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Feminism, Intersectionality and the Problem of Whiteness in Leisure and Sport Practices and Scholarship

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Feminism, Intersectionality and the Problem of Whiteness in Leisure and Sport Practices and Scholarship Feminism, Intersectionality and the Problem of Whiteness in Leisure and Sport Practices and Scholarship Mary G. McDonald and Renee Shelby There is a growing body of sport and leisure scholarship that explores the ways gender relations are implicated in different articulations of power. Those deploying black feminist theories have been at the forefront in both theoriz- ing and calling for more analyses into the complicated means by which sex- ism, racism and classism merge together with identifiable and unequal consequences. One contribution of this scholarship is that it challenges hege- monic white feminist writings that ground gender as the most significant social relationship (Sandoval, 2000). Instead black feminist scholarship details the shifting discourses and structures through which simultaneously raced, sexed, gendered and classed bodies are hierarchically situated with identifiable consequences for health and wellbeing (Collins, 2009). This process addition- ally reveals disparate access to and acceptance within a myriad of opportuni- ties and life chances—beyond a singular gender focus—including within diverse sporting and leisure spaces (McDonald, 2014). This chapter is indebted to and builds upon the legacy of feminists and activists of colour to make visible the persistent problem of a singular focus on gender within sport and leisure scholarship, and within activist spaces that purport to challenge inequality. Specifically drawing upon black feminism and intersectional theory, this chapter highlights several challenges made to the presumption of whiteness by black feminism and intersectional theory, espe- cially within British and North American leisure, sport and gender scholarship. M.G. McDonald (*) • R. Shelby Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA © The Author(s) 2018 497 L. Mansfield et al. (eds.), The Palgrave Handbook of Feminism and Sport, Leisure and Physical Education, https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-53318-0_31 498 M.G. McDonald and R. Shelby To achieve this goal we first outline conceptual contributions of intersectional analysis and link this discussion to the need to explore the workings of white- ness. Next, we critically apply an intersectional framework to explore a highly mediated case involving a US radio talk-show personality, Don Imus, and the Rutgers University women’s basketball team. This case is instructive in reveal- ing that gender relations cannot be thought apart from race relations. We then offer insight from this initial analysis to explore a site of feminist activism: the SlutWalk protest movement. SlutWalks are organized advo- cacy sites where the ordinary leisure practice of walking is transformed into a spectacle in ways presumably designed to challenge the victim-blaming discourses of rape culture and the marginalization of female sexual agency. Dominant strategies within this transnational movement have sought to challenge rape apologists’ emphasis on the demeanour and appearance of rape survivors as well as asserting the right of many women to promote their own sexual autonomy. However, as discussed more fully in this chapter, too frequently feminist scholarly analyses, popular accounts and activist prac- tices fail to analyze the ways in which gender links with race with inequita- ble consequences. In sum, then, this chapter makes clear the persistent need to challenge the primacy of gender as always and already the most impor- tant social relation as some feminists infer. Such a conceptualization is prob- lematic as it reifies the power of whiteness within feminist sport and leisure scholarship and broader popular narratives, as well as within feminist orga- nizing and activism more broadly. The Promise of Intersectionality and the Problem of Whiteness Watson and Scraton (2013) have documented the emergence of leisure stud- ies scholarship that engages theories of “intersectionality” and suggests this concept offers an important framework to explore fluid and interlocking rela- tions of power. The authors draw upon black feminist standpoints to expose the limitations of singular foci on gender, or race, or class, and argue for more nuanced approaches that recognize ‘that the experience of race, for example, fundamentally alters gender. It is not a simple sum of oppressions but a quali- tatively different power relation’ (Watson & Scraton, 2013, p. 37). In this way diverse theories of intersectionality allow ‘for leisure to be contextualized as more complex than the reductionist and often simplistic dichotomous approach previously employed by leisure scholars’ seeking ‘to account for per- sistent inequalities’ (Watson & Scraton, 2013, p. 36). In sum, Watson and Feminism, Intersectionality and the Problem of Whiteness in Leisure... 499 Scraton (2013, p. 36) argue that ‘thinking intersectionally is a useful means of analysing leisure as a dynamic interplay of individual expression and the social relations within which leisure occurs’. There has been a similar documented focus within feminist sport studies scholarship (McDonald, 2014) that also suggests the continuing necessity of analyses that deploy intersectionality, a concept first described by US legal scholar Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw (1989, 1991). However, Crenshaw is not alone in recognizing the need to theorize gender as enmeshed with race, class and sexuality. One might say that theories of intersectionality helped to crystallize a much longer legacy in which women of colour, in particular, have sought to understand and to undo power. For example, in the US Patricia Hill Collins (1990) traces what she calls a ‘black feminist intellectual tradition’ back to the speeches of Maria W. Stewart (1803–1880), a US domestic worker who advocated for women’s rights and the abolition of slavery. Stewart is largely recognized as the first black woman—whose texts have survived to contemporary times—to give public lectures on these and related political topics (Collins, 1990). Collins discusses another nineteenth-century thinker, Sojourner Truth, whose speech at an 1851 women’s rights assembly in Akron, Ohio disrupted any notion of a universal sisterhood or womanhood. The freed slave famously asked ‘ain’t I a woman?’ as she recounted that she had ‘ploughed, and planed’, and been made to ‘bear the lash’ just as she had also ‘borne thirteen children and seen most all sold off to slavery’ (cited in Collins, 1990, p. 14). Through her words Truth illuminates the cultural construction of womanhood ‘by using the contradictions between her life as an African American woman and the qualities ascribed to women’ (Collins, 1990, p. 14). Collins herself has greatly contributed to this intellectual tradition in numerous ways, including by discussing the matrix of domination, yet another iteration that—much as with intersectionality—acknowledges the diverse ways gender, race and class articulate with significantly different consequences (Collins, 1990). Thompson (2006) also acknowledges contemporary chal- lenges to gender as primary—a mythological hallmark of many second-wave white feminist accounts—and instead documents the contributions of a (largely US) multiracial feminism including: Bernice Johnson Reagon’s naming of ‘coalition politics’; Patricia Hill Collins’s understanding of women of color as ‘outsiders within’; Barbara Smith’s concept of ‘the simultaneity of oppressions’; Cherrie Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa’s ‘the- ory in the flesh’; Chandra Talpade Mohanty’s critique of ‘imperialist feminism’; Paula Gunn Allen’s ‘red roots of white feminism’; Adrienne Rich’s ‘politics of location’; and Patricia Williams’s analysis of ‘spirit murder’. (Thompson, 2006, pp. 337–338) 500 M.G. McDonald and R. Shelby British feminists have made and continue to make similar and different moves. One such contribution is ‘when women of African, Caribbean, and South Asian background came to be figured as “black” through political coali- tions, challenging the essentialist connotations of racism’ (Brah & Phoenix, 2004, p. 78). Much as with Sojourner Truth, and aligned with more recent postmodern feminist critiques of identity, these diverse intersectional sensi- bilities continue to counter simplistic analyses of gender as the most signifi- cant relation of power. In addition to this longer legacy, it is also important to note that the multiple articulations of black, multiracial and intersectional feminisms are not static concepts, but flexible analytic lenses that are continu- ously re-imagined and deployed by scholars and activists across disciplinary boundaries as well as within different global contexts (Cho, Crenshaw, & McCall, 2013). As Douglas and Jamieson (2006, p. 134) suggest, such diverse conceptualizations are important in helping to establish the notion that the ‘cultural significance of sport lies in its power to represent, and reshape beliefs about gender, physicality, race, and sexuality’. While often insufficiently appreciated, it is important to note that sport and leisure scholars have used intersectional frameworks to tease out complex social relations. Space does not allow for a full description of this existing scholarship and yet a brief accounting suggests variations of this lens provide the flexibility necessary to help illuminate a wide range of diverse issue and themes. A brief sampling reveals the adaptability of intersectionality in reveal- ing, for example: the racialized gendered experiences of British Asian women and football (Ratna, 2011); hegemonic and competing masculinities as expressed through the Jeremy
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