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Nolan2020.Pdf (1.365Mb) This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Language and Identity amongst Irish Migrants in London, Philadelphia and San Francisco, 1850-1920 Bobbie Nolan Doctor of Philosophy University of Edinburgh 2019 I declare that this thesis has been composed solely by myself and that it has not been submitted, in whole or in part, in any previous application for a degree. Except where stated otherwise by reference or acknowledgment, the work presented is entirely my own. __________________________________________ Bobbie Nolan Abstract This thesis examines the Irish language in London, Philadelphia and San Francisco in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Exploring the ways in which Irish speakers used and maintained their language in the diaspora between the years 1850 and 1920, this thesis argues that the language transformed from being a component of a private, personal identity to a public expression of an Irish diasporic identity. While the imperial context of London and the republican contexts of Philadelphia and San Francisco presented specific circumstances and opportunities for the use and maintenance of the Irish language, the sociolinguistic situation in Ireland directly impacted the language’s development overseas. The focus of this thesis is on the continued use of the Irish language as a vernacular in the period 1850-1880 and the structures which allowed this, however, this thesis also examines the impact of the Gaelic Revival movement on the language and its role in Irish cultural identity. It explores the ways in which different urban environments affected the survival of the language, as well as the genesis, development and outcomes of the revival. Using comparison, this thesis locates the Irish language in three cities which have previously been overlooked in the history of the Irish language abroad and identifies the transnational links between Ireland, London, Philadelphia and San Francisco. Examining these Irish communities over a seventy-year period and incorporating both the pre-revival and revival periods allows for the exploration of this minority language over time, addressing the changing role of the language within each city. i Lay Summary Little is known about the full extent of the Irish language’s presence within Irish communities abroad in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, even though it is estimated that 20 per cent of the approximately 6,000,000 emigrants from Ireland in the post-Famine period consisted of Irish speakers. This thesis therefore investigates Irish speakers in London, Philadelphia and San Francisco between the years 1850 and 1920 and the ways in which they used and maintained their language following their emigration from Ireland. These three cities were selected for comparison owing to the different environments present in each; London remained within the British Empire while Philadelphia and San Francisco were both in the republican United States though were very different cities. Each of these cities was home to a large Irish-born population after the year 1850 and provided varying opportunities for migrants which directly impacted the continuation of Irish speaking. In addition, the condition and status of the language in Ireland itself during this period is of note. At the beginning of the nineteenth century 2.5 million people spoke Irish in Ireland, dropping to approximately 1.5 million in 1851, and just over 680,000 in 1891; the reasons for this transition were central to the language’s development overseas. This thesis begins by presenting these factors in relation to Ireland before identifying and analysing them in each of London, Philadelphia and San Francisco. The focus is on the continued use of Irish as a spoken language in these three cities in the period 1850-1880 and the structures which facilitated this, highlighting regional variations as well as similarities. By comparing these cities, this thesis uncovers the Irish language ii in three places which have previously been overlooked in the history of the language abroad and identifies the connections between Ireland, London, Philadelphia and San Francisco. This thesis also explores the impact of the Gaelic Revival, a movement which saw a renewed interest in the language and its role in the creation of an Irish national identity, and concludes with an investigation of this movement’s origins and development between the years 1880 and 1920 and the changes in attitudes and practice which it heralded. The examination of these Irish communities over a period of 70 years allows for a better understanding of the development of this minority language over time and addresses the changing role of the language within each city. This thesis concludes that the period 1850-1920 witnessed the transformation of the Irish language from being part of a private, personal identity to being a public articulation of an Irish cultural and political identity. iii Acknowledgements Thank you to my supervisors Enda Delaney and Wilson McLeod who have been nothing but encouraging and supportive throughout the five years it has taken to plan, research and write this thesis. Enda and Wilson have helped me to adapt to the many changes and challenges, academic and otherwise, that appeared during my research and have been helpful and flexible supervisors throughout. I appreciate their insights and guidance and have learned a huge amount. I have really enjoyed doing an interdisciplinary project and working with them both. The Modern Irish History Research Group at the University of Edinburgh has helped to shape this thesis through discussion and feedback and has provided a supportive academic community that has made this process considerably more enjoyable, as has the wider PhD community in the School of History, Classics and Archaeology. A special thanks goes to Sophie Cooper for her friendship since the beginning and for her valuable advice, during fun and difficult times alike. Undertaking this thesis has depended upon the support of sponsors. Thank you to the Scottish Graduate School for Arts and Humanities for funding my university fees and contributing significantly to research costs, to the School of History, Classics and Archaeology for generously supporting my studies with a stipend and contributions towards research and conference expenses, and to the British Association for Irish Studies who supported a research trip to San Francisco through a generous award and for their support of postgraduate students. iv Along with these funders I am grateful to the archivists and librarians who have helped me along the way; particularly Jonny Dillon and the National Folklore Collection team in University College Dublin, Shawn Weldon at the Catholic Historical Research Centre of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia, and Patrick Dunagan in the Gleeson Library, University of San Francisco. To my friends in Ireland and Edinburgh: I’m extremely grateful for your continued friendship, even during my long silences and absences – in particular Andrew, Anne, Fiona, Fraser Thomas, Heather, Holly, and Katrina. A special thank you goes to Fraser Reed for your unconditional support and companionship over the last two years; I’ll forever be glad our paths crossed. Finally, thank you to my family. To my parents, Conor and Irene: even though we’re in different countries I have relied on your seemingly infinite encouragement, understanding, and support throughout the many ups and downs of this process. I’m very grateful and lucky to have you both. To my brother Hugo, thank you for your moral support but also for doing a PhD first and instilling some healthy sibling rivalry! I really couldn’t have done it without all of you. This thesis is dedicated to my grandparents – Jo, Kevin, Angela and Gerry. v Table of Contents Abstract ......................................................................................................................... i Lay Summary ............................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................ vii Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter One: Setting the Scene: Ireland, Emigration, and the Irish Language, 1850-1920 .................................................................................................................
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