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Representations of Gender in Advertising: an Examination of Support for Jean Kilbourne's Hypotheses in Advertisements of Maga

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Representations of Gender in Advertising: an Examination of Support for Jean Kilbourne's Hypotheses in Advertisements of Maga REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER IN ADVERTISING: AN EXAMINATION OF SUPPORT FOR JEAN KILBOURNE’S HYPOTHESES IN ADVERTISEMENTS OF MAGAZINES TARGETING MAINSTREAM VERSUS LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL, AND TRANSGENDER AUDIENCES SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE TEXAS WOMAN’S UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES BY KIMBERLY BOYD-BOWMAN, M.S. DENTON, TEXAS AUGUST 2017 DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my great-grandmother Muriel ‘Meiko’ Orr- Ewing, who dared to be queer long before the relative safety I have experienced in my own lifetime. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author would like to thank her long-suffering wife, Kealoha Solatorio, who patiently dealt with stacks of articles and magazines clogging up our living room for far too long. Additionally, thanks are due to our cats for their silent but loving support in the form of cuddles and much needed distraction. My mother’s constant encouragement has also been vital in the completion of this document. The author would also like to thank Dr. Linda Rubin for agreeing to chair this research and for providing helpful guidance in the development of the finished product. Similarly, the author appreciates the diligent efforts of the rest of her dissertation committee for their involvement in the project. Finally, the author would like to thank the multitude of her peers, co-workers, and supervisors who have provided moral support and encouragement throughout the process. While a full list of everyone to whom I owe thanks would be exhaustive, special thanks are due to Dr. Kyle Erwin, Robin Nevins, Jennifer Robinson, Kerry McClain, Dr. Sara Lapacka, Dr. Erick Gonzalez, Dr. Katherine Donaldson, and Kimberly Lawson. iv ABSTRACT KIMBERLY BOYD-BOWMAN REPRESENTATIONS OF GENDER IN ADVERTISING: AN EXAMINATION OF SUPPORT FOR JEAN KILBOURNE’S HYPOTHESES IN ADVERTISEMENTS OF MAGAZINES TARGETING MAINSTREAM VERSUS LESBIAN, GAY, BISEXUAL, AND TRANSGENDER AUDIENCES AUGUST 2017 The purpose of this study is to compare gender representations in magazine advertisements targeting lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) audiences and in magazine advertisements targeting mainstream audiences utilizing the hypotheses proposed by Jean Kilbourne in the Killing Us Softly video series. Kilbourne has put forth various hypotheses about gender representation in print advertising based on a collection of advertisements she has accumulated. Previous work by Conley and Ramsey found limited support for Kilbourne’s hypotheses. LGBT individuals are exposed to mainstream gender norms but also appear to hold some gender norms that are different from the mainstream community. The present study posits that the degree of support for Kilbourne’s hypotheses will be different in magazine advertisements targeting LGBT versus mainstream audiences. Images from magazines targeting both LGBT and mainstream audiences were coded for the presence or absence of Kilbourne’s hypotheses. It was believed that there would be more support for Kilbourne’s hypotheses in mainstream magazines than in LGBT-targeted magazines, in magazines targeting specific v genders than in lifestyle or general interest magazines, and in lifestyle magazines than in general interest magazines. Additionally, it was believed that certain of Kilbourne’s hypotheses would also apply more to representations of men in LGBT-targeted magazines compared to mainstream magazines. These hypotheses were tested using chi square analyses. Results and discussion of data collected are provided. Although most of Kilbourne’s hypotheses were not supported for any magazine genre, support was found for female models being more likely to be posed passively, less likely to be portrayed as active, and more likely than male models to be visibly photoshopped. Further, the only difference between LGBT-targeted and mainstream advertisements was a higher likelihood for female models in mainstream advertisements to be photoshopped. Female models in gender-targeted magazine advertisements were more likely to be posed in passive positions and to be visibly photoshopped than female models in non-gender- targeted magazine advertisements. Implications of the findings of the present study for theory, research, practice, and training are discussed. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. iv ABSTRACT .........................................................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xiii Chapter I. INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................1 Statement of Problem ................................................................................................1 Rationale for Study ...................................................................................................4 Statement of Purpose ................................................................................................6 II. LITERATURE REVIEW ..............................................................................................8 Gender Norms .........................................................................................................8 Representations of Attractiveness Over Time. ................................................14 Evolutionary psychology and gender norms..............................................15 Current attractiveness standards. ...............................................................20 Themes in Gender Norms. ...............................................................................21 Body image themes ....................................................................................22 Sexualization themes. ................................................................................24 Appropriate social roles .............................................................................25 Normative heterosexuality .........................................................................26 Gender as binary ........................................................................................26 Normative Whiteness .................................................................................27 Effect of Gender Norms. ..................................................................................28 Self-objectification in girls and women. ....................................................29 Negative body image in girls and women..................................................31 Decreased self-esteem in girls and women. ...............................................32 Increased eating disorders among girls and women. .................................33 Violence against women. ...........................................................................35 Differential treatment of women ................................................................36 vii Gender Norms in the Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Community. 39 Similarities between LGBT and non-LGBT gender norms. ......................40 Differences between LGBT and non-LGBT gender norms. ......................42 Summary of Gender Norms. ............................................................................45 Influence of Media .................................................................................................46 General Influence .............................................................................................46 Means by Which Gender Norms Are Conveyed. ............................................49 Media Exposure. ..............................................................................................53 Youth exposure ..........................................................................................54 LGBT exposure ..........................................................................................55 Print Advertising Versus Other Forms of Media. ............................................56 Gender representations in other media ......................................................56 Effects of representations of gender in other media ..................................58 Rationale for print media focus..................................................................61 Summary of Influence of Media ......................................................................62 Gender Differences in Print Advertising ...............................................................63 Gender-Related Themes in Print Advertising. .................................................65 Body image themes. ...................................................................................65 Sexualization themes. ................................................................................67 Power themes. ............................................................................................69 Reinforcement of traditional gender roles. ................................................71 General Impact of Print Advertising. ...............................................................72 Consequences for male viewers. ................................................................72
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