J.P.H.S., Vol. LXVII, No. 3 25
KALHORA PERIOD ARCHITECTURE IN SINDH
SYED SHAKIR ALI SHAHA PROF DR QASID HUSSAIN MALLAHB ADirector, Conservation, Mohenjo Daro Culture, Tourism & Antiquities, Department Sindh, Pakistan e-mail: shakir ali
The architecture of Kalhora period has since long attracted the interest of scholars resulting in the publications of quite a few works focusing on the development of architecture in this period and its continuity in the region. When the Kalhoras were emerging on the political horizon of Sindh, the Mughuls were bowing out of the most of parts of the Subcontinent. But the practice in the architecture and decorative art were more or less same in Mughul and Kalhora periods. However, Kalhora period buildings are mostly devoid of the evidence which is normally available in various degrees of the buildings of other periods of Sindh. Here efforts have been made to indicate that various phases of the development of architecture during the time of Kalhoras contributed in other related fields of life. Beside history of Kalhora rule, the architecture of mosques and tombs in its different stages of development has also been discussed, while the new architectural aspects introduced by Kalhoras and other patterns that had already gained popularity in Indian architecture are also included. It is hoped that that students of architecture and archaeology will benefit from the information and knowledge on the local architecture of Sindh.The research relates to a neglected field of enquiry as most of the famous works on the architecture of South Asia overlook the regional trends in the field. This paper is an attempt to fill the vacuum about the local architectural knowledge.
Key Words: Mughul Architecture, Sindh Culture, Kalhora Architecture
Introduction
The Kalhoras who claim to be descendent of Hazrat Abbas, uncle 26 Kalhora Period Architecture ...
of the Holy Prophet (œ), had migrated from Arabia to Makran with the army sent by the second righteous Caliph1 and later moved in Sindh in 12th century A.D. during the reign of Nasiruddin Qubacha2. But the author of Kalhora Dour-e-Hakoomat refutes it and argues that Kalhoras originally belong to Sindh and their centre was at Bakhar3. Historians believed that Mian Odhano was the first person in the family who reached Makran from Arabia. He left behind many children and grandchildren. The name of Thal, fifth in generation from Mian Odhano, is prominent in the genealogy of the Kalhoras who established their centre near Sehwan. After the death of Thal his son Bahal or Bhala succeeded him. His son, named Channey Khan, gained some popularity and moved from Kaher Belo and settled in Khambat pargana and lived with Odheja tribe4 and also died there.The tomb of Channey Khan is in Khuhra village north of Khambat/Gambat town in Khairpur, which is famous because of the tomb of Mian Channey Faqir5. Mian Channey had twelve wives and eighteen sons. He founded the city of Jhangara Bajara in west of Sehwan around 1220 A.D6. Majority of writers maintain that Kalhora dynasty seized political power under the leadership of Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro. However, the author of Kalhora Dour-i-Hukoomat is of the opinion that Mian Naseer Muhammad Kalhoro, was the first ruler of the dynasty, during last quarter of the 17th century. He became ruler of some parts of Sindh with the consent of Mughul Emperor Aurangzeb7. Mian Naseer Muhammad died in 1692 A.D. Then Mian Din Muhammad occupied the seat, who died in 1700 A.D. Mian Naseer Muhammad and Din Muhammad both are buried in Garhi, west of the Khairpur Nathan Shah town. Later Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro succeeded Din Muhammad Kalhoro and was also appointed Governor of Sibi and nearby areas by Mughul Emperor Aurangzeb. MianYar Muhammad founded his capital in Khudabad in present day Dadu district and died in 1718 A.D. He was succeeded by his son Mian Noor Muhammad Kalhoro who died in 1753 A.D. who in turn was succeeded by his son Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro, who proved to be most capable ruler of Kalhora dynasty. He founded Hyderabad in 1768 A.D, and built a fort in the city and died after fourteen years rule in 1772 A.D. He is known in the history as the last strongest representative of Kalhora dynasty. After his death, his successors lost the political strength; however, they continued to rule till 1783 A.D. The rule of Kalhora dynasty had a short span, but its achievements included political stability in the region and its contributions towards public welfare8. According to H.T. Sorley there are five stages of Kalhora rule: J.P.H.S., Vol. LXVII, No. 3 27
· First stage was acceptance by the Mughul Emperor of members of the Kalhora tribe as viceroy or governors of Sindh, a period which began in 1701 A.D. · Second, the extension and consideration of local power of Kalhora Governor, Delhi had by 1736 A.D. recognized them as semi- independent rulers of the country. · Third, after the invasion of Nadir Shah in 1739, the transfer of political sovereignty over Sindh from the Mughul Empire to the Persian Kingdom resulted in the Kalhora becoming subordinate to the Persian monarch and liable to pay tribute to him. · Fourth, around 1747 the transfer of sovereignty from the Persian King to the Pathan kingdom at Kabul, following the military success of Ahmed Shah Durrani, the founder of modern Afghanistan. Through this change the Kalhoras became feudatories of Kabul and had to pay tribute to Afghanistan. · Fifth the struggle between Kalhoras and Talpurs began in 1778 A.D. and lasted at the end of 17th century A.D. It was a period of civil war in which the Talpurs with the help of Baloch people settled in Sindh were able to destroy the diminishing power of the Kalhora ruling family9.
The power struggle between Kalhora and Talpur dynasties led to political instability in the country, and following the murder of a prominent Talpur; the situation became worse for Mian Sarfraz Khan Kalhoro. There was complete anarchy and disorder in the country. A reign of terror was let loose upon the Talpurs resultantly a tribal chief, Mir Fateh Ali Khan, could not tolerate all this and finally removed Muhammad Sarfraz Khan after his three year rule.10 Later Mehmood Khan son of Mian Ghulam Shah, and brother of Sarfraz Khan Kalhoro, was removed who ruled only for ten months. Subsequently Mian Ghulam Nabi, brother of Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro, assumed the power in 1776 A.D. and was killed in the same year. After the death of Mian Ghulam Nabi, Mian Abdul Nabi Kalhoro took over as ruler of Sindh and ruled the country up to 1780 A.D. The killing of Mir Bijar Khan in 1780 further increased the difficulties of Mian Abdul Nabi Kalhoro who escaped to Qalat to take refuge and sent his family to Jodhpur. Taking advantage of the chaotic situation, Talpurs selected Abdullah Khan son of Bijar Khan their tribal chief and nominated Mian Sadiq Ali as ruler of Sindh in 1780 A.D. who ruled up to 1781 A.D. The last ruler of Kalhora dynasty Mian Abdul Nabi once again grabbed power in 1781 A.D. and ruled with ups and 28 Kalhora Period Architecture ...
downs up to 1783 A.D. Finally the Kalhora lost their power when they were defeated in a battle near Halani. Talpurs took over the government and Mir Fateh Ali Khan became the ruler of Sindh11. The Talpurs continued with the already prevailing style of the architecture in Sindh. The mausoleums of Talpurs were much influenced by Kalhora funerary architecture, which owes its origin to pre-Mughul architectural traditions12. The Kalhoras reigned for less than a hundred years but their architectural remains depict a degree of elegance not observed otherwise in Sindh13. The Kalhora rulers were great patrons of art and craft. After the decline of Thatta many artisans moved and settled in newly established capital city of Khudabad where they were commissioned by Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro (1700-1719) and Mian Noor Muhammad Kalhoro (1719-1753) to construct tombs. The sole purpose was to promote the architectural art of Sindh14.
Architecture
Architecture is a form of art, which vividly portrays the life pattern of a particular society at a given time. Tracing the history of Islamic architecture; it is said that the advent of Islam blessed Sindh with a new form of architecture which was basically characterized by simplicity. Islamic architecture developed under the influence of religion and the building conceived as a mosque undoubtedly was the forerunner of all forms and manifestations of Islamic architecture. The mosque occupied a pivotal position in Islam. To facilitate and accommodate the people,the mosques were initially designed with a prayer hall as well as a Mihrab to indicate the direction of the Ka‘bah. Originally there was no mihrab in Masjid-e-Nabavi; the Qiblah was marked by a large stone block. With the development of mosque architecture, more structural elements (including Minaret) were added to the overall pattern. The first Minaret was provided in the mosque of Basra15. Religious architecture was introduced in South Asian Subcontinent in the 8th century by the Arabs who had already established their rule in Syria, Egypt, North Africa, Spain and Iran. The rich tradition of architectural form in those lands was fused with basic Islamic requirements resulting in the present aesthetic form.16 The new form of architecture in the shape of mosques, tombs, shrines and temples in different sizes can be seen all over Sindh especially in north western districts of Sindh. The funerary buildings received inspiration from mosque architecture, so far as some of their architectural components were concerned. Later J.P.H.S., Vol. LXVII, No. 3 29 tombs built for the nobles also became characteristics of Islamic architecture. It is not possible to determine as to when first funerary building was constructed. There is, however, consensus among the scholars that the tomb of Abbasid Khalifa Al Muntasir who died in 862 A.D. is the earliest example of square structure having a dome chamber17. It is also not clear when the tombs over a Muslim grave began to be constructed. Generally people construct the mausoleum over the graves in order to perpetuate the memory of their ancestors. In Sindh, saints are revered and held in the high esteem, and, their tombs and shrines, are places of pilgrimage for millions of people of all castes and creeds. Islam came to Sindh with the Arab conquest in 8th centaury A.D. The buildings representing the funerary architecture of the early Islamic period do not exist anymore. On the basis of time to time field research by different institutions, the funerary architecture can be divided into (a) Exposed or naked brick architecture, which is considered to be the earliest architecture in the region (b) Mughul architecture (c) Regional style i.e. Sammas, Tarkhans, Kalhoras and Talpurs. The naked bricks or exposed bricks monuments which were constructed in exposed bricks style are found in different parts of Sindh and Balochistan which is rare example of earliest architecture in the region. The exterior surfaces of such monuments are embellished with cut brick ornamentation in endless varieties of pattern and design; the Ghaznavids first introduced this style of architecture. This type of ornamentation owes its origin to Central Asia18. The architectural heritage of any country or region cannot totally divest itself from its indigenous tradition. Beside the style of architecture is greatly influenced by local climatic conditions and the nature of locally available building material. However, the external influences do contribute to the shaping of an architectural style. Arghun, Tarkhan, and Mughul rules led to the fusion of cultural traits between Sindh, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan. This intercourse resulted in many innovations in architectural style. The technique of dome construction was improved through the use of squinches, pendentives and inters laced arches. The uses of load-bearing devices, especially the arches, were also introduced. It is fact that almost all the Muslim ruling dynasties had their roots in Central Asia and its adjoining region brought new architectural traits based on accurate principles of construction19. Architecture is general term to describe buildings and other physical structures; it is the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing the buildings. The historical dynasties are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements. The Kalhoras in Sindh 30 Kalhora Period Architecture ...
contributed to it in their own magnificent way when in the eighteenth century they established their sovereignty in the region. Despite many crises throughout the Kalhora rule, they proved themselves to be great art lovers. They were also great patrons of knowledge and art. They erected many buildings throughout their domain, which mostly comprised mosques, tombs and forts etc.20 Majority of the tombs of Kalhora period are square in plan but octagonal mausoleua are also built in small numbers while the tomb of Main Naseer Muhammad Kalhora is in the shape of a pillared canopy. R.Nath, the author of several publications on architecture, is of the opinion that square tombs were mostly built for nobles and the octagonal type was conventionally reserved for royal personage21 and during field work very few monuments of such type were documented during exploration. One of the main features of the tombs, built during the Kalhora period, is the provision of mosque with each of them22. The funerary buildings erected by ruling class or different tribes during Kalhora period, show that the façade of tombs has been constructed in such a way to give an impression as if the building has got more than one story. This has been done by dividing each side of the wall in three ornamental stories. Each side of the entrance contains double blind arches, one upon the other. This device of creating ornamental multi-storied impression of the facade through blind arches was first used in 1311 A.D. at Alai Darwaza Dehli23. Ghulam Muhammad Lakho, the author of Kalhora Dour-e- Hukoomat, is of the opinion that during Kalhora rule buildings were constructed in small numbers and their quality was not as good as during Samma & Tarkhan periods which could be due to domination of Iran, Afghan and Mughals, leaving Sindh under financial stress24. While the compiler of Art & Architecture of Sindh maintains that Kalhoras were great builders during their reign (1680 – 1783). A large number of tombs and mosques were erected. Not only the rulers but their ministers, nobles and commanders also erected funerary and religious monuments in the region25. It is clear from the new documentation of monuments conducted by different institutes and individuals that in a short span of less than hundred years, the buildings were erected all over Sindh on large scale by ruling class as well as by different tribes. They were perfected with amalgamation of some new architectural elements and there was increase in use of burnt bricks and kashi tile in place of stone material. The Kalhoras have left their imprints in the form of tombs, mosques, and forts. The architecture of these monuments has got its own style and peculiarity. The unique combination of indigenous as well as foreign architectural techniques has resulted in the emergence of new style of J.P.H.S., Vol. LXVII, No. 3 31 architecture, which can be termed as Sindhi Islamic architecture. The standing monuments of the proposed area indicate this fact and impressive mosques, tombs monumental building structures are a living testimony to the patronization and indulgence of their sponsors. These monuments were constructed by the persons who were either high officials or they had an important position in the society26. The style and pattern of architecture of Kalhora period have a visible link with the past. All the monuments are mainly built in burnt bricks and decorated with kashi work or glazed tile mosaic. During the later period, the Kalhoras seem to have abandoned the use of this medium of decoration and relied instead on plain plastering of the walls with the lime or Chiroli27.
Prominent features of Kalhora period Architecture
Architecture is an art of organizing the space by means of some erection on scientific principles to cope with certain purposes. It has always served as a substantial material left for posterity. In Pakistan the architectural evidence of the people of Mehargarh in Balochistan is so far the earliest known in South Asia to evaluate and appreciate their cultural calibers. The two local dynasties i.e. Soomras and Sammas, both probably being the original inhabitants of Sindh, had inherited slightly different architectural experience from the past. Arghoon and Mughul governors had some taste attributable to influences from Central Asia and Iran and their buildings indicate it. About half way between them and the end of British rule in the Subcontinent enter the Kalhoras. Scholars are of the opinion that Kalhoras’ contribution in Sindh architecture, save numerosity, was a mere repetition of previous traditions. The bricks of the period were produced in a variety of shapes from rectangular to geometrical and their use presents a work of exceptional perfection. Because the quality and quantity of the monuments of various categories erected throughout the length and breadth of Sindh, the Kalhoras have been called by some scholars the Mughuls of Sindh. They are not only seen accommodating the old, but introducing or popularizing the elements either alien to Sindh architecture or at least infrequent before their rule. Some of these features are reckoned as follows.
Enclosure walls
Fortress around the tomb of ruling class except Mian Adam Shah Kalhoro tomb, the tombs of Kalhora zamindars or the rulers have enclosure 32 Kalhora Period Architecture ...
wall which is quite unusual and unique of its kind in Sindh. Such architectural element can be seen outside the tomb of Mian Noor Muhammad Kalhoro in Benazirabad district and newly documented tomb of Ibrahim Shah in Naushero Feroz district (the records are silent about history of the saint) (see fig 1 & 2).
Fig 1: Enclosure wall around Mian Noor Muhammad Kalhora.
Fig 2: Ibrahim Shah tomb.
Lantern
This feature in Sindh introduced by Kalhora rulers, the distinctive architectural element of the tomb is an ornamental lantern which surmounts the dome. The special feature of the Kalhora architecture, beside ruler’s J.P.H.S., Vol. LXVII, No. 3 33 tombs can also be seen on some tombs of prominent persons of Kalhora court28. The distinctive feature can be visited on Shah Bharo tomb (Commander of Kalhora army) in Larkana district (see fig 3).
Fig 3: Lantern crowned at Shah Bharo tomb in Larkana.
Gallery at Squinch Level
Gallery at squinch level built on the thickness of the walls. The feature was introduced at Thatta and that type was opened from outside. But in Kalhora ruler tombs the upper galleries made in the tombs built over the thickness of the walls of the chamber and are closed from outside. Such type of architectural arrangement can be seen on Essa Khan Tarkhan tomb Thatta and at the tomb of Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhora, Hyderabad (see fig 4 & 5 ).
Fig 4: Fig 5: Open gallery at Essa Khan Tarkhan. Gallery at Ghulam Shah tomb.
Small Corner Spires
The corners of the building pertaining to pre-Kalhora period mostly 34 Kalhora Period Architecture ...
had architectural ornamentation. They are usually devoid of parapets, what to say corner spires. The Kalhoras are the first who have adopted the spires for adorning the corners of tombs and mosques, and also making it common constructional feature. Similar type of architectural decoration can be found at Mubarak Shah Syed tomb 1443 A.D. in Delhi and Qutub Shahi tomb in Hyderabad (see fig 6 & 7).
Fig 6: Fig 7: Qutub Shahi tomb in Hyderabad, India Mubarak Shah Syed tomb Dehli.
Corner Kiosks
A step further Kalhoras introduced corner Kiosks, the attractive architectural element for the first time in Sindh. The feature had already gained popularity in some of Indian temples.It first appeared, in proper way, at the tomb of Mubarak Shah Syed in 1443 A.D. Kalhoras produced this element in their monuments first time in Sindh. Similar kind of architectural ornamentation is present at Mian Noor Muhammad Kalhoro tomb near Moro and Chotey Khan ka Gumbad in Kotla Mubarakpur Delhi, (see fig 8 & 9).
Fig 8: Corner Kiosk at Mian Noor Fig 9: Muhammad tomb. Chotay Khan ka Gumbad Delhi. J.P.H.S., Vol. LXVII, No. 3 35
Monumental Gate
It is actually quite an old architectural element and in Sindh. It first appeared in Makli and has its own significance. But once produced in Kalhora period monuments are fairly impressive, because of their elevated situation. The feature of monumental gate crowned with a dome was inspired by Kalhora period buildings to builders. The Kalhoras popularized this architectural feature in Sindh although it was first introduced by Mughuls. This feature also continued to appear during the Talpur and British period29. Similar kind of architectural arrangement is found at Mihrab Ji Masjid in Halani town of Naushero Feroz district (see fig 10).
Fig 10: Monumental gate at Mehrab Khan mosque in Halani.
Painted Decoration
The art of decorating the buildings was already known everywhere. Buildings constructed in Sindh before Kalhoras were adorned with either architectural element by Kashi tiles or moldings in plaster or stone carvings. But Kalhoras in their architecture, nearly all over Sindh, seems to be producing different geometrical, floral, botanical, scenic and even human depiction representation. The wall paintings were the distinctive feature of Kalhora period which mainly depicts folktales, scenes of rustic or social life, battle scenes etc. Wall paintings of Kalhora period have survived in many tombs and their style can be termed as Sindhian School. These paintings are believed to have been developed in the Samma period and reached their climax during the reign of Kalhoras in the eighteenth century30. The similar type of painted decoration can be seen inside the Chaker Khuawar tomb Larkana and at Abra tomb in Nawabshah district (see fig 11 & 12). 36 Kalhora Period Architecture ...
Fig 11: Fig 12: Painting in Chaker Khuawar Painting in Abra tomb tomb. Nawabshah.
Use of Marble
Tomb stones and cenotaph built with beautifully carved stone slabs are seen erected over the grave of rulers, governors, saints and scholars in Sindh. But before the Kalhoras coming into power, the use of marble for the purpose was a rarity. Kalhoras, however, used the marble stone in graves, cenotaphs, chhattris and chronograms31. Similar material used in architectural arrangements on grave of Mir Sohrab Khan Talpur, at Qadir Bux Ja Qubba in Kandhra town of Sukkur district (see fig 13).
Fig 13: Marble stone cenotaph at Mir Sohrab Khan Talpur grave.
Cusped Arches
The element perhaps with inception from the period of Sher Shah Suri or may be earlier from late imperial or Dehli style, but in Sindh it was popularized during Kalhoras period and such type of architectural J.P.H.S., Vol. LXVII, No. 3 37 ornamentation can be seen in Mehrab Ji Masjid in Naushero Feroz district. (see fig 14).
Fig 14: Multi cusped arch in Mehrab ji Masjid, Halani.
Merloned Parapet
The feature was not uncommon in the Subcontinent before Kalhoras but in Sindh, even in pre-Kalhora period monuments, it rarely appeared having battlemented parapet. Almost all Kalhora period monuments have embattled parapet for additional beauty to the building32. Similar kind of architectural decoration can be seen on parapet wall of Mian Noor Muhammad Kalhora tomb near Moro town and at the tomb of saint SahkiAllahyar son of Makhdoom Muhammad Kabeer, whose tomb is situated in Kotri Kabeer village of NausheroFeroz district33. (see fig 15 & 16).
Fig 15: Fig 16: Merlons at Mehrab Ji Masjid Merlons at Sakhi Allahyar tomb. 38 Kalhora Period Architecture ...
Notes and References
1. Nadeem, I.H (2017), edited by Zulfiqar Ali Kalhoro, Studies in Kalhora History, Economy & Architecture, Sindh books Karachi, p. 36. 2. Lundkhwar, Ali Muhammad (2017), edited by Kalhoro Zulfiqar Ali, Studies in Kalhora History, Economy & Architecture, Sindh books Karachi, p. 44. 3. Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad (2004), Kalhora Dour-e-Hukoomat, Anjuman-e- Ittahad Abbassia, Pakistan, Karachi, p. 420. 4. Qani‘, Ali Sher (1959), translated Akhtar Rizvi, Taufatul-Kiram, Sindhi Adabi Board Karachi, p. 317. 5. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali edited (2017), Studies in Kalhora History, Economy & Architecture, Sindh books Karachi , p. 13. 6. Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad (2004), p. 78. 7. Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad (2004), p. 99. 8. Hassan, Khursheed Shaikh (2011), The Islamic Architectural Heritage of Pakistan, Royal book company Karachi, p. 139. 9. Sorley, H.T. (1968), The Gazetteer of West Pakistan, (Including Khairpur State) Government of West Pakistan, p. 339. 10. Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad (2004), p. 165. 11. Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad (2004), P. 188. 12. Hassan, Khursheed Shaikh (2011), p. 156. 13. Sabazwari, Kamila (2003), The Perishing Havelis of Sindh, Feroz sons (Pvt) Ltd, Lahore, p. 4. 14. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali (2014), Art and Architecture of Sindh, Endowment Fund Trust, Karachi, p. 110. 15. Hassan, Khursheed Shaikh (2011), p. 15. & Shah Shakir Ali (2016), p. 22. 16. Nadeem, I.H. (1998), Historic Mosque of Lahore, Sang-e-Meel Publications Lahore, p. 11. 17. Hassan, Khursheed Shaikh (2011), p. 28. 18. Hassan, Khursheed Shaikh (2011), p. 30. 19. Hassan,Khursheed Shaikh (2011), p. 140. 20. Nadeem, I.H (2017), p. 37. 21. Hassan, Khursheed Shaikh (2011), p. 144. 22. Nadeem, I.H. (2017), p. 37. 23. Hassan, Khursheed Shaikh (2011), p. 15. 24. Lakho, Ghulam Muhammad (2004), p. 408. 25. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali (2014), p. xi. 26. Lashari, Kaleem ullah (2001), Study of Mural Ceramics of Sukkur, Sukkur historical society, Pakistan, p. 33. & Shah Shakir Ali (2016), The Lost Glory of Sukkur, Culture, Tourism & Antiquities department,, Government of Sindh, Karachi, p. 24. 27. Nadeem, I.H (2017), p. 38. 28. Zulfiqar, Ali (2017), p. 14. 29. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali (2014), p. 266. 30. Kalhoro, Zulfiqar Ali (2014), p. 111. & Shah Shakir Ali (2016) p. 27. 31. Bukhari, Shah Hakim Ali. Kalhora period Architecture, A descriptive study, Archives Department Sindh (2006), p. 47. 32. Bukhari, Shah Hakim Ali (2006), p. 48. 33. Baluch, Gul Sher (edited), Kotri Kabeerjo Mukhtasir Tarikhi Jaizzo, Gulshan