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1 Jan Klinkenberg and Luca Bertolini There are still opportunities for Dutch cycling The popularity of the bicycle as a mode of transport plays a key role in promoting sustainable mobility. In order to encourage and facilitate bicycle use, policymakers must study future trends and development, and in addition it is important that we learn about the effects of bicycle policy. Bicycle use is subject to change, and a key development is the unexpected potential of the electric bike to encourage bicycle use in general. More than four billion bicycle journeys concentrated mainly in the cities, are completed in the Netherlands while there has been a decline in each year; This represents 27 per bicycle use in rural areas. Over the cent of all journeys undertaken in the past decade, the total number of country, and the number has been kilometres travelled by bicycle at the stable for years. As figure 1 shows, national level has increased to 15 the Netherlands is the number one billion on an annual basis. This country in Europe in terms of bicycle represents 8 per cent of the total use (Pucher & Buehler, 2012). This mileage travelled by individuals in the use continues to grow in the Netherlands (Statistics Netherlands Netherlands as a whole, And is [CBS], 2012). 2 Figure 1 Bicycle share (as a percentage of the Netherlands and there is a all travel) in percentage of bicycle travel disconnect between this research and current bicycle policy, which exists only at the urban and regional levels. This would appear to be incongruous with the bicycle’s potential to contribute to sustainable mobility. Regional and social differences Whereas in student towns such as Groningen and Leiden bicycle journeys account for 35 per cent of all travel, this is only 20 per cent in Almere, Arnhem, Rotterdam and Zoetermeer (see Figure 2). Harms et al. (2013) have noted that bicycle use is increasing in some areas (e.g. in Den Bosch and Haarlem), that it has stabilised in other parts of the country While the quality requirements for our (including Alkmaar and Dordrecht), bicycle routes and bike networks have while in other towns (such as been identified, there has been only Apeldoorn and Enschede) it has even limited research into the social and decreased. Furthermore, both growth economic significance of bicycle use. and decline are concentrated among Fundamental bicycle research is still specific socioeconomic groups. The at an early stage of development in growing spatial and social Figure 1 Car and bicycle use among urban young adults, 1999­2009 (data sourced from: the Study Centre for Travel Behaviour of Statistics Netherlands; OViN; Directorate General of Public Works and Water Management Mobility Research) % bicycle % foot % cars % PT % other 3 Figure 3 Bicycle traffic in urban versus rural areas, 1994­2012 (data sourced from the Study Centre for Travel Behaviour of Statistics Netherlands; OViN; Directorate General of Public Works and Water Management Mobility Research) % urban area % rural area differentiation is significant, since it Consumer organisations have asked shows that bicycle use is sensitive to policymakers to consider this growth spatial and social conditions and that in developing their policies. The policymakers have the ability to Cyclists’ Association, for example, has manage and control the conditions for advocated a leap in scale level for bicycle use (Harms et al., 2013). bicycles (Van Es, 2012), while the Royal Dutch Touring Club (ANWB) has The majority of growing bicycle use is highlighted the need for improved found in cities (see Figure 3) – this traffic safety for schoolchildren and can be attributed mainly to population elderly people with bikes. (ANWB, growth. Moreover, the growth tends 2014). In contrast, rural areas are to be concentrated in specific areas, showing a decline in bicycle use: large on specific routes and at specific parts of the provinces of Friesland, times of the day. Bicycle use in Zeeland and Limburg have been Amsterdam has grown by a experiencing a decline in population, a substantial 40 per cent in recent decrease in mobility, and a reduction decades, but this growth has been in bicycle mileage. This trend is concentrated mainly in the city centre coupled with increased economies of and surrounding districts. The scale, e.g. mergers between schools, strongest growth occurred on routes or the discontinuation of specific to areas near railway stations, as amenities, including shops. As a evidenced by the major capacity result, residents of rural areas must problems experienced by bicycle travel increasingly longer distances parking facilities in those areas, simply to meet their day­to­day 4 needs. As these distances increase, rural areas they must ensure that people are more inclined to replace places remain accessible by bicycle. their bicycle with a car. The challenge in terms of young According to Harms (2013), there are people is to make sure they continue social differences in addition to spatial to use the bicycle as they enter a new differences. Bicycle use among young stage of life. For senior citizens, the adults (aged 18­30) is growing, while successful bicycle policy must involve this group also uses public transport ensuring traffic safety, while more often and uses the car less immigrants must be encouraged to frequently. This may be related, on start using the bicycle. Finally, it is the one hand, to the fact that they important to be aware of the settle in cities and to changing correlation between bicycle use for lifestyles, and, on the other hand, to recreational purposes and bicycle use the economic crisis, which has left for commuting purposes (Kroesen & young people with less disposable Handy, 2013). The easier it becomes income, who thus lack the money to to cycle to recreational destinations, purchase a car. Another social trend the more people will be inclined to affecting bicycle use is the ageing cycle to work. Conversely, people will Dutch population. The Baby Boomers be more likely to use the bike for travel and cycle more frequently and recreational purposes if they also use over longer distances, but they also it more frequently for commuting tend to use the car more often than purposes (for example, because their previous generations of senior employer offers a Cycle to Work citizens. Non­Western immigrants scheme). living in cities do not use bikes as often as native­born Dutch urbanites, Long­term potential of e­ even when we factor in location, bikes income and education level. It is Electric bicycles have become a likely that culture and – more familiar sight on Dutch roads, with specifically – image are factors in the current number exceeding one these differences. This, too, is million. While e­bikes currently increasingly affecting bicycle mobility account for more than 17 per cent of in cities such as Zoetermeer and all bicycles sold in the Netherlands Almere. (data provided by RAI Association, The spatial and social­cultural context 2013), there is no data available on is a key factor when it comes to current use, and the impact of this creating an effective bicycle policy. relatively new mode of transport is The main task of policymakers in currently unknown. Literature reviews urban areas is to provide sufficient and traffic model analyses capacity or space for cyclists, while in demonstrate that the use of e­bikes 5 in commuting has a substantial strictly for the elderly. E­bikes can impact on the accessibility of Dutch improve the sustainability of transport cities (Engelmoer, 2012). However, in urban areas, while its larger range electric bikes currently appear to be in rural areas may ensure that popular mainly with senior citizens, amenities and facilities remain who use them primarily for accessible by bicycle. Traffic safety, recreational purposes. In addition, an infrastructure free from obstacles, there are also a growing number of a sufficient number of charging employers who encourage the stations and parking facilities adapted purchase and use of the e­bikes as to e­bikes must all be prioritised by part of their mobility management policymakers. In addition, the policies and programmes. A survey problem of e­bike theft must also be conducted in the urban region of addressed. Arnhem­Nijmegen revealed that a total of 630 employees who Bicycle/train combination purchased an e­bike in 2012 using a The bicycle plays a significant role in special subsidy have since reduced the Netherlands as a mode of their weekly mileage (by car or transport for getting to and from the motorcycle) by an average of 74 train station. In fact, around 40% of kilometres. As a result, car use for train passengers use the bike to commuting purposes declined from travel to the station (source: 65 per cent to 23 per cent (Dutch Research Institute for Mobility Policy, Cycling Embassy, 2013). 2013). The Dutch public transport A large number of e­bike users (Jones system is so well developed that the et al.; research in progress) majority of people live within cycling interviewed as part of the study distance of a railway station: 60 per reported that they began using the cent of the Dutch population live bike more often, as and travelled within a 5 kilometre cycling distance longer distances. In addition, the of a train station, and 24 per cent live study also showed that they were within walking distance (1.5 more inclined to use the bicycle than kilometres) (excluding light­rail and the car. The e­bike has prompted railway stations opened after 2012). A many of the interview subjects to total of 37 per cent of the Dutch change their behaviour on a population live within a 5 kilometre permanent basis. Before such cycling distance of an intercity railway behavioural change can occur on a station, and 8 per cent live within a large scale, marketing professionals 1.5 kilometre walking distance.

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