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CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk Provided by LSE Theses Online The London School of Economics and Political Science Anglo-American Relations in Saudi Arabia, 1941-1945: A Study of a Trying Relationship Matthew Fallon Hinds A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, July 2012. Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of approximately 92,500 words. 2 Abstract This thesis offers a fresh interpretation of Anglo-American relations in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia during the period 1941 to 1945. Historians of Anglo-American relations have characterized the bilateral relationship as one of rivalry and polarization. While examples of underlying national competition can be identified wherever the wartime alliance operated, whether on the battlefield or at the conference table, the commonalities which united the allies should, however, be given equal weight. My thesis departs from the traditional historiographical perspective, arguing that when closely examined, the allies were very aware of the strategic reciprocal benefits that would emanate from integrating their policies in Saudi Arabia. First and foremost, Britain and the United States’ relations in Saudi Arabia were shaped by the fact that the two countries were allies working side by side in the global struggle that was the Second World War. In this wartime context, the strategic influence of Saudi Arabia has tended to be overlooked. The Kingdom’s influence resided in its geographic location, its religious centrality within Islam, and most importantly, its rare political status as a sovereign Arab state. These attributes served as a unifying force for British and American wartime interests, encouraging the two allies to strive for an Anglo-American partnership in Saudi Arabia that was built on the concept of strategic interdependence. While collaboration between Britain and the United States ebbed and flowed, it is a testament to their continued pursuit of cooperation that the activities of the wartime alliance in Saudi Arabia between 1941 and 1945 were envisaged by policymakers as a template for achieving greater Anglo-American accord throughout the Middle East during and beyond the Second World War. 3 Acknowledgements First and foremost, I would like to thank the person who inspired me to study Anglo-American relations, my supervisor, Professor Nigel Ashton. His insight, assistance and encouragement throughout this project have been truly invaluable. From the International History Department of the LSE, I would also like to thank my temporary supervisor, Dr. Steven Casey, Dr. Antony Best and Dr. Joanna Lewis. Our discussions over the years have offered me a wealth of intellectual stimulation. In addition, I must thank the Department of International History and the LSE for the generous grants they have given so that I could pursue my research. Looking back at my time as a visiting research fellow I would like to thank Dr. Hope Harrison and Professor Jussi Hanhimäki for making my stay at George Washington University and the Graduate Institute respectively such an enjoyable experience. Finally, my deep gratitude goes to my family and friends, who have provided me with so much love and support, especially during the most trying times related to the completion of this PhD. While it is unfortunate that I cannot name them all here, some people stand out in particular and deserve special mention. I would first like to acknowledge my grandmother, Theresa Fallon, a great influence in my life who passed away during the time I was writing my thesis. Kevin, thank you for letting me stay with you on my many trips to London, especially during those early days at Seymour Street. To my parents Adrienne and Michael Hinds, there are really no words available for me to fully express my love and gratitude to the both of you. And lastly, enough can’t be said to my fiancée Tanja. Meeting her at the LSE has undoubtedly been my greatest success story. Thank you for the love and inspiration. 4 Table of Contents List of Abbreviations Introduction 8 Chapter One: Setting the Stage: Anglo-American and Ibn Saud prior to 1941 34 Chapter Two: Anglo-American Relations in Saudi Arabia 1941 54 Chapter Three: Anglo-American Relations in Saudi Arabia: Wartime Strategy 1942 80 Chapter Four: Anglo-American Relations and Ibn Saud outside of Saudi Arabia 1943 102 Chapter Five: Anglo-American Relations inside Saudi Arabia, 1943 to 1944 119 Chapter Six: Anglo-American Relations in Saudi Arabia, 1944-1945: The Limits and Advantages of Cooperation 149 Chapter Seven: Anglo-American Relations in Saudi Arabia, 1945: the Post-war World 177 Conclusion 196 Bibliography 207 5 Abbreviations AIR Air Ministry AAA American Agricultural Mission AACFC American Air Corps Ferry Command ABC American British Staff Conference AAWPG Anglo-American War Planning Group AIOC Anglo-Iranian Oil Company ARAMCO Arabian American Oil Company AUML Arkansas University Mullins Library BPC Bahrain Petroleum Company BDFA British Documents on Foreign Affairs BL British Library BOAC British Overseas Airways Corporation CAB War Cabinet Records CW Cable & Wireless Limited CASOC California - Arabian Standard Oil Company CO Colonial Office CCS Combined Chiefs of Staff CIPP Committee on International Petroleum Policy EOC Enemy Oil Committee FO Foreign Office FRUS Foreign Relations of the United States FDRPL Franklin Delano Roosevelt Presidential Library HAN Hansards HMG His Majesty’s Government JCS Joint Chiefs of Staff IPAA Independent Petroleum Association of America ICS Indian Civil Service IOR Indian Office Records 6 IPC Iraqi Petroleum Company LL Lauinger Library LC Library of Congress MESC Middle East Supply Centre NARA National Archives and Records Administration NEA Division of Near Eastern Affairs OSS Office of Strategic Services PAN-AM Pan American Airlines PAW Petroleum Administration of War PRC Petroleum Reserves Corporation PREM Prime Minister Office Records PRO Public Records Office RG Record Group SAMEC St. Antony’s Middle East Centre SA Saudi Arabia SAMS Saudi Arabian Mining Syndicate SWNCC State, War, Navy Coordinating Committee SML Seeley Mudd Library SOE Special Operations Executive TVA Tennessee Valley Authority TAPLINE Trans-Arabian Pipeline TWA Trans World Airlines UK United Kingdom US United States USAFIME United States of America Forces in the Middle East WO War Office 7 Introduction Anglo-American Relations in Saudi Arabia 1941-1945: A Study of a Trying Relationship With “the stake [having] become world domination”, Britain and the United States were before all else allies fighting against a common enemy in the Second World War.1 Bound by a kindred history, Anglo-Saxon culture and comparable liberal institutions of government, the two nations shared complementary national and security interests. Given the fundamentally cooperative nature of the bilateral relationship, it is paradoxical that out of all the motifs selected by historians, it is depictions of national rivalry and competition that tend to dominate scholarly interpretations of the “Special Relationship”. This dichotomy is apparent when viewing the Anglo-American experience in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia between the years of 1941 and 1945. In Saudi Arabia, as in so many other parts of the world, efforts to strengthen the Allied position vis-a-vis the Axis powers had led the United States and Britain to be - in the words of Winston Churchill - “mixed-up together”.2 Although distant from the famous battlefields of the Pacific and Europe, Saudi Arabia throughout the Second World War was considered to be strategically important, making it a priority for the allies to be on friendly terms with the country’s charismatic king, Ibn Abdul Aziz Ibn Saud. His Kingdom’s significance owed to its geographical location, centrality within Islam, and its regional political influence. The latter was firmly rooted in Saudi Arabia’s sovereign status, which constituted a political rarity in the Arab world. However, Saudi Arabia at the start of the war found itself in a perilous economic state, as wartime conditions had crippled the Kingdom’s main source of income, funds accrued from the annual Hajj. Unless the wartime alliance acted to address this problem, the stability of the Kingdom as well as the strategic interests of the allies that were tied to it would be in jeopardy. Britain and the United States had independently maintained their own bilateral relations with Saudi Arabia that were markedly different in emphasis and scale. London’s relationship 1 Henri Michel, The Second World War (Britain: Andre Deutsch, 1975) p. 842. 2 David Reynolds, The Creation of the Anglo-American Alliance 1937-1941: A Study in Competitive Cooperation (London: Europa, 1981) p. 169. 8 with the Kingdom had from