have Skinner dem­ Look inforcers; and reinforcers are the con­ onstrate these "simple techniques," sequences of actions. Skinner's science leading Skinner to undertake another was a science of action, reinforcers, demonstration of behavioral engineer­ and verbal behavior. It offered an em­ ing. He taught a dog to leap to a pre­ pirical basis for informing us about scribed height and to press a pedal to what practices might-but not must­ lift the lid of a trash can ("Harvard produce valued consequences for the Trained Dog," 1952; see G. B. Peter­ individual, social group, or ultimately son, 2001). Pryor (1994, 1999) has the culture (Skinner, 1971b). For a re­ since developed and disseminated be­ view of naturalized ethics, see Vogel­ havioral technologies for zoos and tanz and Plaud (1992). theme parks, the everyday pet owner, and therapy animals for people with disabilities (see the Special Interest SCIENCE AND HUMAN Group for Applied Animal Behavior in BEHAVIOR (1953a) the Association for Behavior Analysis; We tum now to Science and Human www.abainternational.org). Behavior (1953a) Skinner's first exten­ sion of his science and philosophy to Ethics and Values psychology as a whole. In it, he de­ Just before publishing Science and voted entire chapters to application: in­ Human Behavior (1953a), Skinner par­ dividual practices, such as self-control ticipated in a forum that explored the and thinking; social practices, includ- 112 EDWARD K. MORRIS et aI. ing personal and group control; and in a more easily understood form in Keller and cultural practices, among them psycho­ Schoenfeld [1950], the development of the be­ havior modification movement needed Skinner's therapy and education. Other chapters own bold extrapolation to all aspects of human contained sections explicitly titled "the behavior. Most experimental psychologists are practical use of ... ," for instance, of inherently conservative in describing the rele­ drives, emotion, aversive stimuli, and vance of their work to practical situations, but multiple causation. not Skinner. In Science and Human Behavior, using only the basic concepts of behavior anal­ Given Skinner's treatment of these ysis that appeared in The Behavior of Organ­ topics, his book has been viewed as isms, some results of his subsequent work with foundational to applied behavior anal­ pigeons, and the material which ultimately went ysis. Twenty-five years ago, for in­ into Verbal Behavior, he managed to deal with stance, Wilson and O'Leary (1980) de­ a wide variety of human situations from a com­ pletely behavioral point of view, and very con­ scribed it as "particularly significant vincingly at that. It was this extension to all as­ [in] the extension of operant principles pects of human activity that, I think, provided to human problems," especially in its behaviorists with the encouragement necessary critique of psychoanalysis and the for them to begin contributing to the areas of "conceptualization of psychotherapy mental illness, mental retardation, and other ap­ plied fields. (pp. 3-4; see also Michael, 1984, p. in behavioral terms" (p. 11). More re­ 364) cent assessments also support this view (Pilgrim, 2003): (a) "Skinner's (1953) As an aside, Baer et aI. (1968) included book ... was the first to provide ex­ just three references in their paper on tensive examples of behavior princi­ the dimensions of applied behavior ples in everyday life" (Baldwin & analysis: Sidman's (1960) Tactics of Baldwin, 2001, p. 10); (b) its "inter­ Scientific Research, JEAB, and Science pretations influenced others to begin and Human Behavior. Sidman's book examining the effects of reinforcement described the style of Skinner's sci­ variables on human behavior in a num­ ence, JEAB its content, and Science ber of experimental and applied set­ and Human Behavior his system. Baer tings" (Martin & Pear, 1996, p. 383); et aI. thus apparently viewed the book (c) it "contains early expressions of as one of the field's three most impor­ much that was to come: ... the entire tant foundations. field of applied behavior analysis" Although the foregoing quotations (Marr, 2003, p. 311); and (d) "as we speak strongly to the book's influence survey the contemporary scene, we can on applied behavior analysis, beyond point to many applications traceable in these testimonials the evidence could one way or another to Science and Hu­ man Behavior" (Catania, 2003, p. 319; be stronger. Historiography needs to be see also Cooper et aI., 1987, p. 11; prospective from the past about the Miltenberger, 1997, p. 10). past, not retrospective from the present Michael (1980) has been especially (Stocking, 1965). The validity of the outspoken in this regard. As for the ef­ foregoing quotations about the book's fect of the book on him personally, he influence, for instance, might be as­ has noted, "I came at the applied area sessed by analyzing references to it in primarily from extensive study of ... the first volume of JABA, as well as in Science and Human Behavior; not the important pre-1968 applied publi­ from the rat lab" (Michael & Malott, cations (e.g., Ayllon & Michael, 1959; 2003, p. 115). As for the book's broad­ Wolf, Risley, & Mees, 1964). Another er influence, he has observed, approach would be to analyze citations to the book in today's applied text­ Skinner's Science and Human Behavior ap­ books and those that address the field's peared in 1953 and was, it seems to me, the history. For example, although Kazdin main factor responsible for the development of the area called behavior modification. Though (1978) commented on the book a num­ all the basic principles had been available in The ber of times in History of Behavior Behavior of Organisms, and were later available Modification (e.g., pp. 146, 175, 180, -

SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 113

202), his only observation about its in­ Significance fluence was not telling: Foundational or not on this point, Skinner's [1953] extension of operant principles Science and Human Behavior remains to human behavior, particularly to clinically rel­ one of Skinner's most significant evant behaviors, suggested the utility of a be­ books. First, as Michael (1980) noted, havioral approach as an alternative to the psy­ chiatric model. The application of operant meth­ it offered compelling and wide-ranging ods to achieve clinical changes followed several interpretations of socially important years after his pronouncements. (p. 146) behavior and descriptions of possible applications. Although Skinner (1938, In O'Donohue et al.'s (2001) recent p. 442) had written that "the careful A History ofthe Behavioral Therapies: reader should be as able to make ap­ Founders' Personal Histories, most plications as the writer," apparently no chapters neither cite nor refer to Skin­ one did this as well as Skinner before ner's book (e.g., Julie Vargas on Skin­ 1953, except perhaps Keller and ner, the autobiographies by Lindsley Schoenfeld (1950). Second, the book and Baer). The chapters that do are was reviewed not only by psycholo­ Poppen's biography of Wolpe and the gists but also by anthropologists, biol­ autobiographies by Bijou, Krasner, ogists, ethicists, philosophers, and so­ Mischel, Risley, and Wolf. ciologists (e.g., Birdwhistell, 1954; The autobiographies, though, are not Eng, 1955; Fleming, 1953; Prosch, compelling about the book's impact. 1953; Strong, 1954), thereby broaden­ Bijou (2001), for instance, commented ing its influence (see Pilgrim, 2003). only that he had audited the course Third, it was, in its day, an introduc­ Skinner taught at Harvard based on tory psychology textbook (Skinner, Science and Human Behavior, and 1983b, p. 45; see Bjork, 1993, p. 153), Wolf (2001) only that he had read the and thus was read by several genera­ book at Michael's "suggestion." Kras­ tions of students, some of whom ner (2001) offered a general assess­ earned advanced degrees in psycholo­ ment, observing that Skinner's publi­ gy and related fields (e.g., education). cations, Science and Human Behavior Fourth, Michael read the book (Mi­ among them, were "overwhelmingly chael, 2003)-Michael who was to influential" in the field of instrumental conditioning, which was "the most in­ Skinner what T. H. Huxley was to fluential stream in the development of Charles Darwin (1859). Huxley, an im­ behavior therapy" (p. 208). Only Ris­ portant 19th century naturalist, was ley (2001) described how the book af­ known as Darwin's "bulldog" for his fected him directly: avid defense of and popularization of evolutionary biology (Huxley, 1863/ I was most influenced by Skinner's urgings for 1954; see Leahey, 2004,pp. 200, 204­ the development of behavioral and social tech­ 205). After Michael read Science and nology to overcome our genetic predilections Human Behavior, this was his role vis­ and our cultural superstitions. The first three chapters of Science and Human Behavior a-vis Skinner and behavior analysis. In (l953[a]), Skinner had outlined an agenda for addition, Michael was the teacher, ad­ an inductive, empirical approach to a science of viser, mentor, and colleague of many of human behavior. (Which was followed by 26 the first generation of applied behavior chapters of a deductive, logical explanation of analysts (see Goodall, 1972; Kazdin, uninvestigated human behavior.) (p. 271) 1978, pp. 233-274; Michael, 2003). This is a sample of today's referencing Fifth, Science and Human Behavior practices and comments regarding Sci­ (1953a) has been considered essential ence and Human Behavior. They do for establishing a "minimal doctoral not address the question of how the repertoire in behavior analysis" (Mi­ book directly influenced applied be­ chael, 1980, p. 17) and is today highly havior analysis. More research re­ rated and ranked by editorial board mains. members of JEAB and JABA. In a re- 114 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al. cent survey, three quarters of the re­ Nonetheless, he at first urged caution spondents listed the book as one of the about pharmacological applications. In "essential readings for students who "Animal Research in the Pharmaco­ are being trained in the experimental therapy of Mental Disease," he argued analysis of behavior, applied behavior that, although drugs might be "impor­ analysis, and related disciplines" (Sa­ tant in the management and treatment ville, Beal, & Buskist, 2002, p. 30). of mental disease" (Skinner, 1959a, p. The lEAB board members ranked it 224), pharmacology first has to be first, and the lABA board members grounded on principles derived from ranked it second only to Baer et al. the experimental analysis of human be­ (1968). It is also steadily and highly cit­ havior. These principles assured that ed in citation indexes (Pilgrim, 2003). explanations of a drug's "mode of ac­ The book's importance is obvious, even tion" were based not just on the drug if its direct influence on applied behav­ itself, but also on behavior, that is, on ior analysis requires further support. behavioral history and prevailing con­ tingencies (e.g., appetitive vs. aversive APPLICATIONS AND APPLIED control). The principles also provide RESEARCH: 1953-1959 explanations of behavior based not on mental processes and personality traits Applications but on naturalistic accounts of human After publishing Science and Hu­ behavior, that is, on biology, environ­ man Behavior, Skinner turned even ment, and history. Grounding applied more toward application. He extended behavior analysis on Skinner's science his animal model of superstition to a had similar effects. It provided an ac­ second type (Morse & Skinner, count of atypical behavior based on 1957)-responding under adventitious historical and current contingencies in stimulus control. In writing about the biological and environmental context, experimental analysis of behavior, he not on mind, personality, or pure phys­ addressed such topics as attention, mo­ iology. tivation, gambling, social relations, Verbal behavior. In psychology, psychotic behavior, psychotherapy, Skinner's most famous extension of his school discipline, education, and in­ science to human behavior was Verbal dustry (e.g., Skinner, 1953b, 1956a, Behavior (1957c), which he believed 1957a, 1958b, 1959d). However, he fo­ was his "most important work" (1977, cused most directly on (a) behavioral p. 379). The book was also more ap­ pharmacology; (b) verbal behavior; (c) plied than is typically appreciated. As psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, and Skinner put it, "The formulation is in­ mental disease; and (d) ethics in the herently practical and suggests imme­ control of human behavior. diate technological applications at al­ Behavioral pharmacology. Through­ most every step" (1957c, p. 12). Tech­ out the 1950s, Skinner actively pro­ nological applications were, in tum, an moted the use of operant methods in arbiter of how well the book explained pharmacology, drawing on examples verbal behavior: from J. V. Brady (1956) and Dews (1956; Dews & Skinner, 1956) and his The extent to which we understand verbal be­ own work with Ferster (e.g., Ferster & havior in a "causal" analysis is to be assessed from the extent to which we can predict the oc­ Skinner, 1957, pp. 83-85, 385-390, currence of specific instances and, eventually, 413-414, 596-597, 627-629, 695, from the extent to which we can produce or con­ 716-718; Skinner, 1957a; see Berg­ trol such behavior by altering the conditions un­ man, Katz, & Miczek, 2002; Laties, der which it occurs. In representing such a goal 2003; Skinner, 1983b, pp. 99-101). it is helpful to keep certain engineering tasks in mind. How can the teacher establish the specific Over time, his style of science-in par­ verbal repertoires which are the principal end­ ticular, his steady-state methods-be­ products of education? How can the therapist came fundamental to the field. uncover latent verbal behavior in a therapeutic .. •

SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 115

interview? How can the writer evoke his own Shortly afterward, he published three verbal behavior in the act of composition? How papers more directly relevant to the can the scientist, mathematician, or logician ma­ nipulate his verbal behavior in productive think­ process of therapy. In the first, "Cri­ ing? Practical problems of this sort are, of tique of Psychoanalytic Concepts and course, endless. To solve them is not the im­ Theories" (1954a), he pointed out that mediate goal of a scientific analysis, but they Freud's independent variables were hy­ underline the kinds of processes and relation­ ships which such an analysis must consider. (p. pothetical representations of the prod­ 3) ucts of behavioral ontogeny (e.g., the superego), and that Freud's proximal And consider them, Skinner did. dependent variables were hypothetical Verbal Behavior (1957c) is replete processes (e.g., repression), neither of with interpretations, implications, and which was measurable or manipulable. descriptions of applications. These in­ On these accounts, behavior was a clude (a) material on the reinforcement symptom of the representations and and punishment of the basic verbal op­ processes, not a subject matter unto it­ erants (e.g., mands, tacts, intraverbals), self. For Skinner, in contrast, the rep­ their stimulus controls (e.g., audience resentations and processes were but effects), and their motivation (e.g., shorthand descriptions of the history deprivation); (b) references to relevant and dynamics of public and private be­ research (e.g., the verbal summator); havior. Skinner's second publication­ and (c) material that addressed the "What Is Psychotic Behavior?" "practical control" of speaker behav­ (1956b)-extended this critique. He ior through prompts and probes (pp. likened psychoanalytic explanations to 254-268), instructions (pp. 362-367), psychology's generally mentalistic and self-strengthening (pp. 403-417), and reductionistic explanations. Psycholo­ its construction (pp. 422-431). He also gy had failed, he thought, to apply sci­ cited Greenspoon's (1955) research on ence to human behavior, which was for the conditioning of adult verbal behav­ him its "primary object" (p. 79). ior with generalized social reinforce­ In his third publication, "The Psy­ ment, which presaged the implications chological Point of View" (1957b), of conditioning for conversations (see Skinner was more constructive. He ar­ Verplanck, 1955) and psychotherapy gued that the experimental analysis of (Greenspoon, 1962; Truax, 1966; see behavior could be integrated with ge­ Glenn, 1983). netic and organic approaches to under­ According to Michael (1984), how­ standing psychiatric illness. In partic­ ever, Verbal Behavior (1957c) was so ular, it could offer precise laboratory­ speculative that it was often an embar­ based measures of, for instance, rassment to "operant researchers" (p. sensory control, motor behavior, emo­ 369) and of little value to those who tional behavior, motivation, and learn­ undertook the first empirically based ing. It could provide "a base-line upon applications of Skinner's science. which the effect of genetic, organic, Thus, the book probably had little in­ and other variables may be observed" fluence on the founding of applied be­ (p. 132). And, it could "change the be­ havior analysis. Today, however, it havior of the mentally diseased" (p. plays an increasing role in the treat­ 132) through respondent and operant ment of communication disorders in conditioning. Skinner concluded this children with developmental disabili­ way: ties (Sundberg & Michael, 2001; Sund­ berg & Partington, 1998). That there are etiological facts lying beyond [ex­ Psychoanalysis, psychotherapy, and perimental psychology] is doubtless true.... A mental disease. Although Skinner had certain practical hierarchy of causes may, how­ ever, be pointed out. Although genetic and or­ addressed psychotherapy in Science ganic factors can be efficiently evaluated only and Human Behavior (1953a), he ad­ by holding environmental factors constant, and dressed it mainly as a cultural practice. although environmental factors can be correctly 116 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.

evaluated only against a stable genetic and or­ mote to the observable and manipulable. ganic condition, it is probably a useful practice Though it is a painful step, it has far-reaching to explore environmental factors first to see consequences, for it not only sets higher stan­ whether any behavioral manifestations remain to dards of human welfare but shows us how to be attributed to genetic and organic causes. (p. meet them.... Possibly the noblest achievement 133) to which man can aspire ... is to accept himself for what he is. (pp. 64-65) This optimism about behavior's envi­ ronmental determinants was evident in Third, Skinner described how the the founding of applied behavior anal­ outworn conceptions of human behav­ ysis and remains so today. ior were harmful to personal relations, Ethics in the control of human be­ education, and government: because havior. During this period, Skinner re­ their modes of control were aversive turned to ethical issues in three impor­ (Rogers & Skinner, 1956). A scientifi­ tant articles: "The Control of Human cally based conception showed how Behavior" (1955), "Freedom and the aversive control could and should be Control of Men" (1955-1956), and his replaced with positive reinforcement. symposium with Carl Rogers, "Some In response to Rogers' argument that Issues Concerning the Control of Hu­ values and free choice determined hu­ man Behavior" (Rogers & Skinner, man behavior, Skinner pointed out that 1956). He had touched on these themes values specify reinforcing events, con­ earlier, but as the applied implications ditions, and activities; that choice was of his science became more apparent, not free, but also determined; and that as the Cold War heightened, and as his we must overcome our fear of the con­ critics grew more vocal (e.g., Krutch, trol implicit in science. In overcoming 1954), he addressed these themes more it, he wrote, perhaps tongue-in-cheek, frequently. "we shall become more mature and First, Skinner (1955) noted that, better organized and shall, thus, more whether we admit it or not, behavior is fully actualize ourselves as human be­ controlled on a daily basis through pro­ ings" (p. 1065). Topics such as these cesses and practices involving positive gained Skinner's further attention in reinforcement, motivational control, the 1960s and 1970s, when he ad­ emotional conditioning, and "knowl­ dressed freedom and dignity (Skinner, edge of the individual" (e.g., govern­ 1971b), humanism (e.g., Skinner, ment databases). He was concerned 1972c), and the design of cultures that the culture's "outworn conception (Skinner, 1973b). of human nature" discouraged the analysis of these factors, thus obscur­ Applied Research ing the need for their countercontrol. The same year Science and Human Second, he defended the science of Behavior (1953a) was published, Skin­ behavior, its implications, and its ap­ ner began his two most "noteworthy" plication (Skinner, 1955-1956). In par­ and "influential" extensions and appli­ ticular, he addressed pertinent issues in cations of his science to human behav­ the philosophy of science (e.g., deter­ ior (Kazdin, 1978, pp. 177, 242). One minism) and fears about the use of the was an experimental analysis of the be­ science in cultural design (e.g., despo­ havior of patients in a psychiatric in­ tism). However, he concluded optimis­ stitution; the other was a technology of tically, teaching. Far from being a threat to the tradition of West­ The behavior ofpsychiatric patients. ern democracy, the growth of a science of man Skinner's extension of his science to is a consistent and probably inevitable part of it. psychiatric patients was his 1953-1965 In turning to the external conditions which shape collaboration with Ogden Lindsley and maintain the behavior of men, while ques­ & tioning the reality of the inner qualities and fac­ (Lindsley Skinner, 1954; see Linds­ ulties to which human achievements were once ley, 2001; Rutherford, 2003b). Al­ attributed, we turn from the ill-defined and re- though meant to be a systematic rep-

E is ..

SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 117

lication of the style and content of vention-the teaching machine-as Skinner's science (e.g., within-subject well as pioneering research on pro­ analyses, schedules of reinforcement), grammed instruction (Benjamin, the project had obvious applied impli­ 1988). Its impetus was Skinner's No­ cations. It was called, at first, "Studies vember 11, 1953, visit to Deborah's in Behavior Therapy"; the research fourth grade arithmetic class, from participants presented problems of which he came away distraught: "The clear social importance; Lindsley teacher was violating two fundamental (1960, 1963) wrote about the clinical principles: the students were not being relevance of the research; and Skin­ told at once whether their work was ner's only article from the project was right or wrong ... and they were all published in a clinical journal (the moving at the same pace regardless of Journal of Nervous and Mental Dis­ preparation or ability" (Skinner, eases; Skinner, Solomon, & Lindsley, 1983b, p. 64). 1954). Thus, even though the project's In a matter of days, he constructed intent was to extend Skinner's science, prototypes of teaching machines and it was viewed as an advance in the in­ their programs. Within a few months, evitable progress from basic to applied he demonstrated their effectiveness in research. As applied research, though, teaching arithmetic and spelling. With­ Skinner's article did not describe the in a year, he published his first article advance in such a manner that the di­ on education, "The Science of Learn­ mensions of applied behavior analysis ing and the Art of Teaching" (l954b). could be discerned. He there described recent develop­ Lindsley's research was not the only ments in basic research, critiqued cur­ programmatic extension of Skinner's rent educational practices, described science at the time. Others included Bi­ how to improve them through his sci­ jou's human operant research with ence, and defended those applications. atypically developing children (Bijou Over the course of the next four years, & Orlando, 1961; Orlando & Bijou, he undertook research on programmed 1960) and Ferster's work with children instruction with Homme, Meyer, and with autism (Ferster, 1961; Ferster & Holland; secured research space at DeMeyer, 1961, 1962). The latter more Harvard and funding from the Ford clearly presaged application: Ferster Foundation; and used programmed ma­ used a token reinforcement system to terials in his courses to good effect. Of establish operant repertoires that were his subsequent papers on education, incompatible with behavioral excesses though, only two appeared (1958b, (DeMeyer & Ferster, 1962). Other no­ 195ge) before research emerged that table laboratory-based extensions were was the beginning of applied behavior Baer's (1962) on thumb sucking; Bar­ analysis. But, as with Skinner's paper rett and Lindsley's (1962) on children on psychotic patients, his articles on and adults with mental retardation, J. P. education did not describe his research Brady, Nurnberger, and Tausig's (1961) in a way that the dimensions of applied on schizophrenic patients; Goldia­ behavior analysis could be discerned. mond's (1962) on stuttering; and Staats's on reading established and THE EMERGENCE OF maintained though token reinforcement APPLIED BEHAVIOR (e.g., Staats, Staats, Schultz, & Wolf, ANALYSIS: 1962; see Kazdin, 1978, pp. 246-256). 1959-1967 Teaching machines and pro­ grammed instruction. As for Skinner's By 1959, Skinner had amassed more application of his science to education, than 30 publications in which he had this preoccupied him for the next two extended or applied his science. He of­ decades (Morris, 2003). Its focus was fered interpretations of typical and on the development of yet another in- atypical behavior, drew implications 118 EDWARD K. MORRIS et aI. from his science for application, de­ able degree, most of the seven dimen­ scribed possible applications, and re­ sions of applied behavior analysis. ported successful applications in ani­ mal behavior and education. Some of Saskatchewan Hospital: this work was a precursor to applied Ayllon et al. (1958-1961) behavior analysis; other of it contrib­ Between 1958 and 1961, Ayllon un­ uted to a zeitgeist that made applica­ dertook one of the "most influential tion almost inevitable. In the same de­ extensions" of Skinner's science to cade that Skinner extended his science clinical populations (Kazdin, 1978, p. to psychotic patients and applied it to 256). These extensions yielded eight education, two independent programs publications, the first of which has of research were begun that yielded, been referred to as "the formal begin­ arguably, the first systematic applica­ nings of applied behavior analysis" tions of his science. One was Ayllon's (Cooper et aI., 1987, p. 13; see also work at Saskatchewan Hospital in Birnbrauer, 1979, p. 15). This was Ayl­ Weyburn, Saskatchewan, Canada; the lon's dissertation for the Department of other was Wolf's at the University of Psychology at the University of Hous­ Washington in Seattle, Washington. ton, with Michael as his adviser. The These were not the first applications, publication was titled "The Psychiatric of course. We have already noted P. R. Nurse as a Behavioral Engineer" (Ayl­ Fuller's (1949) early demonstration of Ion & Michael, 1959). In it, Ayllon and operant conditioning in a "vegetative Michael described applications of the human organism." Other applications style and content of Skinner's science were being made concurrently to elim­ by psychiatric nurses and attendants to inate a child's tantrums (Williams, improve the behavior of their patients, 1959), reinstate verbal behavior in for example, to increase self-feeding and reduce psychotic talk. In Ayllon's mute psychotics (Isaacs, Thomas, & other studies, he increased meal atten­ Goldiamond, 1960), and establish pro­ dance and eating (Ayllon, 1965; Ayl­ ductive classroom behavior (Zimmer­ Ion & Haughton, 1962), decreased man & Zimmerman, 1962). In addi­ food stealing and towel hoarding (Ayl­ tion, at Arizona State University lon, 1963), decreased nonorganic phys­ (ASU), Staats (1957) was extending ical complaints (Ayllon & Haughton, his research to applied issues in read­ 1964), and addressed other clinically ing (e.g., Staats & Butterfield, 1965; relevant behavior (e.g., anorexia; see; Staats, Minke, Goodwin, & Landeen, Ayllon, Haughton, & Hughes, 1965; 1967; see Staats, 1965, 1996). Wolf's Ayllon, Haughton, & Osmond, 1964; work with Staats, when Michael was Haughton & Ayllon, 1965). This was also at ASU, when ASU was known as "groundbreaking real-world field re­ "Fort Skinner in the Desert" (Goodall, search" (Risley, 2005, p. 279). When 1972), also likely influenced Wolf's Ayllon moved to Anna State Hospital applications at Washington. Staats's in Illinois in 1961, he collaborated with overall contribution to founding ap­ Azrin in related research (e.g., Ayllon plied behavior analysis is, however, & Azrin, 1964, 1965), the best known difficult to gauge. Much of his research of which was on the token economy was published after Ayllon's and (Ayllon & Azrin, 1968), now consid­ Wolf's, and was more analytic than in­ ered "a landmark in the development terventionist. As for whether Ayllon or of applied behavior analysis" (Kazdin, Wolf may be said to have founded ap­ 1978, p. 260; see Kazdin, 1977). plied behavior analysis, the answer lies beyond the scope of our paper. Their University of Washington: contributions, though, serve as a base­ Wolf et al. (1963-1967) line against which to judge Skinner's Wolf's initial applications were because they addressed, to a consider- made between 1962 and 1964 (see Bi-

• • 7

SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 119

jou, 2001; Risley, 2005). As noted, Bi­ BETWEEN APPLIED BEHAVIOR jou had already extended Skinner's sci­ ANALYSIS AND JABA: ence to atypically developing children, 1959-1968 but after spending a 1961-1962 sab­ batical year with Skinner, he estab­ In 1959, Skinner (1959b) published lished a broader research and training his first collection of works-Cumula­ program in early childhood. In this tive Record-nearly two thirds of context, Wolf undertook two lines of which we have cited as extensions and research. The first was a series of stud­ applications of his science. This collec­ ies on the effects of adult attention on tion and its enlarged 1961 edition child behavior in which Wolf and his (Skinner, 1961a) kept these publica­ colleagues increased social play (Al­ tions in print as Ayllon and Wolf were len, Hart, Buell, Harris, & Wolf, 1964), undertaking their pioneering research gross motor play (M. K. Johnston, Kel­ and as the journals Behaviour Re­ ley, Harris, & Wolf, 1966), and walk­ search and Therapy (established in 1964) and JABA (established in 1968) ing (F. R. Harris, Johnston, Kelley, & Wolf, 1964), and decreased operant were founded (on the history of JABA, crying (Hart, Allen, Buell, & Wolf, see Laties, 1987). 1964). This work has been referred to In addition, Skinner continued to as the "most influential application of publish papers with applied implica­ operant techniques with children" tions, some of which again concerned (Kazdin, 1978, p. 264), and its evolv­ the philosophical implications of his ing applied research methods have science for human behavior (e.g., de­ been described as "groundbreaking" terminism, individuality): For instance, (Risley, 2005, p. 280). in his article, "Man" (1964a), he Wolf's second line of research is to­ wrote, day better known. He and his col­ We have reached the stage, far from a dead end, leagues applied Skinner's science to in which man can determine his future with an the behavior of a young boy with au­ entirely new order of effectiveness. . .. Men control themselves by controlling the world in tism. They reduced his tantrums, which they live. They do this as much as when throwing his eyeglasses, and mealtime they exercise self-control, as when they make and bedtime problems; they increased changes in their culture which alter the conduct his wearing his glasses; and they over­ of others. (p. 485) came his severe language deficits At the same time, Skinner was also ad­ (Wolf et aI., 1964; see also Risley & dressing utopian themes, among them, Wolf, 1964, 1967; Wolf, Risley, John­ utopian visions (Skinner, 1967b, ston, Harris, & Allen, 1967). Of these 1967c) and the design of experimental publications, Wolf et al. 's (1964) "Ap­ communities (Skinner, 1968a) and cul­ plication of Operant Conditioning Pro­ tures (Skinner, 1961b, 1966b). Other cedures to the Behavior Problems of an work concerned animal models, behav­ Autistic Child" has been cited as "the ioral interpretations, and further appli­ premier study of behavior modifica­ cations to education, as follows. tion" (Risley, 2001, p. 269; 2005, p. 281) and as the first application of be­ Models and Interpretations havior analysis to autism (Wolf, 2001; see also Kazdin, 1978, p. 268). Be­ In 1960, Skinner (1960a) published tween 1959 and 1967, applications of his account of Project Pigeon, giving the style and content of Skinner's sci­ life to the early advances in behavioral ence burgeoned in both the number of engineering, both in shaping new be­ research studies and research programs havior and bringing it under precise (see Kazdin, 1978). This work, how­ stimulus control. He also conducted ever, was not called "applied behavior more animal-model research, now on analysis." The field awaited its formal social relations and emotion. For in­ founding. stance, he described a classroom dem- 120 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al.

onstration in which he simulated (a) Skinner on Applied Behavior Analysis co~peratio~ in pigeons by reinforcing Skinner's interest in applying his sci­ theIr behavIOr only when it occurred at ence notwithstanding, he never system­ the same time and (b) competition be­ atically integrated, advanced, or pro­ twe~n them in a version of ping-pong moted "applied behavior analysis" per (Skmner, 1962). In research with s~. In fact, he seems to have only both George Reynolds and Charlie Catania, cIted and referenced it once in all of he studied unconditioned and condi­ his published works. This was in "Re­ tioned aggression in pigeons, and stim­ view Lecture: The Technology of ulus ~ontrol of the latter (Reynolds, Teaching" (1965a), in which he de­ Catama, & Skinner, 1963; see also scribed recent advances in the appli­ Reynolds & Skinner, 1962). During cation of his science, using as exam­ this period, he further addressed verbal ples Ayllon and Azrin's (1965) re­ behavior (Richards & Skinner, 1962) search on the token economy and Wolf and.offered interpretations of cognition et al.'s (1964) research in autism. (Skmner, 1966a) and consciousness Where he elsewhere cited and support­ (Blanshard & Skinner, 1967), the latter ed early applied researchers (e.g., Ayl­ of which forecasted later empirical re­ lon, Azrin, Bijou) and interventions search (e.g., Epstein, Lanza, & Skinner, (e.g., National Training School for 1980, 1981). B.oys; Skinner, 1971c), he did not pro­ vIde references (see, e.g., Skinner Education 1967a, 196812004, 1972c, 1980). Throughout this period, Skinner was When. he provided references, they most active in education, publishing were m footnotes rather than in the over 15 additional works, including main text. These were to Ulrich Stach­ The Technology of Teaching (Skinner, nik, and Mabry (1966, 1970)'in The 1968c; see also Skinner, 1960c, 1961c, Technology of Teaching (1968c, p. 4) 1963, 1964b, 1965a, 1965b, 1968b; cf. and Beyond Freedom and Dignity Barrett, 2002). With Holland, he also (1971b, p. 19). Skinner's failure to ref­ published a programmed textbook erence this literature more fully would (Holland & Skinner, 1961) that con­ seemingly have hindered the field's ad­ tain:d many examples of application, vancement, but perhaps not. Perhaps for Instance, "Mr. X succeeds in co­ he was working strategically. He may ercing people into reinforcing him in have wanted to promote applied behav­ many different ways. Signs of submis­ ior analysis as a process, and not have siveness in others then become ­ it identified with specific practices (but which increase the frequency of new see Walden Two, 1948d). He may also forms of coercion, independent of the have wanted it to succeed as a function o~ particular deprivation" (p. 69). The an­ its own effectiveness, not through swer: generalized reinforcers. One part hIS rule-governed advocacy of it. of the text covered the "scientific anal­ ysis and the interpretation of complex AFTERJABA: cases," one case being "a problem 1968-1990 in behavioral engineering"-animal In the founding of JABA, Skinner re­ training. Other parts covered self-con­ portedly took a direct lead. As noted trol, .personality, and psychotherapy. by Laties (1987), the minutes of the Here IS a sample frame: "In addition April 6, 1967, meeting of the Society to providing a nonpunishing audience, for the Experimental Analysis of Be­ the therapist may recommend changing havior, JEAB's publisher, contained the jobs, getting a divorce, etc. He is at­ following: "A discussion of a need for tempting to - environmental contin­ a journal with high scientific standards gencies" (p. 329). The answer: change for publication of applications to be­ (manipulate, control, alter). havior modification was initiated by B.

IE • • SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 121

F. Skinner" (p. 505). When JABA was mensions. And, although he did not ex­ founded, Skinner was on its editorial plicitly address generality, it was a rea­ board and active in the review process. son for developing a technology of After JABA's founding, Skinner teaching in the first place. Generality amassed over 100 additional publica­ was embedded in the very meaning tions, most of them on applied topics. that education and teaching had for He addressed (a) education, for in­ him (see Skinner, 1968c). stance, contingency management in the Skinner's contributions notwith­ classroom (Skinner, 1969, 1973c, standing, we do not conclude that he 1989b); (b) cognition, creativity, and was either the originator or founder of language (Skinner, 1970, 1972c; for re­ applied behavior analysis. First, when lated research, see, e.g., Epstein et aI., his published research analyzed behav­ 1980, 1981); and (c) behavior therapy ior in the style of his science (e.g., and behavior modification (Skinner, schedules of reinforcement), the be­ 1972d, 1988a). He devised self-man­ havior he studied was not socially im­ agement systems (e.g., Skinner, 1981, portant or changes in it socially signif­ 1983a; Skinner & Vaughan, 1983), one icant (e.g., rates of bar pressing). That of them described in his only JABA ar­ is, when his publications were behav­ ticle-"A Thinking Aid" (1987). And, ioral, analytic, technological, and con­ he advanced the role of behavior anal­ ceptually systematic, they were not ysis in the design of cultural practices also applied and effective. Second, (e.g., 1973b, 1973d, 1976, 1985a), when his applications concerned so­ among them world peace (e.g., 1971a, cially important behavior and its sig­ 1985b), freedom and dignity (1971a, nificant change (e.g., education), the 1971b, 1972b), and ethics in develop­ style of his science was not readily ap­ mental disabilities (l972a, 1973a, parent in his publications. That is, un­ 1975, 1988b). like Ayllon and Wolf, when his re­ search was applied and effective, it was not obviously also behavioral, an­ CONCLUSION alytic, or technological. In other words, Skinner was not only the most emi­ although Skinner addressed all seven nent psychologist of the 20th century dimensions of applied behavior analy­ but also the most eminent behavior an­ sis over the course of his career, he did not address both the scientific and the alyst of any century. He established a social dimensions in anyone published science of behavior, formulated its phi­ program of research such that he could losophy, and founded behavior analy­ be called the field's originator. Nor, as sis. In the process, he also contributed we have seen, did he systematically in­ fundamentally to advancing their ap­ tegrate, advance, or promote these di­ plication. Evidence for the latter lies in mensions in the context of application the five categories of his contributions, so as to be called the field's founder. the breadth and depth of his extrapo­ This conclusion is not, of course, de­ lations, extensions, and applications, finitive. By focusing on Skinner's pub­ and his inclusion of the seven dimen­ lications, we have left gaps in the his­ sions of applied behavior analysis. As torical record. These need to be filled for the last, his science was the basis through archival research, for instance, for the field's behavioral, analytic, on his correspondence with and about technological, and conceptually sys­ the first applied behavior analysts (see tematic dimensions. The first two were Elliott, 1996). The gaps might also be among the field's "must be" dimen­ filled through oral histories about Skin­ sions; the first three made it an empir­ ner's influence on the first applied be­ ical science; all four made it system­ havior analysts, which might have oc­ atic. In Walden Two (l948d), he curred through his encouragement of brought two more dimensions into his their work during his service on asso­ work-the applied and effective di- ciation boards and committees or at re- 122 EDWARD K. MORRIS et al. search meetings and professional con­ havior analysis, applied behavior anal­ ferences (e.g., Laties, 2003; Mischel, ysis would not have emerged when it 2001). These influences notwithstand­ did, in the form that it did, or perhaps ing, Skinner's publications remain a be known by that name. What Skinner standard basis for assessing his contri­ provided was a style and content of a butions and thus defensible as a basis science of behavior and its philosophy, for our conclusion. some urging that they be applied, and If Skinner did not originate or found likely the first applications. Through applied behavior analysis, then we these contributions, his work was sem­ need to characterize his role different­ inal to the field's founding.2 ly. For this, we draw on the distinction made by his colleague, the historian of REFERENCES psychology E. G. Boring (1886-1968), between founders and fathers in sci­ Agras, W. S., Kazdin, A. E., & Wilson, G. T. ence (Boring, 1929). As Boring (1950) (1979). Behavior therapy: Toward an applied wrote of Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), clinical science. San Francisco: Freeman. "When we call him the 'founder' of Allen, K. E., Hart, B., Buell, J. S., Harris, F. R., experimental psychology, we mean & Wolf, M. M. (1964). A study of the use of reinforcement principles in a case of "isolate" both that he promoted the idea of psy­ behavior. Child Development, 35, 511-5l8. chology as an independent science and Altus, D. E., & Morris, E. K. (2004). B. F. Skin­ that he is the senior among 'psychol­ ner's utopian vision: Behind and beyond Wal­ ogists'" (p. 316; see also Boring, den Two. Contemporary Justice Review, 7, 1927). This was Skinner's role in be­ 267-286. havior analysis, generally. He promot­ Ayllon, T. (1963). Intensive treatment of psy­ chotic behavior by stimulus satiation and food ed the field (or discipline) and was se­ reinforcement. Behaviour Research and Ther­ nior among behavior analysts, except apy, 1, 53-61. in age to Keller (1899-1996). Ayllon, T. (1965). Some behavioral problems In applied behavior analysis, though, associated with eating in chronic schizophren­ his role was different (see Vargas, ic patients. In L. P. Ullman & L. Krasner (Eds.), Case studies in behavior modification 2001). By Boring's criteria, he was not (pp. 73-77). New York: Holt, Rinehart & its founder. First, although he promoted Winston. application in general, he did not ad­ Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. H. (1964). Reinforce­ vance or promote applied behavior ment and instructions with mental patients. analysis as it emerged in the early Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Be­ work of Ayllon or Wolf or in lARA. havior, 7, 327-331. Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. H. (1965). The mea­ Second, he was not among those surement and reinforcement of behavior of known as the first applied behavior an­ psychotics. Journal ofthe Experimental Anal­ alysts, such that he could be senior ysis of Behavior, 8, 357-383. among them. Skinner's role is best Ayllon, T., & Azrin, N. H. (1968). The token characterized as that of the field's fa­ economy: A motivational system for therapy ther.! Without his having founded be- and rehabilitation. New York: Appleton-Cen­ tury-Crofts. Ayllon, T., & Haughton, E. (1962). Control of

I Although the "founder-father" distinction the behavior of schizophrenic patients by has sexist implications, we have used it for two food. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of reasons. The first is simply that the distinction Behavior, 5, 343-352. has precedence in the historiography of psy­ Ayllon, T., & Haughton, E. (1964). Modifica­ chology for an era in which the field's founders tion of symptomatic verbal behaviour of men- and parents were men (e.g., Fechner, Mueller, Wundt; see Boring, 1927, 1929, 1951). Women were generally excluded (Bryan & Boring, 2 If Skinner was the father of applied behavior 1947; Scarborough & Furumoto, 1987). The analysis, we might ask who was its mother. She second reason is that, in the 1950s and 1960s, was, we think, his partner in science: the behav­ the likely founders and parents of applied be­ ior of organisms. Their union begot a style and havior analysis-if there were any-were also content of science, technological inventions, be­ men (Laties, 1987; see Goodall, 1972; Kazdin, havioral interpretations of atypical behavior, im­ 1978). An analysis of the role women played in plications for application, descriptions of appli­ the founding of applied behavior analysis, or be­ cations, and actual applications that became ba­ havior analysis in general, awaits to be written. sis of applied behavior analysis. SKINNER AND APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 123

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history of the term radical behaviorism: From Skinner, B. E (l947a, December 28). Dr. Skin­ Watson to Skinner. The Behavior Analyst, 10, ner replies [Letter to the editor]. New York 23-39. Times Book Review, p. 14. Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (1987). A his­ Skinner, B. E (I947b). Experimental psychol­ tory of modern psychology (4th ed.). San Di­ ogy. In W. Dennis (Ed.), Current trends in ego, CA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. psychology (pp. 16-49). Pittsburgh, PA: Uni­ Shakow, D., & Rosenzweig, S. (1940). The use versity of Pittsburgh Press. of the tautophone ("verbal summator") as an Skinner, B. E (l947c, November 2). "Psi" and auditory apperceptive test for the study of per­ its manifestations [Review of the book The sonality. Character and Personality, 8, 216­ Reach of the Mind]. New York Times Book 226. Review, p. 34. Sidman, M. (1960). Tactics of scientific re­ Skinner, B. E (l948a). Card-guessing experi­ search: Evaluating experimental data in psy­ ments. American Scientist, 36, 456, 458. chology. New York: Basic Books. Skinner, B. E (l948b, November 14). Science Skinner, B. E (I930a). On the conditions of of society [Review of the book The Proper elicitation of certain eating reflexes. Proceed­ Study ofMankind]. New York Times Book Re­ ings of the National Academy of Sciences of view, pp. 20, 22. the United States ofAmerica, 16, 433-438. Skinner, B. E (l948c). "Superstition" in the pi­ Skinner, B. E (I930b). On the inheritance of geon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, maze behavior. Journal of General Psycholo­ 38, 168-172. gy, 4, 342-346. Skinner, B. E (l948d). Walden two. New York: Skinner, B. E (1932). A paradoxical color ef­ Macmillan. fect. Journal of General Psychology, 7, 481­ Skinner, B. E (1950). Are theories of learning 482. necessary? Psychological Review, 57, 193­ Skinner, B. E (1934, January). Has Gertrude 216. Stein a secret? Atlantic Monthly, 153, 50-57. Skinner, B. E (1951a). The experimental anal­ Skinner, B. E (1936). The verbal summator and ysis of behavior. Proceedings and Papers of a method for the study of latent speech. Jour­ the Thirteenth International Congress ofPsy­ nal of Psychology, 2, 71-107. chology, 62-91. Skinner, B. E (l937a). The distribution of as­ Skinner, B. E (1951b, December). How to teach sociated words. The Psychological Record, 1, animals. Scientific American, 185, 26-29. 71-76. Skinner, B. E (195Ic). [Review of the book The Skinner, B. E (1937b, October 9). Is sense nec­ Human Use ofHuman Beings]. Psychological essary? [Review of the book New Frontiers of Bulletin, 48, 367-368. the Mind]. Saturday Review of Literature, 16, Skinner, B. E (1953a). Science and human be­ 5-6. havior. New York: Macmillan. Skinner, B. E (1938). The behavior of organ­ Skinner, B. E (1953b). Some contributions of isms: An experimental analysis. New York: an experimental analysis of behavior to psy­ Appleton-Century. chology as a whole. American Psychologist, Skinner, B. E (1939). The alliteration in Shake­ 8,69-78. speare's sonnets: A study in literary behavior. Skinner, B. E (1954a). Critique of psychoana­ The Psychological Record, 3, 186-192. lytic concepts and theories. Scientific Monthly, Skinner, B. E (l941a). The psychology of de­ 79, 300-305. sign. In B. Boas (Ed.), Art education today Skinner, B. E (1954b). The science of learning (pp. 1-6). New York: Bureau Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University. and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Skinner, B. E (l94Ib). A quantitative estimate Review, 24, 86-97. of certain types of sound-patterning in poetry. Skinner, B. E (1955). The control of human be­ American Journal of Psychology, 54, 64-79. havior. Transactions of the New York Acade­ Skinner, B. E (1942). The processes involved my ofSciences, Series 2, 17, 547-551. in the repeated guessing of alternatives. Jour­ Skinner, B. E (1955-1956). Freedom and the nal ofExperimental Psychology, 30, 495-503. control of men. The American Scholar, 25, Skinner, B. E (1943). Reply to Dr. Yacorzynski. 47-65. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 93­ Skinner, B. E (1956a). A case history in sci­ 94. entific method. American Psychologist, 11, Skinner, B. E (l945a, October). Baby in a box. 221-233. Introducing the mechanical baby tender. La­ Skinner, B. E (1956b). What is psychotic be­ dies' Home Journal, 62, 30-31, 135-136, havior? In E Gildea (Ed.), Theory and treat­ 138. ment of the psychoses: Some newer aspects Skinner, B. E (l945b). The operational analysis (pp. 77-99). St. Louis, MO: Committee on of psychological terms. Psychological Review, Publications, Washington University. 52, 270-277, 291-294. Skinner, B. E (1957a). The experimental anal­ Skinner, B. E (1946, February 10). Driver and ysis of behavior. American Scientist, 45, 343­ driven [Review of the book Human Nature in 371. the Making]. New York Times Book Review, Skinner, B. E (1957b). The psychological point p. 14. of view. In H. D. Kruse (Ed.), Integrating the ===-

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