Earth-Like Planets

How many schools Autumn 2009 Issue 13 and teachers do you reach –

In this issue: worldwide? Alan Leshner: at the interface of science and society

The CoRoT satellite: the search for Earth-like planets

Advertising in Science in School · Choose between advertising in the quarterly print journal or on our website (www.scienceinschool.org). · Website: reach 30 000 science educators worldwide – every month. · In print: target 20 000 European science educators every quarter, including 3000 named subscribers. · Distribute your flyers, brochures, CD-ROMs or other materials either to 3000 named subscribers or to all recipients of the 20 000 print copies. For more details, see www.scienceinschool.org/advertising

Published by EIROforum:

Initially supported by ISSN: 1818-0353 the European Union: Subscribe free online: www.scienceinschool.org Highlighting the best in science teaching and research sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 2

About Science in School Science in School promotes inspiring science teaching by encouraging communication between teach- Editorial ers, scientists and everyone else involved in European science education. The journal addresses science teaching both across Europe and across disciplines: highlighting the best in teaching and cutting-edge scientific research. It cov- ers not only biology, physics and chemistry, but also earth sciences, maths, engineering and medicine, Welcome to the thirteenth focusing on interdisciplinary work. The contents include teaching materials; cutting-edge science; interviews with young scientists and inspiring teach- issue of Science in School ers; reviews of books and other resources; and European events for teachers. Science in School is published quarterly, both online and in print. The website is freely available, with articles in many European languages. The English- ealth and disease are themes that run through language print version is distributed free of charge Hthis issue of Science in School. In our feature within Europe. article, Alan Leshner describes his varied career, includ- Contact us Dr Eleanor Hayes / Dr Marlene Rau ing his involvement in a major campaign to show that Science in School schizophrenia is a brain disease and not a result of European Molecular Biology Laboratory Meyerhofstrasse 1 environment. In contrast to this concern with the public 69117 Heidelberg awareness of mental illness, Sabine Hentze deals with Germany illness on a personal scale – counselling patients and families affected by [email protected] Subscriptions genetic diseases. Register online to: Teacher Gianluca Farusi encourages his students to eat healthily with a · Receive an email alert when each issue is published colourful chemistry experiment to test the antioxidant content of different · Request a free print subscription (within Europe) foods; Holger Maul, Nele Freerksen and I show why a simple vitamin – folic · Swap ideas with teachers and scientists in the acid – is such an essential component of a healthy diet; and immunologist Science in School online forum Post comments on articles in Science in School. Ana de Barros investigates the roles of white blood cells in preventing cere- · Submissions bral malaria. We welcome articles submitted by scientists, teachers and others interested in European science education. Saving life is certainly a worthy aim, but the quest to find life – beyond the Please see the author guidelines on our website. limits of our planet – has seized the imagination of science fiction writers Referee panel and scientists alike. Malcolm Fridlund introduces the search for extra-solar Before publication, Science in School articles are planets and extra-terrestrial life, and explains how this could tell us about reviewed by European science teachers to check that the evolution of life on Earth. they are suitable for publication. If you would like to join our panel of referees, please read the guidelines The history of life is an ambitious enough topic, but some astronomers have on our website. gone further – probing the history of the Universe itself. Ana Lopes and Book reviewers If you would like to review books or other resources Henri Boffin describe the search for the first light in the Universe – the first for Science in School, please read the guidelines on dawn. our website. Translators Back on Earth, the dawn of understanding on a student’s face can be deeply We offer articles online in many European languages. satisfying. Jean-Yves Guichot’s project enabled his students to understand If you would like to volunteer to translate articles into the nature of research by working side-by-side with research scientists; he your own language, please read the guidelines for offers advice for setting up a similar project. translators on our website.

Rather than developing a project for their students, Ludwig Eidenberger and Advertising in Science in School Harald Gollner developed a project with two of them. They describe their Science in School is the only European journal aimed activities to demonstrate the unusual thermodynamic properties of latex – at secondary-school science teachers across Europe including a thermal engine and a ‘refrigerator’. Thermodynamics is also one and across the full spectrum of sciences. It is freely available online, and over 20 000 full-colour printed of the many phenomena that can be investigated using Bernhard Sturm’s sci- copies are distributed each quarter. ence dramas. Why not try out his ideas for enacting redox reactions, radical The target readership of Science in School includes polymerisation or the effect of heat on water? everyone involved in European science teaching, including: Water is the crux of Giuseppe Zaccai’s research: he and his co-workers test- · Secondary-school science teachers ed the assumption that biological reactions in vitro actually reflect the reali- · Scientists · Science museums ty in the living cell. Scientists can heave a sigh of relief – it seems water · Curriculum authorities. does indeed behave similarly in the cell and in the test tube. Web advertisements Reach 30 000 science educators worldwide As if that were not enough choice of topics, we have more articles online – every month. interviews with veterinarian Sarah Baillie and Italian teacher Alessandro · € 200-350 per week Berton, a collection of online astronomy resources, and reviews of books Print advertisements · Full page: € 3150 and websites. From now on, these categories of articles will be online only, · Half page: € 2285 so don’t miss out – visit our website (www.scienceinschool.org). · Quarter page: € 990 · Back cover (full page): € 5000 Eleanor Hayes Distribution Editor-in-Chief of Science in School Distribute flyers, DVDs or other materials to 3000 [email protected] named subscribers or to all 20 000 print recipients. For more information, see www.scienceinschool.org www.scienceinschool.org/advertising or contact [email protected] sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 1

Contents

Editorial Welcome to the thirteenth issue of Science in School Events 2 Science on Stage: heading for a country near you 4 Particle physics close up: CERN high-school teachers programme 6 Discoveries in Paris: the European Union Contest for Young Scientists Feature article 10 10 Alan Leshner: at the interface of science and society Cutting-edge science 15 The CoRoT satellite: the search for Earth-like planets 19 The intracellular environment: not so muddy waters 24 Winning an Oscar in immunology Teaching activities 29 The drama of science 34 The latex motor 15 39 Looking for antioxidant food Project in science education 44 The Bio Academy Science topics 48 The first light in the Universe 53 Getting a grip on genetic diseases 59 Folic acid: why school students need to know about it

19 Additional online material Teacher profile A star-struck teacher in Italy Scientist profile Virtual reality: the Haptic Cow Resources on the web 34 Educational resources for the International Year of Astronomy Reviews Classic Chemistry Demonstrations: One Hundred Tried and Tested Experiments Why is science important? website Molecules of Murder: Criminal Molecules and Classic Cases

See: www.scienceinschool.org/2009/issue13

59 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 1 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 2

Science on Stage: heading for a country near you How better to inspire thousands of schoolchildren across Europe than by motivating and educating their teachers? As Eleanor Hayes explains, that is the idea behind Science on Stage – a network of local, national and international events for teachers.

nitially launched in 1999 as Physics enjoy the on-stage science shows. had gained so much momentum that Ion Stage, it was the brainchild of Most importantly, participants from it was clear they would continue, EIROforumw1, the publisher of Science the international festival then took the even without the lure of an interna- in School, and received financial sup- ideas and experience back to their tional festival. Nonetheless, it was port from the European Commission. own countries to share with their col- recognised that the international festi- In 2005, the initiative was broadened leagues – sending ripples of inspira- val – with the chance to swap ideas to cover all sciences and renamed tion across Europe. One of the collab- and experience with teachers from Science on Stage, but the format orations that emerged was between across Europe – was an intrinsic part remained essentially unchanged. the UK and Malta: chemistry teacher of Science on Stage. National representatives organised Tim Harrison has made several trips The German national organisersw3 competitions, science fairs and festi- to this Mediterranean archipelago to took the initiative, therefore, to plan vals, to identify innovative teachers perform dramatic chemistry shows in an international Science on Stage fes- and teaching activities, encourage the front of thousands of school students tival in October 2008, with substantial improvement of national education and their teachers. Didier Robbes sponsorship from THINK INGw4. Two systems and establish a European from the University of Caen, France, hundred and fifty European teachers community of science teachers keen found Italian partners to set up an flocked to Berlin to share their teach- to share and exchange their best education company based on his elec- ing projects and experiments, discuss teaching ideas. The size of the nation- tromagnetism project. And there has innovative methods in workshops al activities varied – some were quite been much activity at the national and round tables, attend scientific small, while the Spanish Ciencia en level too: Science on Stage Belgium talks and stage performances, and Acción eventw2 involved several thou- and Science on Stage Austria eV, for visit Berlin’s research institutes. Thus sand people. A number of lucky example, have presented their activi- was born the idea that the national teachers from each country were then ties at a range of conferences and organisers should pass the Science on selected to attend the international events, both for teachers and the gen- Stage flame from one to the other, festival hosted by one of the eral public (see Furtado & Rau, 2009). competing to host the international EIROforum organisations – a chance In 2008, the contract with the festival every two years. to exchange teaching ideas with 500 European Commission – and thus the With this in mind, representatives colleagues from more than 27 coun- financial support – ran out, but the from 18 European countries met on tries, attend lectures by leading scien- enthusiasm and commitment of the 22–23 October 2009 in Berlin to estab- tists, take part in workshops, visit national organisers continued. In lish Science on Stage Europew5, and to world-class research facilities and some countries, the national events decide which country should have the

2 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 3

Events

Images courtesy of Wolfgang Gollub

honour – and the responsibility – of research organisations. For more www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ hosting the next international festival. information, see: www.eiroforum.org issue5/sos The national organisers from Austria, w2 – Ciencia en Acción is the Spanish Furtado S (2009) Science on Stage: Malta and Poland made excellent Science on Stage organisation. See: recent international events. bids, but the final vote went to www.cienciaenaccion.org Science in School 11: 11-14. Denmark. With generous financial w3 – To learn more about Science www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ support from the Danish Education on Stage Germany, see: issue11/sos Ministry, the fourth Science on Stage www.science-on-stage.de Hayes E (2007) Awards, rewards – international festival will take place w4 – THINK ING is an initiative and onwards! Science in School 5: on 16–19 April 2011 in Copenhagen. of the German Association of 12-14. www.scienceinschool.org/ If you would like to take part in Metal and Electrical Industry 2007/issue5/sosprize your national event – and maybe even Employers. To learn more, see: Hayes E (2008) Science on Stage: be selected to attend the international www.think-ing.de recent activities. Science in School 10: festival – why not contact your w5 – To learn more about Science 4-7. www.scienceinschool.org/2008 national organisers? Between now and on Stage and find your national /issue10/sos October 2010, an exciting range of contact, see the Science on Riggulsford M, Warmbein B (2006) activities will take place to select 400 Stage Europe website: Space balloons, mousetraps and of Europe’s best science teachers to www.science-on-stage.eu earthquakes: it’s Science on spend Easter 2011 in Copenhagen. Stage! Science in School 1: 8-11. Resources www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ References Teaching materials, photographs and issue1/spaceballoons much more information about pre- Furtado S, Rau M (2009) Science Warmbein B (2006) Science teachers vious festivals is available here: on Stage: recent activities. take centre stage. Science in School 1: www.science-on-stage.net Science in School 12: 10-13. 6-7. www.scienceinschool.org/2006 www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ For more information about previous /issue1/centrestage issue12/sos Science on Stage activities, see the following Science in School Web references articles: Dr Eleanor Hayes is the Editor-in- w1 – EIROforum – the publisher of Capellas M (2007) Science teaching Chief of Science in School. Science in School – is a partnership of flies high at Science on Stage 2. seven European inter-governmental Science in School 5: 10-11.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 3 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 4

Particle physics close up: CERN high-school teachers programme

Every year, CERN invites a group of high- school teachers to Geneva, Switzerland, to learn about particle physics – and how to teach it at school.

Apply for next year’s programme ven though the school holidays Ewere in full swing, some 40 high- The next HST programme will take place from 4 to 24 July 2010. For school teachers came to CERN to take more information, including details of how to apply, see the HST pro- part in the high-school teachers (HST) gramme websitew4. programme organised by the CERN You may also be interested in taking part in one of CERN’s three-day education group. Far from consider- national teacher programmesw5; each one is targeted at teachers from ing this as a piece of holiday fun, the a particular CERN member state and is run in the mother tongue of teachers got their hands dirty and put the participants.

in some serious hours of learning. BACKGROUND The three-week HST programme hosts dozens of teachers from around the world, offering a deeper insight into the quality of our tools and thus are not on holiday at the moment, into particle physics through a variety help us improve them. Another group and has set up a blogw2 to enable her of lectures, visits and workshops. The is sifting through the video archives students to carry on learning even programme’s ambitious overall aim is on the CERN website and drawing up while she’s at CERN: “I record what I to help these teachers inspire their a league table of CERN videos high- do every day on the blog and describe students to follow careers in science. lighting those which provide the most the lectures I’ve attended,” she In the second week, they split up into educational benefit.” explains. Juliana hopes her light- working groups to evaluate CERN’s In so doing, the teachers are not hearted, avant-garde approach will existing educational tools or create only working for CERN and their col- have the desired effect of triggering new onesw1. “This year, one of the leagues, but also fulfilling their mis- her students’ interest: “I’ve included a groups is reviewing some of the sion as teachers by working for the link to the video of the LHC rapw3 and CERN visits’ service itineraries,” says benefit of their students. One partici- set up an HST programme group for HST programme manager Mick Storr. pant, Juliana Mitrevski, has shown my students on Facebook,” she says. “From their perspective as teachers devotion beyond the call of duty. Beyond the strictly educational and they can give us a valuable insight She’s from Australia, where schools scientific aspects, the participants also

4 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 5

Events

The participants at this year’s CERN high-school teachers programme Image courtesy of CERN

appreciate the social side of this inter- w2 – Juliana Mitrevski’s blog can be The original version of this article was national programme. “When you’re seen here: http://julianaatcern. first published in CERN’s newslet- working with people from 23 differ- blogspot.com ter, The Bulletin. ent countries, it’s a real cultural melt- w3 – A video of the LHC rap can be ing pot and a great opportunity to viewed here: www.youtube.com/ compare teaching methods,” notes watch?v=j50ZssEojtM Polish teacher Małzgorzata Karulak. w4 – For more information about the “After three weeks together, the HST programme, see: teachers grow very close and it’s http://teachers.web.cern.ch/ sad to think we’ll all be returning teachers home soon,” says Terrence Baine, a w5 – The CERN education website Canadian teaching in Norway, who is offers information, not only about attending the programme for the sec- the HST programme, but also about ond time as part of his research for a other teacher programmes and edu- PhD in Physics Education. “I’ve kept cational resources for schools. See: http://education.web.cern.ch/ in touch with the good friends I made education/Welcome.html during last year’s programme and I’m sure it’ll be the same for those Resources attending this year.” To read other Science in School articles about CERN, see: Web references www.scienceinschool.org/cern w1 – To download the educational If you found this article interesting, resources created by the HST you might like to browse previously participants, see: http://teachers. published event reports in Science in web.cern.ch/teachers/materials/ School. See: www.scienceinschool. default.htm org/eventreports

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 5 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 6

Dikranos – Fabian’s plane with reverse gear

Image courtesy of Inger Gram Torhild

Discoveries in Paris: the European Union Contest for Young Scientists

On 11-16 September 2009, the annual European Union Contest for Young Scientists (EUCYS) took place in Paris, France. Marlene Rau, a member of this year’s jury, reports.

6 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 7

Events © European Communities, 1995-2009 © European Communities, 1995-2009 © European Communities, 1995-2009

Fabian Gaffner, first-prize winner Liam McCarthy and John C. O’Callaghan, Polish first-prize winners Aleksander from Switzerland first-prize winners from Ireland Kubica and Wiktor Pilewski

alais de la découverte – the EUCYS 09w1. All of them first-prize physics of medieval trebuchets, or a Ppalace of discovery: for six days, winners of their national contests, study of the ideal personality traits to it was buzzing with young people they came to present a wide variety of become a neurosurgeon. from across Europe and beyond, projects, either individually or as a It was not only the topics that var- bringing along their scientific discov- team. ied so greatly: the contestants came eries, their enthusiasm, inventiveness The international jury had a tough from different backgrounds and age and creativity. For them it was an decision to make: the topics ranged groups (14 to 20) and had access to opportunity to meet fellow science from butterfly ecology, nanotechnolo- different levels of resources – some enthusiasts from 37 other countries, gy and biofuel generation; through a had the best possible while others had make friends and discover the world cappuccino logo printer, new solu- virtually none. Some had even patent- of science – and of course, their host tions to mathematical problems, ed their inventions already. Most of city, Paris. Alzheimer’s disease or cancer A total of 132 talented young scien- research, and algorithms for 3D imag- tists had come together to compete in ing; to the exploration of galaxies, the EUCYS contestants discover Paris with their student hosts Image courtesy of EUCYS09

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 7 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 8

EUCYS contestants enjoying a Image courtesy of EUCYS09 cruise on the River Seine

the contestants faced the additional somatic cells in milk, which will help challenge of presenting their project farmers in their daily work; and in a foreign language – English – the Aleksander Kubica (20) and Wiktor European Southern Observatoryw5, standard of which also varied greatly Pilewski (20) from Poland, who stud- after their talks. between the young scientists. In the ied the properties of spiral zone plates To supplement the official pro- face of all this variety, the jury’s task – a cutting-edge science topic in opti- gramme, a number of student hosts was to assess not only each project’s cal physics. Details of these and all from the Université Paris XI had scientific soundness, originality and other projects, as well a video of the organised further tourist trips for the creativity, but also the students them- contest, are available onlinew3. contestants and introduced them to selves and the structure of their pres- Above all, it was the contestants’ the Montmartre nightlife – a highlight entation. And that was no easy task – scientific spirit that counted: of the youngsters’ stay in Paris. after all, they were all winners in their “Everybody wants to win – some EUCYS is a great experience for own countries. want it more, some want it less – but everyone involved – why not tell Yet the fact that there was a it’s not the most important thing. We your students about it? Encourage generous total of €51 500 in ten didn’t do our research for this or any them to develop their ideas and enter main prizes from the European other competition – but because we’re your national competition – and with Commission, plus 19 sponsored travel interested in the subject and we want- a bit of luck, we’ll meet them at prizes to a range of scientific insti- ed to investigate it!” as one partici- EUCYS 2010 in Lisbon, Portugal. tutes and events to be distributed – pant put it wisely. including six one-week placements at Of course even the most dedicated Web references the EIROforumw2 organisations and a scientist needs an occasional break; w1 – To find out more about the visit to the Nobel Prize Awarding the contestants were taken up the European Union Contest for Young Ceremony – ensured that all of the Eiffel Tower and on a cruise along the Scientists, see: http://ec.europa.eu/ most worthy projects were rewarded. River Seine, visited a number of sci- research/youngscientists and After many interviews with the ence museums, and had the opportu- www.eucys09.fr contestants and heated debates nity to meet eminent scientists both at w2 – Learn more about EIROforum, among the jury, the decision was a round-table discussion and in lec- the publisher of Science in School, made: the three first prizes went to tures. Even after three exhausting here: www.eiroforum.org Fabian Gafner from Switzerland (19), days, packed with new experiences, w3 – For the full information on all who built a model airplane which can the contestants were alert enough to winners and projects, and to watch fly backwards; Liam McCarthy (14) quiz the EIROforum evening lectur- the official EUCYS09 video, see the and John O’Callaghan (15) from ers, Jacopo Lucci from the European EUCYS09 website (www.eucys09.fr) Ireland, who developed a simple Molecular Biology Laboratoryw4 and or http://tinyurl.com/ybdwj9b method to determine the number of Paula Stella Teixeira from the for the winners,

8 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:39 Uhr Seite 9

Events ld orhi m T Gra er Ing of y es rt u o c e g a m

Image courtesy of EUCYS09 I http://tinyurl.com/y9t8gyw for the projects, and http://tinyurl.com/ydnmvsa for the video w4 – You can find out more about the European Molecular Biology Laboratory here: www.embl.org w5 – To find out more about the European Southern Observatory, see: www.eso.org Question session during the round-table discussion at La Cité des Sciences with Resources scientists Jean Dalibard, Pascle Cossart, To find out more about the national Wendelin Werner and Claudie Haigneré competitions and to contact your national organiser, see: 2009 winner of an EIROforum http://ec.europa.eu/research/ special prize visit to CERN, the youngscientists/ European Organization for Nuclear index_en.cfm?pg=organisers Research, in Geneva, Switzerland: For a flavour of the EUCYS spirit and www.butrousfoundation.com/ its contestants, watch a fun video of ysjournal/?q=node/108 their Seine cruise with interviews: If you enjoyed this article, you might www.youtube.com/ also like to read other event reports watch?v=sOSkI8MJLBM in Science in School. See: Read what it’s like to be a EUCYS www.scienceinschool.org/ contestant in the blog of Courtney eventreports Williams from the UK, the lucky

Philip Cardona from Malta with his cappuccino logo printer

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 9 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 10

A schizophrenic patient gives an insight into her mind with a cloth she embroidered, an exhibit at the Glore Psychiatric Museum, St Joseph, Missouri, USA

Alan Leshner: at the interface Image courtesy of cometstarmoon; image source: Wikimedia Commons of science and society

S AA f A o sy e rt u o Dr. Alan Leshner, Chief Executive Officer c e g a

m I of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and Executive Publisher of the renowned Science magazine, tells Marlene Rau and Sonia Furtado about his varied career and shares his views on science education issues. Dr Alan Leshner

lan Leshner started his career as degree, I did neuroscience. There was rather talk of the wider scope of his Aa neuroscientist at a time when no such thing as a neuroscientist back research than focus on a particular neuroscience still fell under the then, though: in the late 1960s, if you detail: “I spent twelve years as a umbrella of psychology. “Like many were interested in the brain, or in the bench scientist, so there is no single people,” he says, “I became a scientist relationship between biology and thing that stands out, but – like many because of an individual mentor. I behaviour, you went into psychology. people – I am interested in grand, was always genuinely interested in However, I was part of a first genera- overarching questions about the science and thought I would become tion of doctoral students who were nature of the relationship between a physician. But at university I started trained in both psychology and physi- biology and behaviour. What I did to do some research with one of my ology – and in my case, endocrinolo- was approach that through an unusu- psychology professors, and I fell in gy, too.” al question. While most people asked love with the process of research and When asked to point out the most ‘how does the brain come to generate scientific inquiry. So instead of interesting aspect of his scientific a mind?’, I was interested in how enrolling in medical school after my research, Dr Leshner is reticent – he’d other biological systems can modify

10 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 11

Feature article

by their mind and their own behav- don’t have a separate mind and brain. iour. If you can give them insights That doesn’t mean you don’t have a into the phenomena that relate to mind or you don’t experience your This article on an atypical them, that’s a very good way to own consciousness, but the mecha- career in science can be engage people with science generally. nism that generates it is in the mush used to discuss science I’m fond of saying most people are inside that hard thing that sits above and society issues in class, interested in their brains because your shoulders. It’s very hard for peo- including: Are teachers they’re interested in their minds. This ple to accept that, but that’s what paid enough or too much? makes studying the brain fascinating, we’ve learned over the course of the Do you think it matters if because people think it will give them last fifty years.” people don’t know what is insight into their minds, into their and isn’t science? What self, into their individuality.” are the important scientif- What about the difference ic issues that have moral, between mind and brain? political or economic Regardless of what people may ramifications? think, scientists are certain there Halina Stanley, France is none. Dr Leshner states: REVIEW “Within the scientific community it’s not a question any- more. It may be one in the or affect behaviour, and became inter- broader society, but scien- ested in hormones. Not in the tradi- tists agree that your mind tional area of interest at the time – sex is not floating around hormones and sexual behaviour – I outside your body or was interested in the role of hormones in your liver – it’s in in controlling what were then called your head. You regulatory behaviours: eating, exercis- ing and things like that. Later I became interested in how hormones could affect social behaviours and mood; specifically in the role of the hormones of the adrenal gland on aggressive versus submissive behaviour, and in what came to be called premenstrual tension and how hormones could be involved in that.” Author of a textbook on hormones

and behaviour (Leshner, 1978), Dr / iStockphoto Image courtesy of ericmichaud Leshner doesn’t think current knowledge of behaviour can provide any great insights into how to manage a classroom, but he does believe it could be a very useful resource to help get youngsters interested in science. “There is a whole body of litera- ture on the biology of behaviour that I think would be both very exciting and very stimulating to young people”, he says. “Unsurprisingly, many young people are very interested in their own hormones and their effects. In addition to that, most people are intrigued

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 11 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 12

so I kept my lab going during that time. Then, by accident, I was invited to a meeting about a new science education commission that the National Science Boardw3 was establishing at the National Science Foundation. There they asked me if I would come and work on the staff, and I became deputy director of that commission. So I spent a couple of years working on science education at elementary- and secondary-school levels. I had eight jobs in nine years at the National Science Foundation,” Alan Leshner admits. “But they were good,” he adds. “Each one was better than the one before. “After that, I was asked to become the deputy director of the National Institute of Mental Healthw4, at the National Institutes of Health. I did that for a couple of years, and then the director left and I became the act- ing director of the institute for another couple of years. Then I was asked if I wanted to become the director of the National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA)w5, also at the National Institutes of Health. I thought: ‘Oh, that’s an interesting challenge. There is no science behind the way in which society deals with drug abuse and addiction, and I could do something about that.’ So I was the NIDA director for almost eight years. But because everything comes full circle, I was eventually asked if I wanted to come Image courtesy of 1001nights / iStockphoto back to my broader scientific roots and work at AAASw6 and Science mag- Although he is still interested in the National Science Foundationw1 for azinew7. I figured I had done about as these matters, Dr Leshner’s career has a year, in one of their rotating pro- much as I could do in drug abuse, moved away from the lab bench. gramme officer positions. Those are and maybe I would be able to have a How did he go from researching jobs where you give out grants, and I broader effect on the science–society behaviour to working in science poli- did that in a programme called ‘psy- relationship by coming to AAAS, so cy? “Well, I was asked,” he replies. chobiology’. While I was there, I got that’s how I got here. Actually my “I’ve always been interested in the involved in other projects that were whole career is an accident. I was relationship between biology and more policy-related, and they asked lucky: my parents didn’t think it was things like mental disorders, mood me to stay for another year to work essential that I have a plan.” and emotion. So although my on a big science policy report called His latent interest in the interface research was very focused, I was ‘The five year outlook on science and between science and society was always interested in the kind of technology’. I liked it, and they asked sparked into action during his time at broader questions that might interest me to stay another year. I kept my the National Institute of Mental society at large. I was asked to go to appointment at Bucknell Universityw2, Health, Dr Leshner says. “At the time,

12 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 13

Feature article

Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons Dr Leshner believes that educating the public is of paramount importance, preferably from an early age, but that the challenges faced by current educational systems are still very similar to those he encountered while in the science education commission at the National Science Foundation. “I think the issues were actually the same back then as they are today, and that’s very discouraging. We have not made tremendous progress. For instance, we still can’t get agreement on the standards and objectives for what we want taught at the different pre-college levels in science, mathematics and technology. “And I believe that the single biggest problem is that in the US, we don’t pay science teachers enough to keep them in the business. The best American Academy of Arts and Sciences building, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA and brightest science teachers fre- quently get discouraged, both by the universities and high schools were understand what is and isn’t science, bureaucracy of our educational sys- teaching that diseases like schizophre- and in part because science is tems and by the terrible pay. nia were caused by early parental encroaching on areas of core human “Therefore, after teaching for a experience. You know, we had words values, like who we are. There are while, they feel as if they need to like ‘refrigerator parents’ or ‘schizo- other kinds of issues that have politi- move to other fields. I believe that phrenogenic mothers’ – mothers that cal or economic ramifications, like until the nations of the world recog- induced schizophrenia. I was in a what to do about global warming. We nise and respect teachers for the very room with four people when we have a lot of work to do, getting sci- important and difficult jobs that they decided we needed to tell the world do, we’ll never really solve the so- that schizophrenia was a brain dis- called science education problems. I ease. So we mounted a major public actually think if we were to pay information campaign, along with a “I was lucky: my parents teachers reasonably, teaching in sec- patient group called ‘The national didn’t think it was essential ondary or even elementary schools alliance for mental illness’. We suc- would be viewed as an extremely cessfully used science to change pub- that I have a plan” productive career choice for scientists. lic understanding of mental illness, so There is nothing that says all scien- that now if you say ‘schizo- tists have to work at the bench. phrenogenic mothers’, everybody ence and society on the same page Scientific training can be used in a laughs. If you say your mother made and going in the same direction.” wide variety of ways, and teaching is you schizophrenic, people think it’s a Nevertheless, Leshner has pretty among the most noble things you can joke; everybody knows it’s a brain clear ideas as to how that link can be do in the world. So I would applaud disease. Well, we had to tell people, strengthened: “I believe in public people who choose to use their sci- using the science.” engagement with science: that is in ence education to become teachers. I At AAAS, Alan Leshner now looks dialogue, communication, bringing sci- just think it’s very difficult to get beyond his initial field of interest, to entists and the rest of the public them to do that.” more general tensions between sci- together to work on common issues, The man who once said “People ence and society. “The link between listening to each other. One of the still respect science and technology, science and the rest of society is a lit- hardest things is to get scientists to lis- but they have no idea what science tle fragile these days,” he says. “It’s ten to the public, but every time they is” believes school could play a fun- fragile in part because people don’t do, they benefit tremendously from it.” damental role in changing this state of

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 13 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 14

w6 – Find out more about the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) here: www.aaas.org w7 – You can find the website of the Science magazine here: www.sciencemag.org

Resources For an article on the role of one particular hormone, oxyntomodulin, on eating behaviour, see: Image courtesy of Eraxion / iStockphoto Wynne K, Bloom S (2007) Oxyntomodulin: a new therapy for affairs. “You can’t teach science in a society smooth is very rewarding. My obesity? Science in School 6: 25-29. vacuum, but if you don’t focus on the main interest is that interface between www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ nature of the enterprise, you get lost science and the rest of society, and issue6/oxyntomodulin in the details. So you have to find a what better way to work on that than way to do both. One such way is to to be the head of an organisation To find out more about Euroscience, start with a societal issue such as whose mission is to advance science the European counterpart of AAAS, global warming and then ask ‘How and serve society?” and its activities, see: did science teach us about it?’ How www.euroscience.org do we know Earth is warming? It’s References If you enjoyed this article, you might not just that the graph shows it. It’s a Leshner A (1978) An Introduction to also like to read other feature whole process by which we’ve made Behavioral Endocrinology. Oxford, articles in Science in School. See: www.scienceinschool.org/features those advances in understanding. UK: Oxford University Press. ISBN: “You can either teach the graph, or 9780195022667 you can teach the process of generating and understanding the graph – Sonia Furtado was born in London and of understanding a bad graph – Web references and moved to Portugal at the age of you know, what makes something w1 – For more information on the US three. While studying for a degree in true or false for science. Then people National Science Foundation, see: zoology at the University of Lisbon, could discriminate better between www.nsf.gov what is and isn’t science. The asser- she worked at Lisbon Zoo’s education w2 – To learn more about Bucknell tion that astrology or homoeopathy or department: there, she discovered University, USA, see: creationism are scientific should be that what she really enjoys is telling dependent on one’s ability to prove www.bucknell.edu people about science. She went on to that they use scientific methodology, w3 – Find out more about the US do an MSc in Science Communication that the results are reproducible and National Science Board on their at Imperial College London, and is that the findings are observable: all of website: www.nsf.gov/nsb now working in the press office at the the normal criteria that make some- w4 – Learn more about the National European Molecular Biology thing scientific. The fact that three sci- Institute for Mental Health at the Laboratory (EMBL) in Heidelberg, entists believe something doesn’t US National Institutes of Health Germany. make it scientific.” here: www.nimh.nih.gov Marlene Rau was born in Germany Finally, after holding so many dif- w5 – For more information on the US and grew up in Spain. After obtaining ferent positions and being involved in National Institute on Drug Abuse a PhD in developmental biology at the so many different areas, what would (NIDA), see: www.nida.nih.gov European Molecular Biology laborato- Alan Leshner like to do next? “Oh, I ry in Heidelberg, Germany, she stud- The NIDA also provides teaching sort of like this. I think representing ied journalism and went into science material for neuroscience and drug the scientific community is a noble communication. Since 2008, she has abuse education in English and thing to do, and anything that I can been the editor of Science in School. do to help keep the relationship Spanish: www.drugabuse.gov/ between science and the rest of parent-teacher.html

14 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 15

Cutting-edge-science Image courtesy of ESA

The CoRoT satellite: the search for Earth-like planets

Malcolm Fridlund from the European Space Agency (ESA) describes the search for extra-solar planets and explains how they can help us to understand the origin of life on Earth.

Artist’s impression of the Jupiter-sized extra-solar planet HD 189733b, now known to have methane and water in its atmosphere (from studies with the Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes). Methane is the first organic molecule to be found on an extra-solar planet. The discoveries come from spectroscopic studies of light from the parent star that has passed through the CoRoT planet’s atmosphere On 27 December 2006, the French This article on the search space agency CNES (Centre National for exoplanets can trigger w1 d’Etudes Spatiales), ESA and their scientific discussions on w2 partners launched the CoRoT satel- Earth and the stellar surface (a plane- what life is, and why we lite to search for small Earth-like plan- tary transit). are interested in studying ets outside our Solar System (extra- All three phenomena can be studied the physical and chemical solar planets, or exoplanets) and by measuring the changes in the light characteristics of celestial detect ‘starquakes’. The satellite’s emission of the observed stars. The bodies. It can also be used name is derived from Convection convection from the interior of a star as a basis for philosophi- (Co), Rotation (Ro) and planetary causes the intensity of the light it cal and social discussions Transits (T), and its scientific objec- emits to increase or decrease by a few about the relationship of tives are to study the rotation of stars parts per million. Areas of intense humans with possible and the convection – the upwelling of magnetic activity inhibit convection, alien life forms.

hot gas – from the stellar interior, and forming areas of reduced surface tem- REVIEW Marco Nicolini, Italy to detect planets that pass between perature which are visible as darker

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 15 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 16

As we go to press

CoRoT first caught sight of a planet transiting the star And not only that: it is only 2.5 million km away from CoRoT-7, to the left of Orion in the constellation of its host star, or 23 times closer than Mercury is to the Monoceros (the Unicorn), about 500 light-years away, Sun, which also makes it the closest known planet to its in Spring 2008. However, confirming the planet’s host star. It is so close that it must experience extreme nature took months with large ground-based tele- conditions, which make it uninhabitable to life as we scopes, so its discovery wasn’t officially announced know it: the probable temperature on its ‘day face’ is until 3 February 2009. above 2000 degrees Celsius, but minus 200 degrees To measure the planet’s mass and density, astronomers Celsius on its ‘night face’. then used the High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet The calculated density is close to that of Earth, suggest- Searcher (HARPS) spectrograph attached to the 3.6 m ing that the planet’s composition is similarly rocky. telescope at the European Southern Observatory’sw4 La Theoretical models suggest that the planet may have Silla Observatory in Chile, performing the longest set of lava or boiling oceans on its surface. observations (70 hours) on this machine so far. On 16 The astronomers found from their dataset that CoRoT-7 September 2009, the results were finally announced. hosts another exoplanet slightly further away from the The planet, known as CoRoT-7b, is about the mass of star than CoRoT-7b. Designated CoRoT-7c, it circles its Earth, which puts it among the lightest known exoplan- host star in 3 days and 17 hours and has a mass about ets. With a diameter less than twice that of Earth, it is eight times that of Earth. Unlike CoRoT-7b, this sister also the smallest exoplanet measured so far. planet does not pass between its star and Earth, so Every 20.4 hours, CoRoT-7b eclipses a small fraction astronomers cannot measure its radius and thus its den- (one part in 3000) of the light of its star for a little over sity. one hour. Orbiting its star at a speed of more than The finding brings astronomers ever closer to discover- 750 000 km/h, more than seven times faster than ing inhabitable extra-solar planets, but such planets Earth’s motion around the Sun, it is the fastest-orbiting would need to be further from their star to support life exoplanet known. as we know it.

Artist’s impression of Corot-7b Image courtesy of ESO / L. Calcada BACKGROUND

16 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 17

Cutting-edge-science

Image courtesy of ESA starspots. As the star rotates, its light output changes by a very small This plot shows the transit of the first exoplanet amount, depending on the number of discovered by CoRoT: starspots on the hemisphere that has 1.000 CoRoT-Exo-1b. The transit rotated into view – so monitoring the results in a decrease in starspots tells us how fast the star is 0.995 the luminosity of the Sun- like parent star when the rotating. Finally, when a planet in 0.990 planet passes in front of it orbit around a star passes between 0.985 every 1.51 days. It is a the CoRoT satellite and the star, it can very hot Jupiter-like giant Normalised flux be detected as a small dip occurring 0.980 planet, similar to Jupiter also in mass (as deter- periodically in the star’s light output. 0.975 mined by spectroscopic Planetary transits are used to detect -0.05 0.00 0.05 observations from the exoplanets, while the convection and ground) and 1.49 +/- Phase rotation measurements are used to 0.08 times Jupiter’s radius characterise the star around which the discovered planets orbit. CoRoT will also be used for astroseismology: detecting acoustical waves generated diameter – was designed specifically Extraterrestrial life deep inside a star that send ripples for this purpose. The only instrument Why is it important important to across its surface, known as ‘star- on board is a camera that takes one know how common Earth-like (i.e. quakes’. The exact nature of the rip- picture every 32 seconds. The on- small and rocky) planets are? Firstly, ples allows astronomers to calculate board computer then measures the because we would like to know the star’s precise mass, age and chem- light (changes) from each star, and, whether our planet is unique. ical composition. In this article, how- over time, produces a light curve. Furthermore, finding Earth-like plan- ever, we will concentrate on the The spacecraft is directed at the same ets outside our Solar System may help search for exoplanets. spot in the sky for up to 150 days at a us to understand how life arose on Measuring these phenomena time, simultaneously observing up to Earth about 3.5 billion years ago. requires a space telescope with a very 12 000 stars. The longer it remains Based on a hypothesis made more precise photometer (or light meter). pointed towards the same stars, the than 30 years ago, scientists assume Unlike the larger Hubble Space more transits it can see (see diagram that all types of ‘life’ work the same Telescope (launched in 1990), CoRoT above). as that on Earth, and that alien life – which measures only 30 cm in CoRoT can detect planets that are forms would have the same sort of close to their star – taking up to 50-75 metabolism as ours. Therefore, days to circle it (i.e. this is the length researchers base their search on what of their ‘year’) – and can find planets happened on Earth. Although the

Observations in zone 2 as small as our own Earth. The shape process by which life on Earth first of the light curve (see diagram above) emerged is still not known, it is Observations in tells us how the planet is moving, believed to be linked to the presence zone 1 how the outer layers of the star of liquid water on a hard, rocky plan- behave, and also the size of the planetary surface. So if there are any other Orbital plane et. Once a planet has been detected by Earth-like planets, have any of them CoRoT, astronomers can observe the evolved life? star and its planetary system with Finding an extra-solar planet as

Image courtesy of ESA other types of instruments on very small as Earth is difficult. How much Earth orbit large telescopes on the ground, and harder would it be to observe life learn more about it. forms at such distances? It would be CoRoT is pointed in the same direction Already, the CoRoT satellite has particularly difficult if they were just for more than 150 days at a time, before found several large planets. It is now bacteria, which were the only living the Earth’s movement around the Sun also beginning to pick up what we organisms on Earth for the first few leads to the unwanted effect of the Sun’s think are small planets. This should billion years and still outnumber rays entering the telescope. CoRoT then enable us to find out how common other species by a million to one turns 180 degrees around its long axis and points in the other direction our own type of planet is in the today in terms of individuals, and Universe. possibly also species number.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 17 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 18

Image courtesy of ESA / CNES The key is to find a planet with its have also produced life and, if so, atmosphere out of chemical equilibri- what happened to it. um. A planet’s atmosphere (like Ultimately, we hope to apply this almost everything else) tends towards knowledge to understanding the evo- a state of equilibrium (in which every lution of life on our own planet. chemical reaction proceeds at the same speed as its reverse process). Web references Life, however, changes its environ- w1 – To learn more about the ment: for instance, all the free oxygen European Space Agency, see: (O2) in our atmosphere has been pro- www.esa.int duced by living organisms - plants w2 – To find out more about the and other organisms take up carbon CoRoT satellite and the partners of dioxide and process it to oxygen, the mission, see: which is then released. Oxygen is so www.esa.int/science/corot reactive that, if all life were to disap- Artist’s w3 – For more information about pear from Earth, the free oxygen in impression of ESTEC, see the ESA websitew1 our atmosphere would disappear in the CoRoT satellite or use the direct link: in its orbit at 900 km less than 4 million years (a short peri- http://tinyurl.com/39nw3r od given the billions of years of altitude over Earth’s poles w4 – To learn more about the Earth’s history). European Southern Observatory, A similar chemical disequilibrium see: www.eso.org occurred when life originated on Earth and bacteria produced an over- aid of telescopes like CoRoT, designed abundance of methane. What hap- specifically to find small rocky plan- Resources pened to the methane-producing bac- ets similar to Earth, we can expect – Listen to the author’s podcast about teria and their world? We don’t actu- within the next few years – to find the CoRoT project, which can be ally know, but it is believed that new other stars that are circled by planets found on the ESA websitew1 or via organisms evolved which produced very similar to our own. this direct link: http://tinyurl.com/ oxygen instead: the oxygen was poi- However, current technology is not ydoggpy sonous for the methane producers, sufficient to analyse the atmospheres Find out more about the search for and most of them died out. of such smaller planets. The light we exoplanets in this article: The gas composition and other con- receive from an exoplanet is extreme- Jørgensen UG (2006) Are there ditions such as temperature and pres- ly feeble, and very large telescope Earth-like planets around other sure tell you what the equilibrium apertures are needed: of all the pho- stars? Science in School 2: 11-16. should be (in the case of Earth, simi- tons radiated by an exoplanet, only a www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ lar to the atmosphere of Mars). So if few photons per square metre arrive issue2/exoplanet we could analyse the chemical equi- on Earth. Furthermore, our atmos- librium of an exoplanet’s atmosphere, phere contains so much oxygen and To view all the Science in School we might determine if there is life as methane that there are already many articles about space science, see: we know it, and maybe even to what ‘oxygen photons’ and ‘methane pho- www.scienceinschool.org/space stage evolution has progressed tons’ (photons with methane or oxy- (methane or oxygen producers). gen signatures, respectively). The few The atmospheres of two very large ‘oxygen photons’ and ‘methane pho- Malcolm Fridlund is a Swedish and hot exoplanets have been studied tons’ from an exoplanet would have astronomer who has worked at the with photometric measurements by to compete with all of these, making European Space Research and the Hubble and Spitzer space tele- it impossible to detect them. Technology Centrew3 (ESTEC) for scopes as well as ground-based tele- Therefore we need to go into space – more than 20 years. He has spe- scopes, and water and methane have with large telescopes – which is both cialised, scientifically, in the area of been detected on one (see image on very difficult and very expensive. exoplanets and the methods used to page 15). This is another step towards Scientists are developing the next find and study them. He is currently proper comparative planetology, com- generation of instruments to be tech- ESA’s project scientist for the CoRoT paring the planets in our Solar System nically able to carry out the necessary mission. with those in other systems. With the observations to tell us if these planets

18 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 19

Cutting-edge-science

The intracellular environment: not so muddy waters

Giuseppe Zaccai from the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) in Grenoble, France, describes how he and his co-workers have uncovered a way to explore water dynamics in the cell interior using neutron scattering and isotope labelling. The Dead Sea Image courtesy of EdwardShtern / iStockphoto Image courtesy of EdwardShtern

ompared to other liquids, water do not mix. The reason is that water tributes to the formation of three- Chas extraordinary properties. As molecules can form hydrogen bonds dimensional structures in proteins, water is essential for all living organ- with each other and other molecules RNA and DNA, favouring their fold- isms, its properties also play a truly (which are called hydrophilic), but not ing in such a way as to hide the vital role at the level of molecular with oil-like molecules (which are hydrophobic parts of their structures biology – a discipline which seeks to called hydrophobic) (for more on this from contact with water and to understand life processes at the levels topic, see Cicognani, 2006). This has expose the hydrophilic parts. of atoms, molecules and their interac- fundamental consequences in molecu- The hydrophobic effect, as it is tions. lar biology. The hydrophobic effect understood, depends critically on the The hydrophobic effect is one such leads to the spontaneous organisation special dynamic molecular properties property. It describes the observation of lipid molecules to form the mem- of liquid water. The implication of this that in a liquid solution, water and oil branes that surround cells. It also con- effect in membrane formation and

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 19 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 20

Image cour At ILL, scientists use neutron beams tesy of Gi us to investigate a variety of solid and Marion Jasnin and ep pe Z Giuseppe Zaccai at ILL a liquid materials. In neutron spectrom- c c a i etry experiments to measure dynamics (how atoms move in a substance), the neutrons in the beam collide with the atoms to be studied, like billiard balls bouncing off each other. Neutrons and atoms exchange energy and momentum – the neutrons are scattered. Thus, measuring how these values change for the neutrons after the collision gives us an indication of the energy and momentum of the atoms they encountered, and therefore of how these atoms move. But how can we distinguish between the motions of different atoms in a complex sample, such as a cell that contains not only water but macromolecular folding was deduced affect water dynamics inside the cell, also many other molecules whose from test-tube experiments on solu- leading to the observation of a major atoms move in different ways? tions in which water is clearly in the ‘slow water’ component in the Dead Neutrons are scattered with different liquid state. There have been sugges- Sea cells. power by different atoms. To study tions, however, that water in cells is Clearly, if this were true for all complex systems, scientists use a trick not in its normal liquid state but is organisms, it would lead to a com- to reduce the scattering power of somehow ‘tamed’ and cannot move plete reassessment not only of the everything they do not want to meas- about as freely inside the viscous hydrophobic effect, but also of the ure. Hydrogen scatters neutrons intracellular environment, a thick role of water in biology in general. It much more strongly than all other soup of proteins and other molecules. was therefore essential to test whether atom types (about 10-100 times, It was therefore very important to this behaviour was special to the depending on which atom type you measure the dynamic state of water halophilic organisms or could be gen- compare it with). In contrast, deuteri- directly in living cells. This was not eralised (Jasnin et al., 2008). um, a heavy isotope of hydrogen (its an easy task, but the special proper- nucleus contains one neutron in addi- ties of the neutron helped scientists tion to one proton), scatters neutrons from my research group at the ILLw1, A flask of deuterated Haloarcula about 40 times more weakly than as well as researchers at the Institut marismortui cells. Note the red hydrogen. Exploiting this property, colour of the halophilic organisms, de Biologie Structurale CEA-CNRS- scientists replace hydrogen with deu- w2 which in natural environments UJF in Grenoble, France, to tackle it colours salt lakes and salt ponds. It is terium in the components of a com- successfully. due to carotenoids in the cell mem- plex system they are not interested in The first experiments on water branes, which enter the food chain and render them practically ‘invisi- dynamics in living cells were per- and are also responsible, for exam- ble’. The contributions to the scatter- formed at ILL on cells from organisms ple, for the colour of pink flamingos ing signal by the molecules that con- that live in the extremely salty condi- tain deuterium are negligible; we ‘see’ tions of the Dead Sea (Tehei et al., only the motions of the molecules that 2007). Salt is used as a preservative contain hydrogen. because at high concentration it usu- Marion Jasnin and her co-workers ally kills micro-organisms. The Dead used this trick to analyse water Sea halophilic (salt-loving) organisms dynamics in vivo in the cytoplasm of evolved to cope with the very high Escherichia coli bacteria, taking advan- salt concentration by having macro- tage of the neutron sources at ILL and molecules with markedly increased ISISw3, UK. Studying physics with bio-

hydrophilic surfaces. These surfaces Image courtesy of Giuseppe Zaccai logical samples is always a difficult

20 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 21

Cutting-edge-science

Marion Jasnin mounting a sample on the cryostat rod of the IN6 spectrometer. The cryostat controls the Much is made in school science of the scientific process, and yet sample temperature during data collection. The sample is in the flat our students typically do not have much exposure to cutting-edge aluminium box at the end of the research in science, or to the style of writing used in academic rod. The discs on the rod are baffles journals. The reasons for this distance include little apparent rele- to help maintain constant tempera- vance to school science, and the often impenetrable style of aca- ture at the bottom of the cryostat demic prose. These criticisims do not apply to Zaccai’s article, which also addresses an important ‘how do we know?’ question. While the behaviour of molecules in vitro may be well studied and understood, it is often a matter of conjecture how much of this replicates behaviour in vivo. The article suggests that water, at least, does not behave differently, and the text is of interest to teachers and older students of biology, physics or chemistry, particularly as there is a cross-disciplinary nature to the reported studies. Possible comprehension questions include: · Explain the analogy drawn between the lagoon in Venice and intracellular water. · What non-SI unit(s) crop(s) up in the article? Express this/these in SI units. · What does ‘deuteration’ mean? · Why was E. coli a good experimental subject? · Rank some of the materials mentioned in order of their ability to scatter neutrons. · Define ‘hydrophobic’ and ‘hydrophilic’. · How were the irrelevant molecules rendered ‘invisible’ to the neutron beam? · What conclusion can be drawn by the work described in the article?

REVIEW Ian Francis, UK Image courtesy of Giuseppe Zaccai

task, and human cells are very deli- measurements, they were then cen- by measuring their wavelength (in the cate and complicated to work with. E. trifuged gently and the heavy water Ångström range). The two main coli were a good alternative as they was replaced with normal (hydrogen- methods used to do this (depending are easier to handle, yet live in the containing) water, diluting out the on the spectrometer) are by ‘time of human gut under similar physiologi- deuterium-containing intracellular flight’, in which the neutron velocity cal conditions of temperature and water but not the deuterium in the (inversely proportional to wave- salinity as our own cells; and remem- macromolecules. In such a sample, length, velocity is in the km/s range ber, the adaptation of the cytoplasm after diluting out, the neutron scatter- for Ångström wavelengths) is meas- to high salinity was thought to be the ing signal comes mainly from the ured over a determined path; and by cause of the ‘slowed down’ water in intracellular water. The pellet of living diffraction of crystals (according to the halophiles. cells was placed in an aluminium sam- Bragg’s law, only a certain wave- To replace the hydrogen atoms in ple holder. Aluminium, like all metals, length is diffracted for a given crystal the proteins and other cellular macro- is transparent to neutrons – though periodicity and angular setting – read molecules by deuterium, E. coli cells obviously not to light or X-rays. more about this law in Hughes, 2007 were grown on deuterated nutrients Neutron energy and momentum are and Cornuéjols, 2009). Find out more and deuterated (heavy) water. For the determined before and after scattering about these methods onlinew4.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 21 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 22

Triple monochromator tion corresponds to a single layer of water molecules next to the macro- Anti-overlap chopper molecules that is slowed down, but Fermi chopper & collimator the rest flows as freely as in liquid water. Monitor 1 Monitor 2 Monitor 3 What happens inside the cell, then, Sample is similar to what is found around the Beam stop islands of the Venetian lagoon in Italy. Be filter The water close to the macromolecules (islands) is held up, whereas in between – as little as one layer of water molecules from the macromolecules – the water regains its fluidity. This is in contrast to the ‘taming’

Image courtesy of ILL hypothesis that claimed that all the water in the cell would be slowed down. Following up on the E. coli experiments, the group has now also man- aged to explore water dynamics in human red blood cells at neutron sources in Germany (FRM IIw5) and Neutron Guide Switzerland (PSIw6). The same behav- Collimator Detector iour as in E. coli was confirmed, with liquid water flowing freely beyond the first layer which is in contact with The layout of the IN6 neutron haemoglobin, the main protein con- scattering spectrometer at ILL tained in these cells (Stadler et al., 2009). Heat is motion: the speed at which sponds to the thermal motion of Scientists can heave a sigh of relief – atoms in a material move depends on hydrogen atoms in liquid water at and continue to do their experiments the temperature. However, atoms in room temperature (note that this cor- in liquid water solutions, thanks to one material can also move at differ- responds to speeds of about 100 m/s); this confirmation that such experi- ent speeds at the same temperature, those measuring in the range of 1-10 ments are a valid model for what depending on how they are bound to Ångström amplitudes in a nanosec- happens in cells. other atoms around them: water mol- ond (10-9 s), which would pick up ecules are known to be slowed down ‘slowed down’ water; and an interme- References by direct contact with macromole- diate type for the range of 1-10 Cicognani G (2006): Defying the laws cules such as proteins or DNA. The Ångström amplitudes in 100 picosec- of physics? Science in School 1: 19-21. question the scientists asked was: do onds. www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ cellular water molecules that are not By using a picosecond and a issue1/defying in direct contact with macromolecules nanosecond spectrometer, Marion Cornuéjols D (2009): Biological move as they would normally in liq- Jasnin and her co-workers established crystals: at the interface between uid water, or are they, too, significant- that water dynamics within a bacteri- physics, chemistry and biology. ly slowed down? al cell are similar to those in pure Science in School 11: 70-76. Each neutron spectrometer is spe- water. Water molecules rotate as well www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ cialised for measuring atomic motions as diffuse linearly in the liquid, and a issue11/crystallography occurring within a given length slightly slowed-down rotational diffu- scale–time scale window. Basically, sion was measured. From the fraction Hughes D (2007) Taking the stress out there are three types: those measuring of hydrogen atoms that moved more of engineering. Science in School 5: in the range of about 1 Ångström slowly and the average surface of 61-65. amplitude occurring in about 1 macromolecules inside an E. coli cell, www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ picosecond (10-12 s), which corre- the scientists calculated that this frac- issue5/stress

22 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 23

Cutting-edge-science

Appleton Laboratory near Oxford, here: www.isis.rl.ac.uk w4 – For more information about neutron diffraction, as well as about the time-of-flight and crystal diffraction techniques, see the following direct links to Wikipedia pages: http://tinyurl.com/yh436y4 for neutron diffraction, http://tinyurl.com/ykywxht for inelastic neutron scattering, http://tinyurl.com/yj4bnrf for Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Public domain image; image source: time-of-flight, and http://tinyurl.com/yfho9gz for crystal diffraction w5 – Find out more about the German research neutron source FRM II (Forschungs-Neutronen - quelle Heinz Maier-Leibnitz) in Munich here: www.frm2.tum.de w6 – To learn more about the Paul Scherrer Institute in Villingen, Switzerland, see: www.psi.ch Resources For a portrait of a young researcher working on halophiles, see: Leigh V (2008) Salt of the Earth. Science in School 8: 60-62. Satellite photo of the Venice lagoon, taken by www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ ASTER (Advanced Spaceborne Thermal issue8/prudencemutowo Emission and Reflection Radiometer), an If you enjoyed this article, you might imaging instrument flying on Terra, a satellite part of NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS) also like to read other articles about science at ILL in Science in School. See: www.scienceinschool.org/ill

Jasnin M, Moulin M, Haertlein M, scattering reveals extremely slow Zaccai G, Tehei M (2008) Down to cell water in a Dead Sea organism. Giuseppe Zaccai was born in atomic-scale intracellular water Proceedings of the National Academy Alexandria, Egypt, and educated in dynamics. EMBO Reports 9: 543-547. of Sciences of the United States of English-language schools there and in doi:10.1038/embor.2008.50 America 104: 766-771. Rome, Italy. After a PhD in physics Stadler AM, Embs JP, Digel I, doi:10.1073/pnas.0601639104 from the University of Edinburgh, Artmann GM, Unruh T, Buldt G, UK, he began to work on biophysics Web references Zaccai G (2008) Cytoplasmic water in the USA. He went on to ILL, where and hydration layer dynamics in w1 – To learn more about the Institut he is the Senior Fellow for Biology. He human red blood cells. Journal of the Laue-Langevin, see: www.ill.eu also holds the position of directeur de American Chemical Society 130: w2 – To find out more about the recherche with the Centre National de 16852-16853. doi:10.1021/ja807691j Institut de Biologie Structurale la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) of France and has headed the molecular Tehei M, Franzetti B, Wood K, Gabel CEA-CNRS-UJF, see: www.ibs.fr biophysics laboratory of the IBS in F, Fabiani E, Jasnin M, Zamponi M, w3 – Learn more about ISIS, the Grenoble since it was founded in 1992. Oesterhelt D, Zaccai G, Ginzburg pulsed neutron and muon source M, Ginzburg BZ (2007) Neutron located at the UK Rutherford

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 23 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 24

Winning an Oscar in immunology Have you ever wondered what it is that scientists get so excited about? Ana de Barros from the Instituto de Medicina Molecular in Lisbon, Portugal, shares with us the excitement of researching the immune system.

Ana in the lab

hen my phone rang and I was Wtold that our article was to be The human thymus. published in Nature Immunology Reproduction of a lithographic plate from (Ribot et al, 2009), I just couldn’t stay Thyroid gland Trachea Left common carotid artery the 20th US edition of put. But even though a few people Thyroid veins Left internal jugular rein Gray’s Anatomy of the Right vagus Left subclavian vessels around me understood my hysterics, I Superior vena cava Human Body, origi- had to explain to many others what nally published in this really meant for us: “It’s like an 1918 actor receiving an Oscar!” Our particular Oscar was not for best film, actor or soundtrack, but for a discovery in immunology. Having our work published in this presti-

gious journal meant that fellow scien- Public domain image; image source: Wikimedia Commons tists had deemed it noteworthy, and that others would now be able to learn from it and build upon it towards the common goals of under- in the thymus. T lymphocytes are dis- but also produce memory cells. As standing how our bodies fight disease tinguished from other lymphocytes their name implies, these memory and subsequently improving human by a molecule on their surface called a cells ‘remember’ that invader for as medicine. Sitting on my shelf, ‘our’ T-cell receptor, which recognises the long as the animal lives, so this issue may look like just another mag- antigen carried by a specific invader, immune response adapts very quick- azine, but it means as much to me as such as a bacterium or virus. ly: if that same invader strikes again, a trophy in a display cabinet. T cells are generally considered part the memory cells will recognise and The subject of our research is the of the adaptive immune response, destroy it. This adaptive immune development of a type of white blood because they not only eliminate an response, which only vertebrates pos- cell, called a T lymphocyte or T cell, invader (and the cells it has invaded), sess, is activated by the innate

24 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 25

Images courtesy of Ana de Barros Cutting-edge-science

Ana de Barros Immunology is still a fast- moving subject as more is discovered about the

Image courtesy of Ana de Barros involvement of the different types of cells and signalling immune response, the non-specific molecules. Cerebral malar- defence system found in all classes of ia in humans is currently animal and plant life. The innate very difficult to treat. A spe- immune response is the first line of cific subtype of T cells and defence: the initial reaction to (and the signalling molecule attempted elimination of) invaders. CD27 are involved in the Unlike the adaptive immune progress of cerebral malaria response, the innate immune response in mice and this research does not confer long-lasting or protec- may have implications for tive immunity, but it is a swifter and the treatment of this disease more general response. in humans. Using this arti- Our work focuses on a specific type cle for background infor- γδ) of T cell, the gamma delta ( T cell, mation may stimulate dis- γδ γδ which is seen as an evolutionary Confocal image of T cells; the cussion on malarial treat- bridge between the adaptive and the T-cell receptors are stained green ment and eradication, basic γδ innate immune responses. T cells immunology, genetic form subtypes with different func- manipulation of mice and tions, depending on what tissue they In our research, we looked at a pro- whether animal experimen- are found in and which specific T-cell tein that we suspected might be a tation is right. It could be γδ receptor they bear. Even though there potential marker for one subtype of used for comprehension is a growing consensus about the T cells. This protein, called CD27, is a with further questions set to γδ importance of T cells, little is membrane receptor involved in cellu- probe students’ understand- known about their behaviour or lar communication. ing of immunology at the development, and scientists haven’t We found that our suspicions were upper secondary level. yet found any molecular markers that well founded: CD27 can be used to Shelley Goodman, UK they can use to identify the different identify a particular subtype of γδ T REVIEW subtypes. cell. But what was most interesting

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 25 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 26

Thymus CD27+ INFγ Pathogen / disease

CD27-

Pathogen / IL17 disease Image courtesy of Ana de Barros Image courtesy of

The influence of CD27 on the formation of γδ T cells

Plasmodium Normal, wild-type mouse

CD27+

Death 6 days

CD27-deficient mouse Plasmodium

Image courtesy of Ana de Barros Image courtesy of CD27-

Death 9 days

Normal, wild-type mice died more quickly when infected with Plasmodium than the CD27-deficient (CD27-) mice did

was that we discovered that the pres- different cytokine, interleukin-17 whereas those producing IL-17 are ence of this protein doesn’t merely (IL-17). The presence or absence of the associated with autoimmune diseases characterise this subtype of γδ T cell, cytokine CD27 thus defines which such as multiple sclerosis. it actually drives its formation. Within subtype a γδT cell will belong to (see γδ T cells play an important role in the thymus, the precursors of γδ T diagram above). The two cytokines initiating a quick immune response to cells that mature in the presence of IFNγ and IL-17 play an important role various parasites, including the CD27 (CD27+) produce a cytokine in the immune response, with very malaria parasite Plasmodium. In called interferon-gamma (IFNγ) distinct consequences: those T cells humans, this parasite multiplies in whereas cells that mature without producing IFNγ will play a crucial the liver, and then spreads to the CD27 (CD27-) produce primarily a role in fighting viruses and tumours, blood stream, infecting red blood

26 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 27

Cutting-edge-science

cells, which it destroys. In severe Image courtesy of Bruno Silva-Santos’ lab cases this can clog the blood vessels Ana de Barros was born in Lisbon that carry blood to the brain, causing in 1983, and at the age of 19 moved to what is known as cerebral malaria. Newcastle, UK, where she graduated We were interested in discovering in genetics. She then stayed in the UK whether the different subtypes of γδ T to do an MSc in biomolecular archae- cells influenced this outcome differ- ology in Manchester. After working ently: was one subtype of γδ T cell for 3 months in a lab in Athens, better at preventing cerebral malaria Greece, doing stem cell research, Ana than the other? went back to Portugal in 2007, where To analyse the behaviour of both γδ she started her PhD in immunology at subtypes in the course of infection, the Instituto de Medicina Molecular we used mice infected with a strain of in Lisbonw1. She is interested in scien- Plasmodium as a model for what hap- tific journalism, as is brings together pens in humans. We compared two Confocal image of human γδ T cells (in communication and science. Outside groups of mice: one group with CD27 red) attacking tumour cells (in yellow) the lab, she is involved in the arts and in most of their cells (so the majority has a band where she plays the guitar, of their cells produced IFNγ), and writes songs and sings. Ana also does another genetically engineered group a lot of photography and enjoys trav- in which none of the maturing γδ T elling. cells had CD27 – which meant that reminds us that it is all worth it. they produced less IFNγ. Both groups Long after I had hung up the of mice were infected with the malar- phone, then finished explaining my ia parasite, and we found that CD27 excitement, I still couldn’t stop smil- does indeed seem to influence the ing. development of cerebral malaria. Mice without CD27 suffered less from References cerebral malaria, probably because Ribot JC, deBarros A, Pang DJ, Neves γ, they produce less IFN which is JF, Peperzak V, Roberts SJ, Girardi involved in inflammation (see dia- M, Borst J, Hayday AC, Pennington gram on page 26). Whether this find- DJ & Silva-Santos B (2009) CD27 is ing could be used in the development a thymic determinant of the balance of future malaria drugs – perhaps by between interferon-γ and inter- manipulating the expression of CD27, leukin 17-producing γδ T cell sub- so that the cells produce lower levels sets. Nature Immunology 10: 427-436. of pro-inflammatory cytokines – doi:10.1038/ni.1717 remains to be seen. In short, we were the first to Web references describe a function for CD27 in T-cell w1 – Find out more about the precursors in the thymus – and the Instituto de Medicina Molecular in fact that Nature Immunology decided Lisbon here: www.imm.fm.ul.pt to publish our article is recognition of just how important these findings are. Resources As our group leader, Bruno Silva- To learn more about malaria, see: Santos, explains, “We are now investi- Hodge R (2006) Fighting malaria on gating the analogous processes in a new front. Science in School 1: 72- human cells. Our long-term goal is 75. www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ to… be able to manipulate [γδ T cells] issue1/malaria for therapeutic purposes such as fighting autoimmune diseases and To browse previously published cancer.” We still have a lot of work cutting-edge articles in Science in ahead of us, but this recognition of School, see: www.scienceinschool. what we have already achieved org/cuttingedge

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 27 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 29

Teaching activities

The drama of science

Do you enjoy the drama of science? The colour, the smells, the intricacies? Why not follow science teacher Bernhard Sturm’s suggestions: let your students bring yet more drama into the classroom by (re-)enacting science, to help them visualise and remember the lesson.

rama can combine elements Chemistry be equal numbers of each colour). Dof art, music and sport, and Redox reactions In groups of about 8-10, the stu- develop students’ creativity and fit- This is a method to visualise the dents enact simple redox reactions

ness as well as their emotional and exchange of oxygen between differ- with 1:1 stoichiometry, such as CuO aesthetic awareness. As team ent metal atoms within the redox + Fe ← Cu + FeO, and afterwards activities, they also promote com- series (after Lavoisier). Each student present them to the entire class. muni cation and co-operation wears a top in one of three colours, Students often find creative ways to among young learners. So why representing atoms of oxygen and represent both the activation energy not use drama in science teaching? two different metals (there should and the release of energy in these This article offers a selection of reactions. drama-based activities to act or re- enact science in the chemistry and physics classroom. Image courtesy of The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei; image source: Wikimedia Commons Wikimedia Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei; image source: Yorck The Image courtesy of

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 29 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 30

Image courtesy of Bernhard Sturm

Staging the Grotthuss mechanism:

This article gives specific 4. 2. and clear ideas about how 5. 3. 1. teachers can use drama to facilitate students’ learning of abstract concepts in physics and chemistry. The activities can be used mainly while tackling standard topics in the curricu- Red: hydrogen atom (kneeling) The positive charge passes rapidly down + lum. Blue: oxygen atom (standing) from the right side of the line (H3O ) to the left (H+) by rearranging electron pairs Bent arms/legs: free electron pairs in The fact that the suggested and exchanging protons from one water the oxygen atom activities do not need com- molecule to the next Stretched arms/legs: binding electron pairs plicated or expensive resources makes them easy to use in the classroom. Teachers are given clear instead, a positive charge is transmit- between the synthesis of linear and and concise guidelines ted. The students should wear tops in cross-linked polymers. The polymeri- about how to include cre- one of two colours, representing sation of ethene is illustrated, inte- ative writing and role play- hydrogen and oxygen atoms (ratio grating all students one by one. Each ing in their lessons. This 2:1). Arrange a line of water mole- body represents a carbon atom, each not only makes science cules: each molecule consists of two foot a hydrogen atom and each arm a lessons more interesting (kneeling) hydrogen atoms and one binding electron. A single student and fun for the students, (standing) oxygen atom. The oxygen (representing a methyl radical) waves but also means they will atom touches one hydrogen atom his or her arm (an unpaired electron). feel more involved and with his or her right hand and the Two students holding both hands (a responsible for their own other hydrogen atom with his or her double bond) represent an ethene learning experience. This right foot (see diagram above). The molecule. The radical binds to the will also attract students hydrogen atom’s arms and legs have ethene molecule: one of the compo- who are more oriented no function. One extra hydrogen nents of the ethene molecule has to towards languages and the atom is attached to the oxygen atom break one handclasp (binding elec- arts because it stimulates (touched by his or her left hand) at tron) and bind to the free electron of their imagination and cre- one end of the line (H O+). The arms the radical (new handclasp). The ativity. Additionally, it can 3 and legs of the oxygen students repre- resulting molecule with three carbon help teachers to start sent electron pairs. The surplus bind- atoms is again a radical. It binds applying small changes to ing electron pair is passed from one another ethene molecule, and so on their teaching, as well as end of the line of water molecules to (see diagram on page 31). provide new ideas for the other, as the oxygen atom in the This model can be extended to rep- teachers who have already H O+ molecule lets go of the hydro- resent the cross-linking of buta-1,3- started implementing simi- 3 gen atom with his or her right hand; diene: the students representing the lar activities in class. instead, the oxygen atom of the C2 and C3 atoms of the molecule Catherine Cutajar, Malta

REVIEW neighbouring molecule touches this touch feet to symbolise the single hydrogen atom with his or her left bond (see diagram on page 30). The hand, and so on down the line. arrival of a methyl radical causes one of the double bonds (double hand- Chemical bonding: conductivity clasps) in the buta-1,3-diene molecule of water (Grotthuss mechanism) Radical polymerisation of ethene to break, and a new single bond The following method can be used to polyethylene (handclasp) is formed between the to demonstrate how an electric cur- The following method is useful for methyl radical and, for example, the

rent passes rapidly through water, understanding the mechanism of C4 atom. The newly formed molecule although the protons do not travel: polymerisation and differentiating is also a radical, with a free electron at

30 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 31

Teaching activities

C3. The C1 atom of a second buta-1,3- “Stop!”. Actors (e.g. the girls) and ing three questions tend to promote diene molecule can thus bind, break- spectators (e.g. the boys) describe discussion about the painting: ing its double bond (double hand- what was happening before and what 1. What is the experiment about? clasp) and forming a cross-link (hand- they can see around themselves now. 2. How does it end? clasp) with C3 of the original mole- The groups of actors and spectators 3. What are the roles and attitudes of cule. The resultant nine-carbon mole- then swap roles, and the molecules the different characters depicted? cule is also a radical, with a free bind- ‘cool down’ to 0 °C again. After the discussion, the whole ing electron at C2 of the second buta- This activity can be modified to scene can be re-enacted by the stu- 1,3-diene molecule. demonstrate the thermal expansion dents using a vacuum pump, with a of benzene, with eight students sur- Physical states of water ‘Schokokuss’ (a small chocolate-cov- rounding about 20 ‘benzene’ students ered cream cake) to replace the bird. The spacing and velocity of water with a slack rope, until the pressure molecules differs between solid, liq- through ‘heating’ becomes too strong Electric circuit uid and gaseous states. In this exer- and the surrounding students are This activity is useful for introduc- cise, students act as water molecules. forced to let go of the rope. ing the idea of electrons as moving In my experience, it is best done out- charges that transport energy. One side, where there is more space, and it student represents the source of ener- helps to separate the class into male Physics gy (a battery): he or she stands at one and female teenagers – one group end of the classroom and hands out acts, the other watches. The teacher Vacuum small bags of jelly babies (energy). At tells the students how to move The painting An Experiment on a the other end of the classroom, anoth- around: beginning with winter (0 °C), Bird in the Air Pumpw1 by Joseph er student represents the ‘consumer’ the students should stand still and in Wright of Derby (1768) of energy: he or she collects the bags. a grid formation. As the year goes on, can be used to teach the history of You can put some tables in the centre it becomes spring and summer, and vacuum. of the room to mark out a circuit. The the molecules move faster (up to Divide the class into groups of three, remaining students represent the elec- 40 °C), but still stay in contact. Finally, and give each group a reprint of the trons: they queue at the energy source the molecules end up in a kettle, heat painting and a worksheet showing the and, one by one, are given a bag of up and evaporate (100 °C). silhouette of the main devices and jelly babies, then enter the ‘electric cir- In each phase, the teacher takes a characters (see image on page 32; to cuit’ and walk/run to the ‘consumer’ snapshot of the state by shouting be downloaded onlinew3). The follow- to hand over the sweets (energy). Diagrams adapted from Pöpping (2003) Diagrams

Radical polymerisation of ethene Cross-linking of buta-1,3-diene

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 31 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 32

Silhouette of the painting, including the characters’ lines of vision

k Project: 10.000 M e Yorc eister f Th wer y o ke tes de ur r M co a e le ag re Imag m i; es c I im ou a rte g sy e of s B o e u rn r h c a e rd : S W tu

i r

k m

m Re-enacting the vacu-

d i

a um painting with

m students aged 13-14

n s

Joseph Wright of Derby, “An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump”, 1768, oil on canvas in The National Gallery, London, UK

They then go back to the source to ture). The time it takes for the ‘elec- indicated by the cross-strings (e.g. queue again. The ‘electricity’ keeps trons’ to pass through the ‘cable’ is 0, 4, 16, 36, 64 cm). flowing until the source student runs measured with a stopwatch. out of bags (the battery is flat). This Nuclear disintegration and half-life activity can be extended to represent Galileo’s law of free fall In just one lesson, this method parallel and series circuits. To introduce the topic, ask one stu- yields excellent material to illustrate dent (student 1) to read aloud the the idea of half-life, without any com- Temperature-dependent story of the discovery of the law of plicated or dangerous experimental conductivity free fallw2. While one of Galileo’s assis- apparatus. This activity is a useful way to tants (student 2) marks time by play- A game board of 6 x 6 fields is filled demonstrate that the conductivity of ing regular guitar beats, Galileo him- with 36 red gaming pieces. Two easily metals decreases with increasing tem- self (student 3) and his second assis- distinguishable dice are thrown and perature, something that can other- tant (student 4) carry out their experi- their numbers are used as the X value wise only be determined experimen- ments with a table-tennis ball (or sim- (die 1) and the Y value (die 2). The tally. Outdoors, use chalk to draw a ilar – a more solid ball gives better red gaming piece on the field that cor- rectangle of 2 x 5 m to represent the results) and an inclined plane with responds to the coordinates (X, Y) on cross-section of a conducting cable. (metal) cross-strings at different the dice disintegrates into (is replaced Ask about 20 students to stand inside heights (see image on page 33). The by) a blue piece. If a pair of numbers the rectangle; they represent metal ball is allowed to roll down the is thrown a second time, nothing atoms. The remaining 10 students inclined plane from different heights. happens to the pieces, but the double (electrons) try to run through the Student 4 records: throw is counted. After each set of cable while the atoms either stand · The number of beats it takes for the 10 double throws, the total number still (low temperature) or oscillate by ball to roll down the inclined plane of times that the two dice have moving their bodies (high tempera- · The distance covered by the ball, as been thrown (t) and the number

32 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 33

Teaching activities Image courtesy of Bernhard Sturm

Re-anacting Galileo’s discovery of the law of free fall

w2 – The silhouette of the vacuum of remaining red gaming pieces Drake S (1975) The Role of Music in painting can be downloaded here: (N) are recorded. A graph of t Galileo’s Experiments. Scientific www.scienceinschool. against N is used to determine the American 6: 98-104 org/2009/issue13/drama half-life. Fallscheer H (2006) Der To illustrate different half-lives, you Gummibärchen-Stromkreis. w3 – For the story of Galileo’s could use 8-sided dice and a game Unterricht Physik 17: 38-41 inclined plane and detailed suggestions for introducing it in the class- board with 8 x 8 fields, or change the Hepp R (2004) Mit dem freien Fall room, see: www.ihpst2005.leeds.ac. rules so that each field has to be hit beginnen. Unterricht Physik 15: 23-26 twice before the red pieces disintegrate. uk/papers/Riess_Heering_ Pöpping W (2003) Lineare und ver- Nawrath.pdf Acknowledgements netzte Kunststoffe bilden. Unterricht Chemie 14: 39-40 Some of the activities in this article Resources Riess F, Heering P, Nawrath D (2005) were inspired by the work of others. Reconstructing Galileo’s Inclined If you enjoyed this and other teaching The author, therefore, would like to Plane Experiments for Teaching activities in this issue of Science in acknowledge his debt to Pöpping Purposes. www.ihpst2005.leeds. School, you might like to browse our (2003; Radical polymerisation of ac.uk/papers/Riess_Heering_ collection of previously published ethene to polyethylene), Schreiber Nawrath.pdf teaching activities. See: (2004; Physical states of water), www.scienceinschool.org/teaching Fallscheer (2006; Electric circuit), Schreiber S (2004) Lebendiges Unterricht Chemie Bührke (2003), Drake (1975), Hepp Teilchenmodell. 15: 15-17 (2004) and Riess et al. (2005; Galileo’s law of free fall), and Barke & Harsch Bernhard Sturm obtained his PhD (2001; Nuclear disintegration and Web references in chemistry at the GKSS Research half-life). w1 – An electronic version of the Centre Geesthacht, Germany. He now painting with a zoom function can teaches chemistry and physics at the References be found on the website of the Neues Gymnasium, a secondary Barke HD, Harsch G (2001) National Gallery in London, UK school in Oldenburg, Germany. Over Chemiedidaktik heute. Lernprozesse (www.nationalgallery.org.uk) or the past few years, his students have in Theorie und Praxis. through this direct link: won a number of science competi- Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany: www.tinyurl.com/2bqhvx tions, especially on geoanalytical and Springer. ISBN: 9783540417255 For information about Joseph climate topics. One of his main inter- Bührke T (2003) Sternstunden der Wright’s painting, see the detailed ests is interdisciplinary work linking Physik: Von Galilei bis Lise Meitner. description on http://en.wikipedia. science, art, language and sports. München, Germany: Beck. ISBN: org/wiki/An_Experiment_on_a_ 9783406494932 Bird_in_the_Air_Pump

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 33 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:40 Uhr Seite 34

cience y of S on S any tes tag erm ur e G co e g a Im

Winners of the audience award at Science on Stage in Berlin, 2008: Harald Gollner, Christoph Eidenberger, Ludwig Eidenberger, The latex motor Florian Altendorfer (from left to right) Can you imagine building a motor from latex gloves? Physics teachers Ludwig Eidenberger and Harald Gollner, and their students Florian Altendorfer and Christoph Eidenberger show how, exploiting the reversible thermodynamic processes of thin layers of latex.

How the project began We concentrated on how best to This interdisciplinary project was a In 2006, we took part in the visualise this effect, and developed an valuable experience for everyone Experimentale 2007w1 in Wels, Austria, elevator and a motor, as well as two involved: we collaborated with art and a biennial regional science exhibition types of refrigerator – all driven by technology teachers on the experimen- for schools. The inspiration for our the expansion and contraction of tal design; the students translated texts, project came from a simple effect latex, a type of rubber. The advan- designed posters and a websitew3, and described in the chapter on thermo- tages of latex over other types of practised their presentation and com- dynamics of the popular physics book rubber are its high quality, lack of munication skills, not only in German, Feynman Lecturesw2: a stretched rubber additives, the thin layers in which but also in English and Spanish. They band contracts when heated. This is it is available – plus the added fun carried on working on the project for unusual, since most materials expand factor of using coloured over a year after leaving school in 2007, when heated, rather than contract. condoms. and the whole team are still running teacher workshops on the project, such Image courtesy of the latex motor team The axis of the latex motor as in Technorama, The Swiss Science Centerw4 in Zürich (2009), and in Berlin, Germany (2010)w5.

The principle Latex is a polymer consisting of long, chain-like molecules of repeat-

ing isoprene units (C5H8). In its relaxed state, the chains are inter- linked at a few points. Between a pair of links, each monomer can rotate freely about its neighbour, and at room temperature, latex stores enough kinetic energy for them to do so. When latex is stretched, though, the monomers are no longer able to oscillate, and their kinetic energy is given off as excess heat. When the expanded latex is heated, the process is reversed: the latex absorbs the heat, the molecular motion increases, and the latex contracts.

34 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 19.11.2009 8:35 Uhr Seite 35

Teaching activities

Images courtesy of the latex motor team

normal shape stretched relaxed

heat

A latex glove emits heat when expanded The elevator experiment and absorbs heat when it contracts again

Experiment 1: the elevator Materials: 2. Fix the balance arm flexibly to the This is a simple experiment, suit- · A thin latex glove or condom upper clamp, using the nail as a pivot point. One arm should be able for students aged 11 and above, · A spotlight (minimum 500 W) to introduce the thermodynamics of much shorter than the other: the A clamp stand with two clamps latex, as it shows the conversion of · shortening you will observe in the energy. A latex glove emits heat when · A wingnut clamp or sealing clip latex band when applying the spot- expanded and absorbs heat when it · A plastic / metal / wooden bal- light is minimal, and it’s easier to contracts again. ance arm with holes spaced at see if the lever is longer. Kinetic energy -> thermal energy regular intervals 3. Attach the latex glove to the bottom clamp (using its fingers). As this effect is reversible, a · A nail or similar object as a pivot stretched latex glove contracts when (if possible with a ball bearing) heated by a spotlight. We can use this · Two hooks to build an elevator. · A hanging scale pan and weights Thermal energy -> kinetic energy

The difference between the effect Image courtesy of Yannick Patois; Although thermodynam- that stretched latex contracts when image source: Wikimedia Commons ics are important in any heated and heat expansion should be physics course, they are mentioned. very often addressed only The elevator can be built by stu- indirectly at secondary- dents with little effort and basic mate- school level. This article rials (such as a Lego® construction explores the subject set). In the teacher workshop we ran through a number of inno- in Zürich, participants built very vative and interesting diverse elevators with great success experiments making use entirely without instructions. of a very commonly found Instructions that are too detailed will material, latex. The exper- constrain the students’ creativity – try A ball bearing iments are useful for dis- formulating the aim instead: the effect cussing the concepts of that the stretched latex band will con- the heat engine and the tract when heated should be visu- Procedure: convertion of heat to alised. Mechanisms to enhance the 1. Fix the two clamps at a distance of work, as well as of heat visibility of this effect could be a about 40 cm along the stand pumps. lever, a pulley, etc. Below are some (depending on the latex band you Paul Xuereb, Malta REVIEW guidelines you might like to use. use – it needs to be stretched).

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 35 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 36

Images courtesy of the latex motor team

4. Attach the hand end of the glove to the wingnut clamp / sealing clip. 5. Attach the wingnut clamp / sealing clip with the glove to the short end of the bar using a hook. Be careful not to damage the latex. The glove should be stretched to about ¾ of its maximum so that it can shorten visibly in the experiment. 6. Hang the scale pan from the other (long) end of the bar using the second hook. 7. Use the weights to adjust the balance arm’s position to be The latex motor horizontal. 8. Shine the spotlight onto the glove – the weight will be lifted due to the erate power, creating a thermal The latex spokes contract on the glove’s contraction. engine. side that is heated, so the centre of mass shifts. Thus the wheel starts Materials turning, and due to the cooling-down · A hula hoop (diameter about 1 m) of the spokes on the other side, a con- 8 thin latex gloves or condoms tinuous energy conversion is possible. Image courtesy of Olaf Brust · · A spotlight (minimum 500 W) Thermal energy -> rotational energy · A ball bearing (this will increase This experiment can be used the motor’s efficiency) · To introduce heat engines · A hub (diameter about 20 cm) · To show the application of a physi- · An axis (thread rod) cal effect in a simple machine. · A stand · 16 sealing clips / wingnut clamps Experiment 3: refrigerator I As an introduction, expand a latex Sealing clips Procedure glove and wait for it to emit its heat 1. Build a stand that will limit the to the surrounding air. If you now let friction exerted on the axis. the glove contract, it will be cold. 2. Connect the axis and hub to the stand. Kinetic energy -> heat transmission 3. Attach 8 clips / clamps to the hub The following experiment illustrates (e.g. using wire). that the latex motor is a reversible This experiment can be used 4. Attach 8 clips / clamps at regularly process. If the hula hoop runs in spaced intervals to the hula hoop. · To explain that Joule is the dimen- guide rolls (powered by an electric sion of both work and heat 5. Work in groups to fix the moder- motor) and the axis is not in the cen- ately stretched gloves / condoms tre, the condom spokes are warm on To show that machines can · between the hub and the hula hoop transform heat into work with the sealing clips. · To introduce reversible processes in 6. Make sure that the hula hoop is physics ourtesy of Nicola Gr perfectly balanced on the hub – ge c af Ima · To calculate the efficiency factor of otherwise it won’t work. Adjust the the elevator. tension of the gloves / condoms; use small weights to balance the Experiment 2: the latex motor system. This experiment takes advantage of 7. Shine the spotlight onto one side of A hula hoop the thermodynamics of rubber to gen- the motor – it will start turning.

36 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 37

Teaching activities

Images courtesy of the latex motor team

warm

cold

The latex motor as a refrigerator, type I The infrared camera shows the temperature difference in the latex refrigerator

the expanded side and cool on the Materials tom, if present. A clean cut without other side. The resulting temperature · A clamp stand with two clamps frayed edges is important. difference can only be visualised Two wooden rollers covered with 4. Stretch the resulting latex loop over using an infrared camera (see images · rubber (e.g. a small balloon), one of the two rollers. above). them with a handle 5. If you have an infrared camera, Motor: temperature difference -> · A latex glove you can use it to monitor the tem- rotation Scissors · perature in different parts of the Refrigerator: rotation -> temperature An infrared camera (optional) · machine. difference Procedure 6. Turn the handle to power one of Experiment 4: refrigerator II 1. Fix the two clamps at a distance of the rollers. Slow the other one The following is a variation of the about 20-40 cm along the stand (the down gently by hand. experiment above, and can be used to latex loop will need to be 7. Thus, the latex loop is permanently explain the concept of a refrigerator stretched). expanded (warm) on one side and (a closed circle which absorbs heat on 2. Fix the two rollers in the clamps: permanently relaxed (cold) on the one side and emits heat on the other both should be motile. other side. This machine produces side). 3. Cut off the finger part of the glove a temperature difference of about and the rolled up edge at the bot- 10 °C. The type II latex refrigerator warm cold

rotation

Images courtesy of the latex motor team www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 37 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 38

Experiment 4: refrigerator II Web references (http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu) or follow the direct link: (students’ version) w1 – For more information on http://tinyurl.com/yc2hjtg This is a simplified version of Experimentale 2009, visit the Experiment 3 which can easily be Netzwerk Nawi OÖ website To learn more about latex and other performed in class without a lot of (www.nawi4you.at) or use the rubbers, and how to test their char- preparation. It is best done in groups direct link: acteristics in the classroom, see: of three students. http://tinyurl.com/ybutsr2 Stanley H (2008) Materials science to the rescue: easily removable Materials w2 – For more physics experiments, see the Feynman Lectures website: chewing gum. Science in School 9: Two round wooden sticks (diame- · www.feynmanlectures.info 56-61. www.scienceinschool.org ter 3-5 cm, can be bought in hard- /2008/issue9/chewinggum ware shops) w3 – The website of the latex motor project (in English and German), If you enjoyed this and other teaching · A balloon including videos of the experiment, activities in this issue of Science in A glove · can be found here: School, you might like to browse our · Scissors http://latexmotor.brgrohrbach.at collection of previously published teaching activities. See: w4 – You can visit the website of Procedure www.scienceinschool.org/teaching Technorama, the Swiss Science 1. Cover one wooden stick with the Center, here: www.technorama.ch balloon. 2. Cut a latex loop from a glove as w5 – The teacher workshop in Berlin Professor Ludwig Eidenberger described for Experiment 3. on ‘European concepts in science teaches mathematics and physics at 3. Stretch the latex loop over the two teaching’ will take place on 18 June Rohrbach secondary school in Upper sticks. 2010 in the PhysLab of the Freie Austria. Harald Gollner is a teacher of 4. Each stick should be held horizon- Universität Berlin. Interested teach- physics and chemistry at the same tally by a student, with one hand at ers can contact the organiser, school. In 2006, when the latex motor each end (see image). Science on Stage Germany: project began, Florian Altendorfer and 5. The stick covered with the balloon www.scienceonstage.de Christoph Eidenberger were aged 19 should now be rotated around its w6 – Learn more about Science on and still at school. Today, Florian is axis. The second stick is held still Stage Austria here: studying mechanical engineering at or rotated slowly. Friction between www.scienceonstage.at Graz Technical University. For the the balloon and the latex loop latex motor project and in his spare drags one half of the latex loop References time, he designs websites and printed towards the stick being turned; the Hayes E (2008) Science on Stage: material. Christoph is studying in other half becomes slack. recent activities. Science in School 10: Linz to become a mathematics and 6. A third student should now feel 4-7. www.scienceinschool.org/2008/ physics teacher in secondary school. the temperature difference between issue10/sos The latex motor project received the upper and the lower halves of Furtado S (2009) Science on Stage: awards both at the Science on Stage the latex loop. recent international events. Austriaw6 competition in Vienna, in Science in School 11: 11-14. April 2008 (see Hayes, 2008), and the Hints and tips www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ international Science on Stage Festival For higher heat emission, stretch · issue11/sos in Berlin, Germany, in October 2008 the latex close to its elastic limit. (see Furtado, 2009). · Very thin layers of latex give the Resources best results. Use thin latex gloves Suggestions on working in the pri- (disposable gloves) or condoms. mary-school science classroom with Replace the materials after some the effect that a rubber band m a e time to ensure good results. heats up when stretched t r

o t

· Note: some students may be and cools down when m

allergic to latex, so be sure to relaxed can be found on l

h t

check. the website ‘Science is f

y s

Fun in the Lab e t

· Let the students invent new r

u o

machines based on those of Shakhashiri’ c

Student’s version of e

g a

the type II latex m effects! I refrigerator 38 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 39

Teaching activities

Looking for courtesy ge of ma wrw I / pi xe lio .d antioxidant food e

r, Gianl tho uca au F e a h ru T s i We’ve all heard that an antioxidant-rich diet is

healthy. Together with his

r students, Gianluca Farusi

a y

c o u l f n G a i compared the antioxidant levels in a range of foods and drinks.

Image courtesy of Nicola Graf

OH Vitamin C HN Vitamin E O O OH O O OH β -carotene OH Melatonin O HO N H

any health problems, includ- Images courtesy of Gianluca Farusi catalase and glutathione peroxidase. ing atherosclerosis, heart The principal non-enzymatic antioxi- M Superoxide anion radical attack, Alzheimer’s disease, some O –– O dants are melatonin, α-tocopherol tumours and senile cataracts, are (vitamin E), ascorbic acid (vitamin C) associated with very reactive mole- and β-carotene (the vitamin A precur- Hydroxyl radical cules called free radicals. These mole- H –– O sor). cules are produced normally during All four non-enzymatic antioxidants aerobic respiration and are used by broken down) and the endoplasmic are essential in the diet and are found the body, for example to defend it reticulum. External factors influence in a range of foods. Cancer in particu- against micro-organisms. If, however, the production of radicals too; for lar is less common among people there is an imbalance between radi- example, ultraviolet (UV) light shin- who eat plenty of fruit and vegeta- cals (oxidants) and antioxidants, this ing on our skin causes singlet state bles, and it has been suggested that 1Δ can lead to disease. oxygen radicals ( O2·) to be formed. the health benefits are due to the Free radicals are so reactive because Within the body, free radicals can antioxidants they contain (Polidori et they possess one or more unpaired lead to a variety of problems. In par- al., 2009; Swirsky Gold et al., 1997), electrons. They are produced and ticular, they react with – and damage which counteract the damaging found in many cells and cell – lipids, proteins and nucleic acids, effects of free radicals. Currently, organelles; the superoxide anion radi- including DNA (Arking, 2006). To there is little evidence that antioxi- - cal (O2 ), for example, is the most protect itself from the continuous rad- dant supplements (e.g. tablets) have common radical in the body, being ical attack, our body has two basic any health benefits. used by white blood cells to attack forms of protection: enzymatic and The experiment below compares the viruses and bacteria. By far the most non-enzymatic. The most important levels of antioxidants in various types reactive radical, however, is the enzymes used to defend our bodies of food and drink, i.e. the effective- hydroxyl radical (HO·), found in the from free radical attack are the antiox- ness of the different types of food and peroxisome (where fatty acids are idant enzymes superoxide dismutase, drink as radical scavengers.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 39 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 40

The experiment: searching for antioxi- Preparing the solutions

o dants in food and drink t 4 M hydrogen peroxide solution: o h p To educate my 17-year-old students k pour 400 ml distilled water into a 1 l c o t S about a responsible diet, in the hope of i flask. Wearing gloves, add 410 ml 30% / v

k reducing their risk of developing the dis- l hydrogen peroxide. Using distilled

eases mentioned above, I designed an n water, dilute the solution to 1.0 l.

n e

activity based on the Briggs-Rauscher l 0.20 M potassium iodate and 0.077 M

V f

reaction: an oscillating reaction in which o sulphuric acid solution: place 43 g

amber radical and blue non-radical steps r potassium iodate and approximately 800

alternate. By adding samples of different e ml distilled water into a 1 l flask. Add

m types of food and drink to the reaction and I 4.3 ml concentrated sulphuric acid. Warm measuring the time intervals between and stir the mixture until the potassium colours, the students could compare the effec- iodate dissolves. Dilute the solution to 1.0 l tiveness of the samples as radical scavengers. Of with distilled water. course it is a comparative and not an absolute evalu- 0.15 M malonic acid and 0.20 M manganese sul- ation. But one thing at a time…. phate solution: dissolve 16 g malonic acid and 3.4 g manganese (II) sulphate monohydrate in approxi- Materials and equipment mately 500 ml distilled water in a 1 l flask. In a 100 · 4 M hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) aqueous solution ml beaker, heat 50 ml distilled water to boiling. In a

· 0.20 M potassium iodate (KIO3) and 0.077 M sul- 50 ml beaker, mix 0.30 g soluble starch with about 5 phuric acid (H2SO4) aqueous solution ml distilled water and stir the mixture to form a slurry. Pour the slurry into the boiling water and · 0.15 M malonic acid (CH2(COOH)2) and 0.20 M continue heating and stirring the mixture until the manganese sulphate (MnSO4) aqueous solution starch has dissolved. Pour the starch solution into Distilled water · the solution of malonic acid and manganese (II) sul- · Food and drink, e.g. samples of wine, teas, infu- phate. Dilute the mixture to 1.0 l with distilled sions; samples of food as aqueous extracts water. w1 (see Table 1 ) Food samples: to prepare the food samples as · Magnetic stirring plate with magnetic stirrer aqueous solutions or suspensions, put 2.0 g into a · 100 ml and 400 ml beakers 400 ml beaker. Add 100 ml distilled water and stir · 2 ml and 10 ml pipettes with a glass rod. Decant, pour a portion into a test tube and centrifuge. For drinks, such as coffee or Wash bottle · wine, take 2.0 ml, add 100 ml distilled water and stir. · Spatula Method · Glass rod · Test tubes Into a 100 ml beaker containing a magnetic stirrer, pipette: 10 ml 4 M hydrogen peroxide aqueous solu- 1 l flask · tion, 10 ml aqueous solution of 0.20 M potassium · Bunsen burner iodate and 0.077 M sulphuric acid, and 10 ml aqueous solution of 0.15 M malonic acid and 0.20 M manganese sulphate. Start the magnetic stirring. When Image courtesy of Ernst Rose / pixelio.de the amber solution turns blue for the second time, add 1 ml food solution or suspension. A video of the colour changes is available online.w2 CLASSROOM ACTIVITY

40 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 41

Teaching activities

Image courtesy of wrw / pixelio.de

The Briggs-Rauscher reaction is an oscillating reaction – that is, a mixture of chemicals goes through a sequence of colour changes which repeats periodically. The exact mechanism of the reaction is still under investigation, but the nature of the oscillations is sufficiently clear. For the purposes of this article, it is enough to know that as long as the radical process maintains the concentration of the intermediate HOI higher than the concentration of the intermediate I-, the solution remains amber; when the non-radical process takes place, [I-] is greater than [HIO]

and the iodide ion combines with I2 to form a blue complex with starch. A more detailed description of the reaction can be downloaded from the Science in School websitew1. Image courtesy of Nicola Graf

1. 2. 3. 4.

Image courtesy of Andreas Morlok / pixelio.de

Since we add the food solution or suspension after the worn. Any contact between hydrogen peroxide and second blue phase, when the non-radical phase is ending combustible materials must be avoided. and the radical phase is about to start, the longer the time Sulphuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent; eye interval between the second and the third blue phases, protection, lab coats and gloves must be worn. the greater the antioxidant capacity of the food. In other To safely dispose of the mixture at the end of the

words, the food has reacted with the radicals produced experiment, slowly add sodium thiosulphate (Na2S2O3) and the reaction takes longer to produce enough radicals to the reaction products, until the excess iodine turns to allow the oscillating reaction to continue. into colourless iodide ions (the reaction is quite We dedicated much time to choosing the best food or exothermic). Image c our tes drink concentration to use, since too-dilute solutions low- y o f G i an ered the antioxidant capacity and too-concentrated solu- lu c a F tions increased the reaction time so much that it was not a r u s practical to make a statistically significant number of tri- i als during the course of the lesson. Safety notes: Both malonic acid and iodine (produced during the reaction) can irritate the skin, eyes and mucous mem- branes; for this reason the reaction must be carried out in a fume cupboard. Because 30% hydrogen peroxide is a very strong oxidis- ing agent, eye protection, lab coats and gloves must be

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 41 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 42

Sample results 1. Which groups of foods tested tend found in. Looking at the molecular When I performed the activity with to contain the highest levels of structures, would you expect these my students, we found the greatest antioxidants? Is that what you antioxidants to be thermolabile? antioxidant activity in espresso coffee: expected? Why/why not? 4. Apart from antioxidant activity, 6970 seconds. See the graph below. 2. Table 1w1 lists the antioxidant mole- why might a diet rich in fruit and More details of our results can be cules presumed to be responsible vegetables reduce your chance of downloaded from the Science in School for the antioxidant activity of the developing the diseases mentioned websitew1. Table 1 shows the foods we foods tested. Choose five antioxi- at the beginning of the article? What tested, the antioxidant activity (time dants from the table, find their other health benefits could it offer? interval) and the main substance pre- chemical formulae and discuss sumed to be responsible for the activity. which functional groups are References responsible for their antioxidant Discussion Arking R (2006) The Biology of Aging: (free-radical scavenging) activity. Observations and Principles 3rd edi- What, then, should we conclude 3. Some of the foods tested have been tion. Oxford, UK: Oxford University from the results? Clearly, a diet con- heat-treated (e.g. jams, chocolate). Press. ISBN: 9780195167399 sisting purely of espresso may contain Does that appear to affect their Polidori CM et al. (2009) High fruit high levels of antioxidants but would antioxidant abilities? Table 2, and vegetable intake is positively be far from healthy. When I did this which can be downloaded from the correlated with antioxidant status activity with my students, it led to Science in School websitew1, shows and cognitive performance in detailed discussion of radical reac- the molecular structures of several healthy subjects. Journal of tions. Below are some questions that antioxidant molecules, and gives Alzheimer’s Disease 17: 921-927. could be used to start a discussion. examples of the foods they are Brief coverage of the article is available on the Science Daily website: Antioxidant activity of the types of food and drink tested. The values in the graph www.sciencedaily.com/releases/ were obtained from about 0.02 g samples (100 ml distilled water added to 2.0 g food 2009/09/090909064910.htm or drink sample). Thus 0.02 g blackberry jam, for instance, has an antioxidant activity 50 times greater than that of distilled water! Swirsky Gold L, Slone TH, Ames BN (1997) Prioritization of possible car- 6970 cinogenic hazards in food. In 7000 Image courtesy of Nicola Graf Tennant DR (ed) Food Chemical Risk Analysis, pp 267-295. New York, NY, 1008 USA: Chapman and Hall. This 1000 chapter is freely available online: http://potency.berkeley.edu/text/ maff.html 800 Antioxidant activity Web references 600 574 w1 – Tables 1 and 2 and a detailed 538 description of the Briggs-Rauscher reaction can be downloaded from the Science in School website: 400 www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ issue13/antioxidants

200 147 w2 – A video of the colour changes 140 can be viewed here: 79 71 63 56 49 45 45 42 4039 39 www.youtube.com/ 38 36 34 33 20 watch?v=WXf6-bRwPfM Time interval (seconds) between the second and third blue phase interval Time 0 Apple Carrot Garlic Citron Onion Honey Lemon Fig jam Fig Orange Resources Espresso Kiwi fruit Red wine Chocolate

Cauliflower For descriptions of experimental Distilled water Pink grapefruit Strawberry tree Strawberry Blackberry jam Blackberry methods similar to the one used in Pachino tomatoes Pachino

Pomegranate juice Pomegranate this article, see: Extra-virgin olive oil olive Extra-virgin Japanese persimmon Japanese

42 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 43

Teaching activities

colosal / i sy of Stockp urte hot co o ge a m I Höner K, Cervellati R (2002) Attività antiossidante di bevande. Esperimenti per le scuole secon- darie superiori. La Chimica nella This is a superb article Scuola 24: 30-38 which underlines the importance of chemistry Shakhashiri BZ (1985) Chemical in the behaviour of bio- Demonstrations Volume 2. Madison, logical systems. It is so WI, USA: University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN: 9780299101305 important to instil an appreciation of the way in For a good (freely available) article which scientific knowl- about the effects of free radicals, edge is multidisciplinary. see: dation. Proceedings of the National Teachers and students Sies H (1997) Oxidative stress: oxi- Academy of Sciences USA 78: 7346- could use the article for a dants and antioxidants. Experimental 7349 practical activity in chem- Physiology 82: 291-295. This article See also Gianluca Farusi`s previous istry, biochemistry, food- and all other Experimental Physiology articles in Science in School: science or health-science articles older than 12 months can be Farusi G (2006) Teaching science lessons. It could also form downloaded free of charge from the and humanities: an interdisciplinary the basis of science-fair journal website: http://ep.physoc.org approach. Science in School 1: 30-33. projects. To learn about haemochromatosis, a wwwscienceinschool.org disease in which free radicals play a /2006/issue1/francesca If the experimental part were left out, the intro- role, see: Farusi G (2007) Monastic ink: duction, discussion and Patterson L (2009) Getting a grip on linking chemistry and history. results could be a sound genetic diseases. Science in School 13: Science in School 6: 30-40. basis for a comprehension 53-57. www.scienceinschool.org www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ /2009/issue12/insight issue6/galls exercise. Suitable questions, which could be For more information about free A complete list of all chemistry- used to spark off a discus- radicals and their activities in the related articles published in Science sion about food and body, see: in School is available here: health, or chemistry in Dansen TB, Wirtz KWA (2001) The www.scienceinschool.org/ everyday life, could peroxisome in oxidative stress. chemistry include: IUBMB Life 51: 223-230. doi:10.1080/152165401753311762 1. Explain the term radical. Rosen GM, Rauckman EJ (1981) Gianluca Farusi teaches chemistry at Spin trapping of free radicals dur- 2. What do you under- the technical school (Istituto Tecnico ing hepatic microsomal lipid peroxi- stand by the term Industriale) Galileo Galilei in Avenza- ‘antioxidant’? Explain Carrara, Italy, and stoichiometry at how this type of sub- the University of Pisa, Italy. He has stance can be impor- been teaching for 12 years and noth- tant for good health. ing gratifies him more than the delight on his students’ faces when they grasp 3. What types of food are a difficult chemical concept. the best sources of

Image courtesy of Gianluca Farusi This activity, which was carried antioxidant molecules? out with his school students, won 4. How could an average Gianluca an EIROforum Science person ensure that their Teaching Award: the ILL Prize diet maximises the lev- (Science on Stage 2, 2007). He has also els of antioxidants? been awarded the ESRF Prize (Science Marie Walsh, Republic of on Stage 1, 2005) and the Italian

REVIEW Ireland Chemical Society’s Illuminati Prize for Chemistry Didactics (2006).

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 43 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 44

The Bio Academy

French biology teacher Jean-Yves Guichot explains his project to link secondary-school students with molecular biology researchers. sy of Stel urte la D co ia e m g an a t Im he idea for Follow the advancement of a scien- for the European Baccalaureate at · w4 Tthis project tific research project over a period the European School in Brussels , came to me of two years (the students would Belgium, visited EMBL for the first during a teach- get regular input from the scien- time to work alongside and talk to ers training tists by email and phone calls) young French-speaking scientific researchers: course organised Explain this research (and other · Team 1: Cleo, Stella and Claude- by the European topics of molecular biology) to · Lee studied the dynamics of chro- Learning Laboratory for the Life other students via a website, which w1 mosomes during mitosis with Sciences (ELLS) at the European they should update regularly Molecular Biology Laboratoryw2 Felipe Mora-Bermudez · Learn about the reality of working (EMBL). Several years ago, I had Team 2: Lukas, Vincent, Georgios as a scientific researcher, and · taken a break from teaching to spend and Roxane researched the realise that a scientific career lies a year at the University of Grenoble, immune defence mechanisms of within their reach. France, doing research on plant gene mosquitoes against malarial agents Through contact with the ELLS expression. I had found the experi- with Stéphanie Blandin team, my students and I were soon ence very rewarding and thought it Team 3: Simon, Karin and Charline taking part in an exciting collabora- · would be great if I could find a way looked at the role of kinesin in tion: the Bio Academyw3. In to expose my biology students to the mitosis and the mitotic spindle February 2006, 14 biology students work of researchers. I wanted to offer with Julie Cahu and Aurélien aged 17 and 18 who were studying my students the chance to: Olichon · Perform molecular biology experi- · Team 4: Zoé, William, Paul and ments in a lab Gery worked on the embryonic development of the fruit fly with Céline Pugieux and Jean-Baptiste Coutelis.

Having fun between exhausting experiments Image courtesy of Jean-Yves Guichot Image courtesy of Jean-Yves

44 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 45

Project in science education

Co-operation at its best Earth would they spend their valuable time running workshops and discussing their research projects In this article, Jean-Yves with school students? “Because it’s Guichot describes his scifun to talk about science with ence teaching project, in young people,” says Felipe Mora which a group of upper Bermúdez, one of the scientists. secondary-school students “They are so imaginative and curi- experienced molecular ous. We often tend to focus on our biology research at EMBL Image courtesy of Jean-Yves Guichot Image courtesy of Jean-Yves specific research, with little time to in Heidelberg, Germany. step back and see the bigger pic- It was very successful, During their second visit to ture. Having a group of enthusiastic resulting in over half of EMBL, a year later, each team of 3-4 students asking intelligent ques- the students enrolling in students presented the work they tions helps us to look at our work biomedical studies at uni- had produced with their mentor sci- from a different perspective.” versity. entists to the entire Bio Academy. “It was an amazing experience to The author gives advice Then, each team met with their meet potential future scientists,” on how to set up similar mentors to learn about recent devel- says Aurélien Olichon. “They were school projects. The web opments in the research projects wonderfully well informed about references allow the read- and to perform experiments related the molecular level of life, which I er to deepen their knowl- to the different scientific topics. The didn’t have a clue about when I was edge of the Bio Academy students also had the chance to talk their age. They even asked probing project through docu- to these young experts about issues questions about modern biological ments and materials creat- related to their own future, such as research.” All scientists came to ed by the students. the reality of work as a scientist, realise just how distant they are and university life. from current school science, and I recommend this article To give the students a taste of a how challenging it is to explain to secondary-school research facility in action, there complex molecular science in a sim- teachers interested in fill- were plenty of opportunities for all ple way. ing the gap between sci- students to take part in hands-on The students were grateful for the ence teaching at school activities using state-of-the-art tech- effort: “I really appreciated the and doing ‘the real thing’ niques such as X-ray crystallogra- opportunity to get to know some of in research labs. If they phyw5, ELISA and electron the researchers who could answer need encouragement to microscopy. After their visit, the my questions and share their plan a joint project with a students put details of their work thoughts with me,” said Zoé, aged science faculty or research and described the techniques they 18. “They told me a lot about the institution in their country, had used on the project websitew6. challenging parts of their career: Guichot’s account is very At the end of this two-year proj- you have to cope with a lot of helpful. ect, three of the young scientists stress, and there isn’t any guarantee Giulia Realdon, Italy REVIEW returned the visit, taking part in the you will always have a job, so you La recherche en fête event at the really need to work hard. However, school in Brussels, helped by the the diversity of the work, the possi- Bio Academy students. All school bility to create international connec- students who were interested in tions with other researchers, the participants went on to biomedical biology had the opportunity to passion for science and the satisfac- studies – an indication of the pro- meet the researchers and work with tion of doing what you like makes it ject’s success. materials that they had brought a very attractive career…and I think There was plenty of fun too – along (fruit flies for genetic experi- I might just have the courage to good food, films and an experimen- ments, live cells to study mitosis). dive in.” Zoé is one of seven Bio tal treasure hunt, for which the stu- Early in their careers, scientists Academy participants who went on dents performed three types of are really busy: collecting data, to study medicine, while Stella is activities: DNA gel electrophoresis, learning new techniques, writing up now studying cellular biology (see protein separation in columns, and papers and dissertations. Why on box). Altogether, eight out of the 14 molecule model building. For each

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 45 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 46

successful activity, the students obtained a number of pieces of a puzzle, corresponding to a treasure map. The group discovered the ‘treasure’ hidden on the EMBL cam- pus, consisting of EMBL publicity materials (T-shirts, ties, key holders, mouse pads, notebooks, pencils and

pens) and some sweets to supply Guichot Image courtesy of Jean-Yves them with energy for the train trip back to Brussels. Felipe Mora Bermúdez summed Bio Academy students up the whole experience perfectly: interview EMBL scien- “All students enjoyed it, and these tists Claude Antony and Jean-Baptiste Coutelis two visits showed them that science is a challenge...but an extremely fun challenge.” dents. Without them, nothing Web references Acknowledgements would have been possible. Special w1 – The European Learning I would like to thank all the thanks also to Alexandra Manaia Laboratory for the Life Sciences researchers who gave up their pre- who co-ordinated the training (ELLS) is an education facility to cious time for me and for my stu- courses in Heidelberg. bring secondary-school teachers

Participants’ experiences

Zoé Pletschette, aged 20, is now studying medicine at Image courtesy of Stella Diamant Stella Diamant, aged the Free University of Brussels, Belgium: 20, is now studying “The Bio Academy really reinforced my intention to be biology at the Uni - part of the scientific community. At school, science was versity of Warwick, UK: all theory: we had to integrate all sorts of scientific facts “Although I had always and rarely gave a thought to how they were generated been passionate about in the first place. Meeting such enthusiastic researchers biology, I wanted to see allowed me to appreciate the practical aspects of the what research was real- scientific world and how incredibly varied and exciting ly like. Meeting friendly it is. Even if I stayed Stella Diamant scientists and getting an Image courtesy of Jean-Yves Guichot with my first career insight into their cur- choice, medicine, I rent work was a revelation. Everything suddenly fell wouldn’t mind joining into place and made sense. The topics we learned at a lab in a few years, school turned into visible processes. What impressed something I would me the most though was the working environment, have (wrongly) thought how people joined forces for the sake of science and to be very boring discovery. At school, ‘university’ always sounded like before my visit to an unreachable new universe. However, having met EMBL.” the EMBL scientists, I didn’t hesitate to apply for a place at a UK university, and I am glad I chose a career which Zoé Pletschette and an fulfils my curiosity every day.” BACKGROUND electron microscope

46 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 47

Project in science education

How to set up such a collaboration

I feel that the experience was truly beneficial, and I tell the students about these topics in class, and let loved getting back in touch with experimental research. them make their own choices. The students can keep If you would like to organise a similar event for your in touch with the researchers by email to discuss students, you might find the following hints and advice their research. helpful: 4. Take the students to a training course at the chosen 1. Find a research laboratory with young scientists who research facility to practise and understand the work are willing to collaborate, and find a good contact of their researcher partners, watching and perform- there. In larger universities, school liaison officers are ing experiments in the lab. in charge of linking secondary schools with research 5. Get the students to write about what they did and departments at their university. what they understood during their training course, 2. Convince the head of your school that the project is and they can then send their work to be corrected by important. Explain that it will give students the the researchers. opportunity to meet researchers and work closely 6. Create and manage a website to collate the reports with them. It is also a challenge for the students – and other work (interviews with scientists, descrip- stretching their abilities and offering them the chance tion of techniques, guided tour of the laboratory, to learn new skills that cannot be gained in school laboratories. Students are more enthusiastic about etc.). Many secondary schools have their own web- learning advanced science when faced with a ‘high- site, so it should be possible to ask for a dedicated tech’ environment and real scientists. It is also worth space on this site for use by your students. There is producing a detailed programme with the aims and nothing more motivating for them than to see the procedures in order to ask the school for some fund- almost instantaneous publication of their work on a ing to help cover accommodation and transport website that is easily accessible to everyone. costs. 7. Every two years, repeat the experience with a new 3. Form several teams of 3-4 students and allocate these class, so that they can follow the research and keep the teams to one or two researchers. It is a good idea to website going with new information. The researchers have a few meetings with the researchers beforehand may have finished their PhDs and left the institute,

BACKGROUND to consider possible topics and experiments. Then but their projects may be continued by others.

into a research laboratory. Based w4 – Find out more about the Resources at EMBL Heidelberg, Germany, it European School Bruxelles I here: If you enjoyed this article, you welcomes European teachers to www.eeb1.com its free three-day practical work- might also like to read other arti- w5 – To perform protein crystallog- shops. Education materials cles on science education projects raphy experiments with your designed together with teachers in Science in School. See: own class, see: are available in the ELLS www.scienceinschool.org/projects TeachingBASE. See: Blattmann B, Sticher P (2009) www.embl.org/ells Growing crystals from protein. Science in School 11: 30-36. w2 – For more information about Jean-Yves Guichot is now work- www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ EMBL, see: www.embl.org ing at the International School of issue11/lysozyme w3 – Further information about the Ferney-Voltaire, France. For more Bio Academy visits to EMBL is w6 – The Bio Academy website (in information about the Bio Academy, available on the EMBL website French) includes the students’ please send an email in French or (www.embl.org), and can be reports on their activities at EMBL, English to: Jean-Yves.Guichot@ac- viewed directly here: information they learned, pictures lyon.fr http://tinyurl.com/l522ru and of the teams and much more. See: http://tinyurl.com/n4vyxs www.bioacademy.eeb1.com

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 47 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 48

The first light in the Universe

The WMAP satellite. After three phasing loops around Earth, WMAP flew just behind the orbit of the Moon, three weeks after launch

ience Team E Sc OB / C A AS N of y es rt u o c e g a m

Image courtesy of NASA / WMAP Science Team WMAP Science / Image courtesy of NASA I

Ana Lopes and Henri An artist’s impression of the COBE spacecraft, Boffin take us on a launched by NASA into an Earth orbit in 1989 to trip back in time – make a full-sky map of the cosmic microwave back- probing the history of ground radiation left over from the Big Bang. The first the Universe. results were released in 1992

ave you ever wondered when Photographs of the Universe Historians often use photographs Hthe first lights in the Universe It was not until about 400 000 years and other pictures to tell them about began to shine? Most of us have after the Big Bang that light was able the past, and in this respect, astro - watched the rising of the Sun in the to travel freely in the Universe. Ever nomers are no different. Using the morning, the dawn of a new day. since the Big Bang, the Universe COBE (COsmic Background Explorer) Astronomers go a step further and has been expanding and cooling (for and Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy look for the first sources of light – a description, see Boffin & Pierce- Probe (WMAP)w1 satellites to map the peering into the history of the Price, 2007), stretching that primeval cosmic microwave background radia- Universe using powerful telescopes. light from its initial high frequency, tion, astronomers have created a ‘pho- Their ultimate aspiration is even more until it can be detected today as tograph’ of the Universe as it was ambitious: to trace the entire history photons in the microwave range: approximately 400 000 years after the of the Universe, from its birth – the cosmic microwave background Big Bang. The data from COBE won Big Bang – to the present day, almost radiation, coming from all over the John Mather and George Smoot the 14 000 million (14 billion) years later. Universe. 2006 Nobel Prize in Physics.w2

48 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 49

Science topics

Original image courtesy of NASA

This article offers interesting and detailed information about modern research into the history of the Universe and its evolution. It could be used for interdisciplinary teaching, for example in physics, astronomy, astrophysics or philosophy. As well as providing valuable background reading, teachers could use it to develop educational materials. Vangelis Koltsakis, Greece

REVIEW The electromagnetic spectrum

Original image courtesy of SG Djorgovski and Digital Media Center, Caltech The standard cosmological model of how the Universe evolved tells us An outline of cosmic history that by about 400 000 years after the Big Bang, the Universe had cooled to about 3000 degrees Kelvin, a tempera- Time since the Big Bang The Big Bang (years) the Universe filled with ture low enough for all the electrons ionised gas and protons to combine, forming neu- ~300 thousand The Universe becomes tral hydrogen from the ionised gas. neutral and opaque Electrons in neutral hydrogen (as in The ‘dark ages’ start other atoms or molecules) absorb photons very efficiently, so a universe

full of neutral hydrogen is opaque. In Galaxies and quasars begin contrast, when protons and electrons to form The reionisation starts are separate, they cannot capture pho- ~500 million tons so a universe full of ionised gas – as was the case until about 400 000 years after the Big Bang, and is again the case today – is relatively transparent. The COBE and WMAP maps The ‘dark ages’ end show us the Universe during its Reionisation complete, the opaque stage, at the beginning of the ~1 billion Universe becomes transpar- ‘dark ages’ of the Universe. This peri- ent again od came to an end when the Universe became ionised again (see diagram to Galaxies evolve the right). We also have ‘photographs’ of a much more recent Universe: galaxies ~9 billion Solar System forms full of stars, as they were 1000 million years after the Big Bang – once the Today: Astronomers are ~13 billion figuring it out Universe had become transparent again. Because of the finite speed of light (300 000 km s-1), the light from

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 49 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 50

Image courtesy of NASA / WMAP Science Team

WMAP observes the first light of the Universe – the afterglow of the Big Bang. This light emerged approximately 400 000 years after the Big Bang. Patterns imprinted on this light encode the events that happened only a tiny fraction of a second after distant objects takes much longer to the Big Bang. In turn, the patterns are the reach us than that from neighbouring seeds of the development of the structures objects; we therefore see these distant of galaxies we see now, billions of years objects as they were a very long time after the Big Bang ago. By looking at very distant objects, astronomers were able to see the light that has travelled for almost 13 000 million years – that is, they saw those objects as they had been less than 1000 million years after the Big Bang. But what happened between these two photographs, between the release of the cosmic microwave background radiation 400 000 years after the Big Bang and the light emitted by these very distant galaxies, nearly 1000 million years later? When and how did Image courtesy of NASA / WMAP Science Team the cosmic fog lift? What changed a sea of particles almost devoid of structure into a Universe lit by numerous stars in young galaxies? As Harvard University astronomer Abraham Loeb puts it: “The situation that astronomers face is similar to having a photo album containing the first ultrasound image of an unborn baby and some additional photos of that same person as a teenager and an adult” (Loeb, 2006). What scientists The detailed, all-sky picture of the infant universe created from five years of do not know – but are trying to figure WMAP data. The image reveals 13.7 billion-year-old temperature fluctuations (red out – is when and how the very first regions are warmer and blue are cooler) that correspond to the seeds that grew to become the galaxies stars and galaxies were born. Loeb continues: “Astronomers are currently searching for the missing pages of the mage courtesy of NASA, ESA, I S Beckw ith (S cosmic photo album, which will show pace Tele sco pe how the Universe evolved during its Sc ien ce infancy and made the building blocks In s ti tu of galaxies like our own Milky Way.” te ) a Before any stars were formed, the n d

h Universe contained mostly hydrogen,

e H

u helium and some traces of light ele-

b l

e ments (as described in Rebusco et al., U

D 2007). To ionise hydrogen requires

e energy in excess of 13.6 eV – the sort

l d

T e

a m of energy level corresponding to photons in the ultraviolet (UV) domain. Therefore whatever reionised the This view of nearly 10 000 galaxies is the deepest visible-light image of the cosmos. Universe must have released signifi- Called the Hubble Ultra Deep Field, this galaxy-studded view represents a ‘deep’ core cant amounts of UV radiation. sample of the universe, cutting across billions of light-years. The snapshot includes galaxies of various ages, sizes, shapes, and colours. The smallest, reddest galaxies may Although astronomers are still uncer- be among the most distant known, existing when the Universe was just 800 million tain what could have released this years old. The nearest galaxies – the larger, brighter, well-defined spirals and ellipses – ionising UV radiation, they speculate thrived about 1 billion years ago, when the cosmos was 13 billion years old

50 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:41 Uhr Seite 51

Science topics

Peterson’s prediction: they detected The effect of reionisation on quasar spectra an unambiguous trough in the spectrum of a very distant quasar discov- Reionised, transparent Ionized bubbles in a still Opaque neutral gas in Universe largely neutral universe the early universe ered during the Sloan Digital Sky (before reionisation) Surveyw3, a huge astronomical survey that examined the spectra of about a Line of sight to The quasar hundred thousand quasars. The the quasar trough was in the infra-red part of the spectrum, because the quasar is so far away: its light started the journey towards Earth only about 900 million years after the Big Bang, and so has taken almost 13 000 million years to reach us, during which time its initially UV light has been stretched (red- shifted) into the infra-red by the Intensity expansion of the Universe. Quasars slightly closer to Earth did not show such a trough. This indicated that the Wavelength or redshift last patches of neutral hydrogen in the Universe were ionised about 900

Isolated transmission spikes correspond to the Dark regions correspond to the still opaque, million years after the Big Bang. ionised bubbles along the line of sight neutral gas along the line of sight

Image courtesy of SG Djorgovski and Digital Media Center, Caltech and Digital Media Center, Image courtesy of SG Djorgovski The microwave footprint The cosmic microwave background that it was either the first, very hot, hydrogen to impede it (see diagram radiation released soon after the Big stars, or early black holes, releasing above). (Note that while the neutral Bang is another source of information huge amounts of UV radiation as hydrogen atoms absorb all wave- about the reionisation epoch. material fell into them. If this is the lengths of light, most wavelengths are As the Universe started to be case, stars must have formed before released again. UV light, in contrast, reionised, the electrons that were the reionisation epoch – thus if we ionises the atoms and is completely released affected the polarity of light. can date the reionisation, we have at absorbed.) A free electron can interact with a least a latest date for the emergence of If even a tiny portion of the inter- photon in a process called Thomson the first stars. galactic medium (as little as one part scattering: the electron is accelerated in a million) had been neutral when and the incident light is polarised The ultraviolet footprint the quasar released the light we now along the direction of motion of the In 1965, American astronomers see from Earth, this would have left a electron. This effect was most pro- James Gunn and Bruce Peterson pre- noticeable imprint on the spectrum – nounced during and just after the dicted that the spectra of quasars a suppression of light in the UV reionisation; later, because the could be used to date the final stages range, known as the Gunn-Peterson Universe continued to expand, the of the reionisation epoch. Quasars are trough. Therefore James Gunn and density of free electrons decreased, very distant and ancient galaxies of Bruce Peterson predicted that quasars reducing their polarising effect. extreme brilliance, thought to be pow- beyond a certain distance from Earth, Between 2001 and 2006, the WMAP ered by material falling into giant for which we observe light that was satellitew1 was used to study the black holes at their centres. If the released before the reionisation had degree of polarisation of the cosmic quasar is so distant that the light we finished, would show a ‘trough’ in microwave background photons. By observe from it escaped during the their spectra. Quasars closer than this looking at different frequencies of ‘dark ages’, its UV light will have would not – they released the light light, astronomers could look at dif- been absorbed by the neutral hydro- we observe from Earth only after the ferent periods in the Universe’s histo- gen present at the time; if the quasar reionisation had finished. ry – and the degree of polarity gave is closer and the light we observe was In 2001, a team of scientists led by an indication of the density of free emitted only after the reionisation, Robert Becker from the University of electrons around at that time (the there will have been no neutral California, USA, confirmed Gunn and greater the polarity, the higher the

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 51 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 52

density of free electrons). From these www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ If you enjoyed this article, you studies, they concluded that reionisa- issue5/fusion might like to browse all science topics previously published tion started about 400 million years Web references after the Big Bang, and was complet- in Science in School. See: ed 400 to 500 million years later. This w1 – For more information about the www.scienceinschool.org/ is in agreement with the findings of WMAP satellite, see: sciencetopics http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov the quasar studies: 900 million years You may also enjoy the following after the Big Bang. w2 – An overview of John Mather articles: and George Smoot’s work on cos- Larson RB, Bromm V (2001) The mic microwave background radia- Future research first stars in the Universe. Scientific tion with COBE and links to further On 14 May 2009, the European American Dec: 64-71. This article is w4 information are given in the press Space Agency launched the Planck available for download from w5 release announcing their Nobel satellite to provide us with a photo- http://www.astro.yale.edu/larson/ Prize: http://nobelprize.org/ graph of the cosmic background radi- papers/SciAm01.pdf ation with even more sensitivity and nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/ Madau P (2006) Astronomy: trouble angular resolution than the WMAP 2006/press.html at first light. Nature 440: 1002-1003. achieved. It will certainly help w3 – The Sloan Digital Sky Survey is doi:10.1038/4401002a. Download astronomers to answer with more the most ambitious astronomical the article free of charge on the details the questions of how the survey ever undertaken. When Science in School website Universe evolved from a glowing completed, it will provide detailed (www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ soup to what we see today. optical images covering more than a issue13/light), or subscribe Although the time when reionisa- quarter of the sky, and a three- to Nature today: tion occurred has been successfully dimensional map of about a million www.nature.com/subscribe identified, a photograph of the galaxies and quasars. As the survey Universe from that time is still lack- progresses, the data are released to Scannapieco E, Petitjean P, ing, as current telescopes are unable the scientific community and the Broadhurst T (2002) The emptiest to image it. The good news, however, general public in annual incre- places. Scientific American Oct: 56-63. is that the European Southern ments. See: www.sdss.org This article is available to Observatory (ESO), together with w4 – For more information about download from astronomers and engineers from the European Space Agency, see: http://scannapieco.asu.edu/papers across Europe, is now engaged in the www.esa.int /sciam.pdf design of the European Extremely w5 – To learn more about the Planck Large Telescopew6, 42 m in diameter, satellite, see: which will allow us to look this far www.esa.int/esaSC/120398_index_ Henri Boffin is an astronomer and back in time and possibly see the first 0_m.html journalist with extensive international starlight. research experience. As the public w6 – For more information information officer for ESO’s Very about ESO’s Extremely Large References Large Telescope and European Telescope, see: Extremely Large Telescope, he Boffin H, Pierce-Price D (2007) Fusion www.eso.org/public/astronomy/ devotes himself to both science com- in the Universe: we are all stardust. teles-instr/e-elt.html Science in School 4: 61-63. munication and research. He is author www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ Resources of a number of popular Science in School articles. issue4/fusion The WMAP section of the NASA Ana Lopes is an associate editor at Loeb A (2006) The dark ages of the website provides some teacher Nature, the international weekly jour- Universe. Scientific American Nov: resources, including a brief over - nal of science. She has a degree in 46-53. This article is available to view of the WMAP project and an physics from the Technical University download from inflatable model of the Universe. of Lisbon, Portugal, and a PhD in http://www.cfa.harvard.edu/ See: http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/ astrophysics from the University of ~loeb/sciam.pdf resources/edresources1.html Oxford, UK. Ana was formerly a sci- Rebusco P, Boffin H, Pierce-Price D For a full list of Science in School ence journalism intern at ESO. (2007) Fusion in the Universe: articles about fusion and the evolu- where your jewellery comes from. tion of the Universe, see: Science in School 5: 52-56. www.scienceinschool.org/fusion

52 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 53

Science topics

Sabine Hentze Getting a grip on genetic diseases Sabine Hentze and Martina

I Muckenthaler tell Lucy Patterson m a g e

about their work – detecting u

genetic diseases and counselling t h

potentially affected patients. P h

t o

l a b Martina Muckenthaler

s part of the recent SET-routesw1 AInsight Lecturesw2 series, two scientists from Heidelberg, Germany, talked about their work and experi- Inherited diseases and syndromes are pivotal for any genetics class: ence in the field of genetic disease: the topic is relevant to all students and will encourage them to Sabine Hentze, a medical doctor spe- involve the family in ‘family-tree research’. It will trigger even more discussions in the class if students are ready to talk about rare dis- cialising in human genetics and eases or chromosome aberrations in their extended family. genetic counselling, and Martina Haemochromatosis is an issue that need not be avoided, since it is Muckenthaler, a professor at the medically manageable when diagnosed. It is also a good example of Centre for Paediatric Medicine at an evolutionary advantage that can lead to a dead end when the Heidelberg University Hospital environment changes. This promises to spark many interesting dis- working on the hereditary iron stor- cussions. age disease haemochromatosis (see page 56/57). In addition, the article describes all major techniques that are cur- Genetic diseases are caused by rently used to analyse inherited defects, including a cutting-edge abnormalities in a person’s DNA. technique, the microarray. These can be as simple as a single Possible topics for discussion include: genetic ethics in general; in nucleotide mutation in a single gene, vitro fertilisation; pre-implantation genetics; family planning in cases or as complex as deletions and of known diseases; and the question of when life starts. All these are rearrangements of parts of or entire topics related to ethics and religion. chromosomes. Here are a few suggestions for tasks to set students, using this article: Our DNA is constantly under 1. In a table, list the described techniques and their feasibility in

Image courtesy of alex-mit / iStockphoto attack by a range of factors that can determining an inherited syndrome or disease. cause mutations, such as naturally 2. Discuss the features of each technique concerning its validity for occurring radiation (for classroom the patient. experiments on radiation, see Peralta 3. Discuss ‘the right to know’ or ‘not to know’ and the ethical dilem- & Oliveira, 2009). In addition, copy- ma that doctors face when they discover severe genetic mutations. ing the entire DNA sequence of a cell 4. Illustrate iron uptake and regulation in humans using a flowchart during each mitosis is not a fail-safe or pictures. process. In response, each cell in our 5. Draw a diagram of the inheritance pattern of the mutation in the body keeps a fleet of DNA-repair HFE gene, using Mendelian genetics. enzymes that constantly patches up the damage. From time to time, how- Friedlinde Krotscheck, Austria REVIEW ever, mutations escape the repair

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 53 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 54

Image courtesy of Sabine Hentze Chromosome analysis was first used by French geneticist and paedia- trician Jérôme Lejeune, who in 1959 determined that children suffering from Down syndrome had an extra copy of chromosome 21. Even today, there are many questions that can be more fully answered using this technique than with a genetic test: cells taken from a patient are cultured in the lab, then fixed, prepared and stained so that their chromosomes can be studied under the microscope. Yet some diseases are caused by rearrangements or deletions too small to be seen by conventional chromosome analysis, so a technique called Chromosomal analysis of a female. One of the X chromosomes forms FISH (fluorescent in situ hybridisa- what is known as a ring chromosome, causing Turner syndrome tion) is used. Tiny, fluorescently labelled DNA probes are designed to hybridise, or stick, to a specific process and become fixed in the It is also possible to inherit sequence in the region of the chromo- DNA. increased susceptibility to diseases. some which is thought to be affected, If these mutations occur in impor- Certain mutations, although they do and doctors check if and where they tant genes, they can cause serious dis- not actually cause diseases, dramati- hybridise on a sample of the patient’s eases. As we have two copies of each cally increase a person’s risk of devel- chromosomes. gene (one from our mother and one oping particular conditions: for So when do we ultimately use a from our father), mutations that dam- instance, inherited mutations in the genetic test? “I use one if I strongly age only one copy of the gene do not BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes lead to an suspect a particular disease for necessarily cause immediate prob- increased risk of breast cancer. which we know the gene and the lems, as we still have one healthy It is part of Sabine’s job to investi- possible mutation,” says Sabine. copy. Indeed, we all carry between gate and diagnose these kinds of Haemochromatosis, the disease five and ten such recessively mutated diseases in her patients: “A typical Martina has specialised in, is not only genes without even realising it. Only situation is one where parents intro- the most common hereditary disease dominant mutations will manifest as duce me to their child, saying ‘He in the western world, but in 85-90% of a disease when just one copy of the has not developed properly for his cases in central Europe, is caused by gene is damaged. Recessive mutations age. Our neighbour’s son who is the one specific single mutation in the can become problematic, though, if same age is much taller, he’s already HFE gene (see box on page 56/57). If both your mother and father hap- crawling. Mine can’t do that’.” There patients seem to be suffering from the pened to carry a mutant copy of the are a number of tools and tests disease or are concerned that it runs same gene: there is a risk that you available, but when it comes to in their family, it is possible to carry could inherit both. This can cause dis- making a diagnosis, she says: “First out a genetic test to look for HFE eases such as cystic fibrosis or sickle and foremost, at the centre are we, mutations. The patient’s DNA is iso- cell anaemia. the doctors, whose job it is to look, lated, usually from a blood sample, When whole sections of chromo- listen, examine and assess.” After a and the nucleotides of the HFE gene somes go missing or are switched thorough clinical examination, and in which the most common point around, or even entire chromosomes armed with a detailed family history, mutations occur are sequenced, and are duplicated or deleted, these aber- Sabine may already be able to guess compared with the sequence found rations are often lethal, so that the what might be the underlying cause in healthy individuals. child dies before birth, or they lead to of a patient’s disorder. The next When children suffer from an mental retardation and malforma- step is to find out what kind of unspecific mental or physical disabili- tions, syndromes such as Down syn- mutation lies at the heart of the dis- ty, mutations in a range of genes on drome. ease. different chromosomes can be the

54 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 55

Science topics

Image courtesy of ktsimage / iStockphoto screening the embryo in the womb (amniocentesis, which itself carries a risk to the baby), waiting for the results, and taking the decision whether to terminate the pregnancy if the outcome is bad. The more we learn about the genetic basis of different diseases and traits, and the more sophisticated our screening methods become, the more we can screen for. Of course, no parent would want their child to suffer from a serious disease – but what about less severe disorders such as haemochromatosis, congenital deaf- ness, or even short-sightedness? Who is to say that a child growing up with such a condition wouldn’t live as full a life as an otherwise healthy person? In essence, this issue raises the subject In vitro fertilisation of what is normal. Where do we draw the line as to which genetically deter- cause. Here, chromosome-staining genetic makeup of an embryo before mined conditions or traits are accept- techniques don’t have a sufficiently it is implanted into the womb, a tech- able and which are not? Furthermore, high resolution to identify the defec- nique called pre-implantation genetic should parents ever be allowed to tive gene – however, it would be an diagnosis. choose if their child is male or female, incredible amount of work to At present, many tests are available how tall or attractive or how intelli- sequence all potentially affected genes for well-known genetic diseases, gent they are? individually. In these cases, geneti- allowing parents who are at risk of Another question raised by genetic cists like Sabine are starting to use a passing on a genetic disease to select testing is whether you would really new technology: microarrays (for an a healthy embryo for implantation. In want to know what your genes have in-depth explanation of microarrays many respects this is great news, as it in store for you. What if you were to and a suggestion of how to introduce means that expectant parents do not find out that you were at high risk of them in the classroom, see Koutsos et have to go through the process of developing a serious disease? You al., 2009). Microarrays vastly speed up the process of genetic testing; as tens or hundreds of thousands of Image courtesy of John Crolla, Wellcome Images regions of the genome can be tested at the same time, it is possible to test for many disorders simultaneously. In the future, scientists hope that it might be possible to develop a microarray that can test for all genetic diseases and predispositions in one quick and simple test. No parents would wish their child to be born with a genetic disease. Until recently, prenatal screening was FISH with probes that bind to specific sequences of DNA. Note the the only option available to determine deletion in chromosome 22 in the sample on the right. This causes whether a baby would be born with a DiGeorge Syndrome, which is marked by the absence of thymus and serious disorder. However, since the parathyroid glands, and results in impaired immunity, short stature, advent of in vitro fertilisation, it has and deformities of the face, heart and great vessels become possible to examine the

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 55 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 56

Haemochromatosis

Haemochromatosis is the most common hereditary disease in the western world. It is a condition that causes the body to absorb and store dangerously high levels of iron from the diet in the liver, heart, pancreas and other tissues. Besides a bronze pigmentation of the skin, this can eventually cause liver failure, heart failure or diabetes, since humans, like most animals, have no means to excrete excess iron. Iron is an essential component of haemoglobin, the molecule responsible for oxygen transport in red blood cells. In addition, it is a cofactor of cytochromes, proteins which are important in generating energy in the respiratory chain of each cell. In the past, it was noticed

A woman standing at a table has placed a leech on of Medicine National Library Public domain image; image source her left forearm; on the table is a large jar containing leeches. From Historia medica, in qua libris IV animalium natura, et eorum medica utilitas esacte & luculenter by Guillaume van den Bossche (1638)

located on chromosome 6. It is thought to have sponta- neously originated about 500 BC in one individual of a Celtic tribe living in the Danube valley, and from there it spread across Europe, and with emigrants to America and Australia. In Australia, all patients can actually be Images courtesy of Martina Muckenthaler traced back to one single immigrant carrying the muta- A liver affected by haemochromatosis (left), compared tion. One in eight people in the western world carry this with a healthy liver (right above). Note the excess iron mutation, but since it is recessive, only one in every 250 (stained with Prussian blue) people will develop symptoms of haemochromatosis. Researchers like Martina Muckenthaler think that it is likely that the HFE mutation spread so widely as it con- that the then-common practice of bloodletting using ferred a selective advantage: “Historically, women gave leeches seemed to alleviate the disease. In fact, this birth to many children. Both the developing child and remains the mainstay of treatment for haemochromato- the births themselves, which resulted in blood loss, sis today, albeit without the leeches. The synthesis of emptied the iron stores. Besides, there was very little new red blood cells helps to use up excess iron. Initially, meat to eat, and since this contains the most iron in our the disease was thought to affect only men, becoming diet, it was very difficult to replenish ones iron stores. evident only in their forties and fifties. However, we Moreover, in the past, humans tended not to live so now know that women are just as likely to have the dis- long, so the symptoms of the disease didn’t get to devel- ease, but that loss of blood through menstruation and op. This means that the mutation of the HFE gene was a pregnancy naturally helps to alleviate the symptoms. great advantage in terms of natural selection: people In 85-90% of cases in central Europe, haemochromato- with this mutation were better able to reproduce suc- sis is caused by one specific mutation in the HFE gene, cessfully than those without the mutation.” BACKGROUND

56 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 57

Science topics

Image courtesy of jgroup / iStockphoto might be able to adjust your lifestyle to delay its onset or decrease the symptoms, but how would you feel if you knew your risk? And what if insurance companies or prospective employers were to have access to that information? What if there was a risk that you could pass this disease on to your children? Wouldn’t your partner want to know? Might it

Image courtesy of Martina Muckenthaler change the way he or she felt about you? For suggestions on how to stimulate discussions on such issues Excess iron storage in the classroom, see Strieth et al. (2008). It is at this point that the work of genetic counsellors like Sabine Hentze is really essential: “Besides my laboratory work, I spend much of my time on counselling patients, Hepcidin Fe in other words on communication: what does this test result mean? What does it mean for me, for our child, for our family, for our future?” And it is through the work of genetic counsellors that we have come to realise that perhaps one of the most important considerations in genetic testing is that people also Hepcidin is not sufficiently up-regulated in people with haemochromatosis, have the right not to know. leading to excess iron being taken up in the intestines and stored in the liver References Koutsos A, Manaia A, Willingale- Theune J (2009) Fishing for genes: How does this mutation cause excess iron uptake? The body absorbs iron in the DNA microarrays in the class- intestine via a specialised transport protein. Iron is then stored inside liver cells room. Science in School 12: 44-49. bound to an iron storage protein, ferritin, until it needs to be mobilised. Too www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ much iron can lead to the production of oxygen radicals, damaging cells and issue12/microarray causing them to die. To ensure that no surplus iron is taken up, the liver meas- Peralta L, Oliveira C (2009) ures how much iron is available and translates this information into the produc- Radioactivity in the classroom. tion of a hormone named hepcidin – the more iron, the more hepcidin. In the Science in School 12: 57-61. intestine, hepcidin destroys the iron transporter proteins, so they won’t take up www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ any more iron. issue12/radioactivity Martina has developed a special microarray containing 500 genes related to Strieth L et al. (2008) Meet the iron metabolism and using the mouse as a model organism. With this method, Gene Machine: stimulating her group compared the gene activity of liver cells from healthy mice with that bioethical discussions at school. of liver cells from mice engineered to carry the HFE mutation that causes Science in School 9: 34-38. haemochromatosis in humans. They found that with the HFE mutation, hep- www.scienceinschool.org cidin is not sufficiently up-regulated even when there is already enough iron in /2008/issue9/genemachine the body, causing an excess iron uptake. Through their research, Martina and others are now trying to understand this process in more detail.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 57 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 116.11.200911:42UhrSeite58 58 Image courtesy of Opla / iStockphoto Science inSchool Issue 13: Autumn 2009 The Genesare Uswebsiteoffers For a Democs card gamestodebatethe Resources w2 –TheSET-routes InsightLectures w1 –Formore informationabout Web references issue4/democs www.scienceinschool.org/2007/ School science andcitizenship. tion card activity forteaching Smith K(2007)Democs:aconversa- Democs, see: democs.aspx www.neweconomics.org/gen/ tests canbedownloadedfree here: tics andover-the-counter genetic topics ofpre-implantation diagnos- and cosmology. tion; archaeology oftheUniverse; malaria; stemcellsandregenera- haemochromatosis andDNA chips; climate change;geneticcounselling; fields asdiversespacescience; ing andtechnology(SET),covering exciting worldofscience,engineer- scientists, thelectures introduce the Presented by exceptional women lectures foruse inschools. are aseriesof interactivescientific www.set-routes.org promoting womeninscience,see the SET-routes organisation, www.genesareus.org about geneticdiseases,see: short filmsandclassroom activities Science inSchool 4 : 27-19. article about Science in nicator. embryonic career asasciencecommu- and iscurrently developingherown interest andenthusiasmforscience, zebrafish embryos.Shehasabroad egg intoamature adult,using grow anddevelop from afertilised biology, thestudyofhoworganisms different questionsindevelopmental she hasworkedonansweringseveral Cologne, Germany. Duringthistime Oxford, UK,then inFreiburg and postdoctoral researcher, firstin 2005, andhassincebeenworkingasa the UniversityofNottingham,UK,in If youfoundthisarticle If thisarticlehaswhetyourappetite, To learnmore aboutoxygenradicals For anintroduction tomanyofthe Lucy PattersonfinishedherPhDat www.scienceinschool.org/medicine Science inSchool cine-related articles publishedin might liketobrowse allthemedi- interesting and useful,you geneticfuture Future: http://scienceblogs.com/ scienceblog,Genetic MacArthur’s personal genomicsatDaniel opinion ongenetictestingand most cutting-edgeadvancesand you canfindfurtherreading onthe org/2009/issue13/antioxidants 13 antioxidant food. ty, see:Farusi G(2009)Lookingfor them, includingaclassroom activi- in yourbodyandhowtocounteract University ofUtah,USA. Science LearningCenterfrom the genetics.utah.edu), theGenetic (http://learn. of Learn.Genetics tent/disorders/whataregd) section (http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/con the GeneticDisorders Library most commongeneticdiseases,see : 39-43.www.scienceinschool. www.scienceinschool.org . See: Science inSchool sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 59

Science topics

Folic acid: why school students need to know about it

Eleanor Hayes, Holger Maul and Nele Freerksen investigate why folic acid is an essential Image courtesy of Melissa Schalke/iStockphoto component of your students’ diet – now and for a future healthy family.

tear rolled down Lucy’s cheek. When she was 17 weeks pregnant, though, she was A“I never imagined anything could go wrong. I told that her baby had spina bifida: the spinal cord thought I’d stop taking the Pill, get pregnant, and had not fully closed, leaving the nerves unprotected. have a healthy baby. And it all seemed to be working Damage to the nerves meant that her child would be according to plan: I quickly got pregnant. When I confined to a wheelchair, incontinent, and have severe went to the doctor, I thought he was over-reacting learning difficulties. After several weeks, much consul- when he gave me some dietary tips, and told me to tation and much thought, Lucy and her boyfriend took take folic acid supplements. I took the tablets, but the agonising decision to terminate the pregnancy. A asked myself ‘What could possibly go wrong with my year later, she is still convinced that they made the baby?’” right decision for their child, but the pain remains.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 59 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 116.11.200911:42UhrSeite60 60

Science inSchool REVIEW .Usingthediagram below (which canalsobe 5. Levels ofhomocysteine inthebloodareknown to 4. Anaemiaisalack ofenougherythrocytes tocarry 3. Describetheroleoftetrahydrofolate asacoenzyme. 2. Why isthelack offolatelife-threateningunder 1. Suitable comprehensionquestionsinclude: olism thatoccurifonevitaminisinlow supply. ple inbiology:thechain reactionsinhumanmetab- employed in lessonstoaddressanimportantprinci- standing oftheirown body. For example,itcouldbe pathways while giving studentsavery usefulunder- folate canbeusedtoconnectthemajormetabolic in humanbiology(seediagram). The metabolismof lent examplewhen reviewingallofthemaintopics ing biologycurricula,asitcanbeusedanexcel- This articleisoverdue asanenrichment totheexist- folate infoetaldevelopment orinany othercontext. Very fewbiologytextbooksstresstheimportanceof downloaded fromthe teine level. and what couldbedonetolower thehomocys- disease. Develop ahypothesis ofwhy thisoccurs be higherinolderadultsatriskofcardiovascular the productionofredbloodcells? oxygen; how doesfolatedeficiency interact with certain conditions? Issue 13: Autumn 2009 Health biology education Cell Nutrition growth Nutrient Erythrocyte interactions mitosis Growth / Science inSchool Neurobiology growth /repair DNA structure Influence of metabolism Inheritance Genetics Neuronal folate web- development Organ metabolism Amino acid grow older:folicacid–areyou gettingenoughofit? lifestyle andthenberemindedagainasthey puberty tounderstandtheimportanceofahealthy Students shouldlearnaboutthistopiceven before tionnaire canbeusedtomotivate ascienceclass. Seriously appliedandtruthfullyanswered, theques- in datacollection,theeveryday work ofthescientist. students toparticipateinongoingresearch: takingpart The accompanying questionnairemakesitpossiblefor dromes andmetabolicdiseases. ing therightnutrientscaneliminateoralleviatesyn- cy. The positive messageisthatknowing andprovid- life-threatening conditionscausedby folatedeficien- scribed nutrientsinprocessedfood,aswellthe include familyplanning,lifestyle,government-pre- Discussion topicsthatcouldemergefromthearticle · · · · · Memory loss. Cardiovascular disease Megaloblastic anaemia Chromosomal defectsinspermandovum Neural tubedefects,heartdefectsandcleftpalates deficiencies fitinto: site Develop- w5 structure mental ), decidewhich ofthesegmentsfollowing biology curriculum metabolism withinthe The importanceoffolate Proteome biology Friedlinde Krotscheck, Germany ne ig topicsinwhich Inner ring: mainfields Outer ring: folate isimportant in biology

www.scienceinschool.org Image courtesy of Nicola Graf Nicola of courtesy Image sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 61

Science topics

Image courtesy of Olaf Brust The tragedy of Lucy’s story is that it could probably have been avoided if she had taken the supplements earlier. Worryingly few young people, however, seem to know how essential folic acid is – or that it is important to take the supplement for at least a month before a pregnancy. Each year, more than 4500 pregnancies in the European Union are affected by spina bifida and related disorders, known collectively as neural tube defects (Busby et al. 2005). In the UK, approximately 85% of pregnan- A folic acid cies are terminated after the diagno- supplement sis, and around 150 people per year are born severely disabled by the spina bifidaw1. It is estimated that in 75% of cases, spina bifida could have been prevented if the mother had taken folic acid family history of neural tube defects, children and adults require a certain supplements at the correct dose and have diabetes or are overweight. amount of folic acid; lack of folic acid early enough. A European study Spina bifida is also associated with can cause anaemia and severe birth showed that in all 18 countries con- certain medicines, for example some defects. (We use the term ‘folate’ for sidered, only a minority of women drugs that are used in chemotherapy the forms found in the body and ‘folic took folic acid supplements before or prescribed for certain autoimmune acid’ for the more stable form found conceiving. The highest percentages diseases. However, some of these in supplements.) of women taking folic acid before a complications are also associated with High levels of folate are found in pregnancy were found in the folic acid deficiency: some genetic fruit and vegetables, particularly leafy Netherlands, the UK, Ireland and mutations reduce the ability to vegetables (such as spinach and let- Norway: 30-46%. In France, Spain, metabolise folic acid, as do some tuce), as well as in lentils, peas, and Germany and Italy, the percentages drugs (e.g. methotrexate, used to baker’s yeastw2. Humans are not capa- were much lower, at less than 5% treat rheumatoid arthritis and some ble of synthesising folate in the body, (Eurocat Folic Acid Working Group, cancers). which means that they depend on 2005). sufficient levels of it in their diet. Folic acid could have prevented Folic acid and its biological role Although folate deficiency can have a 75% of spina bifida cases. However, Folic acid is a water-soluble B vita- number of biological causes – which in the remaining 25% of affected min, also known as vitamin B9. Folic reduce the ability of the body to pregnancies, the situation is more acid or its naturally occurring form, absorb folate – the most common complex: the risk of spina bifida is folate, are essential for numerous cause is simply that they eat too little higher among women who have a physiological processes. Thus, both folate (or folic acid).

COOH Images courtesy of Nicola Graf H2N N N H2N N N H

CH2 H O CH N 2 HN N C N N5 CH2 C N CH H H2 H H H OH COOH O 10N R H Folic acid Tetrahydrofolate (THF)

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 61 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 62

in neural tube defects such as spina bifida, or malformations of the brain or skull. A dietary intake of 400 μg folic acid per day has been shown to reduce neural tube defects in the embryo by up to 70%. Other studies have shown that folic acid supplements are also important for other developing organs in the embryo, reducing the risk of heart and limb defects or a cleft palate. For these reasons, folic acid supplementation during pregnancy has become standard in many countries; in Germany and some other countries, women are also advised to take folic acid when they are planning to

Image courtesy of fajean / iStockphoto become pregnant. At present, the internationally recommended daily supplementation of folic acid for pregnant women or those who plan to conceive is 400 μg per day. Various In the body, folate is reduced to of cells that undergo rapid division research groups suggest that men tetrahydrofolate, the biologically and growth – something that occurs who are planning to father a child active form of folic acid. Tetrahydro - especially during pregnancy and should also increase their daily folic folate and its derivatives are essential infancy, but also throughout life in the acid intake, because this has been co-enzymes in various carbon transfer bone marrow. As cancerous tissues shown to reduce the incidence of reactions, receiving and accepting also undergo rapid cell division, this chromosomal defects in sperm. one-carbon units such as the methyl can be exploited: some drugs used in Another manifestation of folic acid

group (CH3). chemotherapy (e.g. methotrexate) deficiency is megaloblastic anaemia – A series of biochemical reactions actually target folate metabolism, lim- which can affect people of all ages, use tetrahydrofolate to form methyl- iting the growth rate of the tumour. both male and female. A lack of folic tetrahydrofolate, an essential sub- acid slows down the rate of cell divi- strate in nucleotide synthesis. For Folic acid deficiency sion in the bone marrow, resulting in example, together with vitamin B12, During the first three months of the production of fewer but larger, methyl-tetrahydrofolate is necessary pregnancy, a lack of folic acid may immature red blood cells (erythro- for the formation of the pyrimidine lead to malformation of the embryo’s cytes). These abnormal erythrocytes base thymine (in DNA) as well as the central nervous system – this results are less able to carry oxygen to the tis- purine bases adenine and guanine (in both DNA and RNA). Tetrahydrofolate is also essential for the synthesis of several important amino acids. For example, it is a co- enzyme in the methylation of homocysteine to methionine, an amino acid required in numerous biochemical reactions such as the methylation of DNA and RNA. A sufficient supply of folate is therefore required for both DNA and RNA synthesis and, as a result, for cell formation and regeneration. This is particularly important for all kinds Image courtesy of Stefanie Timmermann / iStockphoto Timmermann Image courtesy of Stefanie

62 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 63

Science topics

Image courtesy of the Wellcome Photo Library when deciding whether to use the questionnaire, and if so, with which students. We also recommend asking the students’ parents for permission before using the survey, explaining that the data will be used in a European-wide survey. The survey can be downloaded from the Science in School websitew3 or completed onlinew4. We will pass onto Dr Pötzsch all results that we receive by 31 December 2010. If enough schools take part, she and her group will use the data for a further European-wide study. The results will also be published in Science in School. All surveys completed online will be automatically included. All printed surveys should be returned (by post Photomicrograph of peripheral blood cells. Note the hypersegmented neutrophil, or email) to: characteristic of megaloblastic anemia Dr Eleanor Hayes Editor-in-Chief of Science in School European Molecular Biology sues, and the sufferer will feel tired, Elevated levels of this sulphur-con- Laboratory weak and short of breath. Other taining amino acid in the blood have Meyerhofstrasse 1 effects include paleness and gastroin- been associated with an increased risk 69117 Heidelberg testinal symptoms such as gastric of cardiovascular disease. Germany ulcers. Anaemia caused by folic acid Email: [email protected] deficiency can be treated with folic Folic acid in the classroom acid supplements; as the average life Folic acid, therefore, is an important Acknowledgements of a red blood cell is 40 days and all topic for school students to learn The authors would like to thank of them need to be replaced, though, about – not only to ensure they are Friedlinde Krotscheck for her help in it will take approximately 120 days healthy now, but also to avoid prob- planning the article and finding use- for the treatment to be fully effective. lems in the future. To help our readers ful resources. Vitamin B12 deficiency has very introduce the topic into their class- similar symptoms due to the interde- room and to motivate the students, References pendence of folic acid and vitamin Science in School has teamed up with a Busby A, et al. (2005) Preventing neu- B12 in DNA synthesis, but – unlike group of researchers at the medical ral tube defects in Europe: popula- anaemia caused by folic acid deficien- faculty of the Otto von Guericke tion based study. British Medical cy – is also associated with neurologi- University in Magdeburg, Germany. Journal 330: 574-575. cal problems, which may be irre- In 2004, Dr Simone Pötzsch and her doi:10.1136/bmj.330.7491.574. This versible. Clearly, to treat the anaemia research group surveyed students at article is freely available on the correctly, it is necessary to know schools in one region of Germany to journal website (www.bmj.com). which deficiency is causing the condi- see how much they knew about the tion. In the early stages (before the importance of vitamins and minerals Pötzsch S et al. (2006). Knowledge neurological problems appear), the – in particular folic acid (Plötsch et al., among young people about folic two types of deficiency can be distin- 2006). acid and its importance during guished by examining the blood lev- For Science in School, we have trans- pregnancy: a survey in the Federal els of the two vitamins. lated and adapted this survey so that State of Saxony-Anhalt (Germany). A further potential result of folic teachers can assess their students’ Journal of Applied Genetics 47: acid deficiency is the accumulation of knowledge – perhaps before introduc- 187–190. This article can be freely homocysteine (normally methylised ing this article in a lesson. Teachers, downloaded from the website of to methionine by tetrahydrofolate). however, should exercise sensitivity the Journal of Applied Genetics

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 63 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 64

(http://jag.igr.poznan.pl) or via Web references w5 – The diagram of how this article the direct link: http://tinyurl.com/ w1 – The website of the UK’s fits into the biology curriculum (see yde6dyw Association for Spina Bifida and review) can also be downloaded The German-language report on the Hydrocephalus has several articles from the Science in School website: survey (Einige Untersuchungen zum about folic acid and information www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ Ernährungsverhalten von Schülerinnen about current research into folic issue13/folicacid und Schülern Sachsen-Anhalts unter acid. See: www.asbah.org Resources besonderer Berücksichtigung des w2 – For a comprehensive table of Kenntnisstandes der different foods and the folic acid A German-language presentation Fehlbildungsprotektion durch Folsäure) levels they contain, see the United about the importance of folic acid can be downloaded from the States Department of Agriculture’s can be downloaded from the Angeborene Fehlbildung website: National Nutrient Database for Angeborene Fehlbildung website: www.angeborene-fehlbildungen.com Standard Reference: www.angeborene-fehlbildungen. Eurocat Folic Acid Working Group www.ars.usda.gov/Services/ com (2005) Prevention of Neural Tube docs.htm?docid=17477 For a complete list of medicine- Defects by Periconceptional Folic Acid w3 – The survey to test your students’ related articles that have been Supplementation in Europe. Special knowledge about folic acid can be published in Science in School, see: report by Eurocat (European downloaded from the Science in www.scienceinschool.org/medicine Surveillance of Congenital School website: Anomalies). This report can be www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ downloaded from the Eurocat issue13/folicacid Dr Holger Maul is a senior physi- website (www.eurocat.ulster.ac.uk) w4 – The folic acid questionnaire can cian (Chefarzt) for gynaecology and or via the direct link: also be completed online: obstetrics at the Marienkrankenhaus http://tinyurl.com/yhfse4y www.scienceinschool.org/ in Hamburg, Germany. folicacidsurvey Dr Nele Freerksen is a junior doctor in gynaecology and obstetrics at the Marienkrankenhaus in Hamburg, Germany. Dr Eleanor Hayes is the Editor-in- Chief of Science in School. Image courtesy of rphotos / iStockphoto

64 Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 65

Publisher: EIROforum, Safety note Copyright www.eiroforum.org For all of the activities published in With very few exceptions, articles in Editor-in-Chief: Dr Eleanor Hayes, Science in School, we have tried to Science in School are published under European Molecular Biology check that all recognised hazards have Creative Commons copyright licences Laboratory, Germany been identified and that suitable pre- that allow the text to be reused non- Editor: Dr Marlene Rau, cautions are suggested. Users should be commercially. Note that the copyright European Molecular Biology aware however, that errors and omis- Laboratory, Germany agreements refer to the text of the arti- sions can be made, and safety stan- cles and not to the images. You may Editorial Board: dards vary across Europe and even republish the text according to the fol- Dr Giovanna Cicognani, Institut Laue within individual countries. Langevin, France lowing licences, but you may not repro- Therefore, before undertaking any activ- Dr Dominique Cornuéjols, European duce the image without the consent of ity, users should always carry out their Synchrotron Radiation Facility, France the copyright holder. own risk assessment. In particular, any Elke Delvoye, European Space Agency, Most Science in School articles carry local rules issued by employers or edu- the Netherlands one of two copyright licences: cation authorities MUST be obeyed, Dr Richard Harwood, Aiglon College, 1) Attribution Non-commercial Share Switzerland whatever is suggested in the Science in School articles. Alike (by-nc-sa): Russ Hodge, Max Delbrück Zentrum, Germany Unless the context dictates otherwise, it Dr Rolf Landua, European is assumed that: Organization for Nuclear Research · Practical work is carried out in a This license lets others remix, tweak, (CERN), Switzerland properly equipped and maintained and build upon the author’s work non- Dr Dean Madden, National Centre for science laboratory commercially, as long as they credit the Biotechnology Education, University · Any electrical equipment is properly author and license their new creations of Reading, UK maintained under the identical terms. Others can Dr Douglas Pierce-Price, European · Care is taken with normal laboratory download and redistribute the author’s Southern Observatory, Germany operations such as heating substances work, but they can also translate, make Lena Raditsch, European Molecular · Good laboratory practice is observed remixes, and produce new articles Biology Laboratory, Germany when chemicals or living organisms based on the work. All new work based Dr Fernand Wagner, European are used on the author’s work will carry the Association for Astronomy Education, Eye protection is worn whenever same license, so any derivatives will Luxembourg · there is any recognised risk to the also be non-commercial in nature. Barbara Warmbein, Deutsches eyes Furthermore, the author of any deriva- Elektronen-Synchrotron, Germany Pupils and / or students are taught tive work may not imply that the deriva- Chris Warrick, European Fusion · safe techniques for activities such as tive work is endorsed or approved by Development Agreement, UK handling living organisms, hazardous the author of the original work or by Copy Editor: Dr Caroline Hadley materials and equipment. Science in School. Composition: Nicola Graf, Email: [email protected] Credits 2) Attribution Non-commercial Printers: ColorDruckLeimen, Germany Science in School is published by No Derivatives (by-nc-nd) www.colordruck.com EIROforum (a collaboration between Layout Designer: Vienna Leigh, seven European inter-governmental sci- European Molecular Biology entific research organisations: This license is often called the ’free Laboratory, Germany www.eiroforum.org) and is based at the advertising’ license because it allows Web Designer: Francesco Sottile, European Molecular Biology Laboratory others to download the author’s works European Molecular Biology (EMBL: www.embl.org) in Heidelberg, and share them with others as long Laboratory, Germany Germany. as they mention and link back to the ISSN Science in School is a non-profit activi- Print version: 1818-0353 author, but ty. Initially supported by the European Online version: 1818-0361 they can’t change them in any way or Union, it is now fully funded by Cover Images: use them commercially. EIROforum. Nerve cell For further details, see: Original image courtesy of Eraxion / Disclaimer http://creativecommons.org iStockphoto Views and opinions expressed by All articles in Science in School carry Artist's impression of Corot-7b authors and advertisers are not neces- the relevant copyright logos or other Image courtesy of ESO / L. Calcada sarily those of the editors or publishers. copyright notice.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 65 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 66 Image courtesy of ESO

A star-struck teacher in Italy

Research offers exciting and challenging job opportunities, but sometimes the price to pay in terms of personal sacrifice is very high. Claudia Mignone interviews a young astronomer who found satisfaction in the classroom – teaching mathematics.

Image courtesy of Alessandro Berton

Alessandro Berton

stronomy has always been Fridlund, 2009), and Alessandro was teach mathematics to his very first AAlessandro Berton’s greatest thrilled to be a part of it. Yet some- students. passion: after his undergraduate thing was missing. “I had been thinking about teaching studies at the University of Padua, “During those years, I always felt long before the end of my PhD,” he Italy, he moved to the Max Planck the lack of social, human interaction – admits. As an undergraduate student Institute for Astronomy in a lack that is typical of many research of astronomy, Alessandro had occa- Heidelberg, Germany, for his PhD. environments,” he explains. “I longed sionally worked for a small observa- His research focused on the develop- for a job where I could spend more tory, taking care of the planetarium ment of new, cutting-edge techniques time with other people than in front and telescopes, and introducing to detect extrasolar planets. The quest of my computer screen.” Hence, a few schoolchildren to the mysteries of the for planets outside our solar system months after receiving his PhD, night sky. He enjoyed this job a lot, has been one of the most fascinating Alessandro enrolled in the Italian but more than that, he was really topics in astronomy for the past 15 high-school teacher-training program, good at it. Nearly every other day years (see Jørgensen, 2006 and and at the same time he began to during his PhD, Alessandro won-

Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:42 Uhr Seite 67

Teacher profile

dered whether it would be better to After two years of teaching, go on with his research, or to leave it Alessandro’s impression is entirely and start teaching. positive: “The feedback from your There is always a drift The scientific work involved in a own students is an overwhelming between working in sci- PhD has its natural ups and downs. reward. Nothing compares to such a ence and technology and Sometimes you have to wait longer teaching, for a variety of than you wished, and the results are Image courtesy of C. Huerta reasons. Here is a good not as exciting as you had hoped. Yet example – a dedicated you have to hide your scepticism and astronomer who became always look bright and confident: let’s a dedicated teacher. not forget it is a highly competitive Teachers could use this environment. This competitiveness article in a range of con- was not one of Alessandro’s favourite texts, including demon- aspects of astronomy: the environ- strating the appeal of sci- ment of a school, with your own stu- ence and illustrating the dents, where you are the only person different careers available in charge within the four walls of to scientists. your classroom, sounded much more

REVIEW Eric Deeson, UK appealing to him. With several, contradictory thoughts on his mind, Alessandro decided to give teaching a try. After all, he already knew how he felt about feeling.” Nearly every day, after tem only allows astronomy graduates research. He discovered that he had teaching, he goes home with some to teach mathematics or physics, basic made the right decision. “It was exact- small satisfaction, whereas during his subjects of an astronomer’s education; ly what I was looking for,” he says, previous research work, daily gratifi- strangely enough, astronomy is smiling. “Every day something differ- cation was just about impossible to counted amongst the natural sciences, ent happens. There is the pleasure of achieve. along with chemistry, biology and preparing a lesson, the joy of teaching, He acknowledges, however, that the geology, and is taught by graduates of the thrill of explaining things… On transition was not exactly smooth. other subjects. “It’s a struggle to see top of it, you have to deal with a When I ask him what he misses most my students learning astronomy from bunch of 14- to 19-year-old students: from his research years, the answer a teacher who does not share my an extremely delicate task, but most of erupts immediately: “Astronomy!” enthusiasm for the subject,” he says. the time it’s a lot of fun!” Unfortunately, the Italian school sys- It is almost inevitable that you will

An artist’s impression of the extrasolar planet Gliese 581 c Image courtesy of ESO

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:43 Uhr Seite 68

miss something that has been such a then used for small experiments. Science in School 13: 15-18. big part of your life for years. Although the experiments were of www.scienceinschool.org/2009/ Alessandro tries to compensate for minor importance, such as studying issue13/corot this through amateur astronomy and the motion of the robot along an Jørgensen UG (2006) Are there science communication. His dream, inclined plane, the class taught them Earth-like planets around other however, is to teach his own after- something of a much greater value: stars? Science in School 2: 11-16. school class – covering not only basic the scientific method. www.scienceinschool.org/2006/ astronomy but also real astronomical “My active research background issue2/exoplanet observations and data analysis. was very useful: unlike other teachers Web references In the meantime, Alessandro uses at my school, I had concrete experi- astronomy as a motivational tool. ence of doing science,” he shyly w1 – To learn more about the Motivating students every day is admits. “It was a pleasure to watch European Southern Observatory probably the most difficult task for a the students learn how to take meas- (ESO), see: www.eso.org teacher. When difficult mathematical urements properly and treat statistical Resources concepts are introduced, a practical error, how to draw conclusions and To view all the Science in School arti- example can be very helpful. And summarise them in a report that cles about astronomy, see: where would he draw his examples slightly resembled a scientific paper.” www.scienceinschool.org/astronomy from, but from astronomy? “When I After two years, Alessandro is still had to explain logarithmic equations, very satisfied with his choice, and is If you enjoyed this article, you might I drew a parallel to the magnitude looking forward to the beginning of also like to read other teacher pro- system used to classify stars. When the new school year. “It is a difficult files in Science in School. See: we were dealing with conic sections, job though, and you cannot start www.scienceinschool.org/teachers I told them the orbit of the Earth teaching if you are not truly con- around the Sun is an ellipse, and that vinced,” he points out. “After all, you of a comet is a parabola.” The stu- have the students’ future in your dents were excited, mostly because Claudia Mignone studied astrono- hands”. He suggests to young scien- they could spot (and appreciate) a my at the University of Bologna, Italy, tists who might consider the option of high degree of motivation in the and then moved to Germany for a moving to the classroom: “If you teacher himself. PhD in cosmology at the University of think you have enough patience, com- Although years spent doing Heidelberg. Her research focused on munication and organisation skills, research may not be the standard methods to infer the properties of the and you are looking for a job for training for a teacher, they have inter- expansion of the Universe. which human contact is crucial, then esting advantages: the lack of practi- Currently, Claudia is concentrating think about teaching. When you’ve cal experience in the classroom is on communicating with the public, as finished thinking, think again. Maybe compensated by experience of day-to- an intern at the European Southern try some teaching activities, or science day scientific research, which makes Observatory (ESO)w1. She enjoys writ- communication – if you enjoy it, then the delivery of a scientific message ing about science and society, and more straightforward. Alessandro you might be a good teacher. And explaining science to people who are became aware of this fact during an then, good luck!” not closely involved with it. She par- unusual teaching activity he’s recently ticularly appreciates their unexpected been involved in: a robotics lab class. References questions and reactions. The students were asked to build a Fridlund M (2009) The CoRoT satel- little robot with sensors, which they lite: the search for Earthlike planets.

Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:43 Uhr Seite 69

Scientist profile

m I

Virtual reality: the Haptic Cow With the help of former vet, Sarah Baillie, Vienna Leigh takes us on a virtual reality This interesting article trip – deep into a cow’s insides! explains how virtual reality helps veterinary students learn to examine the internal organs of the cow via its rectal or reproductive ave you ever wondered what tual reality to simulate the reproductive tracts. It would be particu- Hthe inside of a cow feels like? If or rectal tracts of the animal.” larly useful for biology you want to be a veterinarian, it’s So, how does it work? “Your hand is teachers when teaching the something you’ll have to get very suspended from a robotic arm posi- topics of the digestive tract used to indeed! Vets often find them- tioned inside,” explains Sarah. “The and reproductive systems. selves needing arm-length gloves for motors of the arm control your hand It could also be linked to some of the more ‘hands-on’ parts of movements and produce resistant forces, virtual reality or simulation the job, but without visual indications depending on which simulation is creat- studies in computer tech- it can be hard to teach veterinary stu- ed via the software – a pregnancy, per- nology lessons. For a more dents about what exactly they should haps, or an ovarian cyst – and you get interdisciplinary approach, be feeling for. the impression of feeling objects in the the article could provide That’s where an ingenious inven- abdomen and identifying them by their the basis of a discussion on tion by former vet Sarah Baillie, the position, shape, size and texture or soft- the use of information Haptic Cow, comes in. “Haptic is a ness.” technology and computers Greek word, relating to the sense of After inserting his or her arm through in science and medicinal touch,” she explains. “The Haptic the rectum of the ‘cow’, the student will practice. Cow is essentially a fibreglass model be instructed to feel forwards to the sin-

REVIEW Andrew Galea, Malta of the rear half of a cow that uses vir- gle ‘bump’ which is the cervix, and then

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:43 Uhr Seite 70

haptic technology to help doctors train (in keyhole surgery, for example) and I decided to see if I could use it to solve the problems I’d had teaching internal examinations of cows to vet students.” She embarked on a PhD focusing on using the technology to develop the Haptic Cow. “We now have a whole set of simulators for different species and techniques,” says Sarah, who, when she’s not inventing virtual reality innards, is a senior lecturer in veterinary education at the Royal Veterinary College, Londonw2 and a founder member of ViEWw3 (Veterinary Education Worldwide). “Most recently we’ve also developed haptic games to allow students to Inside the haptic cow practice skills they’ll need for their clinical work in a fun, hands-on way.” further to the double bump that can ful, high-stakes events both for the ani- Sarah feels her experiences of the only be the uterus. “If the cow is mal and its owner – has always proved real issues faced in the workplace by pregnant, pressing down on the side to be very difficult, because you can’t vets have given her invaluable insight of the double or m-shaped bump of see what’s going on,” she says. into the problems that research into the womb will reveal to the student a Sarah practiced as a vet for many education needs to solve. “The simu- thin wall and a watery feel,” explains years before a back injury meant she lators I develop help to address the Sarah. But be warned – press too hard had to consider an alternative career. three Rs in veterinary education – to or in the wrong place, and the Haptic A career as a vet requires a broad ‘reduce, replace and refine’ the use of Cow will utter a baleful ‘moo’! mix of abilities – a knowledge of sci- animals in education,” she says. “The It doesn’t stop at bovines, either. ence, technical competencies, clinical real animal or patient still has a vital “I’ve also developed a Haptic Horse reasoning, and good communication role in a trainee clinician’s learning, for which the simulations include and teaching skills, to name a few – but it helps to use alternatives to com- common ailments of the digestive and so Sarah had an unusual and use- plement the traditional training meth- tract – colic, for example, which could ful skill set to take with her. While ods where possible and appropriate.” be due to a twisted gut,” Sarah says. still working as a vet, she began to The haptic farmyard isn’t just Moving a hand around the abdominal retrain in information technology (IT) restricted to the classroom, though; ‘landmarks’ teaches students how to – “I’d always been interested in com- Sarah regularly takes her inventions tell the difference between, for exam- puters, but I was of a generation to events, exhibitions and confer- ple, a normal caecum (the beginning where they were a very small part of ences. “The Haptic Cow has been at of the large intestine) – which feels my education” – and came across the Science Museum in London, and ‘squishy’, according to Sarah – and haptic technology during her MSc in we were at the Royal Society’s constipation, which apparently feels IT at the University of Glasgoww1, UK. Summer Science Exhibitionw4 this more ‘doughy’. “For vets, learning or “Haptics create the illusion of feeling year,” she says. “Nearly 1500 people teaching how to do these kinds of man- around 3D objects,” she says. “A few had a go on the simulators. It’s one of ual diagnoses – which are often stress- programmers had looked at using those technologies that still gets a

Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:43 Uhr Seite 71

Scientist profile

Reality and virtual reality face to face

Images courtesy of Peter Nunn

‘wow!’ reaction from people – after http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/ all, you’re feeling something that’s science/nature/8125651.stm not really there!” Vienna Leigh studied linguistics at Resources the University of York, UK, and has a Web references For a video of Sarah demonstrating master’s degree in contemporary lit- w1 – To learn more about the the use of the Haptic Cow to identi- erature. As well as spending several University of Glasgow’s depart- fy pelvic landmarks and undertake years as a journalist in London, she ment of computing science, see: pregnancy diagnosis and fertility has worked in travel and reference www.dcs.gla.ac.uk tests, see: www.vetpulse.tv/ publishing as a writer, editor and associations-congress/bcva/61_ w2 – To learn more about the Royal designer. She’s been widening her sci- sarah-baillie-haptic-cow-in-action Veterinary College, see: entific horizons in recent years as the www.rvc.ac.uk More information about the Haptic information and publications officer w3 – To learn more about ViEW, see: Cow is also available on the website at the European Molecular Biology www.veteducation.org of LIVE (Lifelong Independent Laboratory and as editor of its w3 – For more information about The Veterinary Education): newsletter, EMBL&cetera. Royal Society, the UK’s national www.live.ac.uk/html/projects_ academy of science, see: haptic_01.html http://royalsociety.org If you enjoyed this article, you might w4 – For a video covering some of the also like to read other scientist pro- exhibits at the Royal Society’s files in Science in School. See: Summer Science Exhibition, see: www.scienceinschool.org/scientists

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:43 Uhr Seite 72

Classic Chemistry Demonstrations: One Hundred Tried and Tested Experiments

By Ted Lister Reviewed by Tim Harrison, University of Bristol, UK

The vast majority of chemists with demonstration may be relevant, the Chemistry is the Practical Chemistry whom I come into contact recall that time to perform the demonstration websitew3. The Royal Society of the first experiences that excited them (once set up), the appropriate age for Chemistry also provides teachers with about chemistry were either seeing or the students, a description of the readable notes on ‘Health and safety’, doing practical work. It seems that experiment and the apparatus, and ‘Banned chemicals’ and ‘Chemicals the use of practical work at schools is the quantities of the chemicals needed. not recommended for use in decreasing; reasons include health Naturally the method (procedure) is schools’w4. Although these notes are and safety concerns and a lack of given in sufficient detail to carry out written for UK schools and colleges, guidance. So I think it is time to the demonstration, as well as tips on much of the advice applies to class- review a classic textbook in this area: teaching and visual tips, possible rooms everywhere. Classic Chemistry Demonstrations: One extensions to the work, and both sim- Hundred Tried and Tested Experiments, ple and fuller details of the theory Details a book aimed at teachers which was (where appropriate). Lastly, but by no Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry given to every UK school when it was means unimportantly, safety notes, Publication year: 1995 first published in 1995. although not a full risk assessment, ISBN: 9781870343381 Many of the 100 demonstrations in are provided. this paperback are not original, but The full list of the 100 demonstra- Web references were nominated by experienced tions may be found on the website of w1 – For the full list of the 100 chemistry teachers from all over the the UK’s Royal Society of demonstrations, see: w1 world. The demonstrations, all of Chemistry , which also gives an www.rsc.org/education/teachers/ which have been thoroughly tested, example of one of the experiments: learnnet/pdf/LearnNet/rsc/ afford students the opportunity to see the ammonium dichromate volcano. classic_select.pdf experiments that they cannot do An additional ten reactions that are w2 – Details of ten reactions not in themselves for a myriad of reasons. It not included in the book (‘Chemistry the book (‘Chemistry demonstra- is important that students can see a demonstrations to enhance teaching tions to enhance teaching and learn- “skilled practitioner at work” per- and learning’) are available to down- ing’) may be downloaded from the forming experiments that are “often load as Word or PDF filesw2. These Royal Society of Chemistry website: spectacular, stimulating and motivat- reactions include that of sodium and ing”. Naturally, chemistry demonstra- potassium with concentrated www.rsc.org/education/teachers/ tions enhance teaching and learning hydrochloric acid, and the dehydra- learnnet/cldemo_contents.htm and often provide a fun element to tion of N-(4-nitrophenyl)ethanamide w3 – The Royal Society of lessons. by sulphuric acid. Chemistry’s Practical Chemistry For each demonstration, the author Another useful guide to chemistry website provides chemistry teachers provides the topic for which the practical work by the Royal Society of with a wide range of experiments to

Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:43 Uhr Seite 73

Reviews

Why is science important? website

By Alom Shaha

Reviewed by Christine Rüth, European Fusion Development Agreement, Germany

illustrate concepts or processes, as Why is science important? There is a helpful note on the front starting points for investigations · “It helps us find out what on Earth page explaining how to do this.) and enhancement activities such as is going on.” Maybe your next class could start club or open-day events: · “It can lay the groundwork for a with a short video of PhD student www.practicalchemistry.org great career.” Rosie Coates showing what will hap- pen if too much CO enters our w4 – To download the teacher “It is our best chance for tomor- 2 · oceans. Watch Francisco Diego with notes on safety, visit: www.rsc.org/ row.” education/teachers/learnnet/ his space rock, which is older than “It provides us with opportunities cldemo.htm · our planet. Ponder with Chris and choices.” Langley about why we need more These and more statements can be mp3 players, or listen to Mark found on Alom Shaha’s webpage, Lythgoe describing the excitement of Why is science important? trotting on ground where no one else (http://whyscience.co.uk). has ever been before. Read about how Alom Shaha is a British school science allows partly deaf scientist teacher who collects videos and blogs Laura Goodall to lead the life she from scientists, science writers and does. science teachers with their very per- The website might inspire teachers sonal answers to his question, “Why and students to contribute, or even to is science important?” produce their own collection of state- As a teacher, Alom wants to convey ments to explain “Why is science to his students “that science is some- important?” thing worth doing for reasons beyond the need to pass exams”. On his webpage, there are videos, blogs and a documentary film in which he visits scientists at their workplaces and asks them “why is science important?”. Viewers can watch Alom talk to scientists in places such as Antarctica or JET, the biggest fusion reactor in the world. (Note that the video clips can take a while to load; switching off the high-definition version can help.

www.scienceinschool.org Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 sis_13_2_RZ:Layout 1 16.11.2009 11:43 Uhr Seite 74

Molecules of Murder: Criminal Molecules and Classic Cases

By John Emsley Reviewed by Tim Harrison, University of Bristol, UK

Molecules of Murder: Criminal atropine, heroin (diamorphine), Molecules and Classic Cases is a highly adrenaline (epinephrine), chloroform readable book that is a must-read for (trichloromethane), carbon monoxide, those interested in crime or popular cyanide, Paraquat and polonium-210. science. It follows on from author Key scientific terms found in the 20- John Emsley’s earlier book: Elements page glossary are highlighted in bold of Murder: Criminal Molecules and in the main text; the glossary offers Classic Cases. further information on the chemistry The book is divided into several involved – particularly useful for sections: a preface which contains a those whose science knowledge is brief history of the milestones in the very limited. This includes some for- analysis of poisons, two main sections mulae and imperial/metric conver- covering ten poisons, a glossary sion tables. For those who wish to explaining some of the technical develop their knowledge, suggestions terms used in the book, and finally, for further reading on general and further reading suggestions. The main specific poisons are also provided. body of the book consists of ten chap- This very well written book should ters covering five naturally occurring find its way into most school libraries, chemicals, and five poisons made by as it will appeal to those – young and humans. All ten poisons have been old – who are fascinated either by the used in famous murders. The final chemistry involved, or by the history part of Chapter 10 also includes of several murder cases. details of other poisons used to assas- sinate prominent people through the Details ages. Publisher: Royal Society of Chemistry Each chapter in the main sections Publication year: 2008 begins by covering the chemistry of ISBN: 9780854049653 the poison, its discovery, its use in medicine, its effects on the human body and why it is poisonous. The last part of each chapter details the part that the molecule played in one or more infamous murders in the UK or the USA, how the murderer operat- ed and (sometimes) how they were eventually caught. The substances discussed are ricin, hyoscine,

Science in School Issue 13 : Autumn 2009 www.scienceinschool.org How many schools Autumn 2009 Issue 13 and teachers do you reach –

In this issue: worldwide? Alan Leshner: at the interface of science and society

The CoRoT satellite: the search for Earth-like planets

Published by EIROforum:

Initially supported by ISSN: 1818-0353 the European Union: Subscribe free online: www.scienceinschool.org Highlighting the best in science teaching and research