Lashon Hakodesh

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgments 15 Introduction 21 Chapter 1: The Language of Adam 25 Chapter 2: The Tower of Babel 41 Chapter 3: Abraham the Hebrew 58 Chapter 4: The Jews in Egypt 86 Chapter 5: Replacing Lashon HaKodesh 102 Chapter 6: The Language Wars 131 Chapter 7: Foreign Influences on Lashon HaKodesh 156 Chapter 8: Development of Aramaic 175 Appendices: Appendix A: The Scripts of Lashon HaKodesh 187 Appendix B: Egyptian Names in the Bible 208 Appendix C: Prayers in Aramaic 220 Appendix D: Maharal on Aramaic and Lashon HaKodesh 234 Postscript 242 Biographical Index 245 Additions and Corrections 292 About The Author 323 CHAPTER 1: The Language of Adam

ur study of the history of Lashon HaKodesh begins with the history of the world itself. The Mishnah teaches that God created the world with ten utterances.2 The Midrash adds that they were spoken in Lashon HaKodesh.3 On the sixth day of Creation, God brought humankind into existence.O Man’s first words recorded in the Torah were also in Lashon HaKodesh, for upon the creation of Eve, Adam declared: “[She is] bone from my bones, flesh from my flesh. This shall woman) because this was taken from ish ,אשה) be called isha man).”4 ,איש) LASHON HAKODESH AS THE LANGUAGE OF CREATION By this declaration, Adam named his mate “woman.” Only in Lashon HaKodesh is the word for “woman” related to the word for “man”; for in

2 Avos 5:1. 3 Bereishis Rabbah §18:4, §31:8. 4 Genesis 2:23. 26 LASHON HAKODESH: HISTORY, HOLINESS, & HEBREW

-essen—(אשה) and “woman” is isha (איש) Lashon HaKodesh, “man” is ish tially the same word with one extra letter appended to it.5 The Midrash points out that in no other ancient language is the word for “woman” related to the word for “man.” For example, in Greek, the word for “woman” is gini (γυναίκα), while the word for “man” is anthro (άνθρωπος); and in ”while the word for “man ,(אתתא) Aramaic, the word for “woman” is itssa 6.(גברא) is gavra

THE TORAH WAS WRITTEN IN LASHON HAKODESH From this, the Midrash deduces that the Torah was originally written in Lashon HaKodesh. In other words, the current Lashon HaKodesh text of the Torah that we read regularly is the original, not merely a translation from some other language.7 Given that the Torah is the

marks the אּשה of ש Ibn Ezra and Radak (to Genesis 2:23) point out that the dot inside the 5 They explain that it is .אישה should be spelled אּשה because technically ,י absence of the letter -her husband”). Accord“) אישּה in order to avoid confusion with the word י spelled without a ing to their explanation, the relationship between the Lashon HaKodesh words for “man” and “woman” is etymological. that the Hebrew word for (אנש .Interestingly, Radak writes elsewhere (Sefer HaShorashim s.v marks the ש and the dot inside the ,איש as opposed to אנש woman” is related to the root“ According to this explanation (which is preferred by academia), the .נ absence of the letter relationship between “man” and “woman” in Lashon HaKodesh is simply phonetic, rather than etymological. See D. Curwin, “ish and isha,” Balashon: Hebrew Language Detective (October 17, 2008) [http://www.balashon.com/2008/10/ish-and-isha.html]. 6 Abarbanel (to Genesis 2:23) adds that in the “Roman language” (i.e., Latin), male is masculus and female is foemineus. See Eitz Yosef (Bereishis Rabbah §18:4) who notes that the Midrash only felt the need to show that the words for “man” and “woman” are not related in Greek and Aramaic, because those are the most ancient and well-respected of languages. Therefore, the Midrash only sought to disprove the notion that the Torah was originally written in one of those languages and was then translated into Lashon HaKodesh. This answers the obvious question that in English, the words “woman” and “female” seem related to the words “man” and “male.” However, since English is clearly a more recent language, one would not seriously think that the Torah was originally written in it. Furthermore, according to linguistics scholars, the word “woman” is not etymologically related to the word “man;” it evolved from the Middle English word wifmone (related to the Modern English word “wife”). The same is true of the English word “female,” which evolved from femelle and is not related to the word “male.” See “woman, n.,” Oxford English Dictionary Online 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, June 2011), and “female, n. and adj.,” Oxford English Dictionary Online 3rd ed. (Oxford University Press, March 2012). 7 The Midrash (Bereishis Rabbah §31:8) also proves this point from the fact that Moses was commanded to “make a snake” (Numbers 21:8), and, without explaining why, the Bible states that The Language of Ada 27 blueprint of the world,8 the fact that the Torah was written in Lashon HaKodesh supports the Midrash’s earlier claim that the world was created through Lashon HaKodesh.

ADAM SPOKE LASHON HAKODESH This Midrash also implies that Adam himself spoke Lashon HaKodesh, for the starting point of the Midrash’s claims is the name that Adam gave his wife.9 Nonetheless, as we shall soon see, this idea is not univer- sally accepted.

HOW DID ADAM KNOW LASHON HAKODESH? Indeed, Rabbi Yitzchak ben Moshe HaLevi Duran (1350–1415), also known as Efodi after his magnum opus, writes that God ingrained Lashon HaKodesh in Adam, making it an innate component of his na- ture.10 Rabbi Yitzchak Abarbanel (1437–1508) elaborates on this idea11 and explains that God did not teach the language itself to Adam. Rather, He imbued Adam with the intellectual ability to deduce the words of

he “made a copper snake” (Numbers 21:9). The Midrash notes that in several other instances God commanded people to make objects, and each time He told them which material to use, yet God did not tell Moses to make the snake out of copper. If so, then how did Moses know what to do? The Midrash explains that Moses reasoned that the snake should be created out of a material that is similar to snakes, so he decided to make the snake out of copper, because -in Lashon HaKodesh is very similar to the word for “cop ,(נחש) the word for “snake,” nachash The Midrash deduces from this that the Torah was originally written in .(נחשת) per,” nechoshes Lashon HaKodesh, because in no other language is the word for “snake” related to the word for “copper.” (Interestingly, in English there is a connection between snakes and copper because of the “copperhead” snake.) 8 Before something is built, a blueprint is designed to record every detail of the future edifice, and then the blueprint is used to direct its construction. So too, the Torah contained the design of the entire creation. When God created the universe, He followed the plan recorded in the Torah. This is what the Zohar (Exodus 161a) means when it writes that God looked into the Torah and created the world. Similarly, Bereishis Rabbah §1:1 states in regard to the creation of the world that the Torah was the tool of God’s craft. Thus, the physical universe is a manifesta- tion of the Torah. Incidentally, this also explains why the Torah is so complex: it parallels the universe’s complexity. 9 In fact, Maharzu (Bereishis Rabbah §18:4) interprets this Midrashic passage’s ultimate goal as proving that Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh (as opposed to proving that the world was created through Lashon HaKodesh). 10 Ma’aseh Efod (Vienna, 1865), pgs. 27, 29–31. 11 In his commentary to Genesis 2:19–20. 28 LASHON HAKODESH: HISTORY, HOLINESS, & HEBREW

Lashon HaKodesh through his own capacities. This intellectual poten- tial, coupled with the fact that God spoke to Adam in Lashon HaKodesh, allowed Adam to instinctively develop fluency in it. Only after God in- stilled in Adam this ability to develop Lashon HaKodesh on his own was he deemed worthy of naming the animals.12 This is because, as shall be explained later, only the words of Lashon HaKodesh intrinsically reflect their meaning. Therefore, Adam had to know the language in order to give the most fitting names to the various entities.

ADAM SPOKE ARAMAIC Although the sources above assume that Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh, the Talmud clearly states that Adam’s spoken language was actually Aramaic,13 as if to reject the notion that he spoke Lashon HaKodesh. The Talmud proves this from a verse in Psalms ascribed to to me are Your thoughts, God.”14 (יקר ,Adam: “How honorable (yakar In this verse, the Aramaic word for “honorable,” yakar, is used instead If Adam used an Aramaic word, it 15.(כבוד) of the Hebrew word kavod means that he spoke Aramaic. The Talmud’s statement contradicts the aforementioned Midrash. Furthermore, it begs the question: If Lashon HaKodesh was the language with which God created the world, then why did Adam—the pinnacle of creation—not speak Lashon HaKodesh? While there are no conclusive answers to this question, several answers have been proposed, each of which bears mention.

THE KUZARI’S BRIEF HISTORY OF LASHON HAKODESH In his epic work Te Kuzari, Rabbi Yehuda HaLevi (1075–1141) records a debate over the significance of Lashon HaKodesh. The Kuzari king

12 See Genesis ibid. 13 TB Sanhedrin 38b. 14 Psalms 139:17. 15 See Maharsha to TB Bava Basra 75b who explains the Talmud’s assertion thusly. Rabbi Ben- also (יקר) Zion Meir Chai Uziel (in his glosses to TB Megillah 9a) points out that the word yakar exists in Lashon HaKodesh, where it means “precious,” see A. Buxbaum (ed.), Kovetz Moriah, vol. 337–338 (Jerusalem: Machon Yerushalayim, 2008), pg. 95. The Language of Ada 29 asks the Jewish scholar how Lashon HaKodesh can justifiably be held in higher esteem than Arabic, given that Arabic contains a richer and fuller vocabulary. To this, the Jewish scholar counters that Arabic is actually a corruption of Lashon HaKodesh, whose history he then proceeds to outline. Throughout this work, we will revisit many of the ideas mentioned in this important passage. He writes: It [Lashon HaKodesh] is the most important of all languages, as evident both from tradition and through logic. According to tradition, God spoke to Adam and Eve in this language, and Adam and Eve themselves spoke this language. This is evident from the roots of their names: Adam is derived Eve from ,(אדמה) from the Hebrew word for ground, adamah I acquired), Seth ,קניתי) meaning life), Kayin from kanissi ,חי) chai ,ינחמיני) provide), and Noah from yenachameini ,שת) from shas He will comfort me).16 According to the testimony of the Torah, Lashon HaKodesh was passed down to Eber from Noah and from Adam. Since it was the language spoken by Eber, who preserved it after the division of languages, it is called “Hebrew.” Even Abraham spoke Aramaic, the local language in his homeland Ur Kasdim, because Aramaic was indeed the language of the Chaldeans there. Nonetheless, Abraham believed Lashon HaKodesh to be a special and holy language, while Aramaic was merely a mundane language. Ishmael brought Lashon HaKodesh to Arabia. These three languages, Aramaic, Hebrew, and Arabic, use similar nouns and rules of grammar, but Hebrew is the most esteemed of them. The value of Hebrew is also logically evident from the fact that those who employ the language find that it is amply sufficient for what they need in terms of poetry, prophecies, and songs. One never finds that their leaders, Moses, Joshua, David, and Solomon lacked a poetic expression due to the parity of the language, even

16 See Appendix B “Egyptian Names in the Bible,” for a discussion regarding whether or not prop- er nouns can prove Te Kuzari’s assertion. 30 LASHON HAKODESH: HISTORY, HOLINESS, & HEBREW

though nowadays much of the language has been lost from us. One never finds that the stories and descriptions in the Torah needed to borrow foreign words. One never finds that the Torah needs to borrow foreign words for the names of people, birds, and stones.17 In this passage, Te Kuzari explains that Abraham spoke Aramaic in his day- to-day communication, and reserved Lashon HaKodesh for sacred purposes.18

ANSWER #1: ADAM ONLY USED LASHON HAKODESH FOR SPIRITUAL MATTERS Rabbi Reuven Margolis (1889–1971)19 and Rabbi Uri Langner (1896– 1971)20 independently suggested extending Te Kuzari’s explanation of Abraham’s linguistic practices to Adam, by explaining that while Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh, he did so only when speaking of spiritual matters. For mundane matters, he spoke Aramaic. This is why the Talmud mentions Adam’s spoken language as Aramaic, even though he also spoke Lashon HaKodesh.21

ANSWER #2: ADAM SPOKE SEVENTY LANGUAGES There is another way in which the Talmud’s assertion that Adam spoke Aramaic can be reconciled with the Midrashic understanding that he spoke Lashon HaKodesh.

17 Te Kuzari, Ma’amar 2, §67–68. 18 Rabbi Yaakov Emden, in his work Migdal Oz (Beis Middos, Aliyas HaLashon), questions the Ku- zari’s assertion that Abraham did not use Lashon HaKodesh for mundane purposes, because according to Jewish law one is technically allowed to use Lashon HaKodesh for mundane purposes, even in a bathroom (see Magen Avraham, Orach Chaim §85:2). In light of this, Rabbi Em- den asks why Abraham did not use it for mundane matters. Rabbi Emden concludes that while such mundane usage of Lashon HaKodesh is technically allowed post facto, one should ideally nonetheless attempt to refrain from such usage. Indeed, Rambam (in his commentary to the Mishnah, Avos 1:16) writes that it is fitting to use Lashon HaKodesh only for exalted purposes. Interestingly, Rabbi Yehuda HaChasid relates (Sefer Chassidim §994) that a certain elderly indi- vidual attributed his longevity to the fact that he refrained from speaking Lashon HaKodesh in the bathroom and bathhouse. 19 Margolios HaYam to TB Sanhedrin 38b, §16 and HaMikra V’HaMesorah (Jerusalem: Mossad HaRav Kook, 1989), pg. 30. 20 M. Amsel (ed.), “Lashon HaKodesh and Ivrit,” Kovetz Hamaor vol. 81 (Brooklyn, 1958), pg. 6. 21 It seems that this differentiation can only apply after Adam had sinned by eating from the Tree of Knowledge, because before his sin, the mundane and the holy were one and the same; see the commentary of Rabbi Ovadiah ben Yaakov Sforno (1475–1550) to Genesis 2:25. The Language of Ada 31

In this view, there is actually no contradiction: The Talmud was simply saying that his preferred or most commonly used language was Aramaic, but he was fluent in other languages as well.22 In fact, several Midrashic sources imply that Adam spoke seventy languages.23 For example, this idea is tangentially alluded to in a Midrashic elucidation of a conversation between Moses and God. When God commanded Moses to demand that Pharaoh release the enslaved Jews, Moses responded, “I am not a man of words.”24 The Midrash explains that Moses told God that all the men in Pharaoh’s court spoke seventy languages, yet he (Moses) did not know all of those languages. To this, God responded, “Just as Adam did not learn the seventy languages from anyone, yet he was still able to name each creature in all seventy languages,25 so too, you, Moses, will be fluent in all seventy languages and will be able to con- verse properly with Pharaoh and the men of his court.” God’s response to Moses is built on the notion that Adam spoke all seventy languages.26 (We will discuss this Midrash again in Chapter 4.) Based on this, it is reasonable to explain that while Adam was in fact fluent in all languages, his preferences changed based on his circumstanc- es. At one time, he preferred to speak Lashon HaKodesh; and at another time, Aramaic. When Adam gave names to his surroundings, it was of the utmost importance for him to give those names in Lashon HaKodesh; the

22 Rabbi Yosef Chaim of Baghdad (Ben Yehoyada to TB Sanhedrin 38b) writes that while Adam spoke seventy languages, the Talmud specifically pointed out that he spoke Aramaic. He explains that the Talmud did so because one might otherwise think that he only spoke Lashon HaKodesh, the language in which the Bible records him speaking. 23 The concept of seventy languages and seventy nations is found throughout rabbinic litera- ture in varying contexts. The languages correspond to the seventy families whose genealogy is traced in Genesis 10. Interestingly, the number “seventy” also has a place among the amount of languages in linguistic surveys. One such source writes that there are seventy Semitic languages, as well as seventy Cushitic languages. See Edward Lipiński, Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar (Leuven, Belgium: Peeters Publishers & Catholic University of Leu- ven Department of Oriental Studies, 1997), pgs. 29, 41. 24 Exodus 4:10. 25 Genesis 2:20 says that Adam named the creations using the phrase, “Adam called them names,” with the word “names” in plural, as if to imply that each creature was called by multiple names. Each name was in a different language. 26 S. Buber (ed.), Old Midrash Tanchuma on Deuteronomy (Vilna, 1885) pg. 2a–b, and Midrash Sechel Tov (to Exodus 4:11). 32 LASHON HAKODESH: HISTORY, HOLINESS, & HEBREW world was created in that language, and giving names was the completion of the creation process. Perhaps at other times he gave preferential treat- ment to Aramaic.27 This approach neatly complements the theory presented above that Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh only for holy purposes and reserved Aramaic (and other languages) for other purposes. However, most com- mentators do not follow this approach and instead understand that Adam spoke either Lashon HaKodesh or Aramaic, but not both together, and remain silent about whether or not Adam spoke seventy languages.

How does Sarah dying in Kiryat Arba prove that Adam spoke Aramaic? The Midrash says (Midrash Pliyah §166) that the verse “Sarah died in Kiryat Arba” (Genesis 23:2) shows that Adam spoke Aramaic. The commen- taries explain (Niv Sfasaim to Midrash Pliyah §166) that “Kiryat Arba” is an Aramaic name, and since the town was called by an Aramaic name, one deduces that Adam spoke Aramaic. However, this explanation is insufficient, because it fails to explain how one sees that Adam spoke Aramaic from the fact that a town’s name is Aramaic. Rabbi Aharon Lewin of Reische (1879–1941) proves (in Birkas Aharon to TB Brachos, Ma’amar §89 and HaDrash V’HaIyun, vol. 1, Ma’amar §24:2) from Rabbinic sources that Aramaic is a language especially fitting for one in mourning (e.g., see below Chapter 8 “Development of Aramaic,” that Aramaic is the best language for composing elegies). Therefore, he explains that Adam spoke Aramaic after he was exiled from the Garden of Eden, because he spent the rest of his life mourning the effects of his sin. Based on this understanding, the late Rabbi Shalom Weiss (in Kesones Tashbetz to Midrash Pliyah there) explains that Abraham eulogized Sarah in Aramaic because that is the language of mourning. Thus, Adam spoke Aramaic for the same reason that Abraham referred to Sarah’s burial place (i.e., Kiryat Arba) in Aramaic while eulogizing her. Accordingly, we can explain that even though in general Adam spoke seventy languages, after he sinned and was exiled he chose to speak Aramaic to reflect his sorrow over the ramifications of his sin.

27 See Appendix D “Maharal on Aramaic and Lashon HaKodesh” for an explanation as to why Adam would favor Aramaic over any other language. The Language of Ada 33

ANSWER #3: ADAM SPOKE LASHON HAKODESH BEFORE HE SINNED AND ARAMAIC AFTERWARDS Rabbi Yehonassan Eyebschitz (1690–1764) offers several possible explanations to resolve the ambiguity regarding Adam’s language habits. In one instance, he explains that before Adam sinned by eating from the Tree of Knowledge, he spoke Lashon HaKodesh, but afterwards, he spoke Aramaic.28 Rabbi Eyebschitz explains that by defying God’s order not to eat from the Tree of Knowledge, Adam slighted His all-encompassing dominion, thus affronting His Oneness. The word for “one” in Lashon HaKodesh In other .(חד) but in Aramaic the word for “one” is chad ,(אחד) is echad -at its be (א) words, in Lashon HaKodesh, “one” is spelled with an aleph ginning, while in Aramaic, the aleph is omitted. Aleph is the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet and, as such, has a numerical value of one and represents the concept of “one.” Therefore, explains Rabbi Eyebschitz, before Adam slighted the Oneness of God he spoke Lashon HaKodesh, the language that symbolizes God’s uniqueness (by virtue of the fact that its word for “one” starts with an aleph). However, after dishonoring His Oneness, Adam was punished by being demoted to speaking only Aramaic, which does not symbolize God’s Oneness.29 In another context, Rabbi Eyebschitz offers an additional layer of explanation as to why Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh before sinning and Aramaic afterwards. He assumes that Aramaic is a mixture of Lashon HaKodesh and other languages. When Adam sinned by eating from the Tree of Knowledge, he introduced evil into the world. This evil intermingled with the good that had originally dominated the world. The result of this amalgamation is the current world condition in which good and bad are mixed together so ho- mogeneously that it is difficult to discern one from the other. Before eating

28 Tiferes Yehonassan to Genesis 11:1. 29 Interestingly, although in Lashon HaKodesh the word for “one” has an aleph while in Aramaic it does not, the Aramaic counterparts of many other Hebrew words are the same as (or very similar to) the Hebrew words, with the addition of an aleph as their ultimate or penultimate letter. This strengthens the assertion that the fact that the Aramaic word for “one” lacks an aleph ,(חדא) is not coincidental. Note that the feminine form of the word for “one” in Aramaic, chada has an aleph at the end. 34 LASHON HAKODESH: HISTORY, HOLINESS, & HEBREW from the Tree of Knowledge, Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh, the purest and most elegant of languages—the linguistic epitome of good. However, after his sin, God punished him accordingly by limiting his speech to Aramaic—a crossbreed of Lashon HaKodesh (good) and foreign languages (bad). This punishment is quite apropos to his sin, because his sin exposed the world to the hazy mixture of good and bad.

ANSWER #4: ADAM ONLY SPOKE LASHON HAKODESH IN THE LAND OF ISRAEL In the same discussion, Rabbi Eyebschitz mentions another possible way of resolving which language Adam spoke. He writes that Lashon HaKodesh is the regional language of the Land of Israel,30 which is the geographic epitome of good.31 Since Adam did not dwell in the Land of Israel, he was unable to speak Lashon HaKodesh.32 Rabbi Eyebschitz does not elaborate on whether or not according to this explanation Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh before he sinned. It is also unclear whether this explanation connecting Lashon HaKodesh to the Land of Israel is separate from the explanation above linking it to good and Aramaic to bad.

THE LINK BETWEEN THE LAND OF ISRAEL AND LASHON HAKODESH The connection between Lashon HaKodesh and the Land of Israel aris- es in many contexts. For example, this connection sheds light on Rabbi Heschel of Krakow’s (1596–1663) otherwise enigmatic interpretation destroyed my father (ארמי) of a biblical verse. The Torah states: “Arami and he descended to Egypt.”33 Rabbi Heschel assumes that in this context

30 Perhaps the Garden of Eden, Adam’s home before his sin, is also a geographical embodiment of good, like the Land of Israel. According to this, Adam spoke Lashon HaKodesh until he sinned, at which point he was expelled from Eden. On the other hand, one could argue to the contrary that Adam did not speak Lashon HaKodesh even while he lived in Eden since it is not in the Land of Israel and Lashon HaKodesh is specifically tied to the Land of Israel. This point remains unclear. 31 For example, Numbers 14:7 says that the land is “very very good”; see also Deuteronomy 8:7, 8:10, 11:17, which describe it as “good”. 32 Ya’aros Devash, vol. 1, Drush 1 (elucidation of the blessing Refa’enu). 33 Deuteronomy 26:5.