Lecture 1. Introduction to Lecture 1. Introduction to AAgricultural gricultural PPollution ollution CControlontrol

Including particular reference to Eastern and Including particular reference to Eastern and Central EuropeCentral Europe

Prepared by Assoc. Prof. Philip Chiverton, SLU

1 PollutionPollution ::

‘‘thethe introductionintroduction byby man,man, directlydirectly oror indirectly,indirectly, ofof substancessubstances oror energyenergy intointo thethe environment,environment, whichwhich areare liableliable toto createcreate hazardshazards toto humanhuman health,health, toto harmharm livingliving resourcesresources andand marinemarine ecosystems’ecosystems’

AgriculturalAgricultural pollutionpollution is,is, thus,thus, thethe directdirect oror indirectindirect introductionintroduction ofof substancessubstances –– particularlyparticularly excessiveexcessive nutrientsnutrients (such(such asas nitratesnitrates (N)(N) andand phosphorousphosphorous (P)(P) )) -- oror energyenergy intointo thethe environmentenvironment asas aa resultresult ofof mansmans agriculturalagricultural activities.activities.

2 HowHow cancan AgriculturalAgricultural PollutionPollution harmharm ourour environment?environment?

3 EutrophicEutrophic meansmeans nutrient-richnutrient-rich,, andand eutrophicationeutrophication literallyliterally meansmeans enrichmentenrichment withwith nutrients,nutrients, althoughalthough nowadaysnowadays thethe termterm isis moremore oftenoften usedused inin aa negativenegative sensesense toto meanmean over-enrichment.over-enrichment.

NutrientsNutrients -- especiallyespecially nitrogennitrogen andand phosphorusphosphorus -- areare vitalvital forfor marinemarine life.life. ButBut thethe presencepresence ofof excessiveexcessive nutrientsnutrients cancan seriouslyseriously disturbdisturb thethe functioningfunctioning ofof marinemarine ecosystems.ecosystems.

4 ExcessiveExcessive nutrientnutrient inputsinputs intointo aa waterwater bodybody induceinduce biological,biological, chemicalchemical andand physicalphysical changeschanges inin aquaticaquatic plantplant andand animalanimal communities,communities, oftenoften leadingleading toto oxygenoxygen depletion,depletion, especiallyespecially inin deeperdeeper waters.waters.

Greenish,Greenish, murkymurky waterwater isis typicallytypically thethe firstfirst signsign ofof eutrophicationeutrophication asas microscopicmicroscopic plantsplants andand algaealgae growgrow profusely,profusely, consumingconsuming thethe surplussurplus nutrients.nutrients. ButBut algaealgae areare short-lived,short-lived, andand whenwhen theythey diedie theythey sinksink toto thethe bottombottom ofof thethe sea,sea, wherewhere theirtheir decompositiondecomposition usesuses upup oxygen.oxygen.

TheThe worstworst affectedaffected areasareas cancan becomebecome completelycompletely anoxicanoxic.. InIn thethe absenceabsence ofof oxygen,oxygen, decompositiondecomposition cancan releaserelease toxictoxic hydrogenhydrogen sulphidesulphide,, poisoningpoisoning organismsorganisms andand makingmaking thethe sea-bedsea-bed lifeless.lifeless.

5 BluegreenBluegreen algalalgal blooms,blooms, GulfGulf ofof FinlandFinland Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research (http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15. 6 WeatherWeather conditionsconditions cancan alleviatealleviate oror accelerateaccelerate eutrophicationeutrophication..

Mild,Mild, wetwet winterswinters areare usuallyusually badbad newsnews forfor shallow,shallow, coastalcoastal waters,waters, asas nutrientsnutrients areare washedwashed fromfrom farmlandfarmland intointo rivers,rivers, lakeslakes andand ultimatelyultimately thethe sea.sea.

ThisThis createscreates suitablesuitable conditioncondition forfor intenseintense algalalgal bloomsblooms inin thethe spring,spring, whichwhich cancan leadlead toto seriousserious oxygenoxygen depletion,depletion, especiallyespecially ifif thethe summersummer isis thenthen warmwarm andand calm.calm.

7 BluegreenBluegreen algalalgal bloom,bloom, GulfGulf ofof FinlandFinland 66th August,August, 20022002 Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research (http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15. 8 Algal bloom on the Fyris River near SLU in Uppsala – the river drains the intensively cultivated agricultural plain of Uppland 9 SoSo thethe riversrivers andand seasseas turnturn greengreen forfor aa whilewhile ––

WhoWho cares!?!cares!?!

10 ThereThere areare manymany reasonsreasons whywhy governmentsgovernments andand authoritiesauthorities throughoutthroughout thethe worldworld areare deeplydeeply concernedconcerned aboutabout thethe effectseffects ofof agriculturalagricultural .pollution.

NotNot leastleast isis thethe dangerdanger toto 1)1) PublicPublic healthhealth.. InIn drinkingdrinking water,water, highhigh concentrationsconcentrations ofof nitratenitrate cancan causecause methemoglobinemia,methemoglobinemia, aa potentiallypotentially fatalfatal diseasedisease inin infantsinfants alsoalso knownknown asas blueblue babybaby syndrome.syndrome. 2)2) FishFish stocksstocks andand marinemarine biodiversitybiodiversity.. EutrophicationEutrophication destroysdestroys (a)(a) spawningspawning areasareas forfor economicallyeconomically valuablevaluable fish,fish, andand (b)(b) habitatshabitats forfor otherother marinemarine life.life. 3)3) TheThe touristtourist industry.industry. PoisonousPoisonous and/orand/or unsightlyunsightly andand odorousodorous coastalcoastal waterswaters discouragediscourage tourists!tourists!

11 Problems and causes ­ a summaryProblems and causes ­ a summary

. Nutrient over-enrichment of coastal ecosystems generally triggers ecological changes that decrease the biological diversity of bays and estuaries

. While moderate N enrichment of some coastal waters may increaseincrease fish fish production, production, over-enrichment over-enrichment generally generally degrades degrades the marine food web that supports commercially valuable fish.

. The marked increase in of coastal waters has been accompanied by an increase in harmful algal blooms, and inin atat leastleast somesome cases,cases, pollutionpollution hashas triggeredtriggered thesethese blooms.blooms.

12 Problems and causes cont’dProblems and causes cont’d

. High nutrient levels and the changes they cause in and the makeup of the algal community are detrimental to the health of coral reefs and the diversity of animal life supported by seaweed and kelp communities.the diversity of animal life supported by seaweed and kelp communities.

. Research during the past decade confirms that N is the chief culprit in and other impacts of nutrient over­enrichment in temperate coastal waters, while P is most problematic in eutrophication of freshwater lakes.lakes.

. Human conversion of atmospheric N into biologically useable forms, principally synthetic inorganic , now matches the natural rate of biological N fixation from all the land surfaces of the earth.fixation from all the land surfaces of the earth.

13 Problems and causes cont’dProblems and causes cont’d

. Both and the burning of fossil fuels contribute significantly to non­ point flows of N to coastal waters, either as direct runoff or airborne .

. N from animal wastes that leaks directly to surface waters or is volatilized to the atmosphere as ammonia may be the largest single source of N that moves from agricultural operations into coastal waters.

14 HowHow dodo differentdifferent agriculturalagricultural activitiesactivities contributecontribute toto pollution,pollution, andand howhow doesdoes thisthis affectaffect ourour groundground andand surfacesurface waters??waters??

15 AgriculturalAgricultural impactsimpacts onon waterwater qualityquality

AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 1.1. /ploughingTillage/ploughing

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Sediment/: carry and adsorbed to particles; siltation of river beds and loss of habitat, spawning ground, etc.

16 AutumnAutumn ploughingploughing inin SwedenSweden 17 AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 2.2. FertilizingFertilizing

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus, Leaching of to leadingleading toto eutrophicationeutrophication causingcausing tastetaste andand ; excessive levels odour in public water supply, excess are a threat to public health. algae growth leading to deoxygenating of water and fish kills.

18 FertilizingFertilizing withwith anhydrousanhydrous ammoniaammonia 19 AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 3.3. ManureManure spreadingspreading

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Carried out as a activity; Contamination of ground-water, spreading on frozen ground results especially by nitrogen inin highhigh levelslevels ofof contaminationcontamination ofof receiving waters by pathogens, metals, phosphorus and nitrogen leadingleading toto eutrophicationeutrophication andand potential contamination.

20 MuckMuck spreadingspreading inin LithuaniaLithuania

21 AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 4.4. Feedlots/animalFeedlots/animal paddockspaddocks

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Contamination of surface water with Potential leaching of nitrogen, many pathogens (bacteria, viruses, metals, etc. to groundwater. etc.) leading to chronic public health problems. Also contamination by metals contained in urine and faeces.

22 StockStock yardyard inin SwedenSweden 23 AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 5.5. IrrigationIrrigation

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Runoff of salts leading to salinization Enrichment of groundwater with of surface waters; runoff of fertilizers salts, nutrients (especially nitrate). and pesticides to surface waters with ecological damage, bioaccumulation inin edibleedible fishfish species,species, etc.etc. HighHigh levelslevels of trace elements such as can occur with serious ecological damage and potential human health impacts.impacts.

24 IrrigationIrrigation 25 AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 6.6. ClearClear cuttingcutting

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Erosion of land, leading to high Disruption of hydrologic regime, levelslevels ofof turbidityturbidity inin rivers,rivers, siltationsiltation often with increased of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption and decreased groundwater and change of hydrologic regime, recharge; affects surface water by often with loss of perennial streams; decreasing flow in dry periods and causes public health problems concentrating nutrients and due to loss of potable water. contaminants in surface water.

26 DramaticDramatic clearclear cutcut onon thethe edgesedges ofof aa lakelake

27 ClearClear cutcut forestforest areaarea withwith streamstream inin SwedenSweden 28 AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 7.7. SilvicultureSilviculture

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Broad range of effects: runoff and contamination of surface water and fish; erosion and sedimentation problems.

29 SilvicultureSilviculture –– managedmanaged forestforest inin SwedenSweden

30 AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 8.8. AquacultureAquaculture

ImpactsImpacts SurfaceSurface waterwater GroundwaterGroundwater

Release of high levels of nutrients to surface water and groundwater through feed and faeces, leading to serious eutrophication.

31 AquacultureAquaculture –– fishfish farmingfarming addsadds toto thethe nutientnutient burdenburden

32 So,So, wewe havehave aa problemproblem andand thethe authoritiesauthorities areare awareaware ofof it.it.

WhatWhat policiespolicies existexist withinwithin e.g.e.g. thethe EuropeanEuropean UnionUnion toto alleviatealleviate thethe problemproblem?

33 IronicallyIronically thethe EU’sEU’s CommonCommon AgriculturalAgricultural PolicyPolicy hashas tendedtended toto exasperateexasperate thethe problem!problem!

AA recentrecent studystudy carriedcarried outout byby thethe EuropeanEuropean NatureNature HeritageHeritage FundFund concludedconcluded that:that:

’’mostmost ofof thethe EU’sEU’s agriculturalagricultural subsidiessubsidies exertexert aa negativenegative impactimpact onon thethe environment,environment, forfor thethe majoritymajority ofof paymentspayments toto farmersfarmers areare notnot tiedtied toto anyany environmentalenvironmental regulations’regulations’

OverOver 60%60% ofof thethe agricultureagriculture budget’sbudget’s totaltotal 4444 billionbillion Euro’sEuro’s currentlycurrently gogo toto thethe arablearable cropscrops sector,sector, andand thesethese subsidiessubsidies areare notnot tiedtied toto environmentalenvironmental regulationsregulations 34 GrasslandGrassland -- soso importantimportant forfor biologicalbiological diversitydiversity andand forageforage croppingcropping –– isis excludedexcluded fromfrom thethe payments.payments.

Maize,Maize, onon thethe otherother hand,hand, isis heavilyheavily subsidizedsubsidized suchsuch asas nono otherother crop,crop, andand ecologicallyecologically itit isis highlyhighly problematicproblematic becausebecause especiallyespecially largelarge amountsamounts ofof fertilizerfertilizer areare usedused inin maizemaize farming.farming.

InIn GermanyGermany thisthis hashas leadlead toto aa massivemassive increaseincrease inin maizemaize farming,farming, andand atat leastleast 25%25% reductionreduction ofof meadowsmeadows andand pasturespastures overover thethe pastpast twentytwenty years.years.

35 AgriculturalAgricultural waterwater pollutionpollution issuesissues surfacedsurfaced inin connectionconnection withwith thethe 19801980 EUEU directivedirective onon drinkingdrinking waterwater,, whichwhich requiredrequired membermember statesstates toto ensureensure thatthat certaincertain qualityquality objectivesobjectives forfor drinkingdrinking waterwater werewere metmet byby 1985.1985.

But,But, duringduring thethe secondsecond halfhalf ofof thethe 1980’s,1980’s, itit becamebecame clearclear thatthat mostmost membermember statesstates hadhad notnot achievedachieved thesethese qualityquality objectives.objectives.

InIn particular,particular, thethe maximummaximum pollutantpollutant levellevel forfor nitratenitrate inin drinkingdrinking water,water, setset atat 5050 mgmg perper liter,liter, waswas exceededexceeded inin manymany areas.areas.

36 WeWe willwill seesee laterlater thatthat furtherfurther reformsreforms toto thethe CAPCAP inin thethe latelate 1980’s1980’s (that(that offeredoffered subsidiessubsidies toto farmersfarmers whowho reducedreduced livestocklivestock density,density, decreaseddecreased fertilizerfertilizer useuse oror switchedswitched toto organicorganic farmingfarming oror otherother extensiveextensive formsforms ofof production),production), somesome NationalNational controlcontrol measuresmeasures introducedintroduced byby individualindividual membermember states,states, andand thethe introductionintroduction inin 19911991 ofof thethe NitrateNitrate DirectiveDirective,, areare havinghaving somesome effects.effects.

AnnexAnnex 1111 ofof thethe NitrateNitrate directivedirective outlinesoutlines Code(s)Code(s) ofof GoodGood AgriculturalAgricultural PracticePractice withwith thethe objectiveobjective ofof reducingreducing pollutionpollution byby .nitrates.

37 ForFor somesome CandidateCandidate countriescountries andand NewlyNewly AppliedApplied StatesStates problemsproblems regardingregarding agriculturalagricultural pollutionpollution ofof waterwater areare compoundedcompounded byby thethe lacklack ofof aa goodgood AgriculturalAgricultural AdvisoryAdvisory ServiceService infrastructure.infrastructure.

38 LetLet usus nownow examineexamine thethe situationsituation inin andand aroundaround ourour respectiverespective seasseas i.e.i.e. TheThe BalticBaltic SeaSea andand TheThe BlackBlack SeaSea

39 I’llI’ll startstart withwith thethe seasea nearestnearest homehome whichwhich ofof coursecourse isis

TheThe BalticBaltic seasea

40 41 FarmingFarming thethe landland cancan pollutepollute thethe seasea

DuringDuring recentrecent decadesdecades thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea hashas beenbeen burdenedburdened withwith increasingincreasing inputsinputs ofof nutrientsnutrients fromfrom agriculturalagricultural sourcessources suchsuch asas manuremanure andand fertilisers.fertilisers. TheThe consequentconsequent eutrophicationeutrophication hashas widelywidely disrupteddisrupted marinemarine ecosystems.ecosystems.

ThereThere havehave beenbeen reductionsreductions inin thethe mostmost harmfulharmful agriculturalagricultural emissions,emissions, butbut farmlandfarmland remainsremains oneone ofof thethe mainmain sourcessources ofof thethe surplussurplus nutrientsnutrients enteringentering thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea..

42 43 44 TheThe environmentalenvironmental qualityquality ofof thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea isis largelylargely influencedinfluenced byby thethe inputsinputs ofof pollutantspollutants -- particularlyparticularly excessiveexcessive nutrientsnutrients

NutrientsNutrients cancan enterenter thethe seasea inin runoffrunoff fromfrom arablearable land,land, mainlymainly viavia riversrivers andand streams,streams, butbut alsoalso alongalong ;coasts; oror inin thethe formform ofof depositiondeposition fromfrom thethe air.air.

MoreMore thanthan 2525 ofof thethe 132132 seriousserious pollutionpollution hothot spotsspots identifiedidentified aroundaround thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea sincesince 19921992 havehave alreadyalready beenbeen cleanedcleaned up.up.

45 ”Hot Spots”

46 http://maps.grida.no/scripts/esrimap.dll?name=hotspots&cmd=map.htmlhttp://maps.grida.no/scripts/esrimap.dll?name=hotspots&cmd=map.html

FollowFollow thethe aboveabove linklink toto accessaccess anan interactiveinteractive mapmap withwith detailsdetails ofof allall thethe knownknown HOTHOT SPOTSSPOTS inin thethe BalticBaltic seasea drainagedrainage basin.basin.

47 48 MarineMarine ResearchResearch VesselVessel onon thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research (http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.html) 49 50 Deep water oxygen concentration in the Baltic Proper and Gulf of Finland in 1999 (oxygen concentration < 2 ml/l, pink areas) and Anoxia (with presence of hydrogen sulphide, red areas) in 1999. 51

General Information

Hotspot number 128 (Laholm Bay)

Type Agricultural Runoff

Priority No

Country SE

Receiving water body Kattegat

Aim Reduction of nutrient leaching

Measures proposed Limit to animal density, winter green fields, increase storage cap and restrict handling of

Latest Update 1999

52 Nitrogen (tonnes in 1995)

250 000 Poland

200 000

150 000 Sw eden

Latvia Russia 100 000 Denmark Finland Estonia Lithuania 50 000 Germany

0

53 http://data.ecology.su.se/boing/index.htmhttp://data.ecology.su.se/boing/index.htm ll

54 Phosphorus (tonnes in 1995)

16 000 Poland 14 000 12 000 10 000 Russia 8 000 6 000 Sw eden Finland 4 000 Denmark LatviaLithuania Estonia 2 000 Germany 0

55 56 The 1990s - a decade of change for farming

A crucial change in agriculture in the Baltic Sea region during the 1990s has been the reintroduction of private ownership of farmland in countries in transition between the centrally- planned economy and the market economy. Through the 1990s prices for agricultural products remained low, while production costs were high.

Agricultural production decreased overall, resulting in smaller production units, and substantial reductions in the use of inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides. In the future, however, significant reconstruction of the agricultural sector is to be expected, and increases in productivity. The transitional countries will need assistance to ensure that environmentally sustainable agricultural practices are adopted. 57 InIn thethe EUEU countriescountries changeschanges werewere lessless dramatic,dramatic, butbut thethe usageusage ofof bothboth manuremanure andand chemicalchemical fertilisersfertilisers decreaseddecreased widely.widely. InIn Germany,Germany, particularlyparticularly inin thethe east,east, thethe totaltotal areaarea ofof farmlandfarmland shrankshrank considerablyconsiderably duringduring thethe 1990s.1990s. InIn FinlandFinland manymany farmsfarms alsoalso stoppedstopped operating,operating, andand phosphorusphosphorus emissionsemissions fromfrom agriculturalagricultural sourcessources declineddeclined significantly,significantly, asas theythey hadhad earlierearlier inin Sweden.Sweden.

TheThe reformreform ofof thethe EUEU CommonCommon AgriculturalAgricultural PolicyPolicy (CAP)(CAP) inin thethe EUEU inin thethe earlyearly 1990s1990s involvedinvolved overalloverall reductionsreductions inin farmfarm subsidies,subsidies, andand newnew incentivesincentives toto promotepromote environmentallyenvironmentally favourablefavourable agriculturalagricultural practices.practices. RequirementsRequirements forfor subsidiessubsidies nownow includeinclude thethe adoptionadoption ofof farmingfarming practicespractices designeddesigned toto minimiseminimise animalanimal wastewaste andand fertiliserfertiliser runoff.runoff. TheThe CAPCAP isis nownow alsoalso beingbeing graduallygradually adoptedadopted byby thethe countriescountries hopinghoping toto joinjoin thethe EU,EU, soso withinwithin aa fewfew yearsyears aa commoncommon setset ofof agriculturalagricultural policiespolicies andand subsidiessubsidies shouldshould covercover tenten ofof thethe region'sregion's fourteenfourteen countries.countries. 58 Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) - Lithuania

160 000 140 000 120 000 100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

59 Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) - Poland

180 000

120 000

60 000

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

60 Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) - Sweden

160 000 140 000 120 000 100 000 80 000 60 000 40 000 20 000 0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

61 NutrientNutrient inputsinputs

NutrientsNutrients enterenter thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea eithereither inin waterwater flowingflowing intointo thethe sea,sea, oror fromfrom thethe atmosphere.atmosphere. RiversRivers andand coastalcoastal pointpoint sourcessources suchsuch asas urbanurban andand industrialindustrial wastewaterwastewater outletsoutlets accountaccount forfor mostmost ofof thethe nutrientnutrient loadload -- inin factfact threethree timestimes moremore nitrogennitrogen andand tenten timestimes moremore phosphorusphosphorus thanthan thethe atmosphericatmospheric input.input.

62 IndustrialIndustrial emissionsemissions ofof NO2NO2

63 Industrial NO2 emissions 1000 tonnes

600

300

0 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Denmark Finland Germany Latvia Lithuania Norw ay Poland NW Russia Sw eden Data Sources: Data sources: EMEP. Lithuania: Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Lithuania. NW Russia: Russian Baltic 21 Parties. 64 PigPig factoryfactory farmfarm

65 PigPig farmfarm wastewaste lagoonlagoon –– aa sourcesource ofof ammonia!ammonia!

66 TrendsTrends inin nutrientnutrient inputsinputs

·· TheThe inputsinputs ofof phosphorusphosphorus toto thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea areare nownow muchmuch lowerlower thanthan inin thethe 1980s,1980s, thanksthanks toto improvedimproved wastewaterwastewater treatment.treatment.

·· ButBut inin recentrecent yearsyears thisthis decreasedecrease hashas slowed,slowed, andand nutrientnutrient inputsinputs fromfrom riversrivers evidentlyevidently diddid notnot decreasedecrease duringduring thethe periodperiod 1994-98.1994-98.

·· InputsInputs ofof nitrogen,nitrogen, whichwhich largelylargely originateoriginate fromfrom diffusediffuse sourcessources suchsuch asas farmlandfarmland havehave beenbeen moremore difficultdifficult toto reduce.reduce.

·· AnnualAnnual atmosphericatmospheric nitrogennitrogen depositiondeposition intointo thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea decreaseddecreased byby nearlynearly 40%40% betweenbetween 19851985 andand 1997.1997.

67 OneOne ofof thethe non-pointnon-point sourcessources significantlysignificantly contributingcontributing toto thethe pollutionpollution ofof thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea isis thethe agricultureagriculture sector,sector, whichwhich isis estimatedestimated toto accountaccount forfor 30-3530-35 perper centcent ofof thethe totaltotal nitrogennitrogen loadload toto thethe Baltic.Baltic.

ItIt isis dominateddominated byby thethe consumptionconsumption ofof thethe nitrogennitrogen fertilizersfertilizers forfor agriculturalagricultural lands.lands. TheThe massivemassive waterbornewaterborne nitrogennitrogen inputinput toto thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea isis aa majormajor causecause ofof marinemarine eutrophication.eutrophication.

68 69 1000 Riverine nitrogen inputs tonnes to the Baltic Sea

800

400

0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Source: BED http://data.ecology.su.se, and Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 82A 70 Riverine total phosphorous inputs Tonnes to the Baltic Sea

40000

20000

0 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Source: BED http://data.ecology.su.se 71 TheThe HelsinkiHelsinki Commission,Commission, oror HELCOMHELCOM,, worksworks toto protectprotect thethe marinemarine environmentenvironment ofof thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea fromfrom allall sourcessources ofof pollutionpollution throughthrough intergovernmentalintergovernmental co-operationco-operation betweenbetween Denmark,Denmark, Estonia,Estonia, thethe EuropeanEuropean Community,Community, Finland,Finland, Germany,Germany, Latvia,Latvia, Lithuania,Lithuania, Poland,Poland, RussiaRussia andand Sweden.Sweden.

HELCOMHELCOM isis thethe governinggoverning bodybody ofof thethe "Convention"Convention onon thethe ProtectionProtection ofof thethe MarineMarine EnvironmentEnvironment ofof thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea Area“Area“ -- moremore usuallyusually knownknown asas thethe HelsinkiHelsinki ConventionConvention

72 TheThe 19741974 ConventionConvention

ForFor thethe firstfirst timetime ever,ever, allall thethe sourcessources ofof pollutionpollution aroundaround anan entireentire seasea werewere mademade subjectsubject toto aa singlesingle convention,convention, signedsigned inin 19741974 byby thethe thenthen sevenseven BalticBaltic coastalcoastal states.states.

TheThe 19741974 ConventionConvention enteredentered intointo forceforce onon 33 MayMay 1980.1980.

73 TheThe 19921992 ConventionConvention

InIn thethe lightlight ofof politicalpolitical changes,changes, andand developmentsdevelopments inin internationalinternational environmentalenvironmental andand maritimemaritime law,law, aa newnew conventionconvention waswas signedsigned inin 19921992 byby allall thethe statesstates borderingbordering onon thethe BalticBaltic Sea,Sea, andand thethe EuropeanEuropean Community.Community. AfterAfter ratificationratification thethe ConventionConvention enteredentered intointo forceforce onon 1717 JanuaryJanuary 2000.2000. TheThe ConventionConvention coverscovers thethe wholewhole ofof thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea area,area, includingincluding inlandinland waterswaters asas wellwell asas thethe waterwater ofof thethe seasea itselfitself andand thethe sea-bed.sea-bed. MeasuresMeasures areare alsoalso takentaken inin thethe wholewhole catchmentcatchment areaarea ofof thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea toto reducereduce land-basedland-based pollution.pollution.

74 TheThe HelsinkiHelsinki CommissionCommission isis responsibleresponsible forfor monitoringmonitoring andand implementing:implementing:

• TheThe 19881988 MinisterialMinisterial DeclarationDeclaration,, inin particularparticular concerningconcerning reachingreaching thethe targettarget ofof 50%50% reductionsreductions inin nutrientnutrient inputs.inputs.

• TheThe BalticBaltic SeaSea JJointoint CComprehensiveomprehensive EnvironmentalEnvironmental ActionAction PProgrammerogramme (JCP)(JCP) establishedestablished inin 19921992 toto facilitatefacilitate andand monitormonitor thethe eliminationelimination ofof thethe 132132 mostmost pollutingpolluting sourcessources withinwithin thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea catchmentcatchment areaarea –– knownknown asas ""hot-spotshot-spots".".

75 TheThe countriescountries inin thethe BalticBaltic SeaSea drainagedrainage basinbasin havehave committedcommitted toto mostmost ofof thethe conventionsconventions thatthat touchtouch uponupon thethe issueissue ofof eutrophication.eutrophication. TheThe mostmost importantimportant treaty,treaty, thethe HelsinkiHelsinki conventionconvention hashas allall thethe coastalcoastal countriescountries activelyactively involved.involved.

SomeSome ofof thethe moremore newlynewly formedformed states,states, suchsuch asas Estonia,Estonia, LatviaLatvia andand LithuaniaLithuania havehave notnot yetyet signedsigned allall ofof thethe treatiestreaties forfor monitoringmonitoring && pollution.pollution.

AnAn importantimportant treaty,treaty, thethe AarhusAarhus conventionconvention,, addressaddress thethe opennessopenness andand publicpublic accessaccess ofof environmentalenvironmental information,information, hashas notnot yetyet beenbeen signedsigned byby Russia.Russia.

76 Pollution & Monitoring General

Country Helsinki UNCLOS NOx Aarhus EIA

Belarus

Czech Rep

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

Germany

Latvia

Lithuania

Norway

Poland

Russia

Sweden

Ukraine

Key Not signed Signed, but not entered or accepted Entered or accepted Not applicable 77 UnitedUnited NationsNations ConventionConvention onon thethe LawLaw ofof thethe SeaSea (UNCLOS)(UNCLOS)

ThisThis conventionconvention isis veryvery widewide inin scope,scope, andand coverscovers allall useuse ofof internationalinternational seas,seas, environmental,environmental, butbut alsoalso shippingshipping andand exploitation.exploitation. TheThe environmentalenvironmental partsparts ofof thisthis conventionconvention covercover monitoring,monitoring, technicaltechnical assistanceassistance andand thethe establishmentestablishment ofof basicbasic environmentalenvironmental principles.principles.

78 ConventionConvention ofof Long-RangeLong-Range TransboundaryTransboundary AirAir PollutionPollution (LRTAP)(LRTAP) -- NOxNOx ProtocolProtocol

TheThe objectivesobjectives ofof thisthis conventionconvention isis toto monitormonitor andand limitlimit thethe long-distancelong-distance pollutionpollution ofof somesome hazardoushazardous substances,substances, toto manman andand environment.environment.

AmongAmong thesethese areare nitrousnitrous oxideoxide (NOx),(NOx), sulphursulphur andand volatilevolatile organicorganic compoundscompounds (VOC).(VOC). TheThe NOxNOx protocolprotocol waswas selectedselected forfor thisthis indicator.indicator.

79 ConventionConvention onon WetlandsWetlands ofof InternationalInternational ImportanceImportance especiallyespecially asas WaterfowlWaterfowl HabitatHabitat (Ramsar(Ramsar Convention)Convention)

WetlandsWetlands areare ofof importanceimportance asas aa naturalnatural barrierbarrier forfor nutrientsnutrients inin thethe drainagedrainage basin.basin. TheThe RamsarRamsar ConventionConvention seeksseeks toto reducereduce thethe lossloss ofof wetlands,wetlands, andand toto conserveconserve andand protect.protect.

80 ConventionConvention onon AccessAccess toto InformationInformation ,, PublicPublic ParticipationParticipation inin Decision-MakingDecision-Making andand AccessAccess toto JusticeJustice inin EnvironmentalEnvironmental MattersMatters (Aarhus(Aarhus convention)convention)

TheThe AarhusAarhus conventionconvention isis thethe youngestyoungest inin thisthis presentationpresentation (that(that isis whywhy mostmost countriescountries havehave justjust signedsigned itit yet).yet). ThisThis conventionconvention waswas createdcreated withwith thethe objectiveobjective toto ensureensure publicpublic accessaccess toto allall formsforms ofof environmentalenvironmental information,information, suchsuch asas monitoringmonitoring andand assessment.assessment.

81 ConventionConvention ofof EnvironmentalEnvironmental ImpactImpact AssessmentAssessment inin aa TransboundaryTransboundary ContextContext (Espoo(Espoo Convention)Convention)

EnvironmentalEnvironmental ImpactImpact AssessmentsAssessments ((EIAEIA)) areare studiesstudies onon thethe environmentalenvironmental implicationsimplications ofof development,development, suchsuch asas construction.construction.

CountriesCountries committedcommitted toto thisthis conventionconvention areare requiredrequired toto createcreate anan EIAEIA andand toto gogo forfor internationalinternational co-operationco-operation inin allall developmentdevelopment thatthat cancan effecteffect thethe environmentenvironment ofof thethe neighbouringneighbouring countries.countries.

82 NowNow letlet usus looklook atat thethe situationsituation aroundaround youryour seasea

TheThe BlackBlack SeaSea

83 84 85 86 % Total Nitrates Danube Dnieper Dniester 2% 4% 1% 7% Don 12% Sea of Azov Bulgaria 0% 52% 7% Georgia 2% Romania 6% 7% Russia Turkey Ukraine

TheThe DanubeDanube accountsaccounts forfor moremore thanthan 50%50% ofof thethe totaltotal NitrateNitrate inputinput toto thethe BlackBlack SeaSea 87 88 PerceivedPerceived majormajor problemsproblems

DeclineDecline inin BlackBlack SeaSea CommercialCommercial FishFish StocksStocks

89 90 (No(No moremore Jansson’sJansson’s Temptation!!!!????)Temptation!!!!????) 91 92 PerceivedPerceived majormajor problemsproblems

LossLoss ofof habitats,habitats, notablynotably wetlandswetlands andand shelfshelf areas,areas, supportingsupporting importantimportant bioticbiotic resourcesresources

LossLoss oror imminentimminent lossloss ofof endangeredendangered speciesspecies andand theirtheir genomesgenomes

ReplacementReplacement ofof indigenousindigenous BlackBlack SeaSea speciesspecies withwith exoticexotic onesones

DegradationDegradation ofof thethe BlackBlack SeaSea landscapelandscape

93 PerceivedPerceived majormajor problemsproblems

InadequateInadequate protectionprotection ofof marinemarine andand coastalcoastal resourcesresources fromfrom maritimemaritime accidentsaccidents

UnsanitaryUnsanitary conditionsconditions inin manymany beaches,beaches, bathingbathing andand shellfish-growingshellfish-growing waterswaters

94 PollutedPolluted beachesbeaches don’tdon’t attractattract manymany tourists!!tourists!! 95