CONTENTS
LITERARY STUDIES ...... 7
Cliveţ, N.: The Influence of the French “New Criticism” in the Romanian Literary Space...... 9 Tatu, O.: The Power of Words, the Power of Silence with Shakespeare ...... 15 Antonaru, C.: The Shakespearian Miracle...... 21 Bucur, R.: „The Philosophy of Composition” Revisited, or Why does Modern Poetry Begin in the USA?...... 25 Scraba, C.: The Poet and the City: Reflections on Urban Perceptions in Allen Ginsberg’s and Frank O’Hara’s Poetry ...... 29 Schwerin, C.: Speaking the Unspeakable – Manifestations of Silence in Gail Jones’ Sorry ...... 37 Kolos, L.: Who is Who on Shaw’s Islands? Reversals in “John Bull’s Other Island” .... 41 Câmpu, A.: History as a Marker of Otherness in Rohinton Mistry’s “A Fine Balance”...... 47 Hârşan, M.: Marguerite Duras: Out of Eden or the Betrayal of Indochina...... 55 Fǎtu-Tutoveanu, A.: L’opium dans le contexte de l’imaginaire colonial. Voyages dans l’Orient et intoxications opiacées...... 59 Ion, M.: Homo Exsilius or the Portrait of the Artist as a Wanderer ...... 65 Ştiucă-Lefcencu, D.: Humour and its Facets in Gerhard Hagers: “Amusement from the Supreme Court”...... 69 Vâlcea, C.: To (Mis)communicate in ‘Scorching Heat’ ...... 73 Hamzea, L.: The Language Labyrinth in Peter Ackroyd’s Fiction...... 79 Sibişan, A.: Julian Barnes against the Background of Contemporary Fiction...... 85 Petre, A.: Duiliu Zamfirescu’s short Stories ...... 89 Apostol, N. P.: The Struggle within the Self in Aldous Huxley’s „The Monocle” and A.E. Baconsky’s „The Stonecutter’s Run” ...... 93 Maican, M. A.: The Relationship Author-Reader and Subversive Narrative Strategies in the Romanian Prose Fiction of the 1960’s ...... 101 Witt, R.: Expatria(m)? ...... 109
LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS STUDIES...... 113 von Kopp, B.: Texts and the Art of Translation. The Contribution of Comparative Education...... 115 Frydrychová Klímová, B.: Modern Information Technologies in Teaching Foreign Languages...... 123 6 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Armăsar, I. P.: Speaking Difficulties in Teaching French to non-Philology Students...... 129 Buja, E.: The Influence of a Teacher’s non-Verbal Behaviour on Students’ Motivation...... 135 Cusen, G.; Buja, E.: The Role of Theory in Applied Linguistics Research: A Study of Vocabulary Learning Strategies ...... 143 Chiriacescu, S.: DOM in Romanian and the Referential Form-Mental Accessibility Interplay...... 149 Matei, M.: The Ethnography of Communication ...... 155 Junghare, I.: Syntactic Convergence: Marathi and Dravidian ...... 163 Sasu, L.: Terminology Dynamics – Conceptual Patterns of Term Formation ...... 171 Parpalea, M.: German Word Order ...... 175 Dimulescu, C.: A CA versus a CDA Approach to Cross-Gender Talk-in-Interaction ...... 183 Kiefer, F.: Event Structure and the Classification of Verbs...... 189 Barna, A.P.: The Synergy of Language in the University – Industry Relation...... 195 Măda, S.: Constructing and Maintaining Workplace Relationships through Talk...... 201 Chefneux, G.: Evaluation In Institutional Talk ...... 209 Alexe, R.: Reforming Spanish Bureaucratic Language...... 213
CULTURAL STUDIES ...... 217
Matei, S.A.; Dobrescu, C.: Cohesive Ambiguity as a Modern Response to Social Divergence ...... 219 Krysmanski, H.-J.: The Power of Money – The Money of Power...... 223 Matei, A. : Le discours intellectuel en Roumanie. Ce qui n’a pas changé depuis 1989 ...... 227 Pintér, M.: The Interconnections between the Growth of National Mass Movements and the Decline of the Native Language in 19th Century Ireland ...... 235 Cristian, R.M.: Gringolandia: Visual Metaphors and Frida ...... 243 Codreanu, F.: Dynamics of Blood in Frida Kahlo’s Creation ...... 249 Hortobágyi, I.: The Role of Identity in Intercultural Communication ...... 257 Isar, N.: Chorography – A Space for Choreographic Inscription ...... 263 Lohmann, I.: The 'Good Government' of the German Education System: Bertelsmann Foundation ...... 269 Kalmár, Z.: An Irregular History of Hunting ...... 275 Tomaščíková, S.: Narrative Theories and Narrative Discourse...... 281 Botescu-Sireteanu, I.: The Role of Difference in the Production of Identity. Feminist Theories and Gender Difference ...... 291 Felea, A.S.: The Inter-Human as a Source of Ideology ...... 299
Authors Index...... 303
LITERARY STUDIES
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE INFLUENCE OF THE FRENCH “NEW CRITICISM” IN THE ROMANIAN LITERARY SPACE
Nicoleta CLIVEŢ1
Abstract: The metamorphosis of the post-war Romanian literary criticism can be described starting from the critical model proposed between the World Wars by E. Lovinescu and the “Lovinescian” literary critics, together with the modelling suggestions that came from the French “New Criticism”/Nouveau Critique. What is, nevertheless, characteristic for the Romanian criticism, is the permanent struggle to defend the autonomy of the aesthetics (on the background of the commanding Marxism), and of the axiological judgment.
Key words: the autonomy of the aesthetics, axiological judgment, the criticism between the World Wars, the criticism after the World War II.
1. The First Signs of Normality consider the literature it analyzed in a close connection with the society that produced Throughout the “defrosting” or “the it: “the ideological path and the axiological small liberalization” between 1965-1971, judgement” (Mihăilescu 13) – these are the and also all along the “thesis of July”, the two imperatives of the criticism founded, Romanian literary criticism preserved a by high command, on a material-dialectical certain consistency, due, first of all, to our directive. And because it was obliged to perpetual and always actual need to work in a “superior, Marxist meaning”, or, maintain solidarity facing the menace of in other words, in a “creative Marxist the politics and the danger to contract new spirit” (Micu & Manolescu 22), the extra-literary viruses. The deficit in criticism took care to explain itself, in very theorizing about the concept of literary carefully and very interested, at any time criticism after the World War II, as well as it was called to account for its various the scarcity of polemics must be attributed escapades on the forbidden land of the to the official back-ground, the only one occidental critical methodologies admitted, the Marxism. Florin Mihăilescu (especially that of the Nouvelle Critique), explicitly declares, in his second volume, by attributing to the “Marxist spirit” the Conceptul de critică literară în România maximum of complexity, a spirit which (The concept of literary criticism in includes, latently, all the creative valences, Romania) that, despites the liberty the saturated with significances. By critical discourse was thought to be postulating, for practical reasons, the enjoying, it had to submit to a “superior, existence of these valences, the Marxism Marxist meaning” (Mihăilescu 62) and to became a conceptual umbrella of
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov.
10 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV maximum clearance, and could shelter, this cultural context. While the innovators of way, the most diverse exegetic practices. the French criticism reacted, immediately But because the Marxist spirit, even if after the War II, against the biographic- made ambiguous trough the multiplication documentary positivism and impres- of his “creative” meanings, was watching sionism, our critics form the generation of from the shadows, no one was truly the 60s, at the beginning of their literary interested, after the World War II, to career, were forced to react to an minutely define their own critical concept, aggressive sociological positivism like the at least not in the way it had happened one pertaining to the socialist realism and between the Wars. Statement of meaning to seek not a change of the critical cannon, are made, in a rather chaotic and but, in a much modest and also much expeditious manner, in introductions, realistic sense, a reestablishment of the afterwords, literary inquiries or interviews, autonomy of the aesthetics. The the critics showing preference for practise suggestions that came, based on the instead of theory. A consequence of this criticism between the Wars, from the deficit of theory and polemic confrontation Nouvelle Critique, were taken up on the of the various formulas is the description run, most of the times in a soft manner and of the criticism (and literature) after the from practical reasons, to sanitize the War II, by the criteria of generations. After literary space. The echo of the occidental 1960, and until after 1990, the generations discussions on the subject of the status of are not born any longer out of “inter and the literary criticism did not reflect directly intra-generation tension”, but out of “a in the interpretations made in the simple alliance against the ideology or the Romanian literary space; on the contrary, system” (Cistelecan 69). That is why, the the adhesion to one of them was made only true polemic which had divided the carefully, sometimes at the end of the literary and cultural scene and had made process of making the meaning ambiguous, all the main actors to take sides, was the so that the philosophy that supports them proto-synchronic criticism – a new attempt to be as little visible as possible. This is of the politics, under the shape of because the Nouvelle Critique didn’t only Ceausescu”s nationalism, to control the bring a new language, but also a new aesthetics, to derail it once again away conception about the human being, from its natural course. fundamentally different from the Marxist one. Directed, in a phenomenological and 2. The Critical Model between the existentialist fashion, towards the World Wars and the Suggestions of individual and concrete, the new critical the French “New Criticism” methods considered the text as the expression of a subject and not in the least The renewal of the critical discourse, as one of a “class”, set out to conquer “new starting with the second half of the ‘70s, is peaks of civilization and progress”. made by restoration of the critical models The come-back to the aesthetic between the World Wars (which, in fact, criticism is made, after 1965, by rapid, also offers the foundation for the come- enthusiastic recoveries, burning stages, back to normality), as well as by the hence the often precarious assimilation of interpretative methodologies of the French information. The renewal had impact “New Criticism” received, yet, in a proper rather on the critical style, and many had manner which could be explained first of discovered now the taste of stylistic, all by the autochthonous political and rhetorical and narratological approaches, Cliveţ, N.: The Influence of the French “New Criticism” in the Romanian Literary Space 11 an explainable fact after the years of critical vision of the literature was born, in subject matter delirium in criticism. The the French cultural space, as an anti- perspective did not change, but, in essence, classical, anti-rationalist and anti-positivist it remained profoundly obliged to reaction, numbering among its first aesthetics (especially to Călinescu’s representatives the ones grouped as “the perspective, in a first stage), on one hand School from Geneva” (M. Raymond, because of the constant interest manifested A. Béguin, then J. Rousset and towards creativity in criticism, and, on the J. Starobinski, G. Poulet and J.P. Richard), other hand, by preserving the interest for then their forerunners as M. Blanchot and axiology. Apart form the French New G. Bachelard. G. Picon was also included Criticism (asserted in a word where the in the new formula, despite the fact that his aesthetics encountered no threat), our opinions were substantially different. They criticism after the World War II was not at were all practitioners of a type of criticism all willing to dismiss the axiological called “interpretative”, focused on the judgement. The critical verdict was still potentialities and the infrastructure of the among its permanent preoccupations, so, text, to which some of them attributed the occidental counterparts” indifference existentialist connotations. The opposite towards axiology was always remedied by party, of the positivist universitarians, recourse to “the veritable model, the regards them highly at first, not tracing any obsessive model” (Negrici 260), that is – menace from their part until the pens start the model between the Wars: “to fight for a to sting. The conservatives (the antiques) cause that traced back to the period retort only to the moderns manifestations, between the two World Wars seemed to gathered around R. Barthes, who do not be, in the ‘70s, the most horse sense bring forth only new critical instruments, attitude possible”; that is why “the most but also question the critical object itself important competitors, endowed with (literature, literary, écriture), the condition permanent columns in newspapers, of the critical discourse as a discourse imagine themselves to be the scions of the about discourse, as meta-language. So, main lines of the pre-communist criticism, even from the beginning, the Nouvelle to be the ones chosen to embody the Critique wasn’t a unitary movement, but it unfinished destiny of a Călinescu (N. sheltered two branches: an older one, Manolescu), T. Vianu (Matei Călinescu), which still sees literature as a form of the E. Lovinescu (E. Simion). G. Ibrăileanu human (Poulet, Richard, Starobinski, (M. Ungheanu) or Titu Maiorescu (a Picon), and the second where literature is collective dream)” (Negrici 259). the absence of human, of the subject, which dissolves in language and yields to 3. Group Photo of the French “New structures that transcend it (Barthes, Criticism” Genette, Lacan). Beyond these differences, one can see, on the whole, a common Distinguishing himself even from the 50s project of the Nouvell Critique, which (so, much before the beginning of the starts with a change in focus, from the polemic between the universitarian author towards the literary work, Raymond Picard and the structuralist approached intrinsically as an autonomous Roland Barthes, in 1965, considered the universe, having a formal or sensible birth of the “New Criticism”), the new organizing unit. The “new critic” is 12 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV preoccupied to describe the literary work Proving no interest for the form and as accurately as possible, as “unity and recommending the phenomenological totality” (Doubrovsky 13), beyond all the suspension of the literary work from any existing ambiguities “at the level of context, G. Poulet understands literature as writing, écriture, and of the writer” the expression of a pre-existent spirituality (Doubrovsky 76). The conscience of the (but on the level of the conscience) and the multiple significances of a text is criticism – as an enthusiastic type of constantly doubled by the conviction that knowledge by the adherence, everything evolves towards a point where “identification” of the critical conscience they converge, that beyond “the significant with the conscience of the other. The critic, ambiguity, supra-determination, polyva- transformed into a receptacle, agrees with lence” there is “a final sense” of the the come-to-the-existence of the work literary work: “unity, totality, coherence: I inside his own inner self by means of a believe it is the common device of all the happy reading-coincidence. Because new critics, or, if you want, their common literature must be lived and appreciated postulate. The Nouvelle Critique is not «a only, axiological valorisation is explicitly critic of significations», as it was asserted, refused; the tendency to replace the inner but, on the contrary, a critic of the subjectivity of the work with the objective significance” (Doubrovsky 106-107). character it has as a language is not G. Picon, G. Poulet, J.P. Richard, accepted either by the author of Etudes sur J. Starobinski and R. Barthes are only a few le temps humain. In the Romanian of the “new critics” who acted in a visible literature, among the members of the modelling way on the debuts of the 60s, and generation of the 60s, there is no orthodox not only. Having an intellectual perspective admirer of relationships of literary erotic, about creation, G. Picon attributes to the but semi-Pouletian coincidences with the critical conscience the role of the moderator literary work and penetrating sympathies between the book and its reader; the aesthetic towards it can be seen at Lucian Raicu, experience implies the intelligence of the Eugen Simion or Ion Pop (most of the critic, who uses “his (essential and times they have a thematic approach). unavoidable) prejudices” about literature in For J. P. Richard, the literature begins order to make things clear about the value of with sensation, but it is realised through a literary work. The aesthetic judgement is language. Similarly, the thematic critic the essence of the criticism; hence, the lack starts with the explicit in order to discover of interest the critics generally show towards the implicit, trying to grasp the personal axiology finds no excuse with G. Picon. mark a writer lays on the image of the Allergic to the manner of dealing with world he describes, which can be identified literature as language, system of signs, and in his writings (not outside of it, in annoyed by an “over-spiritualized” approach, biography or in the unconscious, as the he does not accept – in L”écrivain et son psychological criticism does) and which ombre (1953) – the manifestation of the does not need an “objective” confrontation critical conscience otherwise than in and by with elements from outside. But the means of the literary work. These are ideas sensual dimension of a text is not the only which our Calinescian critics (especially one involved in analysis; because there is N. Manolescu) efficiently used in their profoundness in sensation as well, from the own theories. physical contact with the world are (also) Cliveţ, N.: The Influence of the French “New Criticism” in the Romanian Literary Space 13 born ideas, the thematic line being literary work, it means that there are interested in the impact of perception over serious impediments in the configuration the intellect. The adherence to the sensual of the criticism as meta-language. That is values of a text must be followed by a look why, in the second stage of his from the distance, but inside the text, by a conception, R. Barthes does not speak passage to a different level of the obsessive about literature as language, but as a thematic network. Understood from a system of signs to be studied by thematic perspective, the literary criticism. Thus, he goes from the criticism is indifferent to the contexts of criticism of significances to the the text, as well as to the question of the structuralist criticism (Doubrovsky 129), axiological judgement; applied which ignores the relationship of the text exclusively to chef d’œuvres, the with the world by dealing with it in a thematic approach solves the above technical, rationalist fashion, as with an mentioned question by the very choice of object. In this second stage, the criticism the analysed text. In the Romanian seems to be transforming itself into criticism after the War II, this formula poetics, rhetoric, etc. Both the stages of has had a considerable impact, because it this conception had found followers in was relatively close to the luxuriance and the Romanian criticism; “the validities” the picturesque of the Calinescian model. have been happily corroborated by the I. Negoitescu was the one who Calinescian critics with the hypothesis of experimented it extensively, inclusive in the “epic synthesis”, while the genuine his History of the Romanian literature. structuralism have been appreciated by Completely different inside the Eugen Negrici or Livius Ciocârlie. Nouvelle Critique, R. Barthes conception The plan of a comprehensive criticism ignores the subjective universe of the which could make peace between literary work and takes into account only subjectivity and objectivity, the its objective reality (as a system of signs) identification with the perspective view, and the literary work as a significant. the intuition of the “dominating There are, in fact, two ages of this surplombantă look” was planned by perspective: in the first one, the criticism Starobinski with care for the context of is understood as a secondary language, as the literary work (firstly in L”oeil vivant, a meta-language which works with then in La relation critique). A similar “validities” instead of “truths”; this ideal of critical comprehensiveness have doesn”t mean that anything can be had in our literature, Ovidiu Cotruş and asserted, but that it can be asserted Mircea Martin. anyhow, that is by the choice of the significant level (psychological, 4. Conclusion philosophical, linguistic etc.). Despite of the “airiness” of these “validities”, they While the critical model between the also let the idea of truth visible, because World Wars laid the foundations for the a certain approach of a literary text must Romanian criticism from after the War II, be allowed by the text itself, as a the suggestions that came from the French condition of the coherence of the future “New Criticism” (Nouvelle Critique) demonstration. And, if there is not brought their contribution to the dynamics possible to apply any perspective to a of the phenomena and the renewal of the 14 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV critical devices and diversified the 3. Micu, Dumitru and Nicolae approaches of the literary text. Manolescu. Literatura română de azi.1944-1964. Bucureşti: Editura References Tineretului, 1965. 4. Mihăilescu, Florin. Conceptul de 1. Cistelecan, Alexandru. Diacritice. critică literară în România. Vol.II. Bucureşti: Editura Curtea Veche, Bucureşti: Editura Minerva, 1979. 2007. 5. Negrici, Eugen. Iluziile literaturii 2. Doubrovsky, Serge. De ce noua critică? române. Bucureşti: Editura Cartea Bucureşti: Editura Univers, 1977. Românească, 2008.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE POWER OF WORDS, THE POWER OF SILENCE WITH SHAKESPEARE
Oana TATU1
Abstract: The following paper attempts at highlighting the paramount importance that each uttered or unuttered word had in Shakespeare’s works, the force with which words were endowed and the power they conferred to their user. Two attitudes are clearly marked as to the power of words as used by Shakespeare’s characters: on the one hand, there is the belief in the infinite ability of words to bring forth action, and on the other hand, the lack of trust in the capacity of words to achieve anything.
Key words: power, words, confidence, silence.
1. Introduction: Speech and Power and by speaking to draw the mind of the hearer to himself” (Agricola 408). In one of his works, called ”De Inventione Dialectica”, a fundamental treatise 2. Words as Means to an End concerning the teaching of rhetoric and logic in the 16-th century, Rudolph Agricola It is only natural for us now to wonder to makes several considerations on the what extent the Elizabethans, Shakespeare discourse scope as follows: ”...all speech... included, were confident that language is a has this for its end, that one person make means to a noble purpose. another the sharer of his mind” (407). In view of providing an accurate answer to In Agricola’s view, any successful the issue, we, nowadays’ readers and discourse requires three conditions, each listeners, should approach the Shakespearean corresponding to the scope of one of the text and achieve a re-appropriation of it by language arts: ”that the speaker be understood, altering our own perception of the text. We that the listener be eager to listen, and that should be able to find again the material what is said be rendered convincingly and perception of language which Shakespeare be accorded belief” (407). and his contemporaries certainly shared. As As communication act, Agricola Molly Mahood points out in “Shakespeare’s proceeds, the discourse is subject to Wordplay”:”...when Elizabethan rhetoricians different degrees of efficiency. A spoke of the power and force of words, their grammarian, for instance, will share a meaning may have been as much literal as series of ideas to his audience without metaphorical” (171). simultaneously disclosing his own views. This physical perception of language Only a master of all three arts of language clearly manifests itself with Shakespeare’s will fully communicate his vision, only characters. the one who ”teaches in such a way as to Let us consider the way in which desire to produce belief by his speech, Malcolm characterizes Macbeth: ”This
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Transilvania University of Braşov. 16 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV tyrant, whose sole name blisters our ancient topic. To support this assertion, tongues" (Macbeth, IV,3,12) >> „Tiranul here is, in Democrit’s own phrasing, the al cărui nume singur ţi-arde limba ..." idea that the word is a haven for the human (transl. I. Vinea, 1988), or the way in power: “The word is stronger than gold which Ulysses thinks that Nestor should when it comes to induce persuasion”. Or, act: ”Knit all the Greekish ears / To his in Gorgias’ view, the logos acts upon the experienc'd tongue" (Troilus şi Cressida, soul quite the same as medicine acts upon I,3,67-8) >> „Urechile greceşti să le- the body: “Some medicine cleanse the nnădească / De limba-i meşteră cu lanţul body of evil, others stop diseases or even vorbei..." (transl. L. Levitchi, 1987). life, and just the same words bring about It is not seldom that language becomes a misery or joy, they frighten or inflame the sexual organ, an instrument of breeding listeners, and some others, with bad words, just as it happens with the persuasion poison the soul”. protracted exchanges between Katerine Since language rather tends to leave and Petruchio or between Beatrice and room to imagination than to represent the Benedick. Northrop Frye, a well-known truth, it is amazing how the phantasms of researcher in the field, showed that this language can exercise their immense sexual union between partners promised power - be it beneficial in Edgar or evil in for the end of every play is integrated Iago. Thus, Shakespeare’s interest in the within the positive artistic experience, and art of language presupposes both a purely such a conviction underlies the belief in practical component, and a functional the revealing, unifying and harmony component, just like with ancient creating capacity of language [5, p. 58-73]. rhetoricians. Eventually, Shakespeare’s To illustrate these ideas, here are Portia’s purpose seems to be that of persuading us, words in The Merchant of Venice: his audience, of the humane materiality of thoughts and feelings in his plays. Indeed, ”It is almost morning, this is quite possible since words “stab” And yet I am sure you are not satisfied (Much Ado About Nothing, II,1,255), they Of these events at full. Let us go in, „bear fruit" (All’s Well when It Ends Well, And charge us there upon inter’ gatories I,2,55); words “charm” (Henry VI, B, And we will answer all things faithfully”. I,1,157), they “are an odd feast” (Much (V,1,295-299) Ado About Nothing, II,3,22), they “inflict more pain than wounds” (Henry VI, C, Thus, ears and tongues, as organs of II,1,99). Simply put, “the whole world is a perception and breeding, tend to be word” (Timon of Athens, II,2,162). significant both literally and metaphorically; and any linguistic 3. An Ambivalent Attitude towards Speech enterprise appears as a physical act as much as a moral one. Slightly altering the analysis viewpoint we Truth be said, from beginning to end, might even assert that, for instance, Juliet, from Titus Andronicus and Henry VI to Cordelia, and Antony question the ability of The Tempest, the Shakespearean plays are words to express the abyss of love, while a vivid testimony of the constant interest Armado, Orlando and Lear bear the manifested by Shakespeare towards the conviction that words possess this power. reactions that people can inflict upon one As Shakespeare’s readers, we attempt at another by means of language. perceiving and understanding both Moreover, the power of words is quite an attitudes, although contradictory, since Tatu, O.: The Power of Words, the Power of Silence with Shakespeare 17 they are both epitomes of the vacillating What Sir Andrew had not however attitude that the great playwright himself, noticed was that the attention paid to and, by and large the Elizabethans, language was cultivated by humanistic manifested towards words. teachers with a clear view to preserving On the one hand, there is with knowledge, and, moreover, to educate Shakespeare an anticipation of the modern young apprentices into becoming virtuous lack of confidence in the power of and wise adults. language, of acknowledging language Erasmus, the strongest supporter of limitations; on the other hand, Shakespeare, this pattern of education, explains things just as most educated Elizabethans, seems as follows: ”Language, indeed, is not to completely trust the ability of words to simply an end in itself, as we see when express thoughts and feelings, and to finally we reflect that throughts neglect whole reach the purpose of human relationships. disciplines have been lost, or, at least In what follows, we shall demonstrate corrupted” (199). that the Shakespearean plays clearly reflect Thus, the purpose of studying language both attitudes of the people back then is that of learning what exactly can be towards language, having at one extreme expressed with its help. The humanistic the deep distrust as to the revealing force ideal was not a pure love for words, but of words, and at the other extreme the love for res et verba, things and words, complete confidence in the expressive truth-ideas expressed through words. nature of language. When Erasmus divides knowledge in two categories - knowledge of things and 3.1. Complete Belief in the Power of Words knowledge of words - the former category gain a plus of importance for him. Let us by all means begin by highlighting However, words should by no means be the most obvious attitude concerning the neglected, because, if we do not power of words, although not the understand words we will not understand prevailing one. the ideas conveyed through those words. Indeed, Elizabethans loved words. Let us ”They are not to be commended who, in just consider John Lyly’s impressive their anxiety to increase their store of number of proverbs, the catalogue of truths, neglect the necessary art of invectives belonging to Ben Jonson, expressing them. For ideas are only Sidney’s exuberance, and last but not least, intelligible to us by means of the words the proliferation of volumes on the arts of which describe them; wherefore defective language, of dictionaries, histories, and so knowledge of language reacts upon our on, and so forth. apprehension of the truths expressed” The origin of this indisputable love of (Erasmus, 162). words lies in the humanistic upbringing, To uphold however that William dominated by the interest in language and Shakespeare wrote plays on words means in the arts of language. to ignore the humanistic context, and to interpret his plays just as Armado and ”I would I had bestow’d that time in the Osric would do, without any idea as to the tongues that I have in fencing, dancing, ultimate purpose of language. and bear-baiting”, regrets Sir Andrew in The ideas about language with The Twelfth Night; ”I had but follow’d the Shakespeare are subject to the ultimate arts!” purpose of the play, namely that of offering (I,3,92-94) an ethical reflection upon human nature. 18 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
For instance, in Richard II, the ideas grijă un suflet pe măsura ei, răsădeşte şi about language are focused on its power: seamănă în el nu orice cuvîntări, ci pe the immediate power of a king ordering acelea unite cu ştiinţa, acelea în măsură să- banishment, the visionary power of words şi vină şi lor înşile în ajutor şi celui care le-a uttered on the death bed by Gaunt, and, sădit, cele ce nu sînt sterpe, ci au în ele o finally, the power of ambiguous words by sămînţă din care, odată semănată în alţi means of which Exton confuses his oameni, cu alte firi, încolţesc alte gînduri şi interlocutors. In context, however, the rostiri; da, cuvîntări ce au în ele, fără ideas about language lead us to the central moarte, puterea de a dărui toate acestea, iar idea of political power being used and celui înzestrat cu ele cea mai mare fericire abused by two kings together with their dată fiinţei omeneşti” (Platon 276e-277a). counselors who would soon become their Let us just keep in mind that these are murderers. Socrates’ words excerpted from Platon’s Extracted from the context, the ideas dialogue ”Phaidros”. about language would make up a play Shakespeare employs a similar image in whose substance would center around “All’s Well That Ends Well”, when the contemplating art, and not around political king praises Bertram’s father, recently action as was the initial authorial intention. deceased for reasons of too vivid an In Much Ado About Nothing the interest eloquence: for language concentrates on its power to undo fame and to bear rumours; Hero’s life ”...his plausive words is nearly destroyed by this force, while the He scatter’d not in ears, but grafted same force triggers the love between them, Beatrice and Benedick. In King Lear the To grow there and to bear”. overwhelming power of language points at (I,2,53-55) the cruel difference between flattering lie and mere truth. ”Plausive” means both [convincing] - In all these cases, the ideas about words with purpose, and [worth language do not occupy front position applauding] - words the palywright had within the plays, but represent a means to hoped to write, bearers of ideas and dramatize characters and stories of ups and supporters of human evolution. downs of human sense and sensibility. A partial conclusion here would be that 3.2. Utter Disbelief in the Power of Words the Elizabethan playwright, who loved words, deemed language as the perfect All this being said, we shall not, however means to reach everything outside the mistake Shakespeare the language human being. Words and the study of practitioner with his characters. Thus, we words represented a constant interest for mentioned at the beginning of this paper the Elizabethans, but only as a tool of the opposite attitude towards language, knowledge. This is a noble passion, and it worded once again by characters, and certainly is much older than Elizabethan manifested by clear distrust in the force of times. words, in their capacity to capture the absolute truth. „Cred însă că se află mai multă frumuseţe Here is how, one of the sequences that şi mai mult avînt în toate astea atunci cînd display an impressive linguistic charge cineva, folosind arta dialectică şi luînd în refers to the emptiness of words. When Tatu, O.: The Power of Words, the Power of Silence with Shakespeare 19
Angelo is tormented in the agony of an Shakespeare as a proto-modernist who inner breakdown, perceived as rupture anticipates by a few centuries our present- between language and meaning, the self- day distrust in the power of language, and reflexive nature of language emerges: by extension, the tragedy of language. This lack of trust would eventually lead "When I would pray and think, I think to entirely giving up word and adopting and pray, silence, as silence appears to be the To several subjects. Heaven hath my ultimate consequence of learning the empty words, power of words in Shakespeare’s last play, Whilst my invention, hearing not my TheTempest. It has often been said, and tongue, rightly enough, that TheTempest depends Anchors on Isabel. Heaven in my mouth, on everything that is suppressed and As if I did but only chew his name, unspoken. And in my heart the strong and swelling "No tongue! All eyes! Be silent” - thus evil sounds Prospero’s urge to silence, to a Of my conception -" different opening towards vision and (Measure for Measure, II,4,1-7). epiphany, to becoming aware of a profound corruption that language Or, in Romeo and Juliet, where the issue undergoes because of its user, or the user of language, of its limitations is directly undergoes because of language. approached: ”What’s in a name?” Prospero’s words cannot but echo wonders Juliet, and her question projects another famous phrasing, namely the heart- both herself and the audience in an felt Catren belonging to Lucian Blaga: spontaneous analysis of proper names and other verbal signs, namely of language. As „Limba nu e vorba ce o faci we very well know, a few centuries later, Singura limbă, limba ta deplină more precisely during the 20-th century, Stăpână peste taine şi lumină Ferdinand de Saussure was the one who E-aceea-n care ştii să taci”. laid the brought forth the idea that language is a convention , along with the We should not blindly surrender however view according to which linguistic signs to either attitude concerning the power of are fully arbitrary, representing a mere language that both Shakespeare and his conventional agreement between the contemporaries weighed in a conceptual members of a certain linguistic manner and adopted simultaneously. There community. In Juliet’s words, ”That which should be neither absolute enthusiasm nor we call a rose / By any other word would complete denial. As long as both attitudes smell as sweet” (Romeo and Juliet, II, are as strongly outlined, and favouring one 2, 85-86). or the other is sometimes just a matter of If that is the case, if everything comes interpretation, our stance, that of the down to a convention, how can one ever modern audience, should be an unbiased trust the power of knowledge through one, that of a cautious observer. words? This quite modern question, if not What we mention here is interpretation post-modern one, caused many critics to as operation, which in itself can distinguish see in Shakespeare a radical skepticism, several tones of meaning. At this point, it similar to what Thomas Hobbes might be useful to return to The Tempest, manifested during the 17-th century; one of the most controversial plays in what several other critics go so far as to deem concerns selecting verbal hints that would 20 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV suggest one or the other of the two As translators, readers or audience of the attitudes; in what follows, we shall quote Shakespearean text, we certainly have the two views belonging to prominent duty to correctly understand not jut the Shakespearean critics, two views that, meaning of each isolated word or although opposed, are equally valid, being contextualized word, but moreover, the natural answers to the Shakespearean offer reasons why that particular word appears of hints for and against the power of where it does in the play; our duty is to words. perceive and translate - also in the sense of The first opinion belongs to M.M. deep understanding - both silence and Mahood and is an openly optimistic one: speech, both plenty and void of language. “The world of words has once seemed to Shakespeare tragically incompatible with References the world of things. Now he finds in the world built from Prospero’s words of 1. Agricola, Rudolph. De Inventione magic the truth of what we are. Belief in Dialectica Libri Tres: A Translation of words is foremost among the lost things Selected Chapters. tr. J.R. McNally, which are found again in Shakespeare’s Speech Monographs 34, 1967. final comedies” (16). 2. Barton, Anne. “Shakespeare and the The other opinion, this time a skeptical Limits of Language”. Essays, Mainly one, belongs to Anna Barton: “Unlike M.M. Shakespearean, 1944. Mahood, whose book ‘Shakespeare’s 3. Blake, Norman Francis. The Language Wordplay’ I have otherwise found of Shakespeare. Macmillan, 1983. extremely illuminating, I cannot see the 4. Erasmus. The Colloquies, Concerning final romances as embodying a new faith in Education. tr. Craig R. Thompson, words after the skepticism of tragedies. Not Chicago University Press, 1965. even Prospero, the magician dramatist who 5. Frye, Northrop. Utopia and Other orders the play-world, can bring about a Places. London: 1993. true coherence of minds. He stands among 6. Grigorescu, Dan. Shakespeare în characters sealed off in private worlds of cultura română modernă. Bucureşti: experience, worlds which language is Editura Minerva, 1972. powerless to unite. It seems at least possible 7. Hulme, Henry. Explorations in that ‘The Tempest’ was Shakespeare’s last Shakespeare‘s Language. London: non-collaborative play because in it he had Longman, 1962. reached a point in his investigation of the 8. Mahood, Molly. Shakespeare’s capabilities of words beyond which he Wordplay. London: Routledge, 1988. found it difficult to proceed” (66). 9. Platon: Phaidros. Traducere, lămuriri preliminare şi note de G. Liiceanu, 4. Conclusion Bucureşti: Editura Humanitas, 1993. 10. Willcock, George. “Shakespeare and Let us not forget that when we read one of Elizabethan English”. Shakespeare Shakespeare’s plays, we must not expect to Survey 7, 1954. necessarily find in it one or the other of the 11. ***. Introduction to New Penguin two attitudes regarding language, but be edition of “The Tempest”, content with finding, and that is all. Harmondsworth, 1968.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE SHAKESPEARIAN MIRACLE
Carmen ANTONARU1
Abstract: “The Miracle” of Shakespeare is based on the amplitude of the creation, on its philosophical and human meanings whose “uniqueness” is acknowledged by the Anglicist Dragos Protopopescu. In the second part of the article, I presented the way in which Dragos Protopopescu traces the evolution of the perception of Hamlet, in the field of European and American literary history. Finally, the Anglicist suggests a new method of bibliographical research, that looks at both all previous interpretations and their evolution, from a play to another, form an era to another
Key words: Shakespeare, miracle, interpretations, Hamlet.
1. Introduction would be found in the pages of the The English Phenomenon. Dragos Protopopescu’s Shakespearian His study, both in its journal and its studies are one of the most important volume format, is somewhat biased, contributions to the development of according to Dan Grigorescu: for example, Romanian Anglicism. Prior to his course, the controversy on the true author of 1945-1946, The Shakespearian Miracle is Shakespeare’s plays is rather solved by the the amplest description of the means of pamphlet. Dragos Protopopescu Shakespearian problematic already reveals the multitude of shapes of the published at that time in Romania. Shakespearian work; he ascertains that for Until The English Phenomenon, the some, Shakespeare continues to be, in a Anglicist had published the translation of Voltairian tradition, “a drunken barbarian”, many Shakespearian plays, many staged at while for others, he is the father of The National Theatre, others broadcasted European Romanticism. Some see in his on the radio. His knowledge of the work “the realistic author who stuns us Elizabethan period was extensive, with his clowns and drunkards, with his particularly due to the many years of daily middle class tragedy” or “the verb courses and seminaries he had dedicated to magician...which compiled diabolical verse this period. He knew every detail of the dances and casted with all the mornings of history of Renaissance England, having the sky the Anglo-Saxon concords .” pursued a very thorough bibliographic The research method is a synthesis in research. which both the Sidney Lee like biographic Dragos Protopopescu started from his style and the text critics style combine, study, Shakespeare among us, published in relying on various criteria, those of A.C. the same year, 1936, in Revista Fundaţiilor Bradley psycho-analysis, the historic Regale. Many of the ideas in this article philology column of Furness, of Rumelin sociologic approach.
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov.
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Dan Grigorescu notes that the children were the expression of “the demonstration of the discrepancy between innocence incompatible with life”), and biography and creation was inspired to Miranda, Hero, Julieta, Perdita, Imogen, Dragos Protopopescu by an idea of Ofelia, Celia and Jessica belong to this Giovanni Papini, which he had developed class. Their innocence cannot be tarnished in an essay about the Italian prose writer, but through aspersion. published in Revista Fundatiilor Regale. The second class belongs to the sinners: (Protopopescu 346-355) Gertrude, Lady Macbeth, Hyppolita and “Shakespeare is an exceptional human Cleopatra. “The first, by its being. His life and his work, taken separately incompatibility with the sin, remained in a or compared, are a continuous surprise” – perpetual heavenly purity; the other, statement which makes us repeat the well through the presence of the sin, become, known demonstration of the discrepancy on the contrary, exceptionally mature.” between Shakespeare’s biography and work (Protopopescu, 323). (discrepancy the author of The English The third category is that of Beatrice, Phenomenon calls “a miracle”), Portia, Rosalinda, Viola: all women (Protopopescu 346-355). Within the tradition “flirting with sin”. of the Romanian school of Shakespeare analysis, Dragos Protopopescu is a self 3. The Classification of Male Characters proclaimed advocate of the Startfordian in Shakespeare’s Plays theory, which identifies the author in the rather modest actor of The Globe. Men all aspire to achieve greatness; they The only anti-Stratfordian he respected all are subdued to it, with no exception. All was Abel Lefranc, whose erudition he is the male types are individualised by a eager to acknowledge, though he cannot dominant character trait: Hamlet bear to comment on his “lack of detail” symbolizes intellectual greatness, and scientific objectivity. Macbeth, ambition, Othello, passion, Dragos Protopopescu analyses Richard the third, cruelty, Shylock, Shakespearian characters in an ample revenge, Lear, majesty of suffering, perspective, focusing on three types: Coriolan, contempt. children, women and men. The characters are analysed according to Many other writers have depicted the fictional universe sphere. Dragos children in their works, but no other child, Protopopescu emphasizes the different the critic points out, equates the value of psychological values of the human the presence of those in Shakespeare’s character types created and decodes the plays. Such affirmations are then significance of the action taken, exemplified by means of the translating highlighting generally human value. some representative fragments from “The Miracle” of Shakespeare is based Macbeth, Richard al III-lea and Winter’s on the amplitude of the creation, on its Tale. philosophical and human meanings whose “uniqueness” is acknowledged by Dragos 2. The Classification of Female Protopopescu. While Racine, Dante, Characters in Shakespeare’s Plays Goethe, Dostoievschi are perfectly explicable”, Shakespeare is not; but “the For example, he shapes female unexplained Shakespearian paradox is a characters, according to their sinfulness. part of the inexplicable and paradox of the Some are incompatible with the sin (as the English man.”(Protopopescu, 323) Antonaru, C.: The Shakeaspearian Miracle 23
4. Post-Scriptum Hamlet Shakespeare introduces us in the atmosphere of the beginning of one of his The Shakespearian miracle was best plays, beginning haunted by a ghost”. followed by another study, Post-Scriptum It can be said that the play writer depicts a Hamlet which Dragos Protopopescu uses “human comedy” (in the Balzacian to adequately illustrate the “miracle” of meaning of the phrase): the comedy of the Shakespearian creation. human soul, its fascinating, mysterious and The essay was initially published in above all tragic encrypted nature”. January, 1926, entitled Hamlet or Between (Protopopescu 324). Literary and Aesthetic History, in two In Hamlet there are more characters consecutive issues of the weekly Literary living than the history of literature has Universe magazine and was later perceived. Hamlet is neither a “madman or integrated in the volume with minor the pretence of one; not a coward, or a man stylistic changes. of action; not a noble man nor trivial; Dragos Protopopescu returns to Hamlet, neither a thinker, nor a court man, neither completely reviews the opinions he had an impeccable knight, nor a simple person, expressed in 1926 and 1936. In October as we see him in his second stage, the stage 1941, the National Theatre in Bucharest of his recovery, when the sea voyage restarted using his translation of the play, seems to have made him a different under the directions of Soare Z. Soare. In person” (Protopopescu 332). the evening of the premiere, following a All of these are inside Hamlet. It is the tradition set by Liviu Rebreanu, he book of human soul depicted in its infinite presented the topic of the play to the and contradictory variety; watched as it audience. gazes at itself in the tragic mirror of death He first dealt with the tragedy: the – that mirror that seems to reveal more of masterpiece of “Shakespearian us, since Shakespeare so often has his hero superlatives” for 340 years: “it is the look into it. This is how the play writer longest, most popular, more profound and created “the complex of man himself”. fascinating of the creations of the English Dragos Protopopescu ends his speech by genius (...) everything that intelligence was commenting on Horatiu’s line: “When it able to formulate has been said about it”. dies – a great soul shatters to pieces. He refers to two opposing Everything else is silence. Covering a characterizations of it: Herman Grimm’s crime, covering rebellion? No, its silence calling it “a supplement of divine covers the mystery within us, the mystery creation”, while for Voltaire it is “a vulgar of man in which one has descended to shed and barbaric creation, written by a light for a short while as the unhappy drunkard” invited the audience to re-read Danish prince” (Protopopescu 334). Shakespeare. Or to see his play the way The analyst is convinced that Hamlet is they must have been seen on the stage of where the most enduring modern elements the Globe Theatre in July 1602. gather, and tragedy itself yields a multitude (Protopopescu 1-2) of meanings, that open the text to the most Dragos Protopopescu recreates the diverse interpretations. unfolding of the play by means of an epic From Goethe to Sigmund Freud, two episode he would later introduce in his centuries of critics struggled to understand course on in the spring of 1946. The first the “inner enigma” of young Hamlet, sentence uttered by the actor reveals whose tragic destiny is to clash with a Shakespeare’ technique: “just by a word, shallow world. 24 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
It is a researched essay rejecting any admit that they feel like smiling at such pathological explanations of Hamlet’s moments as these in the play”. case, declaring him the most modern of If Shakespeare was wrong, concludes Shakespeare’s characters. “All over the I.M.Robertson, “he was wrong in a genial world, and especially in England, Germany way, achieving more than any other human and in our country, this masterpiece is being”. Dragos Protopopescu subscribes: closest to the modern soul”. “we have the same opinion. Hamlet is in a The Romanian researcher notices that genial manner, but (...) it lacks art”. generally speaking, Romanian actors and The Romanian researcher traces the critics saw in Hamlet the symbol of evolution of an idea: Hamlet is thoughts restlessness and not a troubled Shakespeare himself and his lack of mind. Hamlet is a whole person “not consistency is actually that of his creator. lacking memory or will, healthy and This is why Dragoş Protopopescu normal”, an authentic Prometheus. suggests a new method of bibliographical Dragoş Protopopescu traces the research, that looks at both all previous evolution of the perception of Hamlet, in interpretations and their evolution, from a the field of European and American play to another, form an era to another. literary history, beginning by English and Commenting on the Shakespeare’s destiny, German critics’ opinions in the 17th he highlights the extra bibliographical century, referring to E.A.Poe and finishing factors (the local landscape). with the detailed analysis of two most important studies of the modern era: The References Problem of Hamlet, 1919, J.M. Robertson, and Shakespeare Tragedy, 1924, by A.C. 1. Dragomirescu, Mihail. “Hamlet şi Bradley. erudiţii noştri”. Viitorul, XIX, no. The first one, revolutionary and 5378, 1926. researched at the same time, allows Dragos 2. Grigorescu, Dan. “Introducere” la Protopopescu to grasp the “modern phase Fenomenul englez. Bucureşti: Editura of Hamlet’s problem” and formulate Grai şi Suflet – Cultura Naţională, several conclusions that appear relevant 1996. upon reading it: Robertson has a “modern” 3. Protopopescu, Dragoş. Fenomenul textual critical approach focusing on englez. Bucureşti: Fundaţia pentru sources and variants. literatură şi artă “Regele Carol II”, Dragos Protopopescu analysed the 1936. sources and models used by Shakespeare. 4. Protopopescu, Dragoş. “Hamlet şi In the ‘quarto’ version, 1603, as well as in critica ventrilocă”, Universul literar, the Danish tradition, Hamlet was an XLII, no. 9, 1926. ‘amloda’ (Danish noun and adjective 5. Protopopescu, Dragoş. Shakespeare meaning ‘lunatic’). Shakespeare intended printre noi. Bucureşti: Fundaţiile to give that barbaric play a shade of Regale, II, no, 8, 1936. nobility. He thoroughly explored the theme 6. Protopopescu, Dragoş. “Probleme şi of madness, turning a tragedy of revenge enigme în Hamlet.” I, Acţiunea, II, no. into a tragedy of the soul: “there were 349, 352, 1941. times in the history of this tragedy when the audience would laugh at Hamlet’s madness, when this character seemed funny. Even today, honest people may Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE PHILOSOPHY OF COMPOSITION REVISITED, OR WHY DOES MODERN POETRY BEGIN IN THE USA
Romulus BUCUR1
Abstract: The present paper aims at resituating Edgar Allan Poe in the canon of modern poetry. To this intent, a re-reading of the Philosophy of Composition is made, in the context of his prose work, and considering technical details invoked there as pioneering steps in establishing formats which now constitudes de facto standards in entertainment industry. Far from being, as considered by T. S. Eliot, the result of a misunderstanding, the influence of Poe, along with that of the other great American poet of 19th century, Walt Whitman, have shaped the poetry of the 20th, and, probably, the 21st century.
Key words: canon, modern poetry, Romanticism, science.
The standard – using a handy pun, one the Atlantic, or, changing the geographical can even call it canonical – version of the criterion for the cultural and linguistic one, canon of modern poetry is, simplifying, the between the Anglo-Saxon world and that following: Edgar Allan Poe, who dominated, up to a certain point, by French influenced Baudelaire, whose influence, in language: “In fact Edgarpo is to the French its turn, divided into the two known almost another person than Edgar Allan directions, that of the ‘artists’, and that of Poe, as the English-speaking world knows the ‘visionaries’ (Raymond 61), to which a him”(Cunliffe 65); in a way, it can be said list of names, become mandatory that, without this character, somehow references, can be added (e. g., poets invented by Baudelaire and Mallarmé, the discussed by Friedrich). significance of Edgar Allan Poe cannot be As far as Poe is concerned, things are not fully realised (Cunliffe 71). Similarly, T. S. so simple: the rapport between his explicit Eliot’s essay, From Poe to Valéry, starting poetics (his theoretical writings) and his from what it seemed obvious to the author, implicit one (his poetical creation) is the fact that The Philosophy of unbalanced, the poet taking part “only Composition was written after having through his theory to the modernist composed The Raven, concludes that the concept (canon) of poetry” (Martin 3), or, influence of Poe upon three major French as it has been noticed, the meditation poets, Baudelaire, Mallarmé and Valéry is equivalent to poetry is even superior to it due to a misunderstanding. (Friedrich 49). There is also a profound Our hypothesis is that the whole difference in the reception of Poe, across discussion about the priority in composing
1 Transilvania University of Braşov, Romania. 26 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV the poem or the essay is irrelevant, and that speculation, even if, by present-day a close re-reading of The Philosophy of standard, it is about pseudo-science (The Composition could give us reasons to Facts in the Case of M. Valdemar), or in a reassert its importance as a founding text story like The Gold-Bug, where one cannot of modern poetry, and, more, to push its help noticing the similarity of structure origins beyond the Atlantic. between the steps followed by William One of the first things that occur to the Legrand in deciphering the secret message author is the possible journalistic impact of and in finding the treasure, and the his essay: “how interesting a magazine objective set forth in The Philosophy of paper might be written by any author who Composition, that is, “to render it manifest would – that is to say, who could – detail, that no one point in its composition is step by step, the processes by which any referable either to accident or intuition – one of his compositions attained its that the work proceeded step by step, to its ultimate point of completion” (Poe, 8 May completion, with the precision and rigid 2008, 1); one hypothetical explanation for consequence of a mathematical problem” the probable rejection of such an idea by (Poe, 8 May 2008, 2). most of his contemporaries is the One of the first remarks one can make predominant, at the beginning of the 19th about the essay is the highly anti-romantic century, conception of romantic appeal to a large audience; Poe considers inspiration, “a species of fine frenzy – an “composing a poem that should suit at ecstatic intuition” (Poe, 8 May 2008, 1), once the popular and the critical taste” or, in M. H. Abrams’ terms, expressive (Poe, 8 May 2008, 2). This concern for the theories (Abrams, 21–26). audience, otherwise put, for success, leads Ordering a bit, although Truth, as “the to establishing an appropriate length of the satisfaction of the intellect” (Poe, 8 May poem, exactly as long as it can fit in a 2008, 2), (Poe, 15 Dec. 2008, 4), here is single poetry reading. And we might think defined also as “satisfaction of the Reason” that not the psychological aspect of the (Poe, 15 Dec. 2008, 5) (Poe, 15 Dec. 2008, unity of impression, as it was Poe’s claim, 15) is opposed to Passion, “the excitement although not negligible, is important, but of the heart” (Poe, 8 May 2008, 3), and the mentality of the target audience: the asks for precision, (Poe, 8 May 2008, 3), it educated upper-middle class, for which does not imply that it “may not be time means money, and for which, also, if introduced, and even profitably introduced, the poet needs another poetry reading to into a poem for they may serve in finish his poem, it might mean that he elucidation, or aid the general effect, as do failed fulfilling his objective. And the discords in music” (Poe, 8 May 2008, 3); correspondence between the available more, it can not be claimed that “even the amount of time and the length of the piece lessons of Truth, may not be introduced is also a proof of competence, of a good into a poem, and with advantage; for they management of resources, among which may subserve incidentally, in various time is a most precious one. Insisting upon ways, the general purposes of the work” technical details, Poe signals that he is able (Poe, 15 Dec. 2008, 5). to control his lyrical production, which This is his approach in a good deal of his will result in a quality product. One based fictional work, both in detective fiction on rewriting romantic themes and motifs, (The Murders in the Rue Morgue, The without emotional involvement, and, if Mystery of Marie Rogêt, The Purloined possible, without the irrational factor of Letter), and in that of scientific inspiration, present in the poetics of Bucur, R.: “ The Philosophy of Composition” Revisited, or why does Modern Poetry … 27 romanticism. Although, for Georges (the engineer’s way), or as a technical Poulet, the romantic is a being who book of a product that has to be sold – by discovers himself as being situated in the paid poetry readings, by subscriptions to centre (Poulet 132), and most of Poe’s the poet’s books – (the marketing work satisfies this characterisation, if we executive’s way). And, from the success it take into account the three factors stated by had, at least in Europe, we may conclude it Wellek as fundamental for romanticism, was an inspired approach. that is, imagination, nature, and symbol Poe’s innovation, that of inverting the and myth (Wellek 167), we can notice that, succession of the poetic acts postulated by with Poe, nature has been substituted by previous aesthetics (Friedrich, 49) was technology; a good example it would be considered by MacLuhan as that which The Thousand-and-Second Tale of allowed him to pave the way for the Scheherazade, where rewriting is present detective story (McLuhan, 1997, 74), and, together with the estrangement of science also the method of crime fiction, symbolist and technology, which take the place of poetry and modern science (McLuhan, nature, as it actually happens in the modern 1975, 86); it is important to notice, on one world. hand, the unity of his work, and on the It is also to be noted that shortness does other, that of modern culture. not favorise the poem either: “it is clear While Poe is so influenced by European that a poem may be improperly brief. literature, that his American character has Undue brevity degenerates into mere to be unearthed, the other great American epigrammatism” (Poe, 15 Dec. 2008, 2), poet of the 19th century, Walt Whitman, is and that, returning to the balance between clearly American – the Preface to the 1855 the success with the audience, and that edition of Leaves of Grass states it with criticism, “that degree of excitement unambiguously, so unambiguously that he which I deemed not above the popular, became the American poet: while not below the critical taste” (Poe, 8 “The United States themselves are May 2008, 2), Poe establishes an ideal essentially the greatest poem. In the history dimension of the poem, compared to of the earth hitherto the largest and most which, the real dimension has a more than stirring appear tame and orderly to their acceptable tolerance: “a length of about ampler largeness and stir. Here at last is one hundred lines. It is, in fact, a hundred something in the doings of man that and eight” (Poe, 8 May 2008, 2). Taking corresponds with the broadcast doings of into account the fact that poetry readings the day and night. Here is not merely a represented an income for writers, then the nation but a teeming nation of nations. preoccupation for fitting in a time-interval Here is action untied from strings can be seen as a pioneering attempt of necessarily blind to particulars and details establishing formats, such as it actually magnificently moving in vast masses” happened in American popular culture – (Whitman). the length of a movie, of an episode of a Comparing their influences, one can see soap, of a song on a vinyl record, all a that, even misunderstood, Poe’s novelty reflex of the standardisation come with came from his American background, and industrialisation. dominated the end of 19th century Summing up, The Philosophy of European poetry, while Whitman Composition can be read as a document of dominated 20th century poetry, both the American way of thinking; either as a American and European. pragmatic, empirical approach to writing 28 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Poe influenced mostly the branch of the 2. Cunliffe, Marcus. The Literature of the ‘artists’ in modern poetry, out of which United States. Harmondsworth: outstanding for their further influence upon Penguin, 1964. Pound and Eliot are the French symbolist 3. Eliot, T. S. “De la Poe la Valéry.” poets; his influence returned indirectly to Eseuri. T. S. Eliot. Bucureşti: Univers, the United States, through the poets 1974. 368-386. influenced by Pound and Eliot, and also, 4. Friedrich, Hugo. Structura liricii through those influenced by French poetry, moderne. Bucureşti: Univers, 1969. among whom the most outstanding is 5. Martin, Mircea. “Despre canonul Wallace Stevens. estetic.” România literară. 9 Feb. Whitman influenced a lot of American 2000: 3-15. poets whose concern was that of 6. McLuhan, Marshall. “Joyce, Mallarmé expressing various aspects of America, şi presa.” Mass-media sau mediul such as William Carlos Williams, Hart invizibil. Eds. Eric McLuhan & Frank Crane, and, after World War II, the poets of Zingrone. Bucureşti: Nemira, 1997. the Beat generation; his fate can be 64-74. somehow better traced, stage by stage, 7. McLuhan, Marshall. Galaxia from acknowledging (and repenting for) Gutenberg. Omul şi era tiparului. the former rejection (in Ezra Pound’s A Bucureşti: Politică, 1975. Pact), to transforming it into a myth (in 8. Poe, Edgar Allan. The Philosophy of Allen Ginsberg’s A Supermarket in Composition. 8 May 2008. California) and, finally, to deconstructing Wikisource. 2 May 2009. the myth (Ishmael Reed’s The Gangster’s
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE POET AND THE CITY: REFLECTIONS ON URBAN PERCEPTIONS IN ALLEN GINSBERG’S AND FRANK O’HARA’S POETRY
Cristina SCRABA1
Abstract: This paper aims to take a look at the approach of two American postmodern poets to the city. Allen Ginsberg’s poems “Thoughts on a breath” and “Havana” and Frank O’Hara’s “A step away from them” and “The day Lady died” will be analyzed and interpreted to provide insight into the two poets’ relationship to the city. Where insightful and useful for the analysis of the poems, other authors will be drawn upon for critical comments on Ginsberg’s and O’Hara’s poetry and on their lives. The conclusion will focus on the differences between the two poets concerning the evocation of the city in their poetry.
Keywords: Postmodernism, beat movement, urban poetry, political poetry, literature and society.
As long as they have existed, cities have Nevertheless, within the genre of poetry, provided writers with a great source of there was a time when the term “urban material for their works. The stream of poetry” was an oxymoron for many people: faces in the crowd and the conglomeration The belief that nature was poetic by of different objects that strike the eye in an definition had lingered on through the urban agglomeration have provided a increasingly industrialized nineteenth wealth of ideas and suggestions to writers. century while the city was thought of as fit In connection to the above, Versluys only for prose, wearying as it was amid states: growing crime and poverty. On this note, the German romantic poet Heine warned his These visual riches are sometimes so fellow countrymen about London in his abundant ..., the clues are sometimes so work “English Fragments”, written in 1828: intriguing that for an observer such as Victor Hugo a single word scribbled on But don't send any poets to London. the wall of Notre-Dame de Paris This naked seriousness about sufficed as a point of departure for a everything, this colossal monotony, historical novel of more than five this machine-like movement, this hundred pages (Versluys 2). sadness of joy itself, this exaggerated London, oppresses the imagination and tears the heart (Heine).
1Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov. 30 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
According to Simmel, even nowadays and “The day Lady died” will be analyzed man’s alliance with and relationship to the and interpreted to provide insight into the city tends to be a rather uneasy one, since the two poets’ relationship to the city. Where city compels man to “react with his head insightful and useful for the analysis of the instead of his heart” (Simmel 48): The poems, other authors will be drawn upon impressions the city leaves on one’s mind are for critical comments on Ginsberg’s and tumultuous and violent and unfortunately, O’Hara’s poetry and on their lives. The conclusion will focus on the differences the greater the share of the shock factor between the two poets concerning the in particular impressions, the more evocation of the city in their poetry. constantly consciousness has to be alert as a screen against stimuli; the 2. Allen Ginsberg and the City more efficiently it does so, the less do these impressions enter experience Allen Ginsberg’s (1926-1997) numerous (Erfahrung), tending to remain in the travels and his nomadic existence marked his sphere of a certain hour in one’s life lifestyle and his poetry. He made various (Erlebnis) (Benjamin 159). trips and also spent some time outside the United States. His trips took him to Cuba Thus, city experiences tend to remain and Mexico once, where he spent half registered just as simple occurrences, in year. He also spent one and a half year in what Freud called consciousness, instead Europe mainly living in Paris, had been in of passing to the core of the human South America for six months and more personality, to the seat of the imagination, than a year in India. In America he mainly to what Freud called the unconscious divided his time between New York and (Benjamin 159). Therefore, the city does San Francisco, with innumerable stops in not seem to be the ground on which poetry between (Burns 236). would grow properly. Versluys offers the In “Thoughts on a breath”, the speaker is in solution to this obvious dilemma when he the middle of the city, watching the cars, the claims that in order to approach and trees and the buildings around him (Ginsberg succeed in the field of urban poetry “chaos 24). The speaker senses that he completes a has to be transformed into harmony ..., “cycle” by sitting just as he sat in the same dead stones have to be infused with life, place “four years ago”. “To sit” refers to the and more important, the poet has to give a practice of meditation which begins with face to the faceless” (Versluys 3). Objects correct gesture during sesshin, i.e. a period of and incidents to which the average city intensive meditation in a Zen monastery dweller reacts with cold intellectualism (Aitken). He ponders: “What’ve I learned need to be approached with emotional since I sat here four years ago?” and “what warmth. Only if relating the deepest layer was it I began my meditation on?” of his personality to what is generally Proceeding, he enumerates the things he had considered depersonalized, mechanized been thinking about all these years, as and alienated will a poet succeed in the announced by the title, “on a breath”: field of urban poetry (Versluys 3). This paper aims to take a look at the Police state, Students, Poetry open approach of two American postmodern tongue, poets to the city. Allen Ginsberg’s poems Anger and fear of Cops, “Thoughts on a breath” and “Havana” and oil Cops, Rockefeller Cops CIA Cops Frank O’Hara’s “A step away from them” FBI Cops Goon Squads of Dope Scraba, C.: The Poet and the City: Reflections on Urban Perceptions in … 31
He continues to enumerate more things wire grids trestled toward country which bother him: the “Cops” who “busted water tanks ... Stony Burns and sent him to/ Jail 10 years Majestic in a skirt of human fog, and a day/ for less than a joint of Grass”, building blocks as well as the passivity of people who do rise at the sky edge, not protest against all these wrongs, of Branches and house roofs march to which they do not seem to be aware. He horizon grumbles at the people because they are not able to see how we “work with our By mentioning the cars on a freeway, the hands/ like niggers growing Crops in the rolling of the motors, the speaker also field/ & plough and harvest our corny/ provides auditory elements, a noise typical fate.” He deplores them because they are of the city: not able to see that by continuing to behave as though things were normal, they support ear roar the perverted purposes of the politicians oil exhaust, snuffle and bone growl (“Oh intellect of body back & Cock whose motors rolling North Central freeway. red neck/ supports the S &M freaks of Government/ police & Fascist Up to this point, the evoked city images Monopolies”). On an ironical note he and noises are neutrally or positively addresses Whitman and other spiritual connoted: The cars the speaker watches teachers of his who did not do much to “slide … down asphalt lanes”, the stop this negative evolution although they buildings which “rise at the sky edge” are had realized a long time before that “majestic”. From now on the evoked city America would evolve in this direction images are negatively connoted: The (“Oh Walt Whitman salutations” – “Energy playing over Concrete energy/ “Homage/ to the Gurus, Guru om! Thanks hymning itself in emptiness” suggests to the teachers/ who taught us to breathe,/ something positive which ends as to watch our minds revolve in emptiness, something negative: Energy is pictured as to follow the rise & fall of thoughts”). wasted energy. Besides this negative The poem ends on a passionate, idealistic suggestion about civilization which wastes tone with a promise: The speaker vows “to itself, Ginsberg provides other images of liberate all” the people from their the city which are negatively connoted, as (unperceived) slavery. exemplified by the following stanza: As to the references to the city in “Thoughts on a breath”, the poem provides Massive metal bars about monster a rich description of the city as a setting: machines The speaker visually sketches the setting eat us, Controlled by army, by describing what he sees around him: Cops, the Secret Police, our own thoughts! Cars slide minute down asphalt lanes Punishment! Punish me! Punish me! in front of we scream Dallas Hilton Inn in our hearts Trees brown bare in December’s smog-mist roll up A tool which helps to analyze this stanza to the city’s squared towers beneath is provided by Frye’s description of electric “demonic imagery” which he discusses in his Anatomy of Criticism: 32 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Cities of destruction and dreadful night nightmare world is suggested to be the city belong here ... Images of perverted itself. work belong here too: engines of As to the passage from “Thoughts on a torture, weapons of war, armor, and breath” quoted above, one cannot deny that images of a dead mechanism which, these lines suggest an image of hell. The because it does not humanize nature, is chosen vocabulary supports this demonic unnatural as well as inhuman. ... We imagery: The “monster machines” which have the prison or dungeon, the sealed are “controlled by the army” “eat us”. And furnace of heat without light, like the as suggested by Ginsberg through the City of Dis in Dante. Here too are the whole poem, we who support by our sinister counterparts of geometrical actions the “S & M freaks of Government” images: the sinister spiral ..., and the are the victims who “scream”: “Punish sinister circle, the wheel of fate or me!” The image of a hell where people are fortune. ... Corresponding to the eaten by monsters is well evoked. apocalyptic way or straight road, ... we Admittedly, it is a paradoxical hell with have in this world the labyrinth or victims who choose to remain victims by maze, the image of lost direction, often allowing themselves to be punished, but it with a monster at its heart like the still represents hell. Minotaur (Frye 150). Once again associating the portrayed image of New York in “Howl” and It is quite evident that one could apply Schorer’s idea of damnation to the image Frye’s catalogue not simply to passages of the city portrayed in “Thoughts on a from “Thoughts on a breath”, but to the breath”, one can say that the chosen whole range of, as Burns phrases it, demonic imagery in “Thoughts on a “Molochism” in Ginsberg’s work. Burns breath” fulfills its task by successfully claims: conveying the poem’s symbolic meaning: It is a “howl”, a protest against everything In ‘Howl’… this imagery is in our alienated civilization which kills the everywhere, precisely in Frye’s sense: spirit. Nonetheless, however dark the there is the prison, the geometrical pictured world seems, the poem does not images, the maze of negro streets end in hopelessness and despair: opening the poem, the monster Moloch Masterfully exploiting his technique, at the heart of the labyrinth, and in a Ginsberg manages to create a poem which further concentration of metaphor, the gathers its positive force and energy from maze has become the winding entrails its speaker who is driven by redemptive inside the sinister monster himself love for his fellow humans and who (Burns 384). assumes that the louder he shouts the more likely he is to be heard. Schorer claims that by evoking such a Ginsberg’s poem “Havana” evokes the demonic imagery, Ginsberg creates “a city by describing a bar in Cuba’s capital nightmare world in which people as being part of the city life (Ginsberg 38). representing ‘the best minds of The speaker is drunk and he is simply [Ginsberg’s] generation’ [, his fellow poets sitting and recording his impressions and and artists,] are wandering like damned the atmosphere of a scene which is not at souls in hell” (Ferlinghetti 151). And all unusual. After carefully setting the because the main geography evoked in scene (“by Aedama Palace/ on Gomez ‘Howl’ represents New York, this corner”), Ginsberg conveys the reader a Scraba, C.: The Poet and the City: Reflections on Urban Perceptions in … 33 certain feeling of milieu: His speaker 3. Frank O’Hara and the City provides details by displaying visual and acoustic elements of the interior and the After attending Harvard, Frank O’Hara exterior of the bar: (1926–1966) moved back home to Michigan for a short period. In 1951 he white men and women went to New York where he lived until his with standing drums, death (Gooch 5). mariachis, voices, guitars — O’Hara wrote “A step away from them”, drumming on tables, using a pedestrian’s voice (O’Hara 12): knives on bottles, “It’s my lunch hour, so I go for a walk banging on the floor among the hum-colored/ cabs”. His and on each other, speaker goes West and then downtown, with wooden clacks, goes past some construction sites on Sixth whistling, howling, Avenue, through Times Square where he fat women in strapless silk. stops for a cheeseburger and a glass of papaya juice beneath the Chesterfield One can also enjoy a tight catalogue of billboard with blowing smoke, and then sounds with some playfully added stage goes back uptown to work. directions for a (Cuban) dog in the middle: As Allen Ginsberg told an interviewer, “He [O’Hara] taught me to really see New voices across the street, York for the first time, by making of the baby wail, girl’s squeak, ... giant style of Midtown his intimate grumble and cackle of young boy’s cocktail environment” (Gooch 288). laughter Gooch sustains Ginsberg’s statement in a streetcorner waits, concerning O’Hara’s intimate relationship perro barking off-stage, to the city by claiming: baby strangling again, banjo and harmonica, O’Hara was fired by the challenge of auto rattle finding the good in the bad, the poetic in the mundane, the ancient and divine The speaker tips the mariachi players 25 in modern New York. ... His tendency, cents to play “Jalisco” and like Whitman’s, was to mythologize his daily life (Gooch 288). at the end of the song oxcart rolls by In line with this affirmation, in “A step obtruding its wheels away from them”, even construction O’er the music o’ the night. workers seem mysterious and glamorous and exotically sensual: The poem ends as if the theater curtain has fallen at the end of an act. It ends First, down the sidewalk rather unspectacularly, except for the where laborers feed their dirty linguistically playful note, due to the glistening torsos sandwiches alliterations and the traces of old poetic and coca-cola, with yellow helmets diction in the last line, “o’er and o”. One on. They protect them from falling could say that before one’s eyes a new bricks, I guess. reality has been created.
34 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Likewise, the growing Puerto Rican but to an affirmation of his place in his population of the city is positively (city) world. mentioned in the poem: “There are several “The day Lady died” is a poem very Puerto/ Ricans on the avenue today, which/ much similar to “A step away from them” makes it beautiful and warm”. (O’Hara 18). The poem begins with O’Hara evokes the city by portraying an O’Hara mentioning the date and the setting everyday walk as part of his life. The poem of the poem: “It is 12:20 in New York a sounds as if it was an assembly of enticing, Friday”. He then proceeds nonchalantly vividly described sounds and sights of the commenting on his evening schedule: city: cabs hum, laborers are eating sandwiches and drinking Coca-Cola, the I will get off the 4:19 in Easthampton skirts of girls in high heels “flip” and at 7:15 and then go straight to dinner “blow up over/ grates”, the cut-rate jewelry and I don’t know the people who will shops on 6th Avenue try to outdo each feed me. other with “bargains in wristwatches”, “the huge Chesterfield ad above Times Square On his walk, the speaker goes to the blows smoke at the cigarette-friendly bank and to a liquor store and after asking pedestrian, a black man in a doorway the “tobacconist in the Ziegfield Theatre” makes eyes at a blonde chorus girl walking for a “carton of Gauloises and a carton/ of by”. Intriguing, too, are in this context the Picayunes, and a New York Post”, he sees absurd contradictions typical of New York “her face on it”. There is no name life: The “neon in daylight”, the mentioned but the last stanza reveals the “lightbulbs in daylight” and “the ladies identity of the person he reads about in the with poodles who wear fox furs even on newspaper: the hottest summer day”. But the true subject of the poem is revealed in its title: And I am sweating a lot by now and In “A step away from them” O’Hara thinking of ponders on the death of his friends: leaning on the john door in the 5 SPOT while she whispered a song along the First, keyboard Bunny died, then John Latouche, to Mal Waldron and everyone and I then Jackson Pollock. But is the stopped breathing. earth as full as life uses full, of them? Because of the mention of Mal The closeness of death, the awareness of Waldron’s name, the reader learns that the decay and change, of “the Manhattan person the speaker is talking about is Billie Storage Warehouse/ which they’ll soon Holiday: Mal Waldron was a pianist; he tear down”, make him pay more attention was Billie Holiday’s accompanist the two to his surroundings: He begins to watch years before she died (Walker). tiny objects, such as wristwatches, and the Just as in “A step away from them”, the people around him more carefully, in this poem is conceived as a banal approach to way celebrating the poetry of everyday an earnest genre: The elegy only reveals life. itself as an elegy at the end of the poem, The poem ends with the speaker with the last stanza. The poem could easily returning to work with a book of have the whole world mourn Billie Reverdy’s poems in his pocket, his walk Holiday’s loss; instead, it is conceived as a having led neither to sadness nor happiness day in the life of the speaker and his city, Scraba, C.: The Poet and the City: Reflections on Urban Perceptions in … 35 with the speaker noticing visual and While Ginsberg is concerned with ideas acoustic elements of the city setting (“Miss of perverted politics and drug policy, with Stillwagon, the Park, Lane Liquor Store, the alienation and confusion of urban life, the tobacconist in the Ziegfeld Theatre” O’Hara concentrates on sensations: and “the whispered song”); the only odd Though funny, chatty and moving, as occurrence involves Miss Stillwagon at the O’Hara’s poems are, they do not offer the bank, who “doesn’t even look up my reader a slice of the real life of those times: balance for once in her life”. Apart from His New York seems to be not only far that, the city is its normal self, the speaker from Ginsberg’s image of the city but even follows his routine up to the moment of farther from the very real crime- and drug- buying “a New York Post with her face on ridden Manhattan of the end of the fifties it”. The climax is the discovery of and the beginning of the sixties. “Lady’s” death and the unforgettable Although one cannot find many memory of one song that lives on. Death, similarities in Ginsberg’s and O’Hara’s as can also be seen from “A step away poetry, either concerning content or from them”, is here too one of many technique, the achievement of these poets random things that occur in life, making is great. One may not agree with the way everything “from a shoeshine to a bottle of certain aspects have been dealt with, but it Strega purchased in a liquor store gain a is undeniable that the city is brilliantly new significance” (Elledge 58). described by Ginsberg and O’Hara, both visually and acoustically. Both of them 4. Conclusions succeeded in approaching objects and incidents in the city with great emotional Allen Ginsberg evokes the city as a warmth, in their own different personal place he feels at home in. He visually and style, of course. For both of them the city acoustically describes both Havana and was a place of possibility, an exciting place Dallas. While in “Havana” he prefers to to be, and their poems have an immediacy approach the city setting as a tourist or a that draws its energies from the pace and spectator, in a rather playful manner, not rhythms of city life. Of even greater in the mood to interfere, the city images importance for literature and for us, their the poet evokes in “Thoughts on a readers, both poets succeeded in providing breath” are not only negatively connoted, an extraordinary framework for the but in certain passages, there is also discussion of postmodern urban poetry. evidence of “demonic imagery”, which suggests a sort of nightmare world as the References epitome of an alienated civilization associated with the city. 1. Aitken, Robert. Some words about O’Hara evokes the city as a familiar sesshin for newcomers to zen practice. place for himself as well. The image of the http://www.esolibris.com/articles/med city he displays is a thoroughly positive itation/sesshin_newcomers.php, one; New York is pictured as a place with accessed April 1, 2009. a pleasant atmosphere. Although his 2. Benjamin, Walter. Illuminations. speaker sometimes reveals absurd London: Fontana Press, 1992. contradictions when depicting the city, one 3. Burns, Glen. Great poets howl. A is aware that these contradictions are study of Allen Ginsberg’s poetry. typical of New York life. 1943-1955. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 198. 36 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
4. Elledge, Jim. Frank O’Hara: To be 10. O’Hara, Frank. The collected poems of true to a city. Ann Arbor, MI: Frank O’Hara. Los Angeles, CA: University of Michigan Press, 1990. University of California Press, 1995. 5. Ferlinghetti, Lawrence. “Horn on 11. Simmel, Georg. “The metropolis and howl”. Evergreen Review vol. 1, 4 mental life”. Classic essays on the (1957): pp. 151-160. culture of cities. Ed. Sennet, Richard. 6. Frye, Northrop. Anatomy of criticism: New York: Appelton-Century-Crofts, Four essays. New York: Atheneum, 1969. pp. 47-60. 1967. 12. Versluys, Kristiaan. The poet and the 7. Ginsberg, Allen. Mind breath: Poems city. Chapters in the development of 1972-1977. San Francisco, CA: City urban poetry in Europe and the Lights Books, 1985. United States (1800-1930). Tübingen: 8. Gooch, Brad. City poet: The life and Günter Narr Verlag, 1987. times of Frank O'Hara. New York: 13. Walker, Bruce. Mal Waldron Knopf, 1993. Biography. URL: 9. Heine, Heinrich. Englische http://www.musicianguide.com/biogra Fragmente. (chap. II: London). URL: phies/1608003760/Mal-Waldron.html, http://gutenberg.spiegel.de/?id=5&xid accessed April 1, 2009 =3894&kapitel=3&cHash=e00483092 2chap002#gb_found, accessed April 1, 2009.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
SPEAKING THE UNSPEAKABLE – MANIFESTATIONS OF SILENCE IN GAIL JONES’ SORRY
1 Catherine SCHWERIN
Abstract: This article examines Gail Jones' novel Sorry, mainly in terms of the symbolic relevance of its depiction of speech juxtaposed with the inability to articulate. The title relates the theme to a decade of national debate on the issue of saying “sorry” sparked off in Australian society in 1997 with the publication of the Bringing Them Home Report, documenting decades of removal of Aboriginal children from their families. Sorry, set in the 1930s and 40s, symbolically explores the relevance of articulating apology within the loose framework of this issue, but with its broader relevance to other collective traumas in mind. This highly lyrical novel takes the mysterious events leading to, surrounding and subsequent to the murder of anthropologist Nicholas Keene to explore how the failure to articulate frustration, blame, shame, and regret can lead to acts of violence, injustice and crippled lives. It also examines the communication spaces that evolve in the absence of speech or the ability to articulate. The message emerges that ultimately silence cannot indefinitely conceal the unspeakable, but uttering the word “sorry” in time permits healing, even if it cannot restore justice.
Key words: Australia, Aboriginal, trauma, communication, apology.
The title of Gail Jones’ novel Sorry complexities of the issues explored in this (2007) is an allusion to a national and novel than the title alone might imply. personal tragedy that was a source of fiery “Sorry” itself is an overused word in debate in Australia until recently. It refers mainstream Australian, just as in other to the issue of the “Stolen Children”, forms of standard English. It is an Aboriginal children who were forcibly ostensibly polite, empty phrase tossed in removed from their families (approx. 1869 quickly to appease, to avoid confrontation. – 1969) in compliance with government At the same time it can be a difficult word policy under a series of so-called to utter when one refuses to acknowledge Aboriginal Protection Acts. In the context or represses one’s own blame or when the of this debate the title bears a political sense of shame is deep. Yet there is also an weight, since until the time of the novel’s aspect of this word that is specific to publication, the Government of Australia Aboriginal usage and which inevitably had denied the necessity for apology. Thus made it the catchword of the whole issue the title signals its defiance of this attitude. of guilt and shame and reconciliation. In But there is more to the word “sorry” than Aboriginal usage, “sorry” refers to more meets the eye, just is more as there to than just an apology. It is more closely
1 University of Hamburg, Department of English and American Studies. 38 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV related to the word “sorrow”, also being vastness of a harsh environment. She finds used in the phrase “sorry business”, which solace in her obsession for Shakespeare, relates to death, grief and mourning and thus neglecting her daughter. Nicholas their associated rituals. As such it is a finds the child distasteful. Perdita is much more emotional word than in general isolated and unloved. usage and highlights a sense of loss, The barrenness of Perdita’s family particularly in a community sense. relations stands in stark contrast to the It is no wonder then that this word, in all warmth and welcome she finds in the its facets, was chosen to designate the day Aboriginal community: of national mourning recommended by the Bringing them Home Report published in If it had not been for the Aboriginal April 1997, which was inaugurated on 26 women who raised me, I would never May 1998. Many Australians still vividly have known what it is like to lie recall the Sorry Day of the year 2000, against a breast, to sense skin as a gift, when all over the nation marches for to feel the throb of a low pulse at the reconciliation took place, with around base of the neck... (4). 250,000 people joining the walk for reconciliation across the Sydney Harbour Perdita develops deep friendships with Bridge. Then Prime Minister, John the deaf-mute Billy Trevor, son of the Howard, however, refused to apologize on cattle-station owner, and Mary, the “half- behalf of the nation. caste” Aboriginal girl called in to look So the “Sorry” of the title alludes to the after Perdita during her mother’s absences shame and blame, regret and sorrow of a in a lunatic asylum and on whom Perdita nation. Not just for this, but for the whole looks as a beloved sister. Mary has been issue of White intervention in Aboriginal brought up in a convent, a “removed” lives. However, the author does not child. She has the advantage of some presume to artificially construct an education, but enjoys none of the rights or Aboriginal voice. The narrative is told protection that a white child would. The from the perspective of Perdita Keene, a fact of her removal, however, is not made white woman reflecting on her years into an issue in the narrative (32). growing up on a cattle station in the remote The story is also by way of being a murder outback of Western Australia in the 1930s mystery that, although eventually solved, and 40s. This is where her father, the remains without the satisfaction of justice frustrated and embittered English being restored – the wrongs remain because anthropologist Nicholas Keene, has come of silence. Indeed, the narrative opens with to live. He is employed by the Chief the descent of silence on the protagonists on Protector of Aborigines to do fieldwork on the day Perdita’s father dies: the tribes near Broome and thus to indirectly contribute to the policies that A whisper: sssshh. The thinnest vehicle involve the indignities that they become of breath. This is a story that can only be subject to. He is accompanied by his told in a whisper. There is a hush to disconsolate, unstable wife, Stella. Their difficult forms of knowing, an daughter, Perdita, who is wise beyond her abashment, a sorrow, an inclination years, is for them “a mistake, a slightly towards silence. My throat is misshapen embarrassing intervention”. Stella is with all it now carries... I think the appalled and distraught by the conditions muzzle of time has made me thus, has she is forced to live in, out there in the deformed my mouth, my voice, my Schwerin, C.: Speaking the Unspeakable – Manifestations of Silence in Gail Jones’ … 39
wanting to say... ‘Don’t tell them,’ she Not only are speech and the inability to said. That was all: don’t tell them (3). communicate features of the narrative, but also modes of communication themselves. Perdita’s speechlessness after the The written word, for instance, plays a role traumatic events of that day symbolises the as consoler to both Stella, in her unspeakable nature of the events that the pathological identification with silence conceals. She is only ten years old Shakespeare, whom she quotes to when she witnesses how her father, articulate her emotional state or rage Nicholas, is stabbed to death. He had a brutal against her own impotence, and Perdita, streak and obtained his sexual gratification who immerses herself in her books. from forcing himself on the Aboriginal girls Ironically, she later manages to regain her working at the station. Mary, Perdita’s sister- voice only by quoting her mother’s friend, confesses to the crime and is Shakespeare, by uttering constructed imprisoned, while Perdita subsides into phrases, words that initially are not her speechlessness, completely blocking out all own. Billy lip-reads to orient himself in his memory of the event. The varying grades of silent world, communicating with gestures speechlessness in the story take on an in response to the voiceless words, for him allegorical significance, representing the mere movements of the mouth. When varying degrees of knowing and Perdita loses her ability to articulate, she acknowledgement that a society can communicates by writing notes on a demonstrate. Billy, who also witnesses the notepad, and later when Billy starts to crime, is mute and thus cannot speak, Mary learn sign language, she learns it, too, in consciously chooses not to speak, Perdita is order to be able to converse with Billy’s so traumatised that she either loses her ability wife, Pearl, who is a deaf-mute as well. to speak at all or cannot articulate without When Mary also learns sign language from stuttering. Stella chooses to subside into a a fellow inmate at the prison, the four “feeble minded” state, restricting her saner friends find a mode of communication that utterances to the beauty of Shakespeare’s frees them from the spoken or written words or theatrical imitations of it. Although word, furnishes them with “embodied bit by bit, with the gentle help of the Russian tokens”, a private space and “the secrecy speech therapist Dr Oblov, Perdita manages of their meanings”. This switching of modes to peel back the skin of the past and presented in the narrative contrasts the rediscover her voice, what is revealed beauty and control of artistic composition ultimately returns to the unspoken sphere and “high culture” with the everyday and remains a secret. And Perdita misses her insufficiency of words, with their incapacity own opportunity to say sorry: to truly frame the literally unspeakable. As Jones herself puts it, it demonstrates Although it was offered, there was no “language in excess and language in deficit” atonement, there was no reparation. (Jones & Cawston 2007). That was the point, Perdita would The stifling events in this narrative are realise much later, at which, in underpinned by reports of the War as both humility, she should have said a distant and a lived experience, subtly ‘sorry’... (204) hinting at other crimes and other inhumanities that remain “muzzled” and Silence maintains its hold. The narrative unarticulated. This puts the events on a reflects how silence can manifest itself in more universal plain: “My father had been many forms and stem from many causes. killed when the siege of Leningrad began... 40 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
This was during Stalin’s scorched earth Certainly, Sorry is well structured, not a policy; and it was when Jews were ordered word appears to be wasted, and the to wear yellow stars” (Jones 100). Perdita symbolism is deliberate and thoughtful. associates the grief of these far places with Yet there are no jarring notes: her own misery, and again with the constellations that might seem improbable incapacity to articulate it: in reality are arrived at with a naturalness in the text, and the language is haunting, I was filled with wild loneliness, lyrical and flowing. Although the title may guilt and grief. I thought I would die raise the expectation of some kind of overt for all that remained unexpressed. political preaching, this is never the case. There was a murder of Jews at Kiev... Jones examines the themes of memory and with indecent, childish misunder- forgetting, of speech and silence, of standing, I attached emotionally to the retribution and reconciliation, without name Kiev, thinking it was special overtly politicising the matter. Ultimately, enough to contain my vast, private woe the overwhelming impression that this (102). novel leaves is one of sincerity. And if an individual fate is contingent on so many The individual events of this private fate silences hindering the opportune moment assume historical proportions and the to utter the words, then what difficulty silences of past atrocities emerge in an must a whole nation have? Gail Jones’ almost palpable form. novel allows us an insight into the silence Finally, the body as the site of the and gently reminds us to take the exercise of control and the involuntary opportunity to say “sorry” while we can.1 expression of deeper emotions emerges as a theme. Nicholas vents his frustration and References compensates for his sense of inadequacy by raping the station cook and later Mary, 1. Jones, Gail. Sorry. London: Harvill objectifying their bodies and inscribing his Secker, 2007. will onto them. Conversely, Mary’s 2. Jones, Gail and Rob Cawston. Gail position does not allow her the opportunity Jones in Conversation with Rob to resist the debasement or remove herself Cawston. from the source of her abuse. Thus she is www.opendemocracy.net/podcast/ not the proprietor of her own physical self. gailjones.mp3. Accessed 9 May 2009. Perdita’s horror and sense of guilt are physically expressed when her throat constricts and her mouth refuses to 1There is an appropriate postscript to the articulate her words in response to the publication of Jones’ novel: On 13 February events she has witnessed. And Nicholas’ 2008, the newly installed Australian government body becomes the object on which outrage under Prime Minister Kevin Rudd finally found and resistance are ultimately carried out in the words to say Australia’s “Sorry”. After much the most violent of terms, uniting those deliberation a formal apology was issued to the Indigenous peoples of Australia. The full text is at present in “such a deformity of fellowship” House of Representatives Hansard (2008-02-20): (194), particularly the two girls: “The http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/genpdf/chamb sticky stuff of my father’s life bound us er/hansardr/2008-02- like sisters” (3). 20/0194/hansard_frag.pdf;fileType=application% Jones’ writing has been accused of being 2Fpdf. contrived and self-conscious at times. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
WHO IS WHO ON SHAW’S ISLANDS? REVERSALS IN JOHN BULL’S OTHER ISLAND
Lilla KOLOS 1
Abstract: The aim of this essay is to show that the use of reversals (as paradoxes concerning rhetorics, and as the deconstruction of stereotypes and prejudices) is the very means that makes G.B. Shaw’s John Bull’s Other Island a modern drama, where modern stands for fragmentation (of the world), textualization and self- referentiality. This study focuses on two kinds of reversals, though there can be detected far more in the play. These two are: reversals built in the plot and reversals of stereotypes concerning the stage-Irishman and, –Englishman figures.
Key words: G.B. Shaw, modern drama, stage-Irishman/Englishman figures, reversals, issues of identity.
1. Introduction
In 1904 John Bull’s Other Island was Christopher Innes explains it in Modern staged in London and three years later in British Drama 1890-1990: Dublin as well- and was popular with both “What Shaw singled out was a strategy audiences. The play, dealing with the up- for trapping the audience through to-date ‘Irish- Question’ seemed to work sequentially manipulating their responses, like Mary Poppins’s medicine (each discrediting socially conditioned reflexes spoonful had a different taste, according to …: “so that Ibsen may hunt you down the taste of each child); somehow the from position to position until you are drama offered something for the British as finally cornered.” It is an accurate well as the Irish, for the conservative as description of Shaw’s own use of inversion well as the liberal, for the radical to reveal the contradiction between nationalist as well as the sceptic. At that accepted systems of belief and actual time the ‘Irish –Question’ largely covered behaviour” (15). the debates of different Land Acts and What seems problematic in this ‘hunting Home Rule. down from position to position’ that after It was Shaw’s special drama- technique, we have ridiculed every bias, generated from his Ibsen studies that made preconception and stereotype, there may his plays similar to a kind of magic- not remain anything to capture as meaning, mirror: one could see everything in it, only or a new way of approaching the world, turned upside-down, inside-out. As society or the members of it. One of the most problematic features of Shaw’s play
1 Department of English Literatures and Cultures, Faculty of Humanities, University of Pécs (Hungary).
42 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV seems to be that the so eagerly criticised coloniser. Neither Doyle, nor Broadbent status quo turns out to be worth fulfils the expectations according to these maintaining at the end. archetypes. Larry Doyle, who left his home and his 2. Two Types of Reversals quasi lover eighteen years before, is somewhat reluctant to return to his The aim of this essay is to show that the fatherland, when invited by Broadbent: use of reversals (as paradoxes concerning rhetorics, and as the deconstruction of DOYLE. Well, your letter completely stereotypes and prejudices) is the very upset me, for one thing. means that makes this drama a modern BROADBENT. Why play; where modern stands for: DOYLE. Your foreclosing this fragmentalization (of the world), Roscullen mortgage and turning poor Nick textualization and self- referentiality. Lestrange out of house and home has This study will concentrate on two kinds rather taken me aback; for I liked the old of reversals; though there can be detected rascal when was a boy and had the run of far more in the drama. These two are: his park to play in. I was brought up on the reversals built in the plot and reversals of property. stereotypes concerning the stage-Irishman BROADBENT. But he wouldn’t pay the and, –Englishman figures. Further interest. I had to foreclose on behalf of the reversals in John Bull are other Island are: Syndicate. So now I’m off to Roscullen to ~ of patriotism; look after the property itself. You are ~ of idealism into pragmatism (and vice coming with me, of course? versa); DOYLE. That’s it. That’s what I dread. ~ of realism into textuality and self- That’s what has upset me. referentiality. BROADBENT. But don’t you want to - Reversals built in the plot see your country again, after 18 years absence? to see your people? to be in the In this drama there is not only one old home again? protagonist but two. Thomas Broadbent … and Larry Doyle cannot be separated from DOYLE. … I have an instinct so strong each other, not because there would occur that I’d rather go to the South Pole than to a main conflict between them (as we Roscullen (77). would expect of two main characters) but because they are like the two sides of an Larry already shows signs of his (later androgyne figure. (I use the term becoming important) passivity and when androgyne, instead of doppelganger they get to Roscullen he refuses the seat in because in the doppelganger relationship parliament offered by his people (see the two sides are not equal.) Being interpretation of this later), and he also separated, their identity would be at stake. refuses (!) Nora’s hands: So the stories of the two protagonists are NORA (bitterly). Roscullen isn’t such a like two parallel threads, which are lively place that I am likely to be bored by quivering of the same stimuli. The two you at our first talk together after eighteen stories concealing behind these figures are years, though you don’t seem to have less. that of the ‘smallest prince in fairy tales’ LARRY. Eighteen years is a devilish (gaining half the kingdom and the long time. Now if it had been eighteen princess), and the story of the ‘niggard’, as minutes, or even eighteen months we Kolos, L.: Who is Who on Shaw’s Islands? Reversals in “John Bull’s Other Island” 43 should be able to pick up the interrupted HAFFIGAN: D’ye mean Heavn? thread, and chatter like two magpies. But BROADBENT: Heaven! No: it’s near as it is I have simply nothing to say; and Hitchin. If you can spare half an hour I’ll you seem to have less. go into it with you. NORA. I – (her tears choke her; but she … keeps up appearances desperately) BROADBENT… You understand that … the map of the city- a circular LARRY. I know quite well that my construction- is only a suggestion. (71) departure will be a relief. Rather a failure, {Emphasis added, K.L.} this first meeting after eighteen years, eh? Tim Haffigan misunderstands Broadbent, Well never mind; these great sentimental but this misunderstanding is not a events always are failures; and now the misinterpretation by chance, and its worst of it is over anyhow (141; 145). motivatedness is even emphasised by ‘a circular construction’. ‘Garden’, ‘Heaven’, Nora who read Larry’s story according to ‘circle’ are all catchwords of Christian the fairy tales bursts out in tears when she symbology. Heaven/ Paradise are the learns that Larry had not gone out to the Garden of the Creator. The notion of world to gain experience and wealth to be ‘circle as the most perfect form’ is able to marry her. Shaw’s instructions also inherited from the ancient Greeks, help this interpretation, since he introduces conveyed by Neo-Platonism to Christian Nora as behaving as a living fairy princess, culture. To go further in European culture, absolutely unconscious of it. there are several examples of the perfect, Broadbent’s case is even a bit more divine city described as shaped of circle complicated. He would be the wealthy and (see for example Augustine’s work De powerful English imperialist, who comes Civitate Dei, XI-XII). With such an to Roscullen on business. This, at first ‘entrée’, Broadbent can only be a “mock- glance, would mean making many of the villain”, as Declan Kiberd calls him in town paupers, taking away without real Inventing Ireland. The Literature of the reinvestment, in one word colonisation. Modern Nation and he follows like this: But from the first time he talks about Just how sincere were Broadbent’s good business, there are signs of idealism also. intentions? Is he in short a conscious Idealism is really not the feature we expect hypocrite, or a woolly minded liberal of a stingy imperialist. In the second scene imperialist? His language in the play is of the first act he meets and invites Tim couched in two tonalities, one sentimental Haffigan to help him in Ireland, because he and the other pragmatic, one idealistic and thinks him an Irishman. Although the other sinister, but both often deployed Broadbent is mocked, he certainly sees that within a single sentence. (56) his man is a poor old chap. Regarding the In this plot Broadbent’s “conscious social differences, Broadbent’s act of hypocrisy” seems disputable on two showing the plans of the city he wants to grounds. First, Broadbent is not the witty build, could seem unmotivated. But in the guy among the characters (in this case, we course of their dialogue, some kinds of could still think ‘one can never know, transcendental features of the planned city since it is a Shaw play’). Second, are stressed: throughout the play it always turns out that meaning (the judgements of one’s words BROADBENT: Have you ever heard of and acts) is highly dependent on context, Garden City? and on the reaction of others. It just does 44 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV not matter how stupidly he acts, what he spells every stereotypical sentence that foolishness he says, how stage-Irish featured the stage Irishman of the age, at (sentimentally or boastfully) he talks, in the same time it is also revealed that this the eyes of others he remains in the stereotypical figure was highly accepted as position of the wealthy English coloniser, real Irish. According to Grene in The even if “he hasn’t got much sense, God Politics of Irish Drama: help him” (Shaw, 122). And because of “The work of the first act was to show this position have we got the feeling that Broadbent on home English territory sometimes his words are not responding to thoroughly taken in by the stage Irishman his thoughts and will. All through the play, Tim Haffigan. ... Haffigan is to play the Broadbent consequently wriggles out of or part of ... Boucicault’s Shaughraun, and he does not fit in the figure of the coloniser. plays it to the life… Shaw, no doubt, Every one of his acts diminishes the intended his English audience to be as usually intended distance between the taken in by this performance as Broadbent coloniser and the colonised. He is getting and to be equally taken aback when it is deeper and deeper involved with the local revealed that Haffigan is ‘not an Irishman affairs and people. First he shows the plans at all’....” (22). of Garden City for someone from the Thus Haffigan turns out to be a fake ‘lower classes’, than he proposes Nora for Irishman in two ways: actually he is a first glance, and he opts for Parliamentary Scotsman, and he is not even speaking like membership on the part of the Irish. an Irishman at all, he uses slogans picked Consequently it will mean that his wealth up from the theatre: and well-being will be bounded to that of Roscullen, whatever his original intentions BROADBENT. But he spoke- he may be. He is far from being innocent but behaved just like an Irishman. the idea of him being a cunning sophist DOYLE Like an Irishman!! Man alive does not seem plausible either. don’t you know that all this top-o-the- morning and broth-of-a-boy and more 3. Reversals of the Stage-Irishman and power-to-your-elbow business is got up in Stage-Englishman Figures England to fool you like Albert Hall concerts of Irish music: No Irishman ever The most important foci of this play are talks like that in Ireland, or ever did, or the deconstruction of the stereotypes of ever will. (76) Irish-, and Englishman and the exposure of national characters’ identity as being In the world of the play the ‘authentic dependent on the definition of an other’s. Irishman’ turns out to be a paper doll, and At this point, we leave the boundaries of vanishes in the haze, as Tim Haffigan reality, and enter the world of textuality, as never returns in the plot. It seems this deconstruction is based on the five important to emphasize that, with this hundred year old stage- Irishman figure dramatic strategy, the base relational point tradition. Shaw enters the tradition with the is thrown away or better to say split into interpretation of Boucicault’s Shaughraun. several characters later in the play. Three figures are in the centre of the Larry Doyle as a main representative of deconstruction of the stage Irish- and the Irish figures undermines the Arnoldian Englishman figures: Tim Haffigan, Larry stereotypes from the beginning. He is Doyle and Thomas Broadbent. Tim introduced as follows: Haffigan’s figure works as a starting point, Kolos, L.: Who is Who on Shaw’s Islands? Reversals in “John Bull’s Other Island” 45
Mr Laurence Doyle is a man of 36, with passivity. He can be deceived, he is cold grey eyes, strained nose, fine sentimental and boastful even, but never fastidious lips, critical brows, clever head, passive. When he first meets Nora at the refined and goodlooking on the whole, but Round Tower, he is captured by a whirl of with a suggestion of thinskinnedness and emotions (Suddenly betraying a condition dissatisfaction that contrasts strongly with of extreme sentimentality - 101) to the Broadbent’s eupeptic jollity (73). extent that Nora thinks him – and at last he believes himself – drunk. But it is all the We may see that the description of the same: either he is sentimental or drunk he figure is related to inner features of the breaks the code of the stage-Englishman, personality, and that these features can be entering the code of the stage-Irishman. much more related to the stereotypical And what is more, he cannot judge his own English character, since they all refer in act any more; he keeps asking Nora, his some ways to rationality and absence of valet and Larry to interpret his behaviour. emotions and/or humour. Further, Doyle is the one who provides criticism of the BROADBENT (fearfully agitated). But Celtic dreaminess and imagination by this is such a horrible doubt to put into my abstaining from anything considered mind – to – to For Heaven’s sake, Miss national and Irish (people, ideals, and Reilly, am I really drunk? …(104). politics). And with each of his acts he is trying to maintain his remoteness, by deaf BROADBENT. Did you notice anything and blind cold-heartedness in cases of about me last night when I came in with private relations, and by a kind of that lady? sophisticated rationalism in political and HODSON (surprised). No, sir. social ones. Just as in the scene where BROADBENT. Not any – er-? You may Roscullen men are gathered in his father’s speak frankly. garden (act III) to ask Larry for going into HODSON. I didn’t notice nothing, sir. parliament. What these people are waiting What sort of thing did you mean, sir? for is exactly not what Larry gives them: a BROADBENT. Well – er – er – Well, to bitter analysis of local power relations and put it plainly, was I drunk? a disappointed interpretation of the effects HODSON (amazed). No, sir. of land acts. This way Doyle is producing BROADBENT. Quite sure? …(105). the features of a stereotypical English character. However this is the first point LARRY. Well you are nice infant to be where reversals are reversed again and the let loose in this country! Fancy the strategy of “hunting down from position to potcheen going to your head like that. position” leads to maintaining the original BROADBENT. Not to my head, I think. status quo. Larry walks into the trap of I have no headache; and I could speak stereotypes. By merely rejecting them, he distinctly. No, potcheen goes to the hearth, has not shown an alternative yet. Larry in not to the head. What ought I to do? (110). all of his ways remains passive and artificially non-competent, just the way the His political speech also remains within Arnoldian tradition constructs the Irish. the boundaries of stage-Irishry. His speech A similar process can be detected on – compared to Larry’s highly logical, and the side of Broadbent. Although he is an thus a conveyable one – is a heap of Englishman, his figure represents the ideological nonsense. One can only recall features of stage-Irishry, except one, that is its vivacious promising qualities: 46 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
BROADBENT. …I look forward to the 4. Conclusion time when an Irish legislature shall arise once more on the emerald College Green, Ambiguous and modern, John Bull’s and the Union Jack – that detestable Other Island deconstructs the traditional symbol of a decadent Imperialism – be representation of the stage-Irishman on the replaced by a flag as green as the island one hand and also deconstructs that of the over which it waves - … stage-Englishman on the other. By DORAN. That’s the style, begob! (121). reversing reversals this drama highlights modern problems of identity, without It seems reasonable that Broadbent lays providing easily accessible answers to its the same trick on the Roscullen men that readers and audience. mocked him in the case of Tim Haffigan. He is acting out the Paddy, showing References himself a harmless fool. In turn Cornelius Doyle, Doran and Father Dempsey accept 1. Grene, Nicholas. The Politics of Irish him as a tool for their political ambitions. Drama. Cambridge: Cambridge This is the obstacle we have already met University Press, 1999. with Larry Doyle: although stereotypes are 2. Innes, Christopher. Modern British turned inside-out, we are still in the same Drama 1890-1990. Cambridge: relational system. We cannot step out of Cambridge University Press, 1992. the historical fact that there is a coloniser- 3. Kiberd, Declan. Inventing Ireland. The colonised relation, and in the position of Literature of the Modern Nation. the coloniser Broadbent can afford himself London: Vintage, 1996. stage-Irishry without any loss of power. 4. Shaw, George Bernard. John Bull’s The status quo is reinforced. Other Island. A Fearless Champion of the Truth. Moscow: Progress publishers, 1977.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
HISTORY AS A MARKER OF OTHERNESS IN ROHINTON MISTRY’S “A FINE BALANCE”
Adina CÂMPU1
Abstract: Rohinton Mistry is an Indian born writer belonging to the Parsi community. He has been living in Canada for the past thirty years where he is currently one of the most celebrated writers to emerge out of the multicultural framework of the country. This paper deals with one of the ways in which he constructs cultural difference/Otherness in his second and most famous novel to date “A Fine Balance” first published in 1995. The book is set in an unnamed city that the reader can easily guess is Bombay and it concentrates on the terror experienced by people during the State of Emergency of 1975-1977 underlining the most unsightly and hideous aspects of life such as poverty, despair and violence.
Key words: Emergency, post-independence, Partition, public, private.
1. Introduction Parsi life to embrace the fate of the wider Indian nation at the time of the infamous “A Fine Balance” is Mistry’s second Emergency. He concerns himself here novel set in an unnamed city that the not only with members of the Parsi reader can easily guess is Bombay, the community but also with lower caste author’s native city. The year is 1975 when Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. It is mainly a Mistry emigrated to Canada and the year list of characters from the margins who that Indira Gandhi declared a State of find themselves at the mercy of the Emergency setting herself up as India’s Brahminical and pseudo-secular elites virtual dictator. The novel has received shaping India in the 1970s. “A Fine wide critical acclaim and numerous Balance” can be labelled a historical novel awards, among which the Los Angeles as it presents some of the most important Times Book Prize in Fiction and the events in the history of post-independence Commonwealth Writers Prize can be India and the way these affect the lives of mentioned, and was short listed for the ordinary people. The point of view of the prestigious Booker Prize. The book people in power, the actual actors is not concentrates its attention on the terror given but instead, we deal with a view of experienced by people during the the ones who suffer the consequences of Emergency underlining the most unsightly their actions. The book focuses on two and hideous aspects of life such as poverty, such events: the Partition coupled with despair and violence. In this novel Mistry Indian Independence in 1947 and the State expands his area of interest moving beyond of Emergency between 1975-1977.
1 Department of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov.
48 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Though a comprehensive presentation of never lost sight of that quest or forgotten these historical events is beyond the scope the ideals which gave her strength. We end of this paper I consider that a certain today a period of ill fortune and India amount of information is essential to an discovers herself again”1 accurate understanding of the problems under investigation. But the heralded good fortune was yet to come. Nehru was generally considered a 2. Historical Facts successful leader and the nation was at peace during his time in office. After he India had been a British colony for many died in 1964, Lal Bahadur Shastri came to years, but in 1946, after Indian nationalists power. Shastri’s rule was more violent and had long fought for a sovereign state, bloody, he declared war on Pakistan after it British officials decided they would grant invaded two regions of India. He died India independence if its leaders could suddenly in 1966 after only twenty months agree upon a form of government. The as prime minister and was succeeded by New Congress Party and the Muslim Indira Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru’s only League could not agree, and violence daughter. Her appointment to the head of between Muslims and Hindus erupted the ruling Congress Party was considered a throughout the country. Indian and British compromise between the right and left officials agreed upon a solution to the wings of the party; however right-wingers bloody quarrel: They would partition India in the party continually questioned her into two separate nations – India and leadership. Shortly after her New Congress Pakistan. Unfortunately, this did not put an party won a landslide victory in 1972, her end to the bloodshed and many people had opponents in the Socialist Party alleged to leave their homes: Sikhs and Hindus in that she had committed electoral Pakistan moved to India and Muslims in malpractice In June 1975 the High Court India moved to Pakistan. The violence ruled against her, which should have meant between Hindus and Muslims is presented that she would lose her seat and be obliged in the novel and the reader is also witness to stay out of politics for six years. Rather to the impact it has on the lives of than submit to the judgment, Mrs. Gandhi characters such as Narayan and Ishvar as instructed the President of India to well as Farokh Kholah. announce the State of Emergency just On August 15th, 1947, the day after before midnight on 25th of June 1975. She Pakistan achieved independence, India imprisoned her political foes, passed laws became an independent nation too. that limited personal freedom and placed Jawaharlal Nehru served as the newly the nation’s press under strict censorship. independent state’s first Prime Minister. She demonstrated her mastery over time His inaugural speech, delivered at the itself by introducing constitutional stroke of midnight on the 15th of August, amendments conferring on herself 1947, pointed to India’s long history of ups retrospective immunity from prosecution and downs. in respect of past or future criminal offences. Perhaps the most sinister “At the dawn of history India started on elements of the Emergency were initiated her unending quest, and trackless centuries by Indira’s son and so-called heir, Sanjay are filled with her striving and the Gandhi. In the guise of ‘beautification’ a grandeur of her successes and failures. process of slum clearance and family Through good and ill fortune alike she has planning was instituted. In practice, the
Câmpu, A.: History as a Marker of Otherness in ... 49 former meant clearing the poor away from 3. Interference of the Public Historical areas they had improved and made Sphere with the Personal Intimate One habitable all by themselves so that these slices of real estate could be used by 3. 1. The Partition of 1947 Sanjay’s friends, the property developers. The latter meant that people were forced or Although the doing of the people in tricked into allowing themselves to be power, all the events narrated above have sterilized, in order that ‘motivators’, had a considerable impact on ordinary conscripted to impose the unpopular citizens such as the protagonists of this measure, could meet the targets imposed novel. After India’s gaining independence on them by employers empowered to in 1947 the majority of Indians rejoiced at bestow or withhold financial rewards. the departure of the British colonizers. Sanjay Gandhi became extremely powerful However as history shows Indians proved during the Emergency because his mother unable to cope with the immense saw him as one of the few people she responsibility of being their own rulers. could trust. When she felt certain that she The Parsis who had thrived during British had effectively quelled her political colonization suffered immensely at the opposition, Gandhi finally called for open departure of the colonizers and complained elections in 1977. However, she misjudged that the latter had left too early. Instead of her support and she and her party were trying to cope with their new status within defeated. She left office but returned to post colonial India most of them chose to Parliament in 1978.As Sanjay was killed in celebrate the past and long for it. This is a plane crash in 1980, Indira began to what Maneck’s parents used to do during prepare her second son, Rajiv, for the their gatherings with friends, while of leadership of the New Congress party. She course, following British fashions. ruled as prime Minister again from 1980 until her assassination in 1984.In the early “Consolation, as always was found in 1980s, several of India’s different muddled criticism of the colonizers who, populations sought more independence lacking the stomach for proper from the central government. Sikhsa conclusions, had departed in a hurry, extremists in the Punjab region resorted to though the post-mortem was tempered by violence to voice their demands for nostalgia for the old days” (Mistry 209). autonomy. Gandhi responded by ordering an army attack on the Sikhs’ holiest shrine, If we consider the situation of Farokh the Golden Temple of Amritsar, in June Kohlah we discover that it is not only 1984. More than four hundred and fifty nostalgia for times gone by but also a more Sikhs were killed in this attack. In pragmatic sadness over the departure of the November 1984 Gandhi was assassinated colonizers as he had lost huge plots of land in her own garden by two of her Sikh constituting the majority of his estate in the bodyguards. Under Mrs. Gandhi’s Partition. He is now left with only a small leadership India’s democracy suffered shop to run out of which the family has to immensely. Besides the abusive measures manage to earn their living. during the Emergency, Gandhi also increased the use of military force in the “Once, though, Maneck’s family had been nation, and she fostered a culture of extremely wealthy. Fields of grain, nepotism. orchards of apple and peach, a lucrative contract to supply provisions to
50 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV cantonments along the frontier – all this kindness to them by saving the latter and was among the inheritance of Farokh his family from the hands of an angry Kohlah, and he tended it well, making it Hindu mob ready to slaughter and burn to increase and multiply for the wife he was the ground everything Muslim. to marry and the son who would be born. Though part of an upper-middle class But long before that eagerly awaited birth, family and living in the city Dina, too, there was another gorier parturition, when feels the consequences of historical events two nations incarnated out of one. A for- even if not directly. As a young teenager eigner drew a magic line on a map and she has a very troubled relationship with called it the new border; it became a her brother whose strict and abusive rules river of blood upon the earth. And the she finds difficult to obey. As a result of orchards, fields, factories, businesses all the violence accompanying the on the wrong side of that line, vanished Independence and Partition she is banned with a wave of the pale conjuror’s wand” from leaving the house, a fact which traps (Mistry 205). her within the confines of her brother’s tyranny. Farokh has to fight for the lost land but hope of getting it back is very scarce. His “But a few days later riots started in the fight, though, is not only for the financial city, in the wake of Partition and the gains that the recovered land would bring British departure, and Dina was stuck at him. We learn that he is a fierce lover of home with Nusswan…..When the curfew nature which turns out to be one of the was lifted, Dina flew off to school, happy things he cares most about. He gets all his as an uncaged bird, eager for her eight energy and lust for life from the long walks hours of Nusswan-less existence” in the forests. The fights and chaos brought (Mistry 25). about by the Partition are contrasted with the peaceful and orderly rhythm of nature. Miraculously Nusswan allows Dina to Nevertheless, he is not the only character throw away her plaits after the curfew as if in the book whose life is shattered by the the riots and aggression had touched a Partition. The violent conflicts between sensitive chord in his heart. She has gained Hindus and Muslims reach unimaginable a new right just like the country she resides proportions in certain regions. in has gained independence.
“…communal slaughter at the brand 3.2. The State of Emergency new border had ignited riots everywhere, and sporting a fez in a Hindu The second historical event, the State of neighborhood was as fatal as possessing a Emergency, has an overwhelming presence foreskin in a Muslim one. In certain areas in the novel and devastating consequences it was wiser to go bareheaded, for for the existence of many characters. choosing incorrectly among fez, white cap, Ishvar and Omprakash are probably the and turban could mean losing one’s ones who suffer the most. In the name of head.” (Mistry, 87). the so-called ‘beautification’ programme their shack in the “jhopadpatti’2 is Ishvar and Narayan are witnesses to all destroyed by bulldozers, they are not this aggression while they learn the trade allowed to sleep in the railway station or of tailoring in the house of the Muslim on the pavement and they are taken by Ashraf Chacha. They repay the Muslim’s force to a work camp where conditions are
Câmpu, A.: History as a Marker of Otherness in ... 51 almost unbearable for any human being. dispensable layer consists of the identical In this context the slogan of the pawns. Because they have no individual government: “The nation is on the move!” identities, these pawns are easily (Mistry, 303) seems more than ironical expandable. India’s pawns are the poor, because moving which should stand for like Avinash, the homeless, like Ishvar and progress and advancement does in fact Om, all of whom exist at the bottom of the stand for destruction and homelessness. social pyramid. Unfortunately the reader Individuals lose their human dignity and discovers that rich people do not make any basic rights. Ishvar and Omprakash are effort to understand the drama of these horribly mutilated by the enforced individuals. An example would be the sterilizations and subsequent infection attitude expressed by Nusswan and Mrs. which causes Ishvar to lose his legs Gupta of Au Revoir Exports. Dina’s leaving him in the impossibility of brother is supportive of government practicing tailoring and thus earning his measures considering that: living. Very significant in this respect is Omprakash’s remark: “You really thought “People sleeping on the pavements gives they would help? said Om. ‘Don’t you industry a bad name. My friend was saying understand? We are less than animals to last week – he’s the director of a them.’” (Mistry, 540) And as if this were multinational, mind you, not some small, not enough Ishavr and Om lose their good two-paisa business – he was saying that at friend and mentor Ashraf who is beaten to least two hundred million people are death in the market place in the course of surplus to requirements, they should be the irresponsible actions which eliminated…..got rid of. Counting them as characterized the State of Emergency. A unemployment statistics year after year man in the sterilization camp accurately gets us nowhere just makes the numbers summarizes the situation: “When the ones look bad. What kind of lives do they have in power have lost their reason, there is no anyway? They sit in the gutter and look hope” (Mistry, 535) like corpses. Death would be a mercy” Not only the very poor are powerless in (Mistry 372-373) the face of the terror of the Emergency. Maneck loses the only friend he had Nusswan calls the Prime Minister “Our managed to make at college- the Students visionary leader” and the Emergency “A Union leader, Avinash, who is tortured to true spirit of Renaissance” (Mistry 371) death by the police for speaking against which is again highly ironical because one government measures. It is again ironical of the most important values associated that Avinash is the one who introduces with renaissance is the celebration of the Maneck to the game of chess. The use of human spirit, the very spirit which is chess as a metaphor for life fits on several crushed during the Emergency. Similarly, levels and Avinash tries to use chess to Mrs. Gupta, the owner of Au Revoir teach the naïve country boy about life; not Exports is the capitalist who prospers in a very successfully apparently. The socialist setting. Like Nusswan she is very chessmen are divided in function, pyramid ignorant of the fate of the poor and style, like the structure of a society. At the dispossessed and praises the Emergency top are the king and queen, who are benefits. Indeed, the State of Emergency protected and insulated by the various gives her the possibility to pay low wages layers of defense below them: rooks, and make a good profit without fear of bishops, knights. The major and most union leaders and strikes. She is the voice
52 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV of the wealthier class who supports Indira houses, our healthy children! Show that to Gandhi and fails to see the humanity of the the Prime Minister!’ (Mistry 318-319) people below her. She relies on the empty but logically balanced rhetoric of Gandhi’s Moreover, descriptions of the activities corrupt government to justify her own of the audience during the political actions in business. speeches illustrate the latter’s complete It is to be noted that Mistry exposes the lack of relevance to the concerns of the pomposity and the absurdity of the actions slum dwellers. The commentary of the hair of the political regime in memorable collector, Rajaram - “’See!’ said Rajaram. satirical scenes. The chapter wittingly ‘I told you it’s going to be a day at the entitled “Day at the Circus, Night in the circus – we have clowns, monkeys, Slum” is representative of this. Here, acrobats, everything’” (Mistry 325)- Ishvar, Om, Rajaram and all the people makes the otherwise unformulated living in the hutment colony are forced to criticism of the masquerade of fawning get on buses in order to attend a Prime politicians, rehearsed hand-clapping Minister speech. The metaphor of the exercises and various gimmicks to get the circus is introduced as government audience to clap obvious. officials arrive in the ‘jhopadpatti’ to A “drum roll of water” (Mistry 258) gather the people for the speech. accompanies the spokesman invitation to the rally and modifies his pitch. When “Their performance on the tightrope of despite the reward offered – five rupees, mud soon collected a crowd. A puff of wind sandwiches and tea – most people prove caught the umbrellas; the men wobbled. A unwilling to go Sergeant Kesar orders his stronger gust pulled them off balance. men to block the slum exits and force The audience began to laugh. Some people to get on the buses. Ironically, children imitated the funny walk. The visi- Monkey –Man is prohibited from bringing tors abandoned their sandals to the mud his monkeys because their presence might and, mustering dignity, walked towards the give the prime minister’s speech the water tap queue” (Mistry 258). appearance of a circus while her political acolytes bow in front of her with The episode is an occasion to describe humiliation. Everything seems staged and the idiosyncratic exaggeration those in fake. The stage on which the rally is to power indulge in. It is one of the occasions take place is bedecked with flowers and that serves, once again, to show that illuminated by colored lights, and there is description, even when it is seemingly even an eighty foot cardboard-and- neutral and objective, can be a weapon for plywood cut out of the Prime Minister, incisive political commentary. The with arms outstretched, an outline map of absolute alienation of the forced audience India forming a battered halo behind her from the political discourse is made clear head. Compared to all these massive even before the rally by the deliberately decorations Indira Gandhi and her speech ironic comments of the slum dwellers to seem less impressive. Her gesture of the party workers when invited to attend flinging the garlands with which she has the rally: been overwhelmed into the crowd is not well received: “’Tell her how happy we are! Why do we need to come?’… ‘Ask your men with “’Her father also used to do that when cameras to pull some photos of our lovely he was Prime Minister’ said Ishvar.
Câmpu, A.: History as a Marker of Otherness in ... 53
‘Yes’, said Rajaram. “I saw it once. But Sadly the implementation of the Twenty- when he did it he looked humble.’ Point programme will have a direct and ‘She looks like she is throwing rubbish at destructive effect upon the lives of Om and us,’ said Om. Ishvar. The Prime Minister expressed Rajaram laughed. ‘Isn’t that the through this her wish to provide houses for politician’s specialty?’ (Mistry 263) the poor, control population growth and eliminate poverty from cities, towns and Mistry takes the parody a step further villages. But rather than adopt a rational when a helicopter takes to the sky and humane approach in dealing with these scattering packets of rose petals, one of problems, coercion, abuse and tyranny are which fails to open concussing an used to achieve the objectives both in the onlooker, and the event is ‘blessed’ by the course of the narrative as in the the presence of Sanjay Gandhi floating above historical reality. A few days after the in a hot air balloon dropping above the rally, Om and Ishvar return home to the audience leaflets outlining the Twenty - devastating sight of their “jhopadpatty” Point Programme. The words of the master being razed to the ground according to of ceremonies are hilarious and ridiculous: “City Beautification” plans so much praised by the complacent middle-class as “Yes my brothers and sisters, Mother we have already seen above. All this is India sits on stage with us, and the son of carried out by the ubiquitous Sergeant India shines from the sky upon us! The Kesar, representative of the law who will glorious present here, now, and the be encountered at each unhappy turning glorious future up there, waiting to point in the lives of the tailors. It is left to descend and embrace our lives! What a the constables to explain what is being blessed nation we are!” (Mistry, 266) done to the disbelieving slum dwellers. The paradox of these decisions taken in the The farcical situation reaches the climax higher echeleons of power is that the when the giant cutout, disturbed by the eradication of the slum is followed by the wind whipped up by the helicopter’s erection of two giant billboards with the blades, hovers over the crowd below: Prime Minister’s face. However, the next point of the “The crowd shouted in alarm. The figure programme is yet to be implemented. City with outstretched arms groaned, and the beautification has to be followed by the ropes strained at the moorings. Security elimination of poverty. Officials step in to men waved frantically at the helicopter legally allow the elimination of poverty by while struggling to hold onto the ropes and giving the representatives of the law the braces. But the whirlwind was much too power to arrest the inoffensive beggars. strong to withstand. The cutout started to The tailor’s next ordeal is the experience topple slowly, face forward. Those in the of being lifted from the streets being vicinity of the cardboard-and-plywood brought by force to the work camp where giant ran for their lives” (Mistry 267). they are coerced to backbreaking labour and treated like slaves. As a representative, The rally breaks up and ambulances though a reluctant one, of the law and the “Come to collect the casualties of the state, Sergeant Kesar has had to do many eighty-foot Prime Minister’s collapse” such lawful but humanly shameful jobs, (Mistry 267). and the guilt of his actions for decisions
54 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV made by the powerful elite haunt him. The anonymity and heartlessness of the entire proceedings are contrasted with the reaction “A Fine Balance” offers the social of the beggars as they try to protect articulation of Otherness from a minority themselves from the callous cruelty of perspective, focusing on the world of the authorized institutional officials towards the deprived classes with their aspirations disempowered poor. The description of the and assertions. The proliferation of conditions in the work camp that builds to alternative histories of the excluded the development issue in the novel adds to produces a pluralist anarchy on the one the sense of unease with government policy. hand and recreates the nation it belongs The tailors’ return to the city marks their to on the other. This novel tries to involvement with a new type of urban uncover the suppressed or neglected or subalternity, as controlled subjects to misrepresented chapters of Indian history whom Beggarmaster is a protector. The and present the writer’s point of view as final blow to their human dignity will take well. This re-narration of history from place with the forced implementation of his own personal perspective helps the another government policy – sterilization writer to construct his own story of both as a way of population control. The irony his community and nation. of how ‘development’ and ‘beautification’ institutionalize cruelty and exploitation is References obvious. The implication is that any urban development and government measure 1. Bhautoo – Dewnarain, Nandini. works in conjunction with the so-called Rohinton Mistry. An Introduction. ‘law’ to exploit the poor. They take place New Delhi: Cambridge University invariably at the cost of humanity. Press India Pvt. Ltd., 2007. Mistry prefers to refrain from presenting 2. Herbert, Marilyn. Bookclub-in-a-Box: directly his opposition towards Rohinton Mistry’s A Fine Balance. Emergency. There are instances in the Toronto: McClelland & Stewart Inc., novel where his characters voice their anti- 1995. Emergency opinions directly but these are 3. Mistry, Rohinton. A Fine Balance. scarce. However, in this illustrative scene London and Boston: Faber and Faber, he brings to the fore the excesses and 1995. absurdities of the political regime. 4. Singh, A.K. Community in the Parsi Novels in English. New Delhi: 4. Conclusion Creative, 1997.
In presenting history Mistry concentrates on those moments or processes that are 1 Cited in Herbert, M. “Bookclub-in-a-Box: produced in the construction of cultural Rohinton Mistry’s ‘A Fine Balance’”. Toronto: Otherness. According to A.K. Singh McClelland & Stewart Inc, 1995. 2 A settlement of huts; a slum in India. “The prime aim of literature is to initiate dialogue where it does not exist, particularly between the people and the communities that share a certain geo-socio-eco-political and cultural space” (Singh 109)
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
MARGUERITE DURAS: OUT OF EDEN OR THE BETRAYAL OF INDOCHINA
Monica HÂRŞAN1
Abstract: This paper analyses the problems concerning Marguerite Duras's uprooting and frustration complex, generated by her neither French nor Indochinese full nationality. This feeling, which is rather discrete in her novels, becomes very explicit in her interviews, autobiographical writings or in the books that other cultural personalities dedicated to her.
Key words: violence, betrayal, sensuality, uprooting, memory, oblivion.
1. The Woman from Nowhere writer in the metropolis, where she never really felt at home. The most impressive “Je ne suis née nulle part” [“I was born part of the author’s work is a literary nowhere”] (Duras, 1987, 70) – here's a reflection of an autobiographical universe: rather shocking assertion which perfectly her childhood; but this image is not summarizes Marguerite Duras's relation to mirrored, it is decomposed and re-created the world and to the literary creation. It at another level, through a highly reflects, in fact, the ambiguous status of an subjective perspective. Within this author placed – ever since she was born – somehow magical space and time of her at the confluence of two different cultures childhood – resembling the mythical illo (that of Indochina – the colony, and that of tempore et centrum mundi – time itself France – the metropolis); she was always seems to be suspended and all the tormented by the frustrating feeling that important events happen under the sign of she had never really belonged to either of a double predestination: the blessing and them. “Enfant maigre et jaune”[“A slim the curse of Indochina. yellow child”] Duras, 1981, 277) , “jeune fille d'Indochine” [“young girl of 2. Memory and Oblivion Indochina”] (Duras, 1984, 120), “créole” [“creole”] (Lamy and Roy, 1981, 50) – Song of the memory, distress of pain and these are the words she uses to describe suffering, voluptuousness and abandon to herself (in a half ironical, half sad way) as desire, unmasked sexual pleasure, animal a genuine product of an Oriental country, joy of living, indignation face to inequity, as a daughter of the great Mekong river, quiet resignation: everything altogether is despite the French origin of her parents. poetic material for Marguerite Duras. Her Deep in her heart, Duras was constantly writing follows the movements of the torn apart between a tumultuous passionate stream of consciousness, carried away by love for her native land – a country she the random flux of her memory, never deserted, but she always longed for – and controlling her emotions, never censoring an irrepressible ambition to become a her images, never wanting to set order in
1 Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Transilvania University of Braşov. 56 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV her sometimes profuse and chaotic writing relationships, the prison of the family ties, (this is one of the reasons why she is and especially, the strong love-hate feeling considered a part of the French Nouveau she had for her mother. Duras's mother Roman). Obviously, in her case, writing was probably neither better, nor worse than and living are the two faces of the same any other mother in Vietnam or Cambodia. adventure called life. “Il n'y a pas de temps Her mother was a devoted and obstinate où je n'écris pas, j'écris tout le temps, woman, who imposed her hopeless dream même quand je dors” [“There's no moment (and the sacrifice attached to it) to the when I don't write, I write all the time, whole family. A young helpless widow, even when I sleep”] – Duras confesses left alone with her little children, after the (Martin & Coucherelle, 16). From her premature death of her husband, she had to point of view, an artist should both live struggle for her family's survival; with her and write with the same exaltation, with lifelong savings, she bought a plot of land the same indifference towards conventions, in Cambodia, which was often submerged pushing himself up to the edge, by the tide of the Pacific; despite exasperating the world by shouting out his everyone's advice, she wouldn't give up her revolt, his passion, his sensuality, in order material and sentimental investment. She to better emphasize a violence which built a sea wall which exhausted the last simultaneously liberates and keeps the family reserves and was washed away, in writing alive. “La violence est une chose no time, by the rage of the ocean. As she que l'on reconnaît. Ce n'est pas une chose persisted in resuming this useless qu'on ait à apprendre, c'est une chose (…) enterprise several times, ruining the family dont on a toujours, tout le long de sa vie, la budget and everyone's hopes for a better vocation profonde (…) je pense que ce future, she attracted upon herself the hatred n'est pas étranger au fait que j'écris.” of her children and eventually became [“Violence is something one can recognise. insane. This episode of Duras's life is It is not something you have to learn, it is described in the novel entitled Un Barrage something for which you have a deep contre le Pacifique [translated in English vocation all the time, during your whole as The Sea Wall]. The dramatic figure of life; (…) and I think it has something to do the mother haunts Duras's universe like a with the fact that I write”]. (Martin & spectre. Going back to the mother-daughter Coucherelle, 17). This is the credo of a relationship, there is yet another aspect that woman who experienced almost deepens the precipice between the two of everything and who seized life with both them: the way they perceive the problem hands, never paying too much attention to of pleasure and sexuality. The mother tried what she had to gain or loose. It is her to force her children fit inside a puritan, impetuous unleashed nature that governs old-fashioned pattern of life and both her life and her writing. Duras's demeanour, which was far too restrictive indestructible attachment to Indochina was from the daughter’s standpoint. Education at the origin of an apparently paradoxical did not work in the case of the tee-nager (a decision: neither to remember, nor to literary alter ego of Marguerite Duras) forget anything. who rebelled, from the very beginning of her adolescence, against any form of 3. A Mother to Die for (or to Put to Death) restriction. It was not the threats or the “sermons” of the mother that determined What Marguerite Duras does not like to the girl's rebellion and emancipation, but remember is the cruelty of inter-human her personal example. Marguerite Duras Hârşan, M.: Marguerite Duras: Out of Eden or The Betrayal of Indochina 57 characterises the mother-daughter birds, the leprosy, the fear, the floods etc. relationship by the following formula: Where does all this turmoil come from? “une mère vierge, une fille née femme” [“a The world where Duras grew up was built virgin mother, a woman-born daughter”] on two basic elements: violence and (Bisiaux, Jajolet, 163). In the novel entitled sensuality. Indochina has always been a L'Amant [The Lover”], the girl asserts that violent area; and Duras has grown up (until one of her mother's problems was that she the age seventeen, when she left for had never experienced pleasure: “La mère France) in Vietnam and Cambodia, where n'a jamais connu la jouissance” [The both the climate (unbearable humid heat, mother never knew pleasure”] (Duras, hot blasting sun) and the socio-historical 1984, 50). Unlike her, the young girl is circumstances (frequent wars, diseases and ready for love from her early youth: poverty) imposed a harsh and almost “J'avais, à quinze ans, le visage de la merciless conduct to the human beings. jouissance [“At the age of fifteen, I already The climate and the people are very much had the face of pleasure”] (Duras, 1984, alike. In a word, a hard struggle for 50). Despite the conflicting situations, the surviving shaped a prototype of non- daughter never stopped loving this empathic creature, who leads his/her life unfortunate creature that happened to be based on animal instincts. The only refuge her mother. She felt a desperate tenderness and compensation for all that misery was for her, for her will to struggle, for her love: savage, unleashed, passionate love. devotion to the family, for her sacrifice, for Another explanation can be found in the the purity of her generous heart. personality of the writer herself: just like the Mekong river – which quietly flows 4. The Parting from Indochina and the through her native land, but sometimes Betrayal of the “Natural Solidarity” floods the riverbanks, ruining people's long-life labour and destinies – Marguerite This ambivalent feeling the author has Duras was apparently a calm and quiet for her mother is very much similar to the person, except for the moments of one she nourishes for her country. She unexpected crises, which revealed her true describes the incredible sensations inspired nature: an impetuous, rebel, violent and to her by the beauty of this far-away land, extremely sensual one. In those distant dominated by the luxuriance of nature, by areas of the globe, where climate is harsh the grandeur of the scenery, by the and indigence is everywhere, human majestic flow of the Mekong river, by the behaviour is shaped in a strange way. It deep emotion of the vast forests; but within was only predictable that such a free and this tremendous beauty (just like in some rebel person as Marguerite Duras could not of Albert Camus's works), one can feel the stay for a long-time in Indochina, without sadness of an agonizing society, the touch causing “troubles in Paradise”. She always of too much pain and suffering. nourished the hope of becoming a writer, The image of this world is that of a place and, obviously, that was not the fate where everything goes together: extreme reserved for a Vietnamese or Cambodian richness and extreme poverty, prison-like girl. Whatever she might have tried, that family relationships, the freedom of savage society would have never accepted her in life, the difficulty of surviving, the that hypostasis. The only way of escaping precarious life, the threat of imminent her grey destiny was to leave Indochina death, the precocity of sensual love, the and go to the metropolis, to Paris – the almost unbearable heat, the song of the capital of all refinements, pleasures and 58 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV hopes, in order to join people of her own traditional societies. The family, the clan, kind. And that was precisely what she did. the community are closely bound together At the age of seventeen, she turns her back through the principle of a so-called on the past, on her happy childhood, on her “natural solidarity”, which sometimes – in unhappy mother, family, community and a subterraneous way – has the tendency of country, to settle down in Paris. And this replacing the law system or any other kind was the beginning of a new era for her, the of institution which should govern a age of Marguerite Duras as a successful civilised nation. That is why Marguerite writer, who charmed and delighted France Duras could not have accomplished her (and the rest of the World) through her personality and her spiritual emancipation sincere, wild, direct, violent, passionate in such a society, where her role would writing. And yet, she never lost the feeling have been restricted to a precise area: of belonging to that far-away savage land, marriage, maternity, housework. Nothing from which she extracts her power of like a literary career. Maybe she could seduction, as well as her amazing energy have made a good housewife. But certainly and vitality. Marguerite Duras's destiny it would have been a great loss for and literary work vitally depended on her literature. departure and on the “betrayal” of Indochina. And she was ready to pay the References price for that infidelity. Although she was rewarded for her bravery act, she always 1. Banfield, Edward. The Moral Basis of felt unaccomplished, frustrated, alienated a Backward Society. Chicago: Free in her adoption country. And she always Press, 1958. longed for Indochina: “C'est ça que je 2. Bisiaux, Marcel and Christine Jajolet. découvre maintenant, c'est que c'était faux, À ma mère. Paris: Éd. Pierre Horay, cette appartenance à la race française, 1988. pardon, à la nationalité française (…). On 3. Duras, Marguerite. Un barrage contre était plus des Vietnamiens, vous voyez, le Pacifique. Paris: Gallimard, 1950. que des Français” [“This is what I've just 4. Duras, Marguerite and Michèle Porte. discovered now: it was a false idea, that of Les lieux de Marguerite Duras. Paris: my belonging to the French race, sorry, to Éditions de Minuit, 1977. the French nationality (…). We were rather 5. Duras, Marguerite. Outside. Paris: Vietnamese than French, you see.”] (Duras Albin Michel, 1981. & Porte, 1977, 60). At a closer look, we 6. Duras, Marguerite. L'Amant. Paris: can notice hat Duras's voluntary uprooting Éditions de Minuit, 1984. and imposed exile looks more like a social 7. Duras, Marguerite. La Vie matérielle. determination than a simple need of Paris: POL, 1987. freedom. Her relationship with the 8. Lamy, Suzanne and André Roy. Indochinese society can be interpreted Marguerite Duras à Montréal. through the theory of an American Québec: Éditions Spirale, 1981. anthropologist, Edward Banfield, who, in 9. Martin, Patricia and Gérard. his work entitled The Moral Basis of a Coucherelle. L'Arc no. 98 (entretiens Backward Society, postulates the idea of radiophoniues). Paris: France Inter, the a “hierarchy of loyalties” that governs the 20th of June, 1991.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
L’OPIUM DANS LE CONTEXTE DE L’IMAGINAIRE COLONIAL. VOYAGES DANS L’ORIENT ET INTOXICATIONS OPIACÉES
Andrada FǍTU-TUTOVEANU1
Abstract: The present study focuses on the representation of opiates in colonial French and British travelogues during the 19th century. One of the major concepts is that of travel, inherited from the Romantic imagery but given new meanings and dimensions. ‘Orientalism’ and exoticism have penetrated European culture in direct connection to the idea of travelling and otherness and have become a fashion especially during Romantic and post-Romantic literature. Colonialism has brought, especially during the second half of the 19th century, a new dimension to the Far East attraction. Travelling to the colonies has become a more or less common activity, while the strangeness of otherness is now touchable and even appropriated. Opium has played a major part in both type of travels, but in what we call here ‘colonial literature’ its part, especially in stereotypical representations of the East has become essential. Colonial exoticism ‘dresses up’ a body of stereotypes, within which the viewer’s own perspective and culture lead to a subjective (‘European’) and often artificial perception of the East.
Key words: Opium, colonies, travel, travelogue, Far-East, 19th century.
1. Introduction fascinant et las à la fois, ne constitue, en fin de compte, que l’« Orient » de Ce qui caractérise la période coloniale, l’Européen, tel que celui-ci le perçoit par le c’est que le mystère presque impénétrable biais de ses préjugés et de ses stéréotypes. de l’Orient qui ne pouvait auparavant que laisser songeur acquiert maintenant des 2. Voyages en Orient contours précis ; les courses régulières (il est vrai, avec des escales à noms D’ailleurs, les voyages en Orient exotiques) remplacent la traversée (devenus même un genre littéraire) se romantique de la mer, exposée à l’aventure multiplient au cours du XIXe siècle sur et aux intempéries. Néanmoins, cet Orient l’arrière-plan d’une ouverture encouragée, enfin accessible, du moins au niveau au niveau le plus pragmatique, par superficiel, ressenti même comme une l’évolution des moyens de transport et par « bolgie » ou niveau inférieure de l’empire le renforcement des échanges (fût-il français ou britannique) ou comme commerciaux dans les colonies. En outre, une fourmilière étrange plongée dans les « le voyage se démocratise » (Yvorel 39), fumées des pipes d’opium, un Orient
1 PhD, Research Assistant, Transilvania University of Braşov. 60 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV tissant toute une littérature autour de ces entre autres) qui exigent un « journaux de bord ». éclaircissement, dans le contexte de cette Le voyage devient ainsi, au niveau préoccupation (devenue mode) pour symbolique, l’équivalent de la libération l’espace oriental et, notamment, extrême- ou, recourant à un cliché romantique, de oriental. « La question d’Extrême-Orient l’évasion d’un monde restrictif pour commence à se poser autour de 1840 et pénétrer dans une zone de prend fin avec la dislocation du système l’indétermination spatio-temporelle et de colonial. » (Copin 80). Le syntagme a, l’illusion de la liberté absolue : « un espace d’ailleurs, son histoire propre, à vraiment lointain, à la fois mythique et commencer par l’adjectif initial concret » (Copin 84). « extrême » jusqu’à la naturalisation de Dans Fumeurs d’opium, Jules Boissière l’expression ou à son emploi extensif, écrivait : « Ici, l’horizon libre de toutes renvoyant à tout l’espace asiatique, parts; et, bien au-delà de l’horizon oriental. Tout en parlant des auteurs silencieux et désert, encore du désert et du coloniaux, nous pouvons remarquer qu’en silence. […] un espace vague, de terre et 1886, par exemple, dans son roman d’air, où se sont dispersées, diluées, L’Opium, Paul Bonnetain emploie le terme anéanties, toutes les rumeurs du monde « l’Extrême-Orient » en majuscules, lointain, et cette angoisse confuse qui pèse comprenant par là la Chine, le Japon, la sur l’existence du solitaire quand il connaît Corée, les pays du Sud-Est asiatique et la l’exacte limite de la solitude et du silence » partie orientale de la Russie. On va (Boissière, qtd. in Copin 84). retrouver ce terme chez Jules Boissière Ce n’est pas seulement le terme final du aussi, dans Fumeurs d’opium. On assiste, voyage, la destination, qui est concerné, mais de la sorte, à une « mutation aussi le voyage même (comme chez les toponymique » d’un Orient extrême vers Romantiques) : « la traversée1 constitue elle- un Extrême-Orient, pour des raisons qu’on même une entité propre, elle fournit le sujet ne saurait bien comprendre (vu qu’on de récits, de romans ou d’essais, et devient insiste sur la différence ou sur l’extrême, il un thème littéraire » (Copin 83-84). nous semble qu’il s’y agit soit de la La mer figure un espace de perception d’un plus grand éloignement l’affranchissement, un « territoire non par rapport à un Orient « intégré » grâce au borné, ouvert sur le rêve et l’aventure, (et, colonialisme soit du besoin d’une paradoxe, promis à la mission civilisatrice séparation plus nette entre moi et l’Autre). de la colonisation) séduit ceux qui quittent De toute façon, il y a des voix qui insistent l’Europe aux anciens parapets, en quête sur le fait qu’il y a plus qu’un seul Orient d’une vie nouvelle. » (84). (l’Inde, le Japon, la Chine, la Perse, supposant des formes de culture 3. Orient - Occident extrêmement différentes) et que le nouveau terme « complète aujourd’hui la série L’engouement du XIXe siècle pour Orient, Proche-Orient, Moyen-Orient, l’Orient se développe ainsi sur un arrière- même s’il regroupe des cultures qui n’ont plan romantique et se maintient dans les en commun que d’être loin… de notre autres formules (l’exotisme représentant ici Occident. » (Copin 81). Ce qui est de plus, un vocable essentiel surtout pour ce qui il y a des avis selon lesquels les mots touche à la problématique des opiacés). La mêmes Orient et Occident seraient « question de l’Orient » soulève pourtant inappropriés, ce qui rend d’autant plus quelques problèmes (terminologiques, problématique la relation identité Fǎtu-Tutoveanu, A. : L’opium dans le contexte de l’imaginaire colonial 61 vs altérité établie entre les deux mondes contrastaient avec les formes européennes qui se définissent à travers ces deux puritaines mais qui captivaient les esprits termes. en raison de leur étrangeté exotique. Pour « Orient-Occident. Pris au pied de la les gens engloutis dans les brouillards de la lettre, [ces deux termes] sont absurdes Révolution industrielle, la décadence n’a depuis que la terre est devenue ronde ; jamais eu autant de pouvoir fascinatoire l’Inde est officiellement l’Occident (Si-Yu) qu’à ce moment-là. Ce qui peut apparaître pour la Chine, comme le Japon (Jè-Pen, le des nos jours comme un orientalisme plus lever du soleil) est pour elle l’Orient. ou moins suspect, c’était à cette époque-là L’Amérique qui est notre Occident est une bouffée d’air frais ; ainsi, lorsqu’on a l’Orient des Orientaux. Humainement, fait entrer l’opium [dans sa formule de Orient et Occident ne sont pas moins fumerie, la substance étant déjà utilisée absurdes. […] Je me rappelle un fantaisiste dans d’autres formules – n.n.] dans qui ne reconnaissait au monde que deux l’Europe du XIXe siècle, grâce aux langues : le français et l’étranger. voyageurs rentrés d’Asie et du Moyen- L’inventeur de la formule Orient-Occident Orient, la coutume s’est vite répandue vu était de la même famille » (Émile-Paul qtd. la passion grandissante pour les pratiques in Copin 81). exotiques et charmantes des habitants des Le terme même d’« Orient » recoupe, territoires éloignés » (Shearing 36). ainsi, – et cela même au XXe siècle – « des Parmi ces « pratiques exotiques », significations diverses, qui renvoient à des l’opiomanie en constitue l’une des plus projections et à des clivages différents : ce prisées et la plus importante, peut-être, du sont ‘les imprécisions de la chimère’ point de vue culturel. Le contexte y aidait : (Moura, qtd. in Copin 81), qui soulignent renforcement progressif des contacts avec les expansions d’un Orient fabuleux dans l’Orient (en raison des conquêtes l’imaginaire occidental » (Copin 81-82). coloniales), traditions médicales liées à De quelque manière que ce conglomérat l’opium qui circulaient déjà dans l’espace fût perçu, la mode de l’exotisme de souche européen, manque – à cette époque-là – orientale (visible en art, en littérature ou d’interdictions légales. C’est là que gît le dans les intérieurs « à l’asiatique » de style paradoxe, l’opium recevant un double ottoman, chinois, japonais, indien, persan statut : en Occident – celui de médicament ou égyptien – un exemple en étant le précieux (des variantes de préparation de Pavillon du Prince de Galles) pénètre dans « papaver somniferum »2), en Orient – la culture européenne, apportant avec soi celui de drogue hédoniste et dangereuse toute une série d’ambiguïtés. C’est un qui imposait, du point de vue de conglomérat culturel dépendant des l’Occidental, sa prohibition. C’est le déplacements, des voyages vers ce monde voyageur qui établit un lien entre ces éloigné (par excellence, autre), voyages « deux carrières de l’opium ». Flaubert, qui culminent par l’appropriation même de durant son voyage de 1849-1850, « a cet espace par la colonisation. Pour ce qui surtout fréquenté le sérail et les rares est de l’histoire de cette « mode » allusions à l’opium que comporte son culturelle, nous rappelons le fait que les carnet traduisent ses véritables premières générations de voyageurs « ont obsessions » (Yvorel 41). apporté avec eux [de l’Orient] des récits Il est avéré, ainsi, que « la fascination évoquant des dangers inouïs et une pour l’Orient et pour l’Extrême-Orient est sensualité fulminante, de même que des souvent indissociable de la fascination relations sur la richesse et la grandeur qui pour l’opium » (43-44), association 62 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV devenue cliché à laquelle nous voudrions dans la colonie indochinoise », Rapin 22). revenir au cours de notre analyse. Le Le roman impose toute une série de décors domaine artistique privilégiera ce et de perspectives devenus par la suite, par complexe opium – Orient, puisant aussi leur récurrence, de véritables clichés du dans un imaginaire spécifique et dans un rapport à l’Orient (le voyage, la figure de héritage livresque confirmé par ses propres l’Européen, le « mirage oriental » de expériences. L’Orient « attire nombre l’opium et ainsi de suite). Voyageur, lui- d’intellectuels. [...] L’orientalisme s’érige même, dans les colonies, Bonnetain en science sociale. Les recherches affirme avoir voulu transposer en archéologiques, linguistiques, les missions littérature ses expériences personnelles et médicales et scientifiques et de toutes « authentiques » (même si des auteurs ou natures se développent, parfois sur fond de des chercheurs en taxeront plus tard conquêtes militaires. Les publications certains éléments d’inexactes ou plutôt austères d’un Sylvestre de Sacy, d’inauthentiques), expériences acquises d’un Hammer, d’un Aubert-Roche, lors d’« voyage à Saigon pour agrémenter contribuent tout autant à la construction d’un décor oriental les imageries d’un Orient de ‘carte postale’ quelque peu décadentes de la drogue. [...] L’Opium mythique qu’à la production de raconte l’histoire navrante d’un jeune connaissances. Cet Orient-là, avec ses poète, l’inspiration précocement épuisée, mystères, ses senteurs levantines, ses qui fuit la capitale et s’embarque pour sérails, ses fastes et bien sûr ses Saigon. Là-bas, on lui propose une hachichins3 et ses teriakis4 séduit de première pipe. […] Peu à peu, l’opium nombreux artistes qui parfois n’ont pas s’empare de lui. Et lui s’enfonce dans dépassé Marseille : Nodier préface Les l’opium. […] Certes, la substance est au Mille et une Nuits, Hugo rédige Les cœur de l’ouvrage de Bonnetain. […] Orientales. Le poète Amédée de Kermel La Chine devient un décor baroque, invite sa maîtresse à le suivre en Orient auquel seul les bourreaux, les supplices dans les ivresses extatiques de l’opium et et les cruautés du Moyen Age donnent du quarante ans plus tard Charles Cros, dans relief. Ce ‘Tonkin bizarre’ n’est Le Coffret de santal écrit: ‘Corps musqués qu’ ‘bric-à-brac de bazar européen’ » sous la gaze ou l’or lamè s’étale./ Nefs, (Bachmann & Coppel 206). haschich... j’ai rêvé l’ivresse orientale’ » C’est un décor romanesque qui devient (Yvorel 40). mode, une transposition, dans la zone Ainsi, « l’association des drogues à palpable du monde colonial, de ces l’Orient entre donc dans le domaine improvisations européennes à retrouver littéraire français bien avant que Pierre dans les intérieurs à l’orientale. Loti ne transforme sa maison de Rochefort « Les conquérants de l’Orient sont conquis en une sorte de ‘souk’ ou que les mœurs à leur tour. […] Leur réputation est celle de ‘opiomanisées’ des Civilisés ne valent que vainqueurs : leur recours à l’opium n’a rien Claude Farrère d’être couronné par à voir avec la désespérance juvénile, leur l’académie Goncourt en 1903 et admis à jouissance n’est pas celle de marginaux l’Académie française en 1935. » (43) Il névrosés. C’est celle, calme, de l’esthète, faut mentionner aussi Paul Bonnetain avec adulte et raffiné. Ils ont pour nom Pierre L’Opium5 (« le premier ‘roman colonial’ Loti, Claude Farrère, René Dalize ou Victor traitant de l’opium partage cette vision Segalen. Beaucoup sont officiers ou négative du stupéfiant, en décrivant la médecins de la Marine et fumaient au cours déchéance d’un fumeur français installé de leurs pérégrinations exotiques. [...] Fǎtu-Tutoveanu, A. : L’opium dans le contexte de l’imaginaire colonial 63
Ces officiers-poètes, caste aristocratique6 identifiables à cette époque-là et de la Navale, entraînent dans les fumeries insensibles à l’idée de l’authenticité. Ce tout l’univers littéraire7 de leur temps » qui compte, c’est surtout la construction (Bachmann & Coppel 208). d’une atmosphère mentale Le corpus de textes coloniaux sur unidimensionnelle visant à être récupérée l’opium que nous évoquons ici constitue en dans un espace flou, forgé sur les principes grand une sorte de littérature-satellite dont du rêve. Lorsqu’ils apparaissent dans un les thèmes majeurs et l’imaginaire contexte européen, les Orientaux mêmes gravitent autour de la « grande » littérature sont perçus comme des pièces de musée, romantique. Ce genre de littérature n’est des objets d’emprunt ou des accessoires pas indépendant, il ne crée pas « une servant à « créer » une atmosphère. Ils sont école » et « ne fait pas carrière ». Dans son incapables de reconstituer le monde réel ensemble, la littérature coloniale de d’où ils proviennent et qui parvient à l’opium ne constitue pas une littérature l’Occidental d’une manière fracturée et canonique en raison aussi d’un autre artificialisée. Par contraste, l’Asie critère, celui de l’originalité8. D’ailleurs, coloniale devient pour la première fois elle n’a ni l’énergie ni l’ambition de tangible, perceptible ; elle se matérialise, chercher l’innovation, la postérité ou de ce qui peuvent parfois incommoder mais promouvoir un programme. Son minorât dont l’importance est fondamentale. Le est la conséquence d’une littérature issue, voyage romantique (au singulier) en Orient d’une certaine manière parasitaire, du se multiplie dans le monde colonial et répertoire monumentalisé du romantisme. revêt la forme des courses régulières. Les Il est vrai que le centre d’intérêt se déplace noms exotiques appartiennent désormais à des zones thématiques majeures du une « nouvelle patrie » étrange, tout en romantisme (le génie, le rêve etc.) vers le marquant des trajets accessibles et chargés territoire, auxiliaire au début, des de l’inconfort dû au climat, à la végétation hallucinogènes dans le contexte oriental. spécifique ou à la proximité de l’Autre, de Le voyage ne constitue que le canevas le l’Oriental, devenu sujet « impérial ». plus naturel pour faciliter la rencontre des L’atmosphère romantique de « l’Orient » opiacés. . « Dans leur ‘carnets de route’ ces de salon ou de boudoir devient banale, une substances, qui ont le plus souvent leur atmosphère de bazar ou de fourmilière à la place au bazar ou au okel9 que dans fois fascinante et sordide. En mélangeant l’échoppe du pharmacien, sont tour à tour l’opium aux odeurs quotidiennes des banalisées, valorisées ou condamnées. […] marchés ou en l’inscrivant avec son Dans l’Orient éternel, la consommation de apparence banale, presque inoffensive l’opium est donnée comme un geste de même, au cœur de la vie orientale, Gautier détente des plus communs, au même titre écrit : « Une odeur pénétrante, composée que fumer une pipe, écouter une histoire ou des arômes de tous ces produits exotiques, griller du café » (Yvorel 40). vous monte aux narines et vous enivre. Là « L’Asie » romantique ne renvoyait à sont exposés par tas ou dans des sacs aucun espace réel ou tangible ; par contre, ouverts, le henné, le santal, l’antimoine, les elle faisait plutôt partie d’une liste poudres colorantes, les dattes, la cannelle, d’images-accessoires. C’était une sorte de le benjoin, les pistaches […] l’opium, le projection de salon ou de boudoir, placée haschich, sous la garde des marchands aux dans un espace de l’indétermination et du jambes croisées, à l’attitude nonchalante, mystère. L’exotisme oriental « endosse » et qui semblent engourdis par la lourdeur un corpus de clichés plus difficilement 64 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV de cette atmosphère saturée de parfums » 2. Bloom, Harold. The Western Canon. (Gautier, cité dans in Yvorel 41). The Books and School of the Age. New Joseph Michaud, un voyageur des années York: Harcourt Brace, 1994. 1830 compare les « espaces de culte » 3. Copin, Henri. « Confins et frontières : égyptiens et libanais avec leurs semblants de civilisés et décivilisés en extrême Asie Stamboul : « on parle peu – il dit – des Indochinoise », Revue de littérature mangeurs d’opium, qui n’ont point ici pour comparée, 2001 – 1 (no 297) : 79-92. extases les beaux cafés qui bordent la place 4. Émile-Paul (éd.), Cahiers du Mois: de Solimanieh à Constantinople ; on a Appels de l’Orient, 1925. substitué à l’opium une liqueur qui se fait 5. Rapin, Ami-Jacques. « La ‘divine avec la graine de chanvre et que les Arabes drogue’ : l’art de fumer l’opium et son appellent Hakchis ; cette liqueur est impact en Occident au tournant des enivrante et produit dans le cerveau toutes XIXe et XXe siècles », A contrario. sortes d’images fantastiques. » (Michaud Revue interdisciplinaire de sciences apud Yvorel 42). Un autre voyageur, sociales, Vol. 1–2003/2 : 6-31. Maxime Du Camp, qui a accompagné 6. Shearing, Colin R. Opium. A Journey Flaubert en Orient, écrivait aussi sur les Trough Time London: Mercury Books, Ottomans et leur consommation 2004. d’opium : « des Turcs ivres d’opium roulent, 7. Yvorel, Jean-Jacques. Les Poisons de comme hébétés, aux pieds d’un platane » l’esprit. Drogues et drogués au XIXe
(Du Camp cité dans in Yvorel 42). siècle. Paris: Quai Voltaire, 1992.
3. Conclusions 1 André Malraux racontait, dans ce sens, dans Dans leurs œuvres, les écrivains ses Antimémoires : « aller en Asie, naguère, coloniaux, voyageurs dans l’Orient du c’était pénétrer avec lenteur dans l’espace et XIXe siècle, ont mis à jour (parfois sans dans le temps conjugués », voir Henri Copin, grand intérêt littéraire mais avec des op. cit., p. 82. 2 En latin en original. enjeux très importants en ce qui concerne 3 les stéréotypes) une identité culturelle Mangeurs de haschisch [n.a.]. 4 Mangeurs d’opium [n.a.]. hybride, ambiguë. Eux-mêmes, en tant 5 1886. qu’écrivains, ils représentent la différence. 6 On retrouve, parmi ceux-ci : Alfred Jarry, qui Leurs œuvres sont les produits à la fois des écrit un roman, L’opium, P.J. Toulet, auteur de stéréotypes de type « carte postale l’ouvrage Fumeries et, pour Willy, de sa illustrée », des expériences des opiacés et, Fumeuse d’opium, Guillaume Apollinaire, très souvent, du leurre mélancolique Blaise Cendrars, Francis Carco, Henry Bataille, concernant l’illusoire « paradis artificiel ». Octave Mirbeau, Max Jacob, Salvador Dali, Francis Picabia, Picasso, André Salmon (Nuit References d’opium), Marcel Schwob (Les Portes d’opium), Maurice Malgre (Opium), Edmond Jaloux (Fumeries) et, bien sûr, Jean Cocteau. 1. Bachmann, Christian and Anne Cf. Bachmann & Coppel 208. Coppel. Le dragon domestique. Deux 7 Et pas seulement de cette époque-là (voir siècles de relations étranges entre supra), d’autres générations d’écrivains en Occident et la drogue. Paris : Albin étant concernées. Michel, 1989. 8 Voir Harold Bloom, The Western Canon, ed.cit. 9 Cabaret égyptien [n.a.]. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
HOMO EXSILIUS OR THE PORTRAIT OF THE ARTIST AS A WANDERER
Mihai ION1
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to tackle the phenomenon of ‘exile’ from the standpoint of the ‘sufferer’, of the person who is directly and irreversibly involved in it. The paper focuses on two main issues, each being allotted a separate subchapter. The first is a psychological portrayal of the migrant – and the exiled writer in particular – from a double perspective (insider vs. outsider), revealing his/her most troubling complexes. The second traces a set of existential ‘shocks’ that the migrant (writer) experiences at his/her destination. In conclusion, the exile’s psychological transformations are highlighted, with particular emphasis on the writer’s degrees of adaptation to the new cultural environment.
Key words: exile, (e/im)migrant, existential ‘shocks’.
1. Introduction 2. The (E/Im)migrant and his Complexes
Almost everyone who approaches the ‘By definition, going into exile means topic of ‘exile’, whether from the inside or taking a one-way road. Yet the exile in itself the outside, as a researcher or a simple can only be understood in terms of a double observer of the phenomenon, admits being perspective: the exile leaves/ emigrates from confronted with a complex, multifaceted his native country and reaches/immigrates concept. In the most common sense, the into his adoptive country.’ (Alexandrescu exile represents the state of being sent away 217-218). This is the dual perspective, of the from your native country or home, insider/outsider type, which S. Alexandrescu especially for political reasons or as a suggests in analysing a bicephalous character: punishment. It may also define the person the (e/im)migrant, without whom the who lives away from his/her own country phenomenon of exile cannot be imagined. by choice or because forced to do so. The (e/im)migrant is an ‘interstitial’ In this paper, I shall be rather concerned species, destined to oscillate between the with the second definition, more precisely poles of two different spaces/cultures: one with homo exsilius, the leading actor of this native and ‘peripheral’, the other adoptive most interesting social phenomenon. While and ‘central’. His drama resides in both discussing the dual nature of the migrant losing contact with his source-culture and and his existential shocks at entering a taking a feeble grip to the target-culture; completely new world, special emphasis hence, his fundamental complex: the will be placed upon the exile as a writer, sensation of invisibility. His transparency is considering his dependence on both his given by the fact that at the two poles of his language as a creative tool and his fellow existential itinerary he is perceived in countrymen as a reading public. contradictory ways:
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov.
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‘At the two extremes of his journey, he is This ‘psychological profile’ of the regarded differently: the emigrant’s (e/im)migrant as depicted by Prof. departure is felt with a sense of relief («we Alexandrescu seems extremely useful to got rid of him!»), regret («what a pity he me in understanding the emotional left»), envy («what a shame we stayed») or background and the moral traumas which resentment («another one has made it!»), the Romanian writers of the exile felt and while the immigrant’s arrival is tackled almost invariably confessed. with indifference, annoyance («what’s this one doing here») and, again, resentment 3. The Exile and his Existential ‘Shocks’ («he’s coming to teach us the alphabet!»), although sometimes, especially on formal In a very interesting article, The occasions, when it is not fit to speak Provisional Exile, the poetess and art critic otherwise, he is declared that «your Magda Cârneci traces a series of existential presence is a great honour to us». In both shocks experienced by any individual of a situations, the (e/im)migrant is looked specific cultural, religious and ethnic askance at.’ (Alexandrescu 218). background, transplanted in a foreign He displays a deviant behaviour with environment. The starting point of her regard to both communities: he leaves discussion is the following: from where the others stay and reaches the ‘If you really want to wake up from the place where the others have been forever. slumber inevitably inculcated in you by an It is a paradox he cannot overcome. existence lived within the steady and Whatever he may do, he is aware of his protective limits of your being, your ‘otherness’: ‘Every (e/im)migrant’s dream environment, your class, your culture, your is therefore to abolish the difference, in the homeland, then impose a temporary living same way as other typical deviants dream abroad on yourself.’ (313). of removing their stain or stigma: a black Heeding her own advice, after having person wants to look like white people, a won a scholarship to Paris in 1997, Magda child and an old man wish they were adults Cârneci will experience a self-imposed (at last and again, respectively), the exile, discovering and charting a set of crippled – a healthy person…’ (219). ‘initiating trials’. S. Alexandrescu shows an astute psychological grasp in noticing the fact that 3.1. The Shock of Civilisation the immigrant can gain some access to the public life in the host country, but never will Emerging from a marginal, isolated he enter the private life, the circle of friends world, distorted by a totalitarian regime, of a native person, because of his allogeneous the author faces a ‘hi-tech’, opulent nature: ‘This means the immigrant’s civilisation: ‘The shops and motorways integration into society, to some extent, as far make you feel humble. The automatic as his public life is concerned, but it is never offices in public institutions and banks the case for the private one. The law compels scare you. The excessive luxury of shop the majority to (formally) respect the windows outrage you. The extraordinary minority, but not to make friends with it.’ richness of bookshops and libraries are (219). Hence, the minority’s centrifugal breathtaking.’ (314). This very first shock tendency to organise its private life in is perhaps the easiest to overcome; in this parallel worlds, or cultural ‘enclaves’, beside case, adaptability seems to work quite fast that/those of the majority, with no and effectively. interference, or strictly incidental contacts.
Ion, M.: Homo Exsilius or The Portrait of the Artist as a Wanderer 67
3.2. The Cultural Shock systems, you begin to perceive or merely presume the probable frailty, the possible This is precisely the moment of approximation of your own cultural disillusionment, at which you cease to constitution. Descending from a world in believe that you belong to a European which the institutions have often had a civilisation, that you have got a sound precarious existence, in which information knowledge of French culture, that you are has long been incomplete and censored, well-equipped with the necessary skills the contact with an age-old and free and techniques to function properly within academic tradition may trouble your mind’ an allogeneous cultural environment: (316). It is the time for self suspicion, ‘Only gradually do you begin to realise when you start to question your cultural that you understand much less than you background and become aware of your have expected. The actual French culture is belonging to a ‘provincial’ culture as clearly far more complex than the rough opposed to the ‘metropolitan’ one, into draft from the books’ (314-315). The which you have just stepped. contact with the ‘profound France’, with the every-day, palpable world, reveals the 3.5. The Shock of the Political Dimension sense of otherness, ‘your status of an «alien», a «foreigner», in a sense both It is the ‘quake’ which you experience surprising and disturbing’ (315). when passing ‘from a social regime entirely pervaded and controlled by the terrifying 3.3. The Linguistic Shock administration of a unique political party’ (317) into a regime ‘of concepts, The author encounters serious difficulties institutions, even cultural battles which in speaking the ‘real’ French. She realises animate and periodically change Western that her language skills learnt during the society’ (318). Accordingly, you realise that school years and focused primarily on the notions, words, concepts have different written, formal language, only provide her meanings in the Western and Eastern with an artificial tool of communication: worlds, as they denote socially and ‘The French you’ve learnt back home is politically incompatible realities. Thus the obviously an artificial language, learnt exile (be him merely ‘provisional’) has to from the books and used only to read learn this ‘political language which contains books, to convey abstract information, and – invisibly and yet significantly – all forms not to conceptualise and handle a real, of manifestation in Western life’ (318). socio-existential diversity.’ (315). 3.6. The Cosmopolitan Shock 3.4. The Instructional Shock The Western world, with its large The author’s contact with the French crowded cities and a multi-ethnic academic environment is astonishing. population, always exerts great pressure Comparatively, her native educational upon an individual of a relatively system proves its fallibility, fuelled by homogeneous ethnic background: ‘it is not various factors, from the lack of a deep- enough that you have to swiftly assimilate rooted academic tradition to the existence one or two industrial ages: within the huge, of a political climate that fully embraced cultural melting-pot that every Western the policy of censorship: ‘due to this metropolis stands for, you still have to bear discrepancy between the two educational the encounter with numberless people of
68 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV different languages and customs, equally from a source-culture, cast in the middle of entitled to existence as you are’ (319). a brand-new, unknown environment, the immigrant faces the difficult problem of 3.7. The Shock of the Mass adopting new cultural stereotypes if he wants to fit into the host society. This final shock naturally derives from the Being a writer is even harder, as not only previous, being a sort of corollary or does one lose contact with the native logical consequence of the cosmopolitan language, the vehicle of the artistic vertigo: ‘You have to (…) resist the expression, but also with an audience terrible pressure which the enormous whose presence is vital in justifying one’s ocean of people joined together exerts own existence as a literary creator. Some upon you, brutally revealing your solitude writers abandoned writing altogether, and obscurity, your common, possibly dedicating themselves to some more superfluous, condition among myriads of practical schemes; others decided to carry similar beings, where you can lose and on, heeding their inborn drive for writing dissolve yourself quite readily.’ (319). fiction or poetry in their mother tongue, Under these stresses and strains, the exile and thus preserving their innermost inevitably suffers a series of radical, identity. Very few, though exceptionally irreversible mutations in his being and gifted (such as Cioran or Ionesco, for consciousness: ‘Left under the inner rubble example), adopted the language of the host of your unexpected deconstruction, you are culture and became prominent figures of experiencing an illness specific to the worldwide recognition and fame. exile, which is technically referred to as the terrifying show of the identity’s References crumbling’ (319). 1. Alexandrescu, Sorin. “Invizibilitatea 4. Conclusion emigrantului”. Secolul 20. 10-12/1-3 (1997/1998): pp. 217-219. The exile is an experience which most 2. Cârneci, Magda. “Exilul provizoriu”. often leaves permanent marks on the Secolul 20. 10-12/1-3 (1997/1998): individual’s consciousness. Disconnected pp. 313-319.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
HUMOUR AND ITS FACETS IN GERHARD HAGERS: “AMUSEMENT FROM THE SUPREME COURT”
Daria ŞTIUCĂ-LEFCENCU 1
Abstract: The purpose of this article is to stress the main idea that humour is not an isolated phenomenon within a certain nation, personal or professional background. Humour is an attribute of life and lifestyle everywhere and occurs where one least expects it: within the Supreme Court and has therefore an even more spectacular effect. It uncovers human flaws but it also does not ignore its virtues, it does magic on the simplest events and changes routine situations in a second . Humour teaches, fades the most ridiculous outbursts, and relaxes the imminent protocol behaviour. Its facets, means of expression, occurrence are further described in this article.
Key words: humour, amusement, Supreme Court, facets of human behaviour, means of expression.
1. Hager Gerhard, Doctores Jures and the highest Court of Law, maybe a little bit also a Human, a Humorist in secrecy indeed due to the dignity of the institution, like the truffle, but as well as „Where there are humans there is the latter, it is not of bad quality“ humour. Where humour is there are (Hager 183). The author confesses he people” (Hager 183). That’s how Hager must keep some humorous stories to his ends his humorous stories and sets personal joy to himself. How should one implicitly humour as a sine qua non remain earnest about the subject and report condition of the human being, of human on humour without further imagining the becoming, of the human existence most cheerful and most spectacular generally. Should these statements apply as humorous stories? I beg your pardon, with a judgement or as wisdom of a person „criminal smiling“, as the author clearly inclined to humour? Holding an office at distinguishes it in an unusual the uppermost court of law, serious writing counterpointing comparison in his quality of non-fiction books does not exclude of amused, connoisseur. humour and the cheerfulness with Dr. Jur. He concludes his successful pleading for 2. Nations, who are more or less Inclined humour with a clear comparison which to the Humour? uncovers his literary and writing skills. „I hope, I have managed to prove that Prejudices about the Germans dare to humour prospers even in the holy halls of impose generalisations of the following of
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov. 70 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV the kind: the Germans are rather poorly 3. Some Facets of Humour disposed to laughter and hence to a humoresque attitude towards life and To tell the truth, few of us expect the creation. „It is difficult to understand appearance of humour in the imperial Germans with their way of taking matters institution of the permanent post of a privy very exactly and seriously“ (Weber 118). councillor of the Supreme Court. Any form Dr. Hager is a born Austrian. Austrians of cheerfulness is subdued for the most by are described over and over again as the the saying: “After the laughter there is Italians of the Germans: ”(...) the Italians crying.” Malicious pleasure can be also with their contagious cheerfulness.“ (--) hardly imaginable as a malicious mode of “when I think constructively, positively, I expression, as a side effect of humour. long for harmony and joy, so I will Humour, healthy humour, is an attribute of certainly attract similar people and I shall humanity and not of inhumanity. be attracted to these(...)“ (Weber 118). It is rather difficult: „to connect the „This law“, the law of attraction, „is also image of fusty walks, elder men (“to old valid for the spiritual exchange between wrecks”), dusty act situations and eternal people. It is also applicable for the dignity„ (Hager 7) with a scene of the company climate in a company, for the cheerfulness. It would be quite relaxing society environment or also for the and at the same time astonishing to internal state, the prevailing basic mood encounter here numerous “relatives” of the of a whole nation.“ (Weber 118). worthy Till Eulenspiegel. However, since However, starting from the fact that one every court accommodates its fools and understands by humour a something jesters, Hager proves that applies also to human – personal, wouldn’t it be rather the Supreme Court:” every single one has inappropriate to conclude that the reality lot of jokes, background humour and of the humoresque be confined to the spiritual (mental) elasticity” (Hager 7). Matrix of certain nation and to speak of Humour and humour-releasing situations nations that are more or less inclined to with the Supreme Court are as unexpected the humour? Especially now, under the as a glove serving as a headgear. They flag of the European Union from a seem to be set in the wrong place, political point of view and in the context however, are therefore the more delightful. of the modern „cultural relativism“ The breathtaking development of an (Patapievici 40), it would rather be less apparently usual, common situation in the correct, and hence less precise to oppose exercise of such office, the astonishing the periphery to the centre, the element apply as causes of movement, as universality to the regionalism, when triggers of the humoresque. How one can discussing the problem of the identity. become a victim of renovation work, how a Humour is in particular something privilege turns out as treacherous, how taking human: “there is no special way, no the wrong cap from a common clothe stand manner for being a human being, all are can convey „the impression of an outworn equally legitimate (all equal, all material shower cap” (Hager 122), different)” (Patapievici 41) „it gives no is presented by Hager as a surrogate of the kind(way), person privileges no embarrassing appearance on the court day. possibility (opportunity) to be, all ways Thereby, tension is achieved by „retention of life are as legitimate(justified)“ of steadfast seriousness” (Hager 122) on (Patapievici 41). the „coached faces” of the senate members, on the face of the advocate Stiucă-Lefcencu, D.: Humour and its Facets in Gerhard Hagers: “Amusement ... 71 general. Earnestness will be maintained in by the temporary cessation of their spite of obvious acknowledgement of the criminal activity , the amount of work not amusing appearances in court, behind the decreasing, so the simplest solution, to falseness and mere appearance of the simply stay at home was unfortunately not negotiations hall of the court. Earnestness considered“ (Hager 120-121). If there is smiling boils underneath, that is released not a mistakenly switched hat that only after the exit from the Hager gives the contributes to the comedy, then it is an final touch to the anecdotic occurrence by overheated furnace that tempts a colleague confessing to the general entertainment, to fall asleep. The President of the that the incident must have occurred by Supreme Court will receive a culinary gift chance in the carnival. by an unnamed, noble donor. Thus, a gift To remain close to of the issue of “hat walnut brioche comes under suspicion of dimensions” I could not resist to refer to an being poisoned. “This beautiful piece anecdote about Goethe and bring it to seemed to be made for destruction. This recollection. Goethe wittily understood to idea did not allow the President to relax. explain the reason for wearing a sordid hat, As the cat around hot porridge, he slipped an aspect that was under comments and in concentric circles with ever-smaller attention of an admirer, as a symbol of his radius around the delicacy until he uniqueness and of his innate intelligence.” completely surrendered to it, slicing out a It is not my fault,” said Goethe, „I have piece and biting into it. Then he waited for looked around, and however, none fitted his death “(Hager 90). Human weakness, me. It must mean that people are not physical peculiarities, flaws, differences focussed on big heads in Dresden” between male and female are highlighted (Ebersbach 96). with remarkable wit We are witnessing a Hager consciously plays clearly with didactic farce, the colleagues play on a portrayals of bad luck and luck anticipating Senate President who repeatedly arrives our expectations. And he achieves that by too late. His “precipitated appearance” was switching bad luck with luck and luck with the well-known to his colleagues. “The bad luck. Making use of specialised terms president came, impetuously opened the in the criminal law domain and laxly using consulting room door to his trial hall and in the specific court language there to related, a routine started to utter his apology as he Hager humorously depicts the rather (...) noticed the empty room” (Hager 52). unpleasant situation that many court This shocking, teachings opinion of his councils and advocate generals are colleagues prevented him from ever being confined to in the renovation needing late again. From a pedagogical perspective palace of the central law courts. These had it is humour as “signs of human maturity found no „dear vice president” „one to by suffering (...) that is closely related to accepts as a subtenant in his antechamber wisdom and equally closes with humility. for the rebuilding period” (Hager 120). Humour is laughing humility, within which Under these circumstances, it was we not only recognise the “fools” but also necessary to further work on the subject. the loving ones and the kind-hearted ones“ Hager, “putting on a good face for bad (Educational lexicon 95). Even the game” explains the reasons humorously precious formulations of a colleague, style without refraining to use typical exercised that intimidated everyone are specialised field related law terms : “As proved to be total nonsense, because he the law-breakers could not bear himself is not able to explain the responsibility, despite of best intentions, complicated sentences he uses. 72 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Young and old will not be spared in the explanatory statement: “You were just here, Palace of Justice if they bring along humour: you Siamese twins! “(Hager 19). foreign guest workers, clever, racing drivers, Sayings, phrases in common language use temporary female guards that allow them to such as: “To encounter him is very difficult, be bribed with beef and hair-curlers. Hager is at eleven not yet at twelve no longer” or not economical with funny events. The “never visits your prince if you have not technical progress, foreign criminals, the been called for!” (Hager 16-17) let us again venerable imitation and repetition of recognize the humour-loving people and not gestures, become object of amusement. the “God” of Latin expressions specialist. Female members of the criminal court council who miss the mirror at their 4. Conclusion workplace, the absence of which, the previously exclusively male colleagues had Regardless of the area of living and not even noticed, triggers funny comments action, either belonging to the Supreme about the appearance of the men. forums and councils or to simple people, A President of the Supreme Court, “with human attributes are similar. skin and bones addicted to the opera, there ”People and communities come to was virtually no criminal case, that did not differentiate more in the area of imagery remind him of an opera plot” (Hager 83) than in that of real life” (Boia 8). We can is an occasion for funny hints. So, Hager is not live without differences, more, we tend announced he should be sitting on the train to bring them to the fore. “Thus, we build in half an hour and he, the President, will ourselves and the Other, in a somewhat sing for him the entire Carmen audition. caricatured manner” (Boia 7). That is all part of the vivid, human dimension of the Palace of Justice. People References are the same everywhere, although some institutions such as the Supreme Court 1. Boia, Lucian. România ţară de have its own bizarre, rather frontieră a Europei. Bucureşti: incomprehensible rules. One such rule is Humanitas, 2007. that of an absurd idea of an imaginary 2. Ebersbach, Volker. Ein geborener visit. Candidates for the higher posts are Geniesser Goethe – Anekdoten. hereby “committed to their idea of visiting Winsen und Weimar: Hans Boldt people that they know for more than Verlag, 1995. twenty years” (Hager 14). It was not 3. Hager, Gerhard. Heiteres vom planned that one may come in a Höchstgericht ganz persönlich predicament as a newcomer to intricate empfunden von Gerhard Hager. networking of rooms and desks of the Wien: Manz, 1995. Palace of Justice, as Hager himself 4. Züpfel, Helmut et al. Kleines Lexikon experienced. That one may be walking der Pädagogik und Didaktik mit with similar-looking colleague and they Einführung in das accidentally imagine a second time wissenschaftlicheArbeiten. Auer encounter with the Senate president was Donauwörth : Verlag Ludwig, 1972. not foreseen. The hidden burst into 5. Patapievici, Horia Roman. laughter was not planned as a Senate Discernământul Modernizării 7 President, a god-like being, suddenly conferinţe despre situaţia de fapt. utters, as whistling in The Magic Flute a Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2004. “Back!” doing this however with the Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
TO (MIS)COMMUNICATE IN ‘SCORCHING HEAT’
Cristina VÂLCEA
Abstract: Miscommunication can be defined as failure of communicating the intended meaning as well as failure of understanding the communicated meaning. Miscommunication can be intra-cultural and inter-cultural which accounts for the fact that it is not necessary for two speakers to belong to different cultures since miscommunication can appear between speakers who belong to the same culture and speak the same language. Miscommunication is interpreted as a normal phenomenon since people have different visions and representations of the world and of reality.
Key words: miscommunication, misunderstanding, misinterpretation, inference.
1. Statement of Purpose 2. Key Concepts
I base my paper on Jenny Thomas’s Miscommunication, misunderstanding, statement ‘there isn’t in the British society misinterpretation, negotiated communi- a single system of pragmatic values’ (75). I cation, inference, repair, failed linguistics, start my argument with this quotation pragmatic failure. because it best illustrates the idea of diversity and multiplicity, which represent 3. Literature Review the premises for intra-, inter-, and cross- cultural miscommunication. 3.1. Definition of Miscommunication Miscommunication arises / appears between the members of the same Miscommunication is a concept very linguistic community independent of their much dealt with by pragmaticians, knowledge or will. With this being said, I sociolinguists, and anthropologists. Banks, state my purpose which is that of analyzing Ge & Baker (quoted in Coupland, the reasons that bring about Wiemann and Giles, 148) define miscommunication and which are the miscommunication as a ‘label’ that speaker factors that contribute to the solving of and interlocutor give to their interpretation misunderstandings, the so-called of the communication. They go further and ‘negotiated communication’ (Gass & claim that miscommunication is a matter of Varonis, 75). In order to do this, I picked reading/ deciphering of the meaning. up a well-known Romanian play ‘Căldură Often, misunderstanding has been taken mare’ (Scorching heat) written by I.L. for error, slip of tongue, dysfunction. Caragiale But, before the proper analysis, I will attempt at a literature review on the topic of miscommunication.
1Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Letters. 74 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
3.2. Features of Miscommunication indeterminate’. The indeterminate character of the utterances backs the idea that Researchers have tried to identify its miscommunication is not a deviation but the features which might allow them to norm even with people speaking the same discriminate it from the others problems language. Habernas quoted (in Coupland, that appear in communication. Thus, the Wiemann, Giles 96) claims that ‘the very major features that differentiate it from the sharing of a common language code is itself other communication problems are 1) non- very deceptive, since it falsely suggests a initiation of repair, 2) social consequences. common ground and a “naturalness” of If both or at least one of these conditions is communication’. This means that speaking not met, then, there is not any one and the same language does not stop miscommunication. In the texts that I have miscommunication from occurring. This can reviewed, I noticed a contradiction in what be best illustrated by pointing out the fact concerns the non-initiation of repair as a that miscommunication does not appear only hallmark of miscommunication. Banks, Ge between two communicators of different & Baker (quoted in Coupland, Wiemann languages, but also between the and Giles, 39) consider the non-initiation communicators of one and the same of repair as a feature of language as it is the case in “Scorching miscommunication, whereas Coupland, Heat”. Wiemann, Giles (174) state that ‘miscommunicative sequences are 3.5. Nature of Miscommunication frequently repaired’. Some researchers identified the cultural 3.3. Miscommunication Components background and the language as a whole as a source of miscommunication. Edda Researchers seem to agree that Weigand (54) grouped the sources of miscommunication encompasses on the miscommunication as follows: one hand misrepresentation (problematic misunderstanding the means which refers verbal representation) on the part of the to being aware and understanding the speaker and on the other hand potentialities of a language, idiomatic misunderstanding (inaccurate, adapted to expression, unexpected vocabulary one’s knowledge or reality combinations, coinages and grammar interpretation) on the part of the hearer adaptations on the one hand and (Milroy quoted in Coupland, Wiemann, misunderstanding of purposes which Giles, 76). To put it differently, both signals the fact that interlocutors fail to see speaker and interlocutor are involved in the reason why certain utterances are said communication and each of them might and why or why in that form. confront problems or troubles. 3.5.1. Language Failure 3.4. Indeterminate Utterances Phonology, morphology, syntax, There are some other researchers who pragmatics are all components of language claim that neither the speaker nor the that build up communication. A failure in interlocutor is responsible for the any of these components might have as miscommunication. Dijk (quoted in result miscommunication. In this sense, Coupland, Wiemann, Giles, 48) argues that Banks, Ge & Baker (quoted in Coupland, the utterances are ‘intrinsically Wiemann and Giles, 84) identify two types
Vâlcea, C.: To (Mis)communicate in “Scorching Heat” 75 of failures that could actually cause cultural belonging as another source of miscommunication: linguistic failure and miscommunication. This, they say, belies failed pragmatics. Linguistic failure is any in the fact that there are high-context and failure at the phonologic, morphologic and low-context cultures where focal elements syntactic levels that might have as differ. Banks, Ge & Baker (quoted in consequence miscommunication. Failed Coupland, Wiemann and Giles, 74) draw pragmatics refers to meaning making and on Hofstede’s classification which meaning interpreting, focusing on ‘choices provides the contrastive features of the two that people make when they want to say types of culture. Thus, high-context something’ (Banks, Ge & Baker, quoted in cultures are individualist while low-context Coupland, Wiemann and Giles, 132). They cultures are collectivist. Many differences may be vocabulary or turn of phrase derive from the type of culture and the choices. Thomas’s (65) account of differences are likely to result in pragmatic failure (PF) focuses on the miscommunication. production portion of messages. She deals with PF, which she defines as the inability 3.5.3. Misunderstanding the Means to understand what is meant from what is said. In Thomas’s view both pragmatic- Edda Weigand (49) divides language linguistic and socio-pragmatic failures are into two components. One is ‘how to do it’ failures of production. Riley (quoted in and she refers to the means that people use Oleksy, 234) suggests the following when communicating. The definition for pragmatic errors: "Pragmatic misunderstanding of some of the means errors are the result of an interactant such as phonology or differences in imposing the social rules of one culture on syntactical processing might lead to his communicative behavior in a situation miscommunication. where the social rules of another culture would be more appropriate". According to 3.5.4. Misunderstanding the Purposes Liebe-Harkort (quoted in Oleksy, 173) difficulties in intra-cultural communication The other component identified by Edda are potentially compounded further, if one Weigand (57) is ‘what is meant by what is of the speakers is monolingual and cannot said’. imagine that the intentions of their Both sources identify the same causes for speaking partner may be different than his miscommunication but they categorize or her own would be if s/he were to use a them according to distinct criteria. Banks, form or expression the other uses. Clearly, Ge & Baker (quoted in Coupland, communicative competence must include Wiemann and Giles, 170) focus on the pragmatic-linguistic competence (i.e., language failure and cultural difference. choosing appropriate form) and socio- Edda Weigand (70) covers by the pragmatic competence (i.e., choosing misunderstanding of the purpose Banks, appropriate meaning) if inter-cultural Ge & Baker’s failed pragmatics. And pragmatic problems are to be avoided Weigand’s phonology and differences in (Trosborg, 10). syntactical processing cover Banks, Ge & Baker’s language failure. The only element 3.5.2. Cultural Difference that is not to be identified in Banks, Ge & Baker is Weigand’s absent-mindedness, Banks, Ge & Baker (quoted in Coupland, which cannot fall into the cultural Wiemann and Giles, 85) see different category. 76 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
4. Practising Analysis on Miscommuni- misinterpretation occurs. The gentleman cation infers that the servant wants to tell his master the reason his friend came there for. As I have already said in the statement of His misinterpretation of the servant’s purpose I intend to analyze how intention is stressed by his question: ‘de miscommunication occurs, whether the unde ştii ce să-i spui dacă nu ţi-am spus ce conditions for miscommunication are met să-i spui?’’ (How do you know what to tell and how it functions. For this, I chose to him if I haven’t told you what to tell him?) analyze a fragment from ‘Căldură mare’ Actually, the servant’s answer: ‘Ca să-i (Scorching heat) written by I..L Caragiale. spui’ (To tell him) referred to the Due to space constraints I shall refer to gentleman’s name which was asked with only some fragments from the play. the purpose of being told to his master. There isn’t any congruity between the 1) ‘D: Atunci să-i spui c-am venit eu. question and the answer. The turn-taking F: Cum vă cheamă pe dumneavoastră? doesn’t proceed smoothly because they D: Ce-ţi pasă? don’t answer each other’s question. They F: Ca să-i spui. seem to carry a monologue. According to D: Ce să-i spui; de unde ştii ce să-i spui Edda Weigand’s classification (59) this is a dacă nu ţi-am spus ce să-i spui?’ misunderstanding of purpose ‘what is meant by what is said’. According to “D: Then tell him that I came. Banks, Ge & Baker (quoted in Coupland, F: What is your name? Wiemann and Giles, 156) this is failed D: What do you care? pragmatics because the gentleman did not F: To tell him. grasp the meaning of what the servant said. D: To tell what? How do you know There isn’t any repair initiated and the what to tell him if I haven’t told you misunderstanding is not solved. There isn’t what to tell him?” (my translation) any negotiated communication going on.
This situation starts with the gentleman 2)‘F: Pe stăpânu-meu nu-l cheamă d. who asks the servant to inform his master Costică; e propitar … about his visit. While doing this he doesn’t D: Ei! Şi dacă-i propitar? provide his name because he doesn’t think F: Îl cheamă d. Popescu. it necessary, relying on the fact that his D: Şi mai cum? friend will know who it was about. The F: Cum, mai cum? word that triggers the miscommunication D: Fireşte … Popescu, propitar … bine is ‘eu’ (I). The servant doesn’t know the … şi mai cum? gentleman and asks him for his name. F: Nu pot să ştiu.’ Gumperz & Tannen (in Gass & Varonis, 57) strengthen the idea that:’ the more “F: My master’s name is not Mr. participants in a conversation know about Popescu; he’s an owner …. each other, the less the likelihood of E: Well! So what if he’s an owner significant instances of F: His name is Mr. Popescu miscommunication.’ Then, the servant is D: How else? asked what is his reason for asking the F: What, how else? gentleman’s name. The servant motivates D: Naturally … Popescu, owner … all his question by the need of telling it to his right … and how else? master. This is the moment when F: I cannot know”. (my translation)
Vâlcea, C.: To (Mis)communicate in “Scorching Heat” 77
Obviously, while trying to find out the misunderstanding of means. In other master’s name a miscommunicative words, the servant does not respond to and situation occurs. Thus, at the question agree with the gentleman’s perceptions and ‘What’s your master’s name?’ the servant ways of finding out the owner’s full name. answers by the title that his master detains. According to Banks, Ge & Baker (quoted Probably, the servant’s answer ‘e propitar’ in Coupland, Wiemann and Giles, 73) this represents his attempt to highlight his is failed pragmatics because the servant did master’s prestige. ‘Propitar’ was someone not understand the meaning of what the who was worth respect in servant’s view. gentleman said. This is confirmed two lines lower when he eventually makes his master’s name 3) ‘D: Nu-l cheamă Costică Popescu? known by using the master’s surname. It F: Nu only now becomes obvious why he denied D: Nu se poate. that his master’s name was mr. Costica to F: Ba da, domnule. whom he instantly opposed the title of D: Apoi vezi? owner. The reader finds out that the F: Ce să văz?’ servant has high opinions about masters and that he thinks inconsiderate of “D: Isn’t his name Costică Popescu? addressing an owner by his first name. The F: No gentleman doesn’t notice the subtlety and D: It can’t be. the misinterpretation occurs because he F: It can, sir. can’t see the relationship between the D: Then, you see? master’s name and his being an owner. In F: See what? (my translation) support to this interpretation comes one idea developed by Wolfson (57) in her This fragment starts with a question by essay ‘Rules of Speaking’ where she states which the gentleman tries to find out that ‘the errors concerning the whether the master’s name is Costică sociolinguistics are interpreted as bad Popescu. His question is answered ‘no’ by manners’. The way the dialogue continues the servant. The gentleman expresses his shows clearly that the servant cannot distrust to the servant’s answer and says: conceive of his master as being addressed ‘Nu se poate’ (It can’t be). The servant by the first name. To the question: ‘si mai wants to confirm that his master’s name is cum?’ (How else?) he answers with not Costică Popescu and a confirmation is another question where he is looking for always positive, therefore, the use of ‘yes’ clarifications:’ cum, mai cum?’ (What how is absolutely necessary. Yet, the gentleman else?). A proof of miscommunication is misinterprets the servant’s answer as a initiation of repair quoted in Coupland, confirmation of the master’s name. He Wiemann, Giles’s view (86). Thus, the infers that the answer of the servant is a gentleman reviews all the knowledge they confirmation of the master’s name and he have so far got to: ‘Fireste … Popescu, responds with another question: Apoi vezi? propitar … bine … si mai cum?’ (Then, you see?) which acknowledges his (Naturally … Popescu, owner … all right initial statement about the master’s name. … and how else?). Unfortunately, the According to Edda Weigand’s answer is ambiguous and it is difficult to classification (59) this is a say whether it is a refusal or sheer lack of misunderstanding of means ‘differences in knowledge. According to Edda Weigand’s syntactical processing. That means that ‘Ba classification (59) this is a da’ (It can, sir.) is typically an affirmative 78 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
answer given to a negative question. Its References force is greater than that of ‘yes’, because it is the unexpected answer there where a 1. Coupland, Nikolas et al. Talk as negative answer seems to be the one that is “problem” and communication as preferred. It is a matter of language. With “miscommuni-cation” in Banks, Ge & Baker (quoted in Coupland, Miscommunication and problematic Wiemann and Giles, 64) this is interpreted talk. London: Sage Publications, 1991. as linguistic failure because the gentleman 2. Gass, Susan and Evangeline, Varonis. did not follow the logic of the discourse “Miscommunication in nonnative and he did not stick to the answer-question speaker discourse”. Applied pattern of the dialogue. He takes one Linguistics, 6 (1985). answer as one for a question that was 3. Thomas, Jenny. “Cross-cultural actually answered one turn before. pragmatic failure”. Applied Linguistics, 4 (1983). 5. Conclusion 4. Weigand, Edda. “Misunderstanding the standard case”. Journal of At the end of the analysis of the three Pragmatics, 31 (1999). fragments a few conclusions are worth 5. Wolfson, Nessa. Rules of speaking. drawing. Firstly, misunderstanding is Language and communication. created by the practice of delaying answers London: Longman, 1983. and of answering questions after the 6. Caragiale, Ion Luca. Momente şi initiation of the next adjacency pair. schiţe. Bucureşti: Gramar, 2004. Irregular, abrupt turn-takings, non- 7. Oleksy, Walter (ed). Contrastive negotiated communications are the pragmatics. Amsterdam: John consequences. None of the Benjamins Publishing Company, miscommunicative situations is solved. 1989. Interlocutors create inferences relying on 8. Trosborg, Anna. Interlanguage their own knowledge and very little on the pragmatics - Requests, complaints and proper dialogue. Miscommunication is apologies. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter created either by misunderstanding the & Co, 1994. means or by misunderstanding the purpose. Their different social background, their lack of shared knowledge creates (a flaw communication) / miscommunication.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE LANGUAGE LABYRINTH IN PETER ACKROYD’S FICTION
Liliana HAMZEA1
Abstract: Peter Ackroyd’s fictional devices are analyzed with a view to reveal the postmodern frame of mind that informs novels such as “Chatterton” and “Hawksmoor”. Special attention is given to frame breaking, linguistic games, intertextuality and the issue of authenticity and forgery. The hybridity of the fictional genre, namely the anti-detective and pseudo-historic form, is seen as another device for enhancing the postmodern atmosphere of confusion, indeterminacy and ambiguity.
Key words: linguistic games, frame-breaking, plagiarism, intertextuality.
1. Introduction the twentieth century not only in literature but in philosophy as well, due to the Of all the contemporary British writers, shattering events and the relativistic frame Peter Ackroyd is probably the most of mind that characterize it. disquieting with respect to those Apocalyptic or not, Ackroyd obviously coordinates the reader expects to find in subverts the mainstream fictional the fictional universe that make it tendencies, the realistic mode in general recognizable, if not similar to the “real” and the historical novel and detective story world one knows or thinks to know: the in particular. His ‘heretical’ fictional flow and flux of time, the boundaries of devices include the breaking of frames the human being and the limits of human between art and reality, past and present, experiences, to name just a few. Critics literature and painting, literature and and reviewers noticed his difference from history, or even between well-contained the contemporary landscape and the sciences like archeology and astronomy. peculiar position he holds with most of his novels, a difference that the novelist 2. Moving Across Genres himself insisted on. Edward J. Ahearn includes Ackroyd in the category of In his first successful novel Hawksmoor “protean novel” which is associated with (1985) for example, a seemingly detective visionary and apocalyptic impulses, story turning into an anti-detective one, exploding “the stabilities of world and “fiction and history fuse so thoroughly that person, time and space, consciousness and an abolition of time, space, and person is, sexual identity”. The critic views one might say, inflicted on the reader” apocalyptic writing as a central genre in (Ahearn 2000).
1 Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Transilvania University of Braşov. 80 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Another powerful device in enhancing will be developed in this chapter with the the effects of his temporal games is the use analysis of his most successful novel so of archaic forms of discourse and spelling, far, Chatterton. which Ackroyd studied intensely at the Another major influence of theory on British Museum and which, paradoxically, Ackroyd’s fiction is his self-reflective add the flavour of authenticity to these approach, that is the metafictional mode of novels in which authenticity is one of the novel writing, which is focused on most debatable notions. especially in Hawksmoor. To be more And yet, probably less noticed at first precise, his novels could be categorized as sight, nevertheless effective device in historiographic metafictions, presenting Ackroyd’s fiction, is the poetic expression. real characters alongside fictional ones, Lidia Vianu insisted on this lyrical mixing reality and fiction. Chatterton, dimension of the discourse in an interview Oscar Wilde, Thomas More become with the novelist published in România fictional characters but are recreated with literară (2002). such care for authentic language, that they Ackroyd’s connection with poetry is a assume a double status of historical and deep one, including his career as a poet imaginary persons. The 1983 novel The before becoming a novelist, and a lifelong Last Will and Testament of Oscar Wilde, admiration of and dialogue with the work which recounts the last months in the of T.S. Eliot. The other poet he greatly writer’s life, imitates his style so perfectly admired was Ezra Pound, to whom he that, according to some critics, it is dedicated a biography, Ezra Pound and his difficult to say where Wide ends and World (1980). One could say that Ackroyd begins. Even well-known Ackroyd’s writing career is a very complex aphorisms are plagiarized and rewritten. one, including five biographies, nine One could therefore assert that Ackroyd novels and a “biography” of London is a distinctively postmodern novelist, simply called London: The Biography whose self-conscious, quasi-critical fiction (2000) and the complexity is enhanced by demonstrates that there is no longer a the author’s flouting of conventional clear-cut distinction between art and distinctions between genres. He considers theory, no totalizing genre of narration and that both biography and fiction are no unitary coherent world or human “constructions of character and identity to focus upon. Accordingly, he is atmosphere”, interpretations of history and one of the recent novelists who tries to find fictions at the same time. Ackroyd also “other ways of telling stories”, as Andrew wrote two critical works, Notes for a New Sanders (2004) put it, taking into account Culture (1976/1993), and Dressing Up: Bakhtinian theories of form and language Transvestism and Drag, the History of an plurality and theories of “textual worlds” Obsession (1979), in which he supports the as put forth by most postmodernist view that a novelist should have theoretical theorists, among which Brian McHale. insights, especially as far as language is concerned. Besides the view of language 3. The Art of Intrusion and Multi-layers: as a self-referring entity by means of Chatterton which identities and subjects are constructed, Ackroyd also insists on the Of all Ackroyd’s novels, Chatterton is idea of intertextuality as informing all probably the most complex and clearly writing and running across historical ages interactive with contemporary theory as or cultural spaces. This postmodernist view expressed by Julia Kristeva, Roland Hamzea, L.: The Language Labyrinth in Peter Ackroyd’s Fiction 81
Barthes or Harold Bloom among others. of some manuscripts and a supposed Besides, Bakhtin’s idea of the polyphonic painting of the same Chatterton. The novel seems to inform this novel in present also includes other writers who in multiple ways, displaying a variety of their turn contribute to the complexity of discourses that open up multiple refracted mirrors and voices that the novel perspectives on other ‘worlds’. The major reveals: Philip Slack, a failed novelist who issue is that of the possibility of most clearly embodies the contemporary authenticity in an age that is over- writer’s ‘anxiety of influence’ and conscious of intertextuality and accordingly gives up writing, Harriet intersubjectivity, possessed of “the anxiety Scrope, who plagiarizes the plots of a of influence”. The postmodern notions of Victorian writer, and Andrew Flint, who the fictionality of history and the writes a biography of Meredith. There is an dissolution of the boundaries between art intricate maze of intertextual borrowings in and reality, between different forms of art, the works or projects of all these writers, and ultimately between past and present pointing to an endless connectedness and are at the chore of this novel. As Adriana also an impossible assertion of pure Neagu pointed out, it establishes Ackroyd originality or originating creativity. And all as a postmodern “eccentric ‘unmaker’ of this is possible through the exploration and conventional notions of certainty, truth and ingenious exploitation of language and the originality” ( 115). invention of multiple language games that As if pointing to its existence as both Ackroyd seems to master to an unusual fiction and critical commentary, the text degree. seems to be a mixture of temporal levels as Firstly there is his ability to mimic the well, the two historical ages language of the fifteenth, eighteenth or interpenetrating in Hawksmoor increasing nineteenth century, a skill which the writer to three in this case, and the dialogue of acquired by studying manuscripts at the related texts and subjectivities multiplying British Museum and which he uses for in an endless chain. recreating voices of the past. He believes Taking Chatterton, a celebrated that language always contains previous Romantic poet as focus, the novel levels of speech which can be traced by the deconstructs the idea of an original text knowledgeable person. This is the basis of and an originating subjectivity, presenting Chatterton’s forgery of some ‘medieval a continuous game consisting of acts of poems’ which he writes, and he publishes fakery of various degrees, types and styles, them with the name of a fifteenth century exploding the very notion of originality monk, Rowley, mastering perfectly the and authenticity. medieval style and language. This Chronologically speaking, the three eighteenth century ‘pastiche’ is contrasted temporal levels of the novel, intersecting to the opposite kind of imitation, taking the and recurring in an overwhelming way for topic and expressing it in new language, as the reader, are the eighteenth century, operated by Harriet Scrope. If Chatterton focusing on the poet Chatterton, the mid- was first rejected but then rediscovered by nineteenth century with a special frame the Romantic poets, including including the writer George Meredith Worsdworth, who dedicated a stanza to posing for the painter Henry Wallis who this neglected genius, the contemporary paints a scene of Chatterton’s death, and plagiarist is not condemned by Charles, the present time when another poet, who sees her act as a legitimate literary Charles Wychwood investigates the truth appropriation. The line of ‘appropriations’ 82 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV is continued with Charles himself using inserted without punctuation marks and half of a sentence from an exhibition apparently disconnected from the catalogue for the opening paragraph of his narration: ‘oh yes if this is real this is him” book on Chatterton, an “intratextual (Chapter one), “whereof we cannot speak plagiarism” as Adriana Neagu calls it (122). thereof we must be silent” (Chapter two), And the games continue with other forms “the dream unfolds… the sleeper of internal plagiarism, Ackroyd himself awakes,… but still the dream goes on” using sentences from his other works, (Chapter five). like The Last Testament of Oscar Wilde. This device of insertions of lines from Linguistic games become ironical or Chatterton’s poems into the fictional even comical sometimes, like the game of discourse, added to a complicated game of Latin quotations played by Andrew Flint in mottos, creates a variety of effects. For the a conversation with Harriet Scrope at reader it creates a feeling of mystery and Charles’ funeral. Andrew Flint is the suspense that is a major ingredient of extreme case of ‘influence’ and of the Ackroyd’s best novels; for the postmodern Nietzchean view of the autonomy of the seeker, it demonstrates that there is no firm language, as the novelist expresses himself borderline between poetry and fiction, their throughout the novel through quotations discourse may be in fact similar. At the from classical writers, endlessly worrying same time this echoing of eighteenth about their correct source. Unlike the other century poetry into a twentieth century writers in the book, he cannot rise above story may also be taken for the postmodern the influence of intertextuality in order to tenet that there is no distinction between offer a genuine response to life. This art and reality or between fiction and inability is obvious in the difference of history. Language is the all powerful tool opinion expressed in a dialogue between uniting them all and breaking down Andrew and Charles with respect to imaginary frame lines which were Chatterton: the former considers the traditionally designed by rational lines of Romantic poet “the greatest plagiarist in thought. Of all the characters, Charles is history”, while the latter “the greatest poet the most involved in this kind of linguistic- in history” (94), Charles being able to imaginary-mysterious game. overcome the limitations of a general label and see the authentic emotional response 4. Loose Borderlines that identifies true poetry. Ackroyd’s linguistic games include Frame breaking is seen by Ackroyd as a repetitions of sentences from one chapter more general artistic device which allows to another, from one time frame to another, not only immersions into different periods from one story within the novel to another. of time, and textual or identity Thus words from Nicholas Dyer’s interchanges, but also a wider dialogue accounts in Hawksmoor are repeated in between various arts, like literature and Hawksmoor’s accounts, creating a painting. Out of the several paintings puzzling sense of interconnectedness referred to in the novel some are between apparently separate temporal demonstrated fakes, but at the same time frames and characters. Just like in the they are not imitations of other paintings, previous novel, each chapter of the first only palimpsestic acts of imagination part in Chatterton ends with a sentence which are revealed as authentic, though which is to be found in the text of the next obscure creations. Painting as palimpsest chapter in the form of italicized fragments becomes a sort of metaphor for what Hamzea, L.: The Language Labyrinth in Peter Ackroyd’s Fiction 83
Ackroyd attempts to demonstrate at the muniments room; he could continue level of literary discourse by means of all writing in the same style on his own. the above mentioned devices. The gap The intertextual games Ackroyd plays in between the ‘authentic’ picture and its later this novel go as far as to make Chatterton additions or forgeries is the gap between anachronistically utter the lines from the truth and reality. The ambiguity of all the end of Eliot’s Waste Land ("These frames and historical layers makes reality fragments I have shored against my ungraspable, authenticity impossible or ruins"), and the replacement of “ruins” in irrelevant, and truth impossible to assert. Eliot’s text with “Genius” marks the All these games and devices contribute difference between the Romantic to creating not only a vast web of textuality perception of the poet and the modern from which no one can escape, but also sense of identity. The reversal of the time identities that are no longer clearly shaped direction in the intertextual equation and fixed, Charles identifying with his completes the series of distortions operated study object (Chatterton), Meredith with in this novel. the same as the real ‘subject’ of the In Chatterton the issue of forgery painting his is posing for, and Chatterton extends from literary texts and painting to himself identifying completely from the the autobiographical account of artistic point of view with the medieval Chatterton’s life, which is in fact faked by authors he imitates. the poet’s publisher, and so the series of The novel explores a wide range of forged texts multiplies and includes several plagiarisms, as well as the borderline frames. With the endless chain of forgeries between authenticity and plagiarism, and forgeries of forgeries, Ackroyd’s dramatizing the impossibility of giving a investigation of the notions of verdict or making a clear-cut distinction. intertextuality, style, originality, plagiarism Even the clearer case of Harriet Scrope’s and hybrid literary genres acquires ‘borrowing’ plots from an obscure dramatic intensity. Victorian novelist, being presented from Besides the motif of forgery, the novel her own point of view and with the also focuses on death scenes. The three potential of free indirect style, manages to scenes in each of the time sequences seem render this kind of plagiarism as to re-enact one another, not remarkably creative: Scrope can make her chronologically though. The fictional own connections and create her own style construct reverses the order, historical by using old plots as simple “vessels”. Chatterton’s death occurring at the very Harriet feels her imagination is liberated end of the novel, after the painting with only after this initial forgery. That is why this subject was completed by Wallis and she feels no remorse, and calmly tells after Charles’s own death which mimics Charles that “novelists don’t work in a the posture represented in the nineteenth vacuum. We use many stories.” (104). It century painting. Thus life imitates art in a seems to be perfectly true of the modern true postmodern fashion, and the death of and postmodern age in which parody was the historical poet seems to re-enact the one of the most flourishing genres. This contemporary failed poet’s death in an attitude echoes another one, having equally postmodern dissolution of Chatterton as protagonist and describing boundaries and chronology. But death is the moment when he discovered that he also focused in the novel through the could do more than transcribe the medieval research carried by one of Harriet Scrope’s manuscripts he discovered in the friends, Sarah Tilt, who pursues the 84 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV imagery of death in English painting. Her The answer is probably best given in the minute investigation and the expertise she realm of the relative instead of a firm acquires are reminiscent of another position that would suit pre-modern times. postmodern fictional scholar, Julian His novels are in the first place a sort of Barnes’s character in Flaubert’s Parrot. In hybrid genre, using the detective fact the comparison is sustained by the convention to a large extent, but then ironical stance adopted by both writers turning even the most obviously detective with respect to the uselessness of scholarly of his fictions, Hawksmoor, into an anti- competence and investigation and by the detective novel. Ackroyd borrows just the similar conclusion. In Chatterton, not only basic convention of the genre, mainly the Sarah is incapable of bringing her book on investigation of details, and gradually death to an end in spite of her efforts, but subverts this very convention in order to so is Wallis in his painstaking attempt to construct a postmodern universe of reconstruct the very setting of Chatterton’s confusion, indeterminacy and ambiguity death chamber. Ackroyd and Barnes, in but which can accommodate the more their different ways, come to reject challenging investigation into the nature of mimesis and realistic conventions, truth or human identity. considering them vain enterprises which only distance the writer from reality. But References reality is just one of those elusive terms, just like originality, as Charles states in a 1. Ackroyd, Peter. Chatterton. London: suggestive conversation with Harriet. Penguin Books, 1993. Credit is due to interpretation, to re- 2. Ackroyd, Peter. Hawksmoor. London: workings and arrangements of old forms Penguin Books, 1993. which in Ackroyd’s view is a 3. Ackroyd, Peter. Notes for a New manifestation of the imagination. One Culture. An essay on Modernism. might even say that in rejecting realism, London: Vision Press, 1976. postmodernism comes closer to the 4. Ahearn, J. Edward. “The Modern romantic belief. Ackroyd certainly is English Visionary: Peter Ackroyd’s coming in that direction, for, as Adriana Hawksmoor and Angela Carter’s The Neagu (2002:142) insightfully notices: Passion of New Eve”. In: Twentieth Century Literature, Winter, 2000. Where Ackroyd’s position differs from 5. Neagu, Adriana. Sublimating the the postmodern theory of the finitude Postmodern Discourse: Toward a of newness and the refuge of the Post-Modern Fiction in the Writings of contemporary mind in the recycling of Paul Auster and Peter Ackroyd. Sibiu: pre-existing forms is in the indication Editura Universităţii Lucian Blaga, that the new and the original are after 2002. all the coming together of imaginative, 6. Sanders, Andrew. The Short Oxford interpretive and experiential acts. History of English Literature. Third Edition, Oxford U. Press, 2004. 5. Conclusion 7. Vianu, Lidia. “The Desperado of Sensibility Laid Bare”. In: România One may wonder about Ackroyd’s own literară, Issue 10/ 13 March (2002). position with respect to the notions intensely dramatized in his fiction: intertextuality, originality, plagiarism. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
JULIAN BARNES AGAINST THE BACKGROUND OF CONTEMPORARY FICTION
Aura SIBIŞAN1
Abstract: In the complex arena of contemporary fiction, postmodern writings offer challenging solutions for the innovation in fiction at the level of form. The characteristics of postmodern fiction transcend the geographical boundaries, so writers belonging to different cultural spaces share similar features. Julian Barnes is one of the British writers who expresses courageously his affinities with the French culture. His vision, style and the fiber of his work place him in the area of postmodern writers.
Keywords: postmodern, post-war fiction, experiment, tradition, epistemologic anxiety, innovation.
1. Introduction focalization of the novel in the minds or private narratives of its characters” In his comprehensive study (Stevenson 19). The subjectivity of the “Postmodernism and Contemporary narrative point of view is followed by the Fiction in Britain” (in Edmund J. Smyth second feature, “its abandonment of serial, ed., Postmodernism and Contemporary chronological conventions of Fiction, Batsford, 1991), Randall arrangement”. The third feature of Stevenson discusses British postmodern modernism relevant for this discussion is fiction in relation to the concept as such, “an interest in the nature and form of art and in relation to the illustrations of the which occasionally extends, self- trend in Europe and America. reflexively, towards the novel’s scrutiny of Argumentative and extremely well- its own strategies” (Stevenson 20). documented, the study starts from In other words, the innovations in demonstrating that there really is a British narrative technique – the subjectivity of postmodernism, by postmodernism perspective and the abandonment of linear meaning a trend that can be seen, in Brian chronology in the novel – together with the McHale’s terms, as the “‘logical and metafictional dimension are taken over by historical’ consequence of the earlier the postmoderns in their quest for new initiatives of modernism”. literary expression. To this, Randall According to Randall Stevenson, three Stevenson rightfully adds the philosophical are the features of modernism that would dimension, the questions that postmodern be pursued in the postmodern paradigm. writers are concerned with. In the words of “Firstly, modernist fiction’s most Brian McHale, who establishes in celebrated innovation lies in its Postmodernist Fiction the main distinction
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Transilvania University of Braşov. 86 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV between modernist writers and postmodern is seen under the sign of the arbitrary: “As ones: while the moderns are concerned McHale suggests, any ‘stable world’ the with epistemological questions (“How can text projects is at best fragmentary, and is I interpret this world of which I am a part? generally ‘overwhelmed by the competing And what am I in it?” (McHale 9), the reality of language” (McHale 234). The postmoderns are troubled by ontological ‘autonomy of this language establishes questions, for example “Which world is Finnegans Wake as an almost purely this? What is to be done in it? Which of linguistic domain, a self-contained world, my selves is to do it?”. To quote more ontologically disjunct.” (Stevenson 21). from Brian McHale, because this seems to For Randall Stevenson, Finnegans Wake is me a key issue for postmodern writing, the paragon, as “each work is a “Other typical postmodernist questions postmodernist paradigm, a prophecy of the bear either on the ontology of the literary self-reflexive foregrounding of language text itself or on the ontology of the world and fiction-making which has become a which it projects, for instance: What is a central, distinguishing characteristic of world?; What kinds of world are there, postmodernism” (Stevenson 22). how are they constituted, and how do they This is a characteristic which has been differ?; What happens when different prominent in post-war British fiction, and kinds of world are placed in confrontation, Randall Stevenson illustrates with writers or when boundaries between worlds are that embraced this feature: Lawrence violated?” (McHale 10). Durrell, Doris Lessing, John Fowles with Many postmodern writers include in their The French Lieutenant’s Woman. Authors work meditations on the nature of the that comment on their own practice, world we live in, the transformations of the intruding in the narrative, or thematizing in contemporary scene, and also on the nature their text the problematic relations between of fiction, its capacity to reflect the language, fiction and reality are numerous anxieties of contemporary man. in the field of contemporary British fiction. The quotation seems relevant in the Randall Stevenson enumerates them, discussion of Julian Barnes’s work, including Julian Barnes in the list: because the British writer is concerned “Christine Brook-Rose, Muriel Spark, with what kind of world we live in, even in Giles Gordon, Rayner Hepenstall, David the proper sense of the terms, if we Caute, John Berger, B.S. Johnson, Alasdair remember the scene in A History of the Gray, Julian Barnes and others”. World in 10 ½ Chapters, in which one The quotation from Alain Robbe-Grillet, character is floating in a boat on the ocean, who was admired by John Fowles, is during a possible environmental emblematic, in my opinion, for the catastrophe. The aspect of different worlds importance of self-reflexiveness in colliding is illustrated in the same novel, in postmodern British fiction: “After Joyce… the chapter narrated from the perspective it seems that we are more and more of the woodwarm (chapter 1). moving towards an age of fiction in which … invention and imagination may finally 2. The Complexity of Postmodern Fiction become the subject of the book” (Stevenson 23). The ontological aspect concerns also the The discussion of the way in which the relation between world and word, so much moderns treat chronology and structure debated in modern literature. In leads Randall Stevenson to relate the postmodern literature as well, this relation postmoderns’ innovation of literary forms
Sibişan, A.: Julian Barnes against the Background of Contemporary Fiction 87 with their reflections on history. The critic itself, on literary forms. The relation contradicts Fredric Jameson, one of the between art and life is extensively most powerful adversaries of discussed by postmodern writers in their postmodernism, who stated that work. postmodernism is “an alarming and I quoted in extenso, because a parallelism pathological symptom of a society that has can be made, with Linda Hutcheon’s view become incapable of dealing with time and of postmodernism being a contradictory history” (in Foster, 1983, 117)” phenomenon, exposing the arbitrariness of (Stevenson 24). The quotation from Italo literary signs and relying upon this very Calvino’s If on a Winter’s Night a arbitrariness. At the same time, the Traveller (1982) is very relevant for the quotation serves very well our discussion connection between the XXth century of Julian Barnes’s work, that captures innovations in narrative technique and the precisely the writer’s concern with the moderns’ reflection on history itself, as ‘progress’ of humanity, the advancement Randall Stevenson points out: “… the of technologies, industry and tourist dimension of time has been shattered, we development, the sophistication of cannot love or think except in fragments of marketing strategies, at the expense of time each of which goes off along its own authenticity, truth and moral values. trajectory and immediately disappears. We can rediscover the continuity of time only 3. The Contemporary Scene in the novels of that period when time no longer seemed stopped and did not yet Nevertheless, the innovative authors seem to have exploded” (Stevenson 25). Lawrence Durrell or William Golding are In contemporary times, the sense of proof that the picture is not uniform, fragmentation and discontinuity is felt dominated only by the return to realism more strongly, because of recent events and traditional forms of writing, especially and the development of technologies, thus in the 1950s. Coming closer to the the fractured, accelerated life designs an contemporary scene, where Julian Barnes “apocalyptic history”, to use Randall has been performing as a novelist since Stevenson’s phrase. These conditions are 1980, Randall Stevenson gives account of reflected in different and intriguing ways the complexity of the literary scene: by postmodern fiction and art in general. In “Many members of the current generation the words of Randall Stevenson, of British writers, including older, “Postmodernism not only radicalizes established authors whose careers began in forms, but also satirizes them, exposing the 1950s, show, in single novels or at their incapacities to connect with reality various points of their careers, an attraction and the possibilities for distortion which towards experiment as well as tradition and result. In one way, (…), this can be seen as realism” (Stevenson 29). The critic evasive, a negation of art’s potential to mentions Antony Burgess’s A Clockwork confront the challenges of life and history. Orange (1962), or Iris Murdoch’s The In another way, however, it can be seen as Black Prince (1973), as examples of responsibly encouraging readers to innovative writings. Martin Amis is quoted challenge for themselves cultural codes with the following remark, emblematic for and established patterns of thought” the experimental vein of contemporary (Stevenson 26-27). British fiction: “I can imagine a novel that This illustrates the self-reflexivity of is as tricksy, as alienated and as writerly as postmodernism, its capacity to reflect on those of, say, Alain Robbe-Grillet while
88 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV also providing the staid satisfaction of the possibility of valid contact with an pace, plot and humor with which we exterior reality. “ (Stevenson 33) associate, say, Jane Austen. In a way, I Postmodernism abandons the moderns’ imagine that this is what I myself am anxiety about how we can know the world, trying to do”( Stevenson 30). how we can understand external reality. It Martin Amis’s words capture the focuses on the difficulty to reflect reality mingling of experiment and tradition, the through various systems of representation. compromise between inventing new forms I quoted in extenso, because the issue of writing and keeping the mirror to reflect discussed here by Randall Stevenson is the society, in the realistic tradition. In my extremely relevant for Julian Barnes’s opinion, the British way of writing view on literature, his formation as a writer postmodern texts seems to result in a and the themes he approaches. In tamed version of postmodernism, in tune Flaubert’s Parrot, for example, J. Barnes with the British way of avoiding to stand discusses the nature of fiction, the relation out, keeping a middle way. between fiction and reality, the possibility Many British writers expressed of fiction to represent external reality. admiration for French writing: John Fowles refers in The French Lieutenant’s 3. Conclusion Woman to “the lessons of existentialist philosophy”, and is inspired by Alain Randall Stevenson ends his study Robbe-Grillet and Roland Barthes. expressing his firm belief in the capacity of Another example is Christine Brooke- British fiction to absorb foreign influences Rose, who translated some of Robbe- in order to maintain its freshness, Grillet’s fiction into English. I would say complexity and leading position in that Julian Barnes, with his deep interest in contemporary fiction. Julian Barnes is a French literature and culture, integrates in contemporary writer that is postmodern in a long line of British writers who construct many essential aspects of his work. His their fictional universe drawing inspiration spiritual affinities with French writers and from French literary models. French culture simplify the theorist’s Britain has always needed to borrow attempt to have a general view of from France, Ireland, the USA the drive to contemporary fiction. break conventions, to explore new ways of writing literature. This is not seen as a References weakness within the British scene, it is considered a proof of the arbitrariness of 1. Hutcheon, Linda. A Poetics of linguistic signs, with philosophical Postmodernism. London: Routlege, consequences: “In Brian McHale’s model, 1988. from the arbitrariness of the signs results 2. McHale, Brian. Postmodernist an epistemologic anxiety for modernism, Fiction. London: Routledge, 1987. which seeks new forms to engage with a 3. Stevenson, Randall. “Postmodernism problematic, fugitive, but still reachable and Contemporary Fiction in Britain”, external reality. Ontologically centered, in Edmund Smyth, ed. Postmodernism postmodernism largely abandons this and Contemporary Fiction. London: quest, highlighting the inadequacies of B.T. Batsford Ltd, 1991. systems of representation which assume
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
DUILIU ZAMFIRESCU’S SHORT STORIES
1 Andreea PETRE
Abstract: Duiliu Zamfirescu’s short stories mark an important moment in the evolution of the Romanian genre by the sober, equilibrated construction. The author’s interest hovers over the individual drama, the conflict that springs between the character and his environment or inside the character’s conscience. The search for the inner identity is depicted in the short story Good night (Noapte bună), caused by love, one of the disturbing elements which helps the author to investigate the mechanisms of seduction and the ‘enigmatic behaviour of the woman in love’. In Durand’s terms, compared to Caragiale’ extroverted heroes, D. Zamfirescu’s characters are subtly re- placed in the romantic patterns.
Key words: short story, individual drama, conflict, romantic patterns, realist notation, love theme.
1. Introduction harmonious, at least it was acceptable for the character. Consistently oscillating between the One of the disturbing elements, which influence of the sentimental romanticism produces the turmoil in the hero’s (Alexandre Dumas, Paul de Kock, George conscience, is love, a theme which is Sand), on the one hand, and the realist present in three of the most valuable of D. notation, (Balzac, Maupassant, Zola), on Zamfirescu’s short-stories: Noapte bună the other hand, also a keen reader of (Good Night), Spre mare (To the Sea), Tolstoi and Tugheniev, Duiliu Zamfirescu Subprefectul (The Vice-Governor). is successful in the realization of an important moment in the evolution of the 2. She and he in the “Noapte bună” Romanian short-story, not only by (Good Night) anticipation of his most accomplished novels, Viaţa la ţară (Life at the Country), Noapte bună (Good Night) is the first Tănase Scatiu, but also by the sober, short-story published in ‘Convorbiri equilibrated construction, realised with literare’ in 1886, and, from a letter ‘economy of epic and descriptive addressed to Maiorescu, the mentor of devices’(Zaciu, 1967, 94). Junimea, comes forth the fact that the The author’s interest hovers over the mentor had read the text and interfered in it individual drama, the conflict that springs before its publication in ‘Convorbiri between the character and his environment literare’. where, for some time, he seemed perfectly The first part of the text gravitates fit. Or, if the liaison with this existential around the hero, the President of the Court environment was not one of the most
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov.
90 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV from Hârşova, ‘a boy of thirty and a little, and, every morning, he presents himself tall, dark-faced and well-built ’. at the distance meeting with Aişè, the The man, depicted with obvious irony, is qadi’s daughter. a Don Juan of Bucharest, cheerful, with a From this point forward, the entire passion for high-life, lover of women, analysis shall be focused on the emotions courteous, shallow and trite. ‘The man was of the girl, who becomes the main not mean by nature, but he was like those character of the novel. The unique innumerable young Romanians who laugh, experience Aişè lives makes her evade with or without cause, at everybody; court, from the daily routine and overflow with in Bucharest, the entire feminine an extraordinary inner energy. What is for population, going through all ranks: from him one more adventure, for her turns into the shop-assistants to the most refined love. The apparition of the man manifests ladies’ (Zamfirescu, 1988, 63). as an irresistible force for the girl. His The irony of fate carries the young man tenacity to see her every morning will be to Dobrogea, and as the President of the followed by a risky date for the two Court, he is condemned to a painful exile, protagonists, but not lacking humour: by contrast between the Bucharest’s dressed in women’s Turkish pants, too ebullition and the quiet life of Hârşova. short to hide his own pants and boots, Vitalist by nature, the man does not helped by an old Greek woman, the despair, and the solitary contemplation of president manages to enter Aişè’s house. the Danube doesn’t determine him to Only now he can fully admire her beauty: search inside himself for his inner identity, ‘Her white round face started to enlighten nor directs him towards the deciphering of with inner delight, which painted her a great mystery of the universe. He sits on cheeks with thin rose lines’ (Zamfirescu, the shore and becomes a gentler and 1988, 67). simpler man, not necessarily more Left alone, the man assaults the girl with profound. passionate hugs and kisses. The girl lives In this context, one night he sees a young the physical closeness ecstatically; she Turkish woman. His reaction to her sight goes from feelings of abandon to near is typical for a shallow character – he death experience, she is left motionless, doesn’t see her features from a close without reactions: ‘Than, he lay besides look, so he doesn’t know whether she is her and started to kiss her again, not beautiful or not, but it suffices that she is knowing what he was doing anymore, his a Turkish woman and a promise for an senses enraptured by the smell of her rose exotic chase: ‘That he would like her perfume; to call her mildly by her name; to from a close look, he had no doubt’ press his body close to hers; to caress her (Zamfirescu, 1988, 64). cheek and hair – and she did not seem to The love, for her, and the adventure, wake ’(Zamfirescu, 1988, 68). for him, takes place from the distance, at Duiliu Zamfirescu is intuitive of the first, as a chase for a glimpse, when the feminine soul, is ‘preoccupied with the two heroes spy on and study each other, enigmatic behaviour of the woman in to move on, daily, with significant love’, as Nicolae Manolescu said gestures. More and more thrilled by the (Manolescu, 1966, 43). And, he sometimes apparition of the girl with ‘cheeks as succeeds to save the text from the clichés white as milk, and hazel lustrous hair’, of sentimental literature. His merit, with ‘a white arm and a round, full followed, of course, by his elbow’, the president neglects his job accomplishments, lies in the search for the Petre, A.: Duiliu Zamfirescu’s Short Stories 91 soul, as one of his heroines underlined, allows her the dreams and the solitary soul which is ‘complicated, filled with effusion, and also fills the solitude. finesse and with turns’. For Aişè, the When she finds out that the man she moment of the meeting with the president loves will leave Hârşova, impulsive and is decisive. Her world, built more on heroic, risking her reputation, Aişè takes maidenly dreams, awakes. The apparition the old accomplice with her and waits, of a new woman arouses the pleasure of freezing, for the sledge which takes the the hunt in the man’s soul. His assault is in president away. The gesture is fact connected with the active role in overwhelming for her. Frightened and seduction (Lipovetski, 2000, 60) a role frozen, she wants to explain her audacity to which demands tenacity and extreme the man: if she was not certain she sees daring, even risk. The purpose is curiosity; him for the last time, she would not bar his the cause for the approach of the girl is way to stop the sledge. Crossed and boredom and a slight desire for compassionate, he, who has already competition. After he meets her and the forgotten her, makes promises both know experience is consumed, it is almost are untrue. passenger, and more, the girl’s exoticism In the end, Aişè repeats the words he and freshness only boost his conqueror said to her the night of their only date: ego: ‘When he got out from Aişè, the ‘Good night…’ emotion he felt because of her lived only This ending opens the perspectives of for a few moments, and, once at the gate of interpretations, and the reader is left with the quadi’s house, he started to think how the possibility to continue the story of each to tell his friends from Bucharest about his destiny separately. new and strange victory over women’ The short-story successfully reflects the (Zamfirescu, 1988, 69). programme the author draws up in the On the other side, Aişè has an initiatory preface to the volume. In fact, Dan C. experience. The longer she thinks about Mihăilescu notices, in The Essential the differences that tell them apart, the Dictionary of the Romanian Writers, that more intense her feelings become. The Duiliu Zamfirescu’s works are the works absence, which is turned by love into of ‘the first programmatic writer, not only presence, makes Aişè lose herself in day- asserted, but also accomplished (…) in the dreaming: ‘The farthest from her to him Romanian literature’ (Dan C. Mihăilescu, and the more differences were disclosed 2000, 913). between their souls, the more attracted she Aişè, even if she cannot read or write felt.’ and lives a simple life, following the The girl’s transformation, the passage ‘ancestral customs’, belongs to the from day-dreaming to conscious category, beloved by the author, of the womanhood is closely followed by the ‘superior ones’, who feel the ‘unnamed author. longing’ for an ideal. Unique in a Because of the winter and the cold, but rudimentary universe, she is one of the also because he started to lack interest for chosen ones (as the fairy tales heroes are), his new conquest, the president doesn’t she is not afraid to look life straight in the make any attempt to meet Aişè. The girl face and ‘loves danger, which means the voluptuously lives from her fantasies, breach of the ethical and religious nurturing her desires with his image and conduct’. the music of harmonica, a refuge which
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3. Conclusion References
A peculiarity of Zamfirescu’s works 1. Mihăilescu, C. Dan. Dicţionarul must be clearly distinguished, as it esenţial al scriitorilor români. influences most of his characters, men or Bucureşti: Editura Albastros, 2000. women. This is, comparing to the works of 2. Lipovetski, Gilles. A treia femeie. Caragiale, a ‘conversion’ of the characters Bucureşti: Editura Univers, 2000. to the values of intimacy. If Caragiale’s 3. Manolescu, Nicolae. Lecturi infidele. heroines ‘conquer’ the city, being Bucureşti: EPLU, 1966. characterised by extroversion, in Durand’s 4. Zaciu, Mircea. Masca geniului. terms, at Duiliu Zamfirescu can be Bucureşti: EPLU, 1967. observed, on the contrary, a subtly nuanced 5. Zamfirescu, Duiliu. Nuvele. Bucureşti: ‘re-placement’ of the characters in the Editura Minerva, 1988. patterns of Romanticism.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE STRUGGLE WITHIN THE SELF IN ALDOUS HUXLEY’S THE MONOCLE AND A.E. BACONSKY’S THE STONECUTTER’S RUN
1 Nicoleta-Petronela APOSTOL
Abstract: This paper discusses the struggle that appears within the self of the artist who discovers himself in a society that imposes limits and strict rules to the artistic environment. The individual finds himself at the border of existence as he does not know which is the path to follow and as he is often unable to make a clear decision. Aldous Huxley’s The Monicle and A.E. Baconsky’s The Stonecutter’s Run will be the stories in which the analysis of this inner struggle unfolds underlining the points in which the two artists meent and those in which their life approaches diverge.
Key words: self, limitation, artist, solitude.
The artistic environment may be seen as perceived as someone who seeks to find, a sphere of confusion, wonder and more than others, explanations to his research, an area in which people are lead existence or, most commonly, wonders on a path of self-discovery or self- about his place among the other human awareness. Such a path is the starting point beings. He seems to get detached from the for the artists themselves while those who ordinary background, his existence witness the process can add something to developing at a different level, a more the understanding of this world. Aldous conscious one. This level makes the artist Huxley and A.E. Baconsky are two authors become acutely aware of his responsibility whose writings emphasize the role of the towards the others and towards himself. artists in the society and their influence In these short stories the reader upon those who come into direct contact encounters the dilemma of the artist who with them. This paper discusses the discovers himself placed at the border of individuals’ (artists or intellectuals) way of existence trying to find the path to follow. coping with the world and with the society In Aldous Huxley’s short story the reader being interested in outlining their qualms is confronted with several ways of and concerns as they appear shaped in the perceiving art and the artists, most of these two authors’ short stories. We chose confrontations wearing the veil of the Aldous Huxley’s The Monocle and A. E. author’s ironic remarks. The use of irony Baconsky’s The Stonecutter’s Run in order may be a path to revealing the fact that to analyze the connections between two individuals choose to wear a mask instead different / similar ways of approaching the of showing themselves as they actually are. individual’s existence. The artist is Using a mask implies an assurance that the
1 Ph.D. Researcher in Philology, “Babeş-Bolyai” University, Cluj-Napoca. 94 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV other people will accept, praise or admire choosing one way or another. Even this this individual who displays the image of placement between appearance and an almost perfect person. Huxley’s essence is a permanent problem of choice individuals are in search of a better social due to which within the self of the position or they are simply looking for individual a struggle is being led. In A. E. better material comfort. What’s the purpose Baconsky’s story, for example, we find the of Huxley’s presentation of the artists of his artist confronting the society’s limitations day? The answer to this question is many- and his placement on the border of two folded. One possibility may be that he was a spaces: a spiritual one and a material one. part of this artistic world which he Baconsky’s story and Huxley’s too, described from within and which he knew develop on the idea of the interrelationship both in practice and in theory. He looked between the self and the world. The artist with a critical eye at the atmosphere of his discovers himself in close connection with time and he penned some stories about the the social background from which he way he understood that environment. cannot escape. He exiles himself, as a form Another answer could be that he was of defence against the society or the interested in art more than in its material people, somewhere in his interior taking advantages. Something like art for art’s upon himself the status of the stranger. sake, even though he did not go that far. (Ibidem) Baconsky’s stories show an artist He shaped the realities of his time in in search of an understanding of life and of these stories which abound in allusions and his own being. The artist passes through a ironies to the individual who wants to process of conscience meant to bring to appear something that he is not, the interest surface his inner thoughts and conflicts in in the selfish affairs being placed above the order to lead him to the fulfillment of his pure art. The authentic artist is very hard to expectations. find in such an atmosphere or better said is One central idea of the two stories is that very hard to identify. This artist has to of the search for a meaning which confront the society’s judgments and expedition takes place mainly in their interests and still keep his mind clear for interior, where they can reflect upon their his purposes. It is a difficult task and it existence and their surroundings (events, requires special devotion and sacrifice, but people, things). In The Monocle the reader Huxley showed that the genuine artists meets an individual who finds himself could find the strength to struggle with caught between two worlds. Gregory has a their inner desires and with the society’s certain group of friends, but he finds it demands. Huxley presented in his stories difficult to establish a fixed place for “[…] some samples of reality most of which himself among that group. He is wearing a are built on the contrast between appearance monocle and this seems to be the reason and essence or, rather, the contrast between why he cannot act properly among the a limited understanding and a hard-to-grasp others. His placement at the edge of two reality” (Ciocoi-Pop 92). This contrast worlds is the result of the education he between appearance and essence is the one received. Gregory is conscious of his that leads the artist to the idea that only social status, of his provincialism and solitude and silence can bring him closer to when the doctor gave him the eye his purpose. diagnostic he saw it as a pretext for turning Being situated in a space of passage into someone more elegant who could (Câmpan 108) (not in one place, nor in the impress more. But as time passes he other) the artist is always on the point of realizes that using the monocle does not Apostol, N.P.: The Struggle within the Self in Aldous Huxley’s “The Monocle” and …. 95 bring him more confidence or appreciation. laugh at Gregory and to compel him to On the contrary, most of the time he feels accept that he is playing a role and that his strange using it. He is convinced that there mask can easily be taken off. The irony are certain circles in which the monocle Huxley uses through this Paxton is a way would be totally inappropriate like in a of showing his disapproval of those who group of poor people (they will feel pretended to be someone else denying offended) or a group of very rich people themselves the path of sincerity. An issue (he would feel like a parvenu in the field of that should be mentioned is that the writer monocles among them). chooses a character with very little Analyzing a little this image of the credibility to point out Gregory’s faults. monocle one could observe the following This could be because people have the directions. On the one side the monocle tendency to ignore those with a lower social represents the half of a whole. It does not status or those in difficulties just because offer a complete image of an object, but they are not strong enough to sustain some only enables the person wearing it to have points of view. Huxley draws the reader’s a complete perspective of an item or even attention that each individual has this chance another person. It may suggest of being listened and then analyzed no incompleteness just the way this character matter what his physical or spiritual feels. He has the feeling of belonging to characteristics are. Even though the two worlds and he cannot fit into either of individuals in the story ignore Paxton, them. On the other hand the monocle gives Gregory knows he speaks the truth for Gregory the chance to interpret a role, to which reason he avoids him as much as he act as if he were a different self. This need can. Actually he is constantly running from to be perceived by the others from another the one who is not afraid to tell him the truth angle, not the way he really is, points out about his real self and to say it face to face. this character’s understanding of existence, As Gregory establishes some or better said, his illusion of existence. The connections with the people at the party he monocle is a way of evading his reality, of becomes more aware that graduating from living in another sphere, of feeling university had not given him the chance to important and appreciated. The problem is distance himself from the provincial school that he is not aware that the monocle raises boy he was. Despite his literary a wall between himself and the others and inclinations, education and refinement he also drives him away from his peers. He is conscious that he is the rich heir of a wants to be perceived as an intellectual, as shoemaker. The use of the monocle a person whose life evolves above the appears as a way of entering other social material things and according to the classes, but he fails in this attempt because cultural issues whereas his origins and his he lacks confidence and natural talent as he way of life become an obstacle in himself recognizes at a point. Paxton’s achieving social success. suggestion to keep a state of drunkenness Gregory is exposed at one of the parties (in order to say anything you want) makes he attends, which represents an appropriate Gregory feel superior and entitled to treat medium for his intentions, those of making him from considerate distance. himself interesting and admired. Here he Wanting to escape from Paxton, Gregory meets Paxton, a drunkard, who goes to his group of friends: Ransom and understands Gregory’s role play and Mary Haig and Ms Camperdown. In this because of that he makes fun of him. circle of friends he starts telling some Paxton does not miss one opportunity to stories (the same he used to tell every time 96 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV they met). While telling them he sees only flashes of consciousness which later himself in a mirror and suddenly his mind on come to annoy him and he will try to is inveded by questions: why should one go put them aside. In order to escape this to the parties? Why? The same boring boring state or his own thoughts he starts people, the same gossip and the old salon listening to others’ conversations trying to puns. Every time it’s the same. He seems to enter other spheres. Finally he gets to the have a shock when facing reality. Till this point when only a drink can save him from moment Gregory was playing his role and the repeated stories and from his own was very happy with it. But when he sees inquiry. We see that Gregory’s search for himself in the mirror he seems to have a meaning is too powerful for him to revelation. It’s like the veil of confusion has undertake it completely. It’s much easier fallen. Suddenly he sees himself as he really for him to find small alternatives to the is- an actor interpreting a futile role. Still he dialogue with his own conscience. plays the role finishing the stories. But then Drinking and playing a role are ways of he feels ashamed of himself especially keeping himself busy and away from his when the others laugh at his stories. This thoughts. shift of perception of this moment (from The way this character is build up shows thrilled to ashamed) shows that something that each individual has a debt to himself must have happened inside him. When before to the others. If the individual limits exactly it happened we do not know but the himself to playing a role and avoids a story underlines the effects of that change deeper analysis of his feelings and desires even though they are short-lived. he is destined to loneliness or irony (from In Gregory’s inner self a struggle is his peers). People cannot be fooled that being carried on between the desire to keep easily and what they expect from one is his mask and the wish to express himself sincerity. Insisting to pretend that things as he actually is. He has moments when he are as he says they are, Gregory receives is obliged by the circumstances to see how only ironic smiles and often total he really is and these are the times when he rejections. In spite of the evidence he goes immediately tries to escape. His on playing his role pretending not to conscience confronts him with reality, but understand the reactions of the others or he keeps ignoring the signs. He would like judging them as inferior to him. His to be considered a person who appreciates conscience is the one that brings to surface life and art, but at the same time he refuses the things he tries to keep hidden. He is to be sincere with any of them. He would constantly reminded through the attitudes like to be in two places at once: in the and gestures of the other characters that he circle of the men of letters and in his own is not what he says he is, but he fights circle. He avoids authenticity and people them, forcing himself to keep that image perceive him as a false individual and their he created. He has moments when he is reaction is a consequence to this aware that he has to recognize some things perception. (like when Molly tells the others that he The active conscience may be a sign of a has that sum of money and he cannot deny placement in the realm of actuality and of it so strongly as when she was not there). becoming aware that the human being has Gregory finds himself between two a road to follow. Gregory is in search of spheres that of truth and that of pretence. something that might give sense to his life He cannot pass either on one side or the even though he does not know from the other because he is not sure of what he beginning what that something is. He has truly wants. Pretending to be in a certain Apostol, N.P.: The Struggle within the Self in Aldous Huxley’s “The Monocle” and …. 97 way helps him at times (when he does not reference to the artist’s destiny and want to give a part of his money) but also struggle: “Siento el dolor mas no veo la makes him feel more acutely his loneliness mano, / Ni puedo huir, ni me es dado (when he wants to tell Spiller his true escudarme.” (Fray Luis de Leon, A feelings for Molly and he cannot). The Nuestra Señora) (Baconsky 47) The artist state of doubt characterizes him and feels the pain of his existence but he impedes him from finding that something cannot see where it comes from and he that would give meaning to his life. cannot run away from it nor get some Gregory comes to be an individual who protection against it. He is denied the is unable to cope with the society, an possibility of defending himself against outsider, if he can be called like that. He this pain because he has to overcome it. maintains a specific distance between his The story presents the destiny of a inner self and the other people as he is stonecutter who is confronted with the unable to express what he really feels. awareness of his fate and with the Acting in the same manner for a longer meanings of his life. In the town he lives period of time he is incapable of getting there are few people and his only purpose out from that circle. He has to move in the in that place is to wait for winter and to same direction on two levels. At one level scabble stone crosses (which were more he confronts the other people in a pre- and more) for the big and aggressive established way, at another level he cemetery situated in the middle of the constantly sustains a dialogue with his town: “Oamenii erau puţini şi risipiţi ca concience. Not even in the end of the story după o invazie sau o epidemie does he succeed in bringing to a common necunoscută. Şi eu eram unul dintre ei. point the two level. His struggle remains Singurul meu rost în acea aşezare inside. Those around him being unable to îndepărtată era să aştept iarna şi să cioplesc notice anything. He chose to be lonely troiţe pentru mormintele care se înmulţeau inside, not to let anyone enter his world for mereu în cimitirul mare şi agresiv, aflat în fear that he would no longer be liked or mijlocul oraşului” (Ibidem 49). admired. However he fails in making From the beginning we realize that this others like him precisely because of this stone sculptor is limited to scabbling avoidance of acting naturally. The choice crosses and this limitation impedes him for inner solitude and struggle is this from revealing himself as a real artist. He character’s way of dealing with the artistic is aware that he finds himself in a strange world and with its challenges. situation and he tries to understand what is If Huxley’s story unfolds around a his purpose there. He wanted for a long character struggling within himself, unable time to leave this town because he could to express his inner feelings and thoughts, not express himself in that atmosphere, but Baconsky’s story, The Stonecutter’s Run there were always some things that made (Fuga pietrarului), bears another type of him postpone his leaving: “Marea, artist and of reality seen through the zăpezile, vântul şi clopotele mă înlănţuiau artist’s eyes. The narration starts from the din nou şi mă purtau printr-o lume în care idea that the artist is a lonely individual visam că se petrece, departe undeva, who needs to find some understanding adevărata mea existenţă” (Ibidem 50). He from the others in order to be able to feels that his real existence is somewhere continue his life. Baconsky’s story else but he cannot find the strength to leave includes a short motto which encompasses town. What he finds here is just the same the theme of the story and also makes a monotony and for a while he tries to 98 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV tolerate it, but he comes to realize that he and different things are thrown into his cannot adapt to that way of life. He always yard without catching the ones who did ended up distancing himself from the that. He has to accept the exterior as it is others and only later on did he understand too powerful to ignore. People seem to that his reactions were opposite to theirs have put him aside and he gets to be and that is why they saw him differently. lonelier and lonelier without any pos- For example he was full of hope when the sibility of escaping: “Ajunsesem din ce în others were full of worry or he was full of ce mai singur, mai ferecat în solitudinea sadness when the others were full of mea desperată, căreia numai iarna, marea confidence: “Câtăva vreme am încercat şi şi vântul îi aduceau aceeaşi alinare eu să-i urmez, dar întotdeauna sfârşeam zadarnică” (Ibidem 53). That is why when prin a-i îndepărta de mine fără să-mi dau he finishes scabbling the stone he goes seama. Abia după aceea înţelegeam că-mi towards the sea. The elements of nature manifestasem speranţa când ei erau bring him some comfort as the seagulls cuprinşi de îngrijorare sau că mă copleşise cast away his thoughts, the wind answers tristeţea în timp ce toţi ceilalţi îşi surâdeau the questions coming from his awkward încrezători unul altuia” (Ibidem 50). His voice. His thoughts take him to a fantastic reactions reveal him as different from the world where the beings become the masks others. His artistic side manifests itself in for foggy ideals. every aspect of life and he cannot avoid it. He starts being haunted by the thought of If there was a period when he tried to leaving town especially due to the adapt to the town’s monotony and to its increased number of crosses from his yard people things changed because his (which people paid but left there) and to conscience became active. He becomes the way people relate to a beggar (who was aware of the setting and also of the small a certain person first and is another now things that bring fulfillment to his life. although people act as if he were the Making crosses is not his only purpose in same). One night he decides to leave town life. He pays more attention to his starting on a road of desperation and terror. surroundings because he realizes the For a long time he has the feeling of being existence of minor issues that may change followed: “Putea fi gândul meu, care nu one’s perspective of life. A struggle mai era cu mine, sau o parte din propria-mi appears when he wishes to see beyond the viaţă, rămasă în oraşul acela. Când anii se surface of things and beyond people’s scutură de umbrele lor, se face un gol în reactions or words. This path has begun suflet şi ţi se pare mereu că te urmează long before, but he did not have the chance cineva” (Ibidem 55). He feels a void in his to analyze the steps he took. At night he soul as a part of his life remained in that tries to read a book from a forgotten town. That void from the soul makes him century, but he discovers himself evading think that someone follows him. He still the book’s pages and placing himself in the feels he did not get far enough from that world of his thoughts: “Încercam să citesc crossroad where his run started. Very late o carte dintr-un secol uitat, dar mă he decides to make a halt as he is very surprindeam din timp în timp cu gândul tired. He gets to a foggy town one night evadat din paginile ei” (Ibidem 52). and he has no strength to go on so he He tries to live inside and to strengthen enters a house without paying too much his mind. He looks for refuge in his attention to it. He cannot sleep: “Ochii nu childhood, but he fails as he is invaded by izbuteau să mi se închidă, gândurile nu le the vicinity. He receives several messages puteam alunga” (Ibidem 56). He sees Apostol, N.P.: The Struggle within the Self in Aldous Huxley’s “The Monocle” and …. 99 people at his window that look inside. He limitation the artist returns home. wakes up. He hears some steps (the same Baconsky allowed the reader to give his steps of the beggar that he used to hear own interpretation of the ending. One long before he left his town). The people explanation would be that the limits from outside start showing their stone arms imposed by the society cannot be defeated and heads. The character-narrator seems to just by running away from them. The have returned to the town he ran from. artist, especially, has to confront the Baconsky’s story mingles reality and society and its people and to struggle with illusion. The stonecutter is a character their rules if he wants to achieve freedom whose inner struggle leads him to a of thought. By running the stonecutter journey in the world of imagination. recognised that he lacked the strength to Everything is in such close connection to oppose his people and their rules. Another reality that the reader gets lost in the web possible explanation may be that no matter of thoughts if he does not pay attention to how much does the artist try to forget his details. The destiny of the stonecutter past and his roots he cannot. It is almost presupposes that the artist’s fate may be impossible to escape the past. The interpreted at various levels. Facing an memories and the people he knew will individual searching for some answers the always be in his mind. His return home is reader faces some of his own questions the result of his incapacity of breaking related to existence, meaning, feelings, with the past (he feels he is followed, he freedom etc. cannot sleep). This idea of not being able The town he lives in imposes too many to forget the roots is encountered in limits to his imagination and creativity and Huxley’s story too. Gregory cannot forget he needs to leave these behind in order to that he is the rich heir of a shoemaker and find that something which might change from this point his reactions are connected his perspective on life. As Aldous Huxley to this small detail, but which has a big underlined in his story, the artist has the impact upon his conscience. The capacity of presenting the world as a unity stonecutter and Gregory run from their by gathering the most important aspects of roots but they keep them present in their human existence. Baconsky’s stonecutter minds. Each one finds a way to ignore or tries to build up that unity of existence, but to escape them for a while, but they always he cannot because the society, the people return because the change of perspective is impede him to be creative or to go beyond not done at the level of their conscience. the present issues. When he tries to adapt Both characters want to forget that past, to their conditions he sees that there is no but this desire is expressed at a superficial possibility of combining his life perception level. None of them goes deeper in their and the rules of the town and of its people. conscience to see if that liberation from the The only way to free himself from any past is actually possible. Their alternatives constrains is to leave town. He finally are to keep their mind busy with trivial manages to do that but he is held back by things or to travel from a place to another. the memories and by that part of his life If they might have stopped and analyzed that remains in that town. their conscience the result might have been Finally it turns out that the stonecutter different. Both authors underline here that got back from where he left in the first the human being in general has little time place. Maybe he never left, just in his to make analyses. There are always more imagination. It is ironical to realize that important things to deal with and so the after all the efforts to escape monotony and conscience process is left aside. 100 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Another possible explanation for the self as a result of the answer they try to stonecutter’s return to his town may be that offer to the people and the society they live his return is compulsory in order for him to in. Their artistic nature leads them on this understand something about his life and to path revealing themselves as they actually become aware that running is not the are and bringing to the surface their inner equivalent of solving a problem. T.S. Eliot conflicts and interests. Their incapacity of said that “We shall not cease from telling others what they feel and think may exploration, and the end of all our be the effect of the society’s influence, or exploring will be to arrive where we the effect of the artistic environment in started and know the place for the first which they live. Each one perceives art in time.” So if we interpret this return home a different way, but what brings them from Eliot’s point of view we may say that closer is their need for solitude, for the stonecutter started an exploration of his analysis, for maintaining a constant life and returning home meant the end of dialogue with their conscience. The his journey. He is given the chance to see struggle within their selves represents their that place with other eyes and to try to face way of coping with the reality and their its people and their way of thinking. way of approaching existence. The struggle within the self of Huxley’s and Baconsky’s characters appears under References the form of a process of conscience. Each character begins analyzing his life from a 1. Baconsky, A.E.. Scrieri, II, Proze. present situation. They are all in close Ediţie îngrijită, note, cronologie şi connection to the society they live in and bibliografie de Pavel Ţugui, Studiu to the people they relate to. They are introductiv de Mircea Martin, influenced by their background and cannot Bucureşti: Cartea Românească, 1990. escape the limits imposed by their peers or 2. Câmpan, Diana. Gâtul de lebădă- by the society. Each of the two writers sees utopiile răsturnate şi confesiunile the artist in close relation to the social mascate ale lui A. E. Baconsky. background and to the people he interacts Cluj-Napoca: Dacia, 2003. with. The characters’ search for meaning 3. Ciocoi-Pop, Dumitru. Aldous Huxley’s metamorphoses into a struggle with their Literary Ideology – Fourth revised inner limits. They have to fight their own edition-. Sibiu: LBUS Press, 2005. thoughts and beliefs and to see beyond the 4. Daiches, David. The Novel and the ephemeral things. What counts in their Modern World, Revised Edition, search for meaning is that they activate Chicago and London. The University their consciousness and they begin seeing of Chicago Press, 1965. life from other angles. Having several 5. Dimitriu, Rodica. Aldous Huxley in dialogues with their interior voice the Romania. Iaşi: Timpul, 1999. characters become aware of their role as 6. Huxley, Aldous. Nuvele, Ediţia a II-a, artists or intellectuals or at least they Traducere şi note de Margareta discover that their sensibility asks for a Bărbuţă, Bucureşti: Univers, 2005. special manner of approaching life and the 7. Wächter, Magda. A.E. Baconsky: surroundings. scriitorul şi măştile. Cluj-Napoca: Both characters, the stonecutter and Casa Cărţii de Ştiinţă, 2007. Gregory, step on this struggle within the
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE RELATIONSHIP AUTHOR-READER AND SUBVERSIVE NARRATIVE STRATEGIES IN THE ROMANIAN PROSE FICTION OF THE 1960’S
Maria Anca MAICAN1
Abstract: The present paper aims at offering an overview on the dialectic relationship author-reader in the 7th decade of the last century, a period in which the Romanian literature began to outwit the compulsions of socialist- realism, as a new literary paradigm was progressively gaining ground, i.e. the neo-modernism. Drawing on bibliographical sources belonging to established narratologists, but also to outstanding Romanian literary critics and historians, we intend to synthesise the main features underlying four important elements of any prose fiction, i.e. the concrete author, the abstract author, the concrete reader and the abstract reader, as well as their relationship with the main subversive strategies prose writers resorted to during the aforementioned period.
Key words: author, reader, official ideology, subversive strategies.
1. Introduction in which the work was written, published and read, as well as of the relationship Starting from the well-known scheme between the aforementioned elements, on which Roman Jakobson exposed in the one hand, and between them and the Linguistics and Poetics as regards the other components of the narrative constituent factors of any act of (narrator, narratee, characters) on the other communication, researchers in narrative hand, essentially contributes to the discourse such as Booth, Lintvelt, elucidation of the meaning of the work and Chatman, Bal emphasised that no analysis to the highlighting of the determinisms of the literary narrative should evade the which might have conditioned it. presence of some elements which it The period we aim to analyse is that of constituently does not comprise: the the Romanian 1960’s, a time which concrete author, the abstract author, the exhibited new tendencies in the literary concrete reader and the abstract reader. field: a (quasi)liberalization of the literary- Although external to the narrative text artistic life, the desire to preserve the proper, these elements prove undoubtedly artistic individuality, the prominence given functional in the analysis of literary works, to the aesthetic value, the increasingly especially when it comes to ages reluctant acceptance of imposed patterns, dominated by totalitarianism, since the the opening towards existential problems. study of the historical and cultural context
1 Department of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov. 102 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
In actual fact, the moment is and promote the loyal ones, thus creating a simultaneously claimed by two literary strong and trustworthy literary/ ideological paradigms: socialist-realism, imposed after front (Ficeac 11-13). 1947 and having a long life, until the Apart from these constraints, as second half of the 60’s, and neo- researchers of the period agree, the modernism, which marks the resurrection authorities, with fine psychological of the aesthetic element in our literature, intuition, also made use of all sorts of the starting point in the process of incentives, meant to enhance the retrieving the literary modernity of the motivation of the intelligentsia to join the inter-war period and the synchronization official ideology, motivators which with the modernist literature abroad. actually conditioned their self- actualization: good payment for 2. The Concrete Author ideologically convenient writings, “creation” holidays, privileged social According to J. Lintvelt (25), “the position, tours around the country or even concrete author and the concrete reader are abroad, translations of the works, historical and biographical personalities important jobs (Dimisianu 175; Crihană 1). which do not belong to the literary work, Nevertheless, it would not be fair to being situated in the real world, where they conclude that the acceptance of the live an autonomous life, independent of the privileges offered by the Romanian state literary text”. The Romanian 1960’s would trigger an unconditional acceptance comprise especially representatives of the of the “alignment”. 60’s Generation, who made their debut There could be distinguished, in fact, two around 1960 (F. Neagu, D.R. Popescu, categories of writers: representatives of the E. Barbu, Al. Ivasiuc, N. Breban, C-tin literature which Negrici characterises as Ţoiu, A. Buzura, S. Titel, M. Preda), but “subservient”, and authors of “tolerated” also older writers, who had been literature. The latter category, comprising imprisoned and who returned to public life supporters of genuine literature, aimed at in the middle of the 7th decade, as well as publishing aesthetically valid works, being writers with a late debut, who preferred to at the same time aware they could not exist keep their writings secret before the as writers outside the official liberalization period. Due to the fact that establishment. Consequently, more often the last two categories represent special than not, they had to pay ‘tribute’: they cases, the present study only focuses on the became members of the communist party, ‘60’s Generation. they specified their involvement in the When presenting them as concrete problems of their time, either in their authors, the social and political context is literary works or in the theoretical ones, fundamental, being given that no analysis from time to time they produced works should sidestep the pressure intervening on closer to the official requirements in order these writers at that time. The submission to consolidate their position and not to to official canons was obligatory, being arouse suspicions; in other words, they carefully monitored by the representatives compromised. of censorship. In literature, the aim of This was generally translated in a censorship was to limit the people’s access duplicitous attitude, a form of ketman to information, to expurgate texts of based on the theory of multiple selves, words/ ideas impinging on the Marxist- which, according to M. Călinescu (282), Leninist ideology, but also to select writers proved to be “an unexpected means of Maican, M.A.: The Relationship Author-Reader and Subversive Narrative Strategies … 103 defense against the totalitarian mental readers with suggestive information invasion and the terror underlying that silently, via the devises he opts for. This is invasion”, for him and for his entire what made M. Bottez (61) characterize this generation. element not as “voiceless”, but as Therefore, the concrete author becomes, “multiple-voiced”. just like the critic, a “Janus Bifrons”, In his Nouveau discours du recit, being looking avidly towards artisticity and reserved as to the “infidelity of the image cautiously towards authorities, “eager to the text proposes for the author” and to the express what he was not allowed to say” use of introducing the notion of implied (Vianu, viii). author into discourse analysis, Genette (101-103) considers that the “ideological 3. The Abstract Author dualism” between the real and the implied author could be explainable in two cases: In our opinion, this double-faced game the unintentional revelation of an can be pertinently described by means of unconscious personality and the intentional the relationship concrete author - abstract simulation in the work, by the concrete author. author, of a personality which is different In The Rhetoric of Fiction (published in from the real one. 1961 and consequently unlikely to be The latter situation is highly meaningful known to the authors under consideration), for our literature under communism, as the Wayne Booth (196) claims that the abstract real author could thus project a “disloyal” author’s ideology does not necessarily personality in the text, which, unlike the correspond to the one of the concrete genuine one, was in accordance with the writer, his conclusion being that „this official requirements. However, beyond it, implied author is always distinct from the the ideal reader was expected to guess the real man – irrespective of the way we real ideology of the text. regard him – which creates a superior version of himself, an alter ego, just like 4. The Abstract Reader he creates his work”. Bearing different names (“the second It has been noted that, in order to have a self” for Tillotson, “novelistic alter ego” right decoding of the literary message, it is for Prince, “implied author” for Booth, necessary that the reader should be aware Iser, Genette, “model author” for Eco), this of the “information polyphony” the text abstract author (Lintvelt, Schmid) is offers, should own the implied author’s actually “the producer of the fictitious ideological, aesthetical, moral and social world that he wants to convey to his code, which is an „image of the addressee addressee/ recipient, the abstract reader”, supposed and postulated by the literary representing the “deep meaning, the work, […] image of the ideal recipient, overall significance of the literary work”, capable to materialize its overall meaning as he is neither interior to the narrative, nor in an active reading” (Lintvelt 27). In other directly represented, being unable to words, the model reader has to be always express himself “directly or explicitly” responsive to the instructions, signals the (Lintvelt 26-27). abstract author sends at every step (Eco Chatman (148) emphasises that, although 23), to be capable of creating accurate the abstract author has no voice or means mental representations of the fictional of communication of his own, he does world (Emmott 103), of filling in empty make his point of view visible, providing 104 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV spaces, thus meeting the model author’s succumb, to be able to “release the ‘captive expectations. mind’ from the terror of the unique From our perspective, during the ‘60’s, direction, that of unconditional celebration the achievement of one of the paramount of communism”, all this with the objectives of the writers (except for “the cooperation of a reader capable of loyal ones”, of course), that of (re)gaining “understanding delicate by-strokes, readers through really authentic pieces of deviations and nonconformist traits”. Thus, literature, was possible due to a daring it became obvious that, as J. Culler (49) hypertrophy of the ideal reader’s role, remarks, literature could be “both a vehicle through offering an alternative reading of the ideology and an instrument for frame which did not (and could not) repeal destroying it”. the official one, but only counterbalance it. Starting from the primary works Thus, readers had to make their own way themselves, but also using memoirs and only as a result of suggestions, had to read interviews which help better depict the between the lines and to reveal hidden atmosphere of the time, in what follows we connections, by going far beyond the intend to present some of the subterfuges surface structure of the text. which helped writers not only overcome socialist-realism, but also undermine the 5. The Concrete Reader official line imposed by authorities, as a form of protest against the limitations of In the aforementioned climate, it was the freedom of creation. Generally, these only natural for concrete readers to attempt techniques comprise a discourse with at becoming model readers. The readers’ relatively conformist appearances, but attraction towards a careful reading can be which does not fail to disclose gestures or simply explained through studying their meanings which prove definitely daring for horizon of expectations: “caught in the that period. bonds of the same violation of existence, [the reader] discovers an affective refuge 6.1. The Aesopian Language in literature”, which takes him off the brutalizing reality and gives him the In Literatura română contemporană, illusion of finding a more truthful way L. Ulici (67) remarks that, in the Romanian (Pistolea 132). literature written after 1960, the realist The concrete reader, either the tradition was contaminated and seriously intellectual who “acutely lives the crises of rivalled by an Aesopian vocation which his time” or the ordinary man “deprived of had been almost absent from the history of any entertaining means”, traumatized by our literature. Indeed, writers and critics wants and limitations of all kinds, started resorting to an ingenious subversive consequently attempts at building strategy, i.e. the doublespeak, which compensatory universes, discovering the preserved a certain degree of liberty and escapist virtues of literature (Crihana 5). which, under appearances consistent with the requirements of censorship, made it 6. Subversive Narrative Strategies possible for writers to reveal other, rather critical senses: „to utter forbidden truths as In a recent article from România though you utter what is allowed soon Literară, Ion Simuţ insists upon the becomes the writers’ main objective, for concerted “stylistic and subtlety efforts” whose accomplishment they would use the writers had to make in order not to their intelligence, imagination, subtlety and Maican, M.A.: The Relationship Author-Reader and Subversive Narrative Strategies … 105 expressivity, in other words, their entire individual’s anonymousness”, to “his literary talent” (Călinescu 68). inclusion in some super-individual In this category of ‘dissimulated structures which diminish his individual writing’, of text with subtext, we should freedom and contradict his old ideal about first of all consider the “romans à clef”, what his fulfilment as an individual should based on allegory and parable, which mean”. The end is often a happy one, mirrored the real image of the totalitarian linked to a moment of reconsideration of world (Principele, Viaţa şi opiniile lui values and criteria, as a consequence of Zacharias Richter, Echinoxul nebunilor şi which the character recovers and starts a alte povestiri etc.). new, enlightened life. Secondly, there is the success of the It is not difficult to imagine that the satirical and humorous prose (Mazilu, disclosure of the unpleasant facets of the Băieşu), which also offered sparkling texts social, civic or political truth within an for screen plays. These were writings oppressive society indirectly referred to the based on illogical, paradoxical behaviours, realities of the 7th decade. In this way, the but also on allusive language and word image of the perfect society which the games, which succeeded in establishing authorities wanted to convey through the connections with Dej’s or Ceauşescu’s media and the aligned literature, distorting time. the real truth, was seriously endangered, as Thirdly, reference should be made to one it was obvious that “people were not living of the paramount themes of the ‘60’s in the best possible world during the generation: the “obsessing decade”. We communist regime” (Simuţ). should mention here the representatives of At this point, a remark needs to me the political city novel (Buzura, Breban, made: in the “mixture of minds represented Ţoiu, Ivasiuc etc.), but also spokespersons by the reading process” (Călinescu 212), of the crises within the rural world (Neagu, under the impression of apparently D. R. Popescu, Titel), writers who strongly ubiquitous allusions, the reader could quite believed that literature should be an often become tempted to go beyond the expression of the social and political truth level of the abstract author, in a purely and who focused on this period with a imaginary territory. Thus, by means of a view to pointing to uncomfortable aspects projective reading, readers got to assign of Gheorghiu-Dej’s rule. Their works refer subversive characteristics to texts which to the political determination proper, the could simply lack in such intentions, and direct link between the political system and thus found in the text „both what was the individual, but they also have a broader hidden there and what they would have scope: any tendency to dominate, liked to be hidden” (Călinescu 499). irrespective of the area it comes from. It has been remarked that the writings 6.2. Myths and Symbols dominated by this theme are the result of a conventional recipe: the hero, who generally Apart from the Aesopian discourse, belongs to the deceived youth, undergoes a Pistolea (138) also speaks of an serious, traumatizing experience which aesteticizing discourse, grounded in myths strongly perturbs his whole existence and and symbols. The mythical and folklore brings about his inner struggle. The crisis is vein has been repeatedly underlined triggered most of the times by external especially in the works belonging to aggressions, by limitations which lead to F. Neagu, D.R. Popescu, V. Rebreanu, what A. Cosma (70) called „the where the dramatic character of experience 106 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV is stressed by the appeal to suggestive style of socialist realism. Especially after symbols, aphorisms from folklore, the 1964, aiming both at rejoining the transcription of ancient customs and connection with the inter-war Romanian rituals, which transgress ordinary existence literature and at the synchronization with and allow access to essences. the European and American modernism, Such writers generally focus on the Romanian writers tried to launch so new presentation of the twilight of an old age, a and various formulas, that the qualitative meaningful archaic time to which they progress at the level of narrative oppose the reversed and confused world of techniques was utterly striking. The cases the present, characterized by disorder and of pure omniscience (the heterodiegetic- disintegrated old values. authorial narrative), dominated by a supra- In the second half of the 7th decade, this textual voice which intervened all the time, propensity towards “de-socialization and were rare, as the character progressively de-realization” (Negrici 217), the becomes the element which guides the avoidance of the simple socio-historical reader, the actions being filtered through frame is also present with other writers his mind. Consequently, there was a switch who are particularly sensitive to man’s to internal focalizations, to more limited archaic horizon, such as Şt. Bănulescu, or points of view, characteristic to the actorial even with representatives of the political or neutral heterodiegetic narration. prose, like Ţoiu, Buzura or Al. Ivasiuc. At the same time, an increasingly important part was played by actorial 6.3. The “Miraculous” Language homodiegetic narratives (Ivasiuc, Buzura, Preda, Breban etc.), which limited the Călinescu (213) and Crohmălniceanu reader to the external presentation of the (153) have both remarked that, in the 7th other characters and of the environment decade, the very quality of the language (character-narrator’s extrospection and to acquires a subversive character. On the drab the presentation of the character-narrator’s background of the rigid linguistic clichés, inner perceptions (introspection). lacking in nuances, it was quite easy to Moreover, there were many cases in notice the change which was initiated even which the narrative perspective became before 1960 as regards the use of the variable, either monoscopic or polyscopic, language: the rediscovery of its inner in which readers could go back and forth vibrations. This opened ways not only in time with the characters (analepsis and towards plastic descriptions and unexpected prolepsis), which brought about the associations, but also towards old proverbs permanent undermining of the and saying which added savour to the chronological order of the presentation, a characters’ discourse. The musicality, confusing narrative, with several epic charm and colour of the language used by nuclei, and, at the level of the content, F. Neagu, D.R. Popescu and N. Velea are about the impression of general confusion later to be found in works belonging to (suggestive examples can be found in the A.E. Baconsky, O. Paler, S. Titel. writings of D. R. Popescu, Bănulescu, S. Titel). 6.4. Narrative Techniques The updating of the narrative techniques (under the influence of the Romanian M. Călinescu (304) claims that narrative inter-war period, but also that of the techniques represented one of the most Nouveau Roman, Faulkner, Joyce and efficient methods to polemize with the Latin American writers) should be Maican, M.A.: The Relationship Author-Reader and Subversive Narrative Strategies … 107 associated with the writers’ aspiration As part of the subversive strategies, towards authenticity, a harmonization of reference should be also made to other form and content, as well as to their desire methods, such as: the use of diaries and to render the characters’ consciousness. In letters as a narrative artifice which was fact, characters became interrogative, with incompatible with the hostility of the an increasingly refined inner structure, communist regime towards the people’s preoccupied by self-analysis and no longer personal secrets (Călinescu 286), the submitted to commandments, but having a structuring of the narrative on several free thinking. interweaving levels which shed different lights over identical episodes and cast a 6.5. The Presentation of Inner Life shadow over the theory of the unique truth, the relativization of the simplistic Analyzing Ivasiuc’s novels, R.G. Ţeposu dichotomy positive-negative by (134) insists on the shifting that took place introducing complicated typologies, the at the level of the character: the active introduction of the fantastic element etc. character was replaced by the passive one, The present inventory is by no means action by meditation, reflection by comprehensive, as its complexity would reflectiveness. The statement is also valid require further extensive research. for the other prose writers of the period, because they were no longer preoccupied 7. Conclusion with the mere representation of reality, but rather with the opening towards the In conclusion, we can state that, for existential. Thus, the reality of the moment model readers, all these elements used to remained just a background for the insight represent sort of puzzle pieces meant to into the way the human soul worked, communicate a subversive message which writers were more and more interested in needed to be decoded and which was the way social changes triggered linked to the deep significance of the transformations in individuals, writings. However, this message, the highlighting ambiguities, doubts, allusions and nuances which should be interrogations, or, in I. B. Lefter’s terms, revealed during the reading process, are “the centripetal attraction of interiority”. most likely to remain incomplete for the Basically, these writings belong to Ionic present time reader, as they are literature, based on analysis, confession, encompassed by a complicated time and reflectors, novels in which writers no space, whose coordinates and peculiarities longer want to “create a coherent, are not easily comprehensible, partly autonomous universe”, but to suggest the because of the reader’s mediated access to “the incoherence of the characters’ them (confessions, interviews, memoirs intimacy” (N. Manolescu 17).This formula etc.). It is consequently a drawback was used by numerous writers of the time, brought about by what Culler (79) calls in personal variants, combining the “the reader’s experience”, which, together investigation on the individual self with with “the properties of the text” conveys the essayistic way of writing (Ivasiuc), the meaning of the work. deepening the analysis by means of The ultimate importance of these oblique studying abyssal psychologies (Breban) or and dissenting techniques, of the complex exploring the condition of modern and hazardous games with the censorship subjectivity in its relation with social and must not be underrated by any means, political elements (Buzura, Ivasiuc, Preda). since, as I. Simuţ insists with hindsight, the 108 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV strategies themselves were no tiny feat, but 9. Dimisianu, Gabriel. Oameni şi cărţi. attributes of a “small step quarter- Bucureşti: Editura Cartea Românească, dissidence” achieved with the critics’ and 2008. readers’ support, two categories which, 10. Eco, Umberto. Şase plimbări prin together with the writers, regarded genuine pădurea narativă. Constanţa: Editura literature as a convenient retreat in front of Pontica, 2006. political aggressions. 11. Emmott, Catherine. Narrative Comprehension. Oxford: Oxford References University Press, 1999. 12. Ficeac, Bogdan. Cenzura comunistă şi 1. Booth, W. Retorica romanului. formarea „omului nou”. Bucureşti: Bucureşti: Editura Univers, 1976. Editura Nemira, 1999. 2. Bottez, Monica. Analysing Narrative 13. Genette, Gerard. Nouveau discours Fiction: Reading Strategies. Bucureşti: du récit. Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1983. Editura Universităţii, 2007. 14. Lintvelt, Jaap. Încercare de tipologie 3. Călinescu, Matei and Ion, Vianu. narativă. Bucureşti: Editura Univers, Amintiri în dialog. 3rd ed. Iaşi: Editura 1994. Polirom, 2005. 15. Manolescu, Nicolae. Arca lui Noe. 4. Chatman, Seymour. Story and Bucureşti: Editura Gramar, 2004. Discourse. New York: Cornell 16. Negrici, Eugen. Literatura română sub University Press, 1978. comunism. Proza. Bucureşti: Editura 5. Cosma, Anton. Romanul românesc şi Fundaţiei PRO, 2003. problematica omului contemporan. 17. Pistolea, Vasile. Generaţia 60 şi Cluj: Editura Dacia, 1977. redescoperirea modernităţii. Reşiţa: 6. Crihană, Alina. “Rezistenţa prin Editura Timpul, 2001. scriitură între mit şi realitate”. Lecturi 18. Simuţ, Ion. “Literatura subversivă”. filologice nr.2. România literară nr. 18 / 9 mai 2008. http://icfi.ulim.md/fr/publicatii/lecturi_ 19. Ţeposu, R.G. Viaţa şi opiniile filologice2.php personajelor. Bucureşti: Editura 7. Crohmălniceanu, Ovid S. Amintiri Cartea Românească, 1983. deghizate. Bucureşti: Editura Nemira, 20. Ulici, Laurenţiu. Literatura română 1994. contemporană. Bucureşti: Editura 8. Culler, Jonathan. Teoria literară. Eminescu, 1995. Bucureşti: Editura Cartea Românească, 21. Vianu, Lidia. Censorship in Romania. 1997. Budapest: Central European University Press, 1998.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
EXTRAPATRIA(M)?
Richard WITT1
Abstract: The first couple of stanzas propose a contrast between two poets away from their native land: OVID, and BYRON; the next three stanzas list modes of displacement (a term gratefully snitched from Cora Kaplan): by force, by conviction, by choice. Attention then shifts to motives of one sort or another: adventure, in two sense, and above all, money. Once the uprooted individual has reached the terminus ad quem for the time being, there are two choices: involve with the new environment that presents itself, or stay well away from it, gallantly aloof perhaps. Assuming the first choice, some kind of self-preparation, assimilation, or camouflage is advisable, and this cannot well be learned beforehand. The career of the incomer is metastable; in the long term, if not long before, it will follow one two paths, upward or downward. The condition of ‘living abroad’ implies a kind of monstrously unequal contract between individual incomer and host country. It also implies an odd kind of quittance with the country of origin (as for example the convicts who, having arrived in Australia from Britain, were induced to put on a theatre performance clarifying their situation). The gloomy but obsessive subject of dying in foreign parts is touched upon, with the compensating reflection that displacement is a law of the natural Universe. An envoi neatly rejects the expatriate condition as a value.
Key words: expatriate, alienation, assimilation, Ovid.
1. Preamble reading my verses. Poetic strategy is necessarily, of course, tactile, flammable, The atmosphere I’d like to evoke is that clipped, and allusive; it is quite foreign to of the poet, or in the present case the the sober, neutral, explanatory ordering of versemaker, reading to a small circle of the orthodox prose communication friends. The French poet Gérard DE expected at a conference. So off we go. NERVAL is said on good authority to have carried about with him a lobster, of sex 2. Hypothesis unknown. For OVID’s pessimistic persona, the appropriate emblem is, I think, this. The first couple of stanzas propose a [Business with umbrella]. It also seems to contrast between tow poets away from me that the Roman poet would have their native land: OVID, and BYRON; the declaimed standing up, which I shall next three stanzas list modes of therefore do; and he would of course have displacement (a term gratefully snitched been wearing a toga, which I shall not. from Cora Kaplan): by force, by First I want to sketch my Hypothesis, conviction, by choice. Attention then shifts my line of argument, then get on with to motives of one sort or another:
1 British Open University. 110 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV adventure, in two sense, and above all, Th’ emancipation of himself and of an entire money. land, Once the uprooted individual has Poet not a whit dead reached the terminus ad quem for the time (Though fever-wasted on an alien strand), being, there are two choices: involve with His battels to Dame Fame most nobly paid, His name – last accolade! – the new environment that presents itself, or Morphemically converted to – by jingo! – stay well away from it, gallantly aloof The local lingo. perhaps. Assuming the first choice, some kind of self-preparation, assimilation, or Why chop the knot with home? Why flee the camouflage is advisable, and this cannot fort well be learned beforehand. The career of By hook and crook? the incomer is metastable; in the long term, A hundred necessary reasons play their part. if not long before, it will follow one two Malfeasance, pogrom, famine, insurrection, paths, upward or downward. threat The condition of ‘living abroad’ implies To life and livelihood. The passage perilous on the leaky boat a kind of monstrously unequal contract Barely afloat, freedom for deadly dues between individual incomer and host (Some cannot choose their cues). country. It also implies an odd kind of Malice domestic, other minor forces quittance with the country of origin (as for Running their courses. example the convicts who, having arrived in Australia from Britain, were induced to Destiny too makes move. Bogged down in put on a theatre performance clarifying Carthage their situation). Budged, then dislodged The gloomy but obsessive subject of The stormtossed Trojans on the run, ships, dying in foreign parts is touched upon, spars and cordage Hoping ‘gainst hope to win their rest by with the compensating reflection that tacking round displacement is a law of the natural (Italie, Italie). Universe. An envoi neatly rejects the Fa Hsien the Buddhist, barelegged, expatriate condition as a value. saffrongowned Threading the Chinese foothills, rafting, poling. OUTS-EYED With high and dry his scrolls. The anxious Pilgrim Fathers guided nightly Would OVID at Constança moan so much By the Almighty. If he had had More of the Greek in him, the Alexander touch, Contrariwise, Micawber the optimist. To boldly onward march to regions whither Brighteyed pot luck. none ‘Go West, young man’, they counselled them, Had marched. But no. His sad ‘or else go west’. And faultless verse inconsolable he spun The grass in the next minefield always greener, Looking out blackly over the Black Sea The existential pluck Too soon for FTV, To make some different thing of one’s arena, Nursing in smock-land his postmodern passion Adventure, a diversification of place, For women’s fashion. And identity, and pace. The claim staked on Cavafy’s first-seen Of sterner paste Lord BYRON, sixth of that harbours, name, On Fijian arbours. Though mad, though bad, Yet one who knew what he was after, had fixed Adventure, a chameleon of a lexis aim, Box of all sorts, Witt, R.: Expatria(m)? 111
A good brisk trade in Slavic lovelies of all Studying a land will only half cushion the sexes shock Alert in search of vulnerable wills and of weak Of actual contact with the lakes, speech, hearts politics The expat sexpot’s courts. One thought one knew by heart. Love being a searching for a missing part Better than nothing? Maybe. Idées fixes, (Plato: Symposium) if you know where to look Cognitive dissonance, was no disheveller In Casanova’s book. Of that first tour-ist traveller There’s wider scope for interesting flirtation Doing his homework, reading up the books In other nations. Of Thomas Cook’s.
Rupees. Riyals. The grubby labour, paid Life, in a country one was not born in, brings With grubbier notes. At every turn Money, a term too blunt and coarse to be inlaid An ad hoc act or process of translating things; In pretty conferences such as this one. Yet A guising of expression, camouflaging in The ghost that haunts the nights (Learnt well or badly learnt) And days and nightmares of the expatriate The ambient language, second and better skin. As rent, as bus fare, phone bill, doctor’s fee Seen on TV: Dutch lips, but pure pudong Taxes, and bribery. In a Beijing hutong. The co-dependency of emigrant yearnings The illusion you’re the perfect understander And actual earnings. Of das Ander’.
Two choices only. Swim with; swim against. Two directions only. Go up, or go down… And if the first? (Perchance ‘…and out’). Forthwith adopt-a-country then (le vice anglais Never an equilibrium; either to the crown, So saith Todorova), defying piano or forte Or stepwise giving ground. A few fly high in one’s roots, air: For better or for worse Nubar Gulbenkian, Gainimg an extra patria, and not Orchid at buttonhole; Raţiu the millionaire. Extra patriam, άπολις, citiless Far more will just make good, with the added Among the pitiless… joy ‘But it’s their country!’ ‘No, it’s mine too’, the Of seeing their girl or boy dancer Top of a noisy class of indigens Must give the answer. Jealous as hens.
And if the second? Forge in your entrenched Some ate the lotus fruit. And these forgot Compatriots’ ark Even yet to forget. A carapace, a Middle Kingdom, thickly Drafted into the legion of the drifted, taught branched, The quantum universal law of least resistance Feared to take part, feared to take sides, to Sandalled, they sit vote, to cry out Draped Daliclockwise in the middle distance, Feared for the rasping bark Robinson Crusoes on the breadfruit line, Raus, raus, the way that dogs scent fear. the Diasporate Devout, Proven: strength of the seeding plant, and Cherishing origins, with a whiff of Brie, weedi- Sushi, or g. and t. Ness of the seedy. As Horace put it: ‘With a change of latitude, But not of attitude’. O that most monstrous, most lopsided pact! What will small I Forewarned is forearmed, but only at half- With my adoptive millionhanded host contract? cock; How word the deal? A covenant of occupance? And ten years’ start Or a repairing lease? 112 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Which of us two, I wonder, in our dance And that, these rites denied, what’s left is Wins most pro rata on the roundabout? nullity: (Still, if no gain come out X marks the expat spot. The contract will revoke, the restless settler Let not my destiny give me to die Search on for better). In a strange land: Andreas Kalvos, to whom This same romantic doom Is it an oath of Sartrian good faith? Was imperturbably assigned and given Good faith with whom? By Highest Heaven. One’s self? One’s new employer? Some Confucian Path? For here we have no city that abides. I will be sure and solid with my new found A galaxy land, Out on a minor limbo. Spacetime, and Humour its works and quirks, spacetides, Respect its civic customs, fresh or canned, Expâtriate us all for good and all from town. Root for its football teams, note if its rash What special gravity Drivers are apt to crash In EINSTEIN’s universe shall pin us down The traffic lights. These are survival matters Like the full-length bronze statue of James For the expatter. Joyce That greets and shocks your eyes Not to ignore the far-from-gentleman’s In central Trieste, slouched on a bridge’s axle Agreement made Frozen in exile? With one’s own land. Mind’s-eye sees fluttering fans L’ENVOI The gaslit stage, the motley convict groundlings Suppose Haggard sheepstealers, cowed That you know how to scan Young girl-infanticides, bewildered foundlings. The land of your adoption; and suppose ‘They left their country for their country’s That you have made enough to live and prosper good’ on; and suppose (Be it well understood), That you can don a fresh language like a fresh Shipped out as scapegoats for communal shirt, failure And newness, death included, has no terrors for They shaped Australia. you; and suppose You grapple friends of other culture to you; Dulce et decorum est in patria mori. why, Whence this strong sense Yours is the global world and all that’s in it; That our poor bones – or ash – make rich our and homeland’s glory, No longer, o my daughter, will you rate Expatriate.
LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS STUDIES
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
TEXTS AND THE ART OF TRANSLATION. THE CONTRIBUTION OF COMPARATIVE EDUCATION
Botho Von KOPP1
Abstract: The article emphasizes the relevance of comparative education for education research under the conditions of globalization and technical progress of data collecting and processing, and it draws attention to the task of further development of the methodology of comparing. Turning attention to the semiotic character of society and culture I propose to model them as "texts". Since comparing different societies and their subsystems is nothing else than "border crossing", we find analogy in the process of translating, and the text-model could help to contribute to an increasingly precise language of description and analysis in comparative education.
Keywords: comparative education, international education, empirical assessment, multilevel semantic system, text, binary encoding, translation.
In the 1980ies the renowned comparative crossing" knowledge (Klees 3). One can educationalist Edward R Beauchamp asked agree with the view that in academia if comparative education is an own, "traditional disciplines always will be independent discipline – concluding that for essential ... Yet the kinds of skills that the "lack of own methodology ... my own individuals who face directly the challenges reading of the substantial body of literature driven by changes in the global order need on the nature and methods of Comparative to have - 'how to think and act flexibly and Education leads me to the inescapable strategically, how to move readily from one conclusion that there is no such thing as project or region to another, how to grasp a Comparative Education, ... Comparative new situation quickly, and how to start Education as a field of study does not solving pragmatic problems' - derive from exist." (Beauchamp, quoted from Epstein). interdisciplinary and comparative study" Today, in a different context and for (Epstein 119). On the other hand, school different reasons, we should ask if systems, teaching contents, and teaching Comparative Education, assuming that it is methods in a globalizing world seem to a discipline and that it has survived become uniform. This process is intensified Beauchamp's verdict, has not become by the empirical large-scale assessment obsolete. education research provided by the Comparative Education is a genuinely Programme on International Student interdisciplinary activity and as a discipline Assessment (PISA), the Trends in taught at universities it is supposed to International Mathematics and Science develop and to teach students "border Study (TIMMS) and other global data collections gathered by internationally
1 German Leibnitz Institute for International Educational Research, Frankfurt am Main. 116 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV operating organizations like the OECD, the "education" is not self-evident in a UNESCO, and the European Union. Even comparative perspective. As Greenfield more important: The PISA-study reminds us, Hispanic parents in California intentionally aims to propel a "world mean something very different when education revolution" based on "generally stressing the need for "educación" (which valid basic principles" which rely on has a strong touch of "right behavior") than "institutionalized cognitive rationality" their English speaking neighbors (Baumert 21). This either means that the accentuating "education" (as school makers of the PISA believe in a common achievement - Greenfield 1123). In cultural core underlying all cultures and societal anthropology and history the consciousness contexts, or that they attempt to implant of translating meaning is very strong and through PISA a standardized and uniformly cultural translation is a standard practice. normative construct of principles and But in education, especially in empirical rationality – of all basic concepts of education research, similar attempts are education such as education goals, very rarely to be found. For example, "achievement", "equity" etc. All these concerning international testing, a Chinese- uniformly constructed concepts are American project adopted a method of expected to serve an "evidence based discussing, evaluating and formulating policy". Every aspect of expanding terms used in questionnaires on school international and intercultural contact seems education (Bempechat et al. 143). In to push forward a world system society (e.g. Europe, despite many cursory historical and Wallerstein and Meyer). Under these cultural commonalities of education, circumstances, is not comparative education children "come to school with significantly becoming dispensable? By no means! different attitudes towards themselves as If nothing else, for its broader perspective learners, towards school and towards (and the historically founded and inherent achievement". For example, schools in critical potential of education scholarship), different countries can exert achievement it could develop the potential and the control determined either by pedagogical- legitimacy of a critical voice of "dissent" anthropological holistic ideals or by versus the distortions of globalization cognitive ideals (Osborn 287). (Torres viii). Apart from this, it is an Another tendency shows that the amount illusion to believe that uniform education of empirical educational data from a structures or tests for international multitude of countries has grown comparison are free of cultural and societal immensely. It is paramount to structure bias - PISA-tests are sometimes not even these data and to relate them to theories. free of trivial errors due to the translation The possibilities of electronic computing from one language to the other (Jahnke & may lead to a new quality of empirical Meyerhöfer). Thus, Comparative Education research. Even though restrictions of access can for instance unveil inconsistencies and to data are in place, they may be less biases and help construct comparable important in face of the new levels of questionnaires across cultures. One way in computing sophistication. Recently, the doing so might consist of forming American science journalist Stephen Baker multicultural teams before starting to use traced the efforts of a few researchers to questionnaires on an international scale in process huge numbers of scattered data in order to come to fully comparable concepts order to model consumer behavior. such as "intelligence", "performance", or Apparently, only a small elite of "predispositions". Even the basic term mathematicians can process this complexity Kopp, B.: Texts and the Art of Translation. The Contribution of Comparative Education 117 of data using most sophisticated methods. statistical reasoning which was already Baker referred to those specialists as pitied by Coleman: "… statistical "numerati" (hinting at the role of the association between variables has largely "literati" in historical China – Baker). replaced meaningful connection between However, consumer behavior modelling is a events as the basic tool of description and relatively simple matter compared to the analysis” (Coleman 1327f, quoted from complexity of education in its socio- Hedström 10). Methodologically, such an economical and cultural context, and above "individualization" can be operationalized all, it is the analysis of meaning of those by linking traditional quantitative data which counts. In other words, we do approaches with the analysis of causal not face a technical problem of modeling processes on the actor level (Hedström). and quantity processing, but a quality Third, if we truly have to deal with problem. different qualities of models referring to Under the conditions of a permanently different semiotic systems of different growing pool of empirical data, it is complexity, then it is consequent to assume necessary to readjust the quality of that language, as the semiotic system per se, theoretical modeling and reflect anew the could provide us with valuable new insight goal of modeling itself. In the sense of for the modeling of societal systems and general model theory (e. g. Stachowiak), subsystems. Language in this broader sense models are generally less complex than the is: modeled. Large quantities of data can be - the basic medium of teaching, encoded into simple semiotic units, but they - the means by which we carry out and never come to an unequivocal present our research, correspondence between the model and the - the basis of understanding cultural modeled. This "reductionist" character of commonalities and differences of modeling can be seen as an aspect of societies (and groups) which are "translation" that establishes communicative encoded in the various languages, (semiotic) ties between structurally different - the basic means of information storage entities. A further aspect of the mentioned and transmission codes of evolution in possibilities of data processing in the field biology and society; in this sense of consumer behavior is the paradox that societies can be modeled as texts, even anonymized data can end up in sets of - a multiple, dynamic and complex individualized profiles, which fit all stratification structure and, as such, a possible types of individual consumer model and an excellent field for behavior (in the context of education as a studying forms and functions of commercial good, in respect to encoding complexity. "consuming" education"). In the field of We are often confronted with the first education, computing the 'mass information three aspects. Thus, we know innumerable down into individual information patterns' examples of how linguistic and cultural could have positive effects: It could lead to misunderstandings affect international and finding ways of best practice, causalities or intercultural communication: When Matteo beneficial conditions of learning. This, in Ricci, one of the first two Jesuit turn, could be used for an individualized missionaries came to Beijing (in 1601), he pedagogy offering incentives and learning had studied the Confucian classics and methods adequate to the students' special concluded that they contained concepts interests. This, however, means to which could be interpreted as hidden overcome the dictate of deconextualized monotheistic thinking. Therefore, in his 118 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV view, the Chinese terminology could be doing translations and that it helps to use a applied to also refer to the Christian God. more precise language of description and This would (and indeed did) facilitate the analysis. "indigenization" of the Christian faith. His In order to use language as a model, it is successor, Niccolo Longobardi, came to a paramount to observe some basic completely different conclusion. He properties: the distinction between the proposed to use the phonetic translation of abstract (and non-material) system of rules "deus" or "Jeho¬vah" to reflect the absence and semantic concepts of language of any notion comparable to the European ("langue") and language as a manifested, understanding of God in Chinese. materialized (spoken or written) act of Longobardi was perhaps more correct in langue ("parole"), that is: texts in the sense view of the cultural gap that separated the used here. A second basic distinction has to Christian and (Neo-) Confucian concepts; be made between the different levels (from nonetheless, Chinese scholars found the micro to macro) which are interlinked and latter less acceptable and more difficult to all taking an active part in constituting a understand and the Catholic Church text in the totality of its formal, functional preferred a quick success. Ricci's concept and content (meaning) aspects. This way of won, although controversial discussions on constituting texts depends on a functional this issue continued inside the Catholic pattern of different states of order which, in Church over 300 years (Golden). A second addition, show different levels of stability example comes from the field of education: and instability. Theoretically (and in the In Meiji Japan many educationalists when light of increasing computing power of first reading about Herbart's five "ethical electronic data processing: more and more principles" (sittliche Ideen) concluded that also practically) the amount of order - a they were directly compatible, and thus definition of information in information practically identical, with Confucius' Five theory - can be measured. The continuum of Virtues. The translating problem we order states can be roughly divided into sketched here, is typical for the intercultural three main states: very strong (for examples contact and translation (Wright). on the micro levels of phonology or In comparative culture and anthropology, semiology), moderate (conventional) and researchers have always been well aware of weak. Max Bense defined these basic states their role as "interpreters", reaching this of order as strongly (generally), moderately status by a process of deliberate (conventionally) or weakly (selectively) acculturation ("learning the foreign deterministic conditions. The latter he also language"), in which the person constantly calls esthetic (Bense; for the concept of transgresses "the confinements of the chaos and order see also Prigogine & cultural horizon and hermeneutic circle of Stengers, and Laszlo. This basic typology of the original culture" (Golden 13). order corresponds to Bühler's basic function In order to come to an operational notion of the language sign and its extension by of culture and society as a "text", the model Mukařovský who added the aesthetic discussed here refers primarily to the formal function). Thus, in our model, language and and functional properties of texts as texts are interdependent structures of macro semantic units (semantic in the linguistic and micro levels, of deep structure and of sense as the study of the meaning of signs; surface structure, of deterministic and comp. Nöth 1990). Thereby it is assumed indeterministic units and phases. All that semantic units have common rules of different states of order occur in all text construction one has to be aware of when units and they can be stable or very Kopp, B.: Texts and the Art of Translation. The Contribution of Comparative Education 119 dynamic (see e. g. the theory of Functional words or sentences (text parts) is not equal, Sentence Perspective and Communicative but constantly varying and dependent on a Dynamism – Firbas). They can be identified complex interaction of the functionality of by the characteristics of their described the text and the history of the interaction. In structures and functions. certain texts (e.g. theoretical) the average Especially in Germany, Luhmann's level of probability is very high, whereas in system theory is also quite influential in aesthetic texts it might be very low. education. In his view, the identity and I do not see binary encoding as classification of systems is ascribed by the appropriate for analyzing and comparing researcher in terms of "singular multilevel semantic systems. Binary differences". Since in this theory meaning encoding constitutes a very basic level of and language play an important role, this language, but whereas for instance this text, concept shall be mentioned here. It is being written on a computer, is on a basic explicitly distinct from Saussure's linguistic level organized in binary machine language, concept, and, as a radically constructivist its meaning is certainly not intended to be theory, it denies the possibility of summarized in a binary decision between translation (comp. Heyting). Luhmann, 'yes' or 'no'. The semantic essence of texts pointing to the "rarely considered moment" and text parts is not binary encoded and if of the binary encoding of language we construct such a binary encoding, the (Luhmann 113), uses this observation for price for such a reduction of complexity is his system theory as constituent extremely high and ends up, for example in demarcation of systems by meaning and by education, with the analysis of a one- means of "singular differences". This also dimensional person which in texts becomes applies for the 'system education' (with the the yes or no element in a monstrous singular difference of "knows" / "knows machine language. Apart from this, even as not" respectively "performs better / a philosophical concept, binarism is not performs worse"). necessarily as striking as it could be Of course, in tests, pupils and students are assumed. We may find in Hegel's evaluated on the basis of binary "positivizing the negative a breakthrough to oppositions: the answer is either right or plurivalent thinking" and a starting point for wrong, yes or no, but this is only a very overcoming the "binary idiocy" narrow sector of education - and, as we (Sloterdijk 31). argued above, even correspondingly In my view, texts constitute themselves in constructed tests need in many respects, and a way in which each time the particular especially in an international setting, very level of probability and improbability thorough translation. Apart from the depends on the history and the actual questionable relevance of a binary coded context of the unit (system), the context system construct for understanding and outside the text, and, finally, the whole analyzing highly complex entities such as "semantic gesture" (Mukarovsky) of the education systems, binarism marks an particular text (culture-text). This unhistoric concept, which is stressed by the dependency is located on the continuum proposition, that the "condensed between complete (deterministic) order and complexity" of language "makes every complete disorder (chaos). In principle, the sentence extremely improbable" (Luhmann degree of order is exactly measurable. For 221). As we pointed out referring to comparative education in the sense of research on the Functional Sentence translating it is paramount to locate the Perspective, the probability of consecutive given unit as the object of observation on 120 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV the pluridimensional matrix – something areas" with special institutional and which happens in translating from one environmental cultures, classroom climates, language to another constantly, and in the and peer influence on cognitive and moral case of bilinguism, automatically. In behavior, on learning and career attitudes. If scholarly research, translation is to be we stick to the central term of memetics as understood as a conscious and as much as "copying" respectively "imitation", we possible scientific method. easily understand the importance of this Our model of language and text operates concept for school and education, although with the notion of "semantic units". We learning should not be seen as identical with should try to come to a more precise meme transmission, and meme transmission understanding of this notion which is also not identical with contagion, all these are relevant for comparing (culture and society) linked to each other in creating "semantic- systems and subsystems as units. The cultural units". Altogether, memeology theory of memes initiated in analogy to could become an important field of research genetics by Dawkins (Dawkins), could be for semiology and for our concept of seen as promising a more formal and translation. precise understanding and operationalizing The coherence of the very complex access of "units of cultural transmission" presented here is seemingly far away from (Dawkins) which follow the general education and education research, but it is evolutionary rules of replication, by no means voluntaristic or accidental. The transmission and selection. various argumentations are held together by Meme theory is not homogenous and is the constitutive "building material" of being discussed controversially. The culture and society which is manifest in the terminology and concepts are partly different contexts as memes, meaning, ambiguous and they range from a very information, communication, text units, loose analogy and an understanding of texts and super texts. The different levels meme including practically anything are not isolated from each other, but each cultural, on the one hand, to a strict concept one has its own "language", and of demanding empirical evidence, on the communication between them needs other hand (cf. Blackmore 1998, 1999, "translation". Translation, as shown here, 2008, and the state of the art work of takes place on all the different levels on Aunger). The core questions in our context which semantic units are constituted, from should be, if meme theory can provide us a) morphological and syntactical constructs up with new or additional insight and b) a more to smaller or larger units of meaning. In reliable and precise language of analysis. case stricter rules for meme theory and No doubt, meme theory as a general cultural instruments for identifying memes are study based on Darwinism, might provide found, the development of comparative us with interesting insight and additional translation is also furthered. understanding of the aspects of cultural Summarizing, I should like to stress the evolution. In addition, old knowledge on the need to promote a dialogue between spread of ideas, fashions, ideologies etc. in quantitative and qualitative research (both society and new research about the spread understood in a broad sense). By no means I via "contagion" (Christakis & Fowler; deny the great need for and the advantage of Hedström) could be expanded. This would large scale assessments like PISA and the be important not least in the field of collection of as much as possible other education, where families, peer groups and empirical data in the field of education. But schools can be described as "contagion the tendency to reduce cultural effects (as Kopp, B.: Texts and the Art of Translation. The Contribution of Comparative Education 121 well as persons as the subjects and objects References of education), as sets of variables in empirical research, proves to be highly 1. Aunger, Robert. The Electric Meme. A problematic: "This kind of epistemological New Theory of How We Think. New impasse has long kept qualitative and York et al. The Free Press, 2002. quantitative researchers from uniting in a 2. Baker, Stephen. The Numerati. common study of the cross-national causes Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008. and correlations of educational 3. Baumert, Jürgen (ed.): PISA 2000. achievement" (LeTendre 200). Basiskompetenzen von Schülerinnen The second point is the need to model the und Schülern im internationalen relationship between micro and macro Vergleich. Opladen. Leske und levels. Especially in education, which in its Budrich, 2001. basic philosophy has to do with the 4. Beauchamp, Edward. “Some Reflections individual, such a relationship should not be on Comparative Education”. East West forced and kept out of sight. Though the Education, 6, 1985 (2) 12. Quoted from "language-translation" model proposed here Epstein E.H. “The Problematic Meaning with its multilayer character is very of 'Comparison' in Comparative complex, and though it is often useful and Education”. Theories and Methods in inevitable to reduce complexity, this should Comparative Education. J. Schriewer, not lead to a loss of meaning and context. Brian Holmes (eds.): Frankfurt. Lang, Last but not least: a non-binary modelling 1988, 3- 23. and the dialogue between quantitative and 5. Bempechat, Janine. “Cultural-Cognitive qualitative, micro and macro research help Issues in Academic Achievement: New overcome the gap between methods whose Directions for Cross-National strength lies in inclusiveness rather than Research”. Methodological Advances in exclusiveness and in constructed singular Cross-National Surveys of educational differences which eliminate the possibility Achievement. Porter, Andrew C.; of translation. In a translation between Gamoran, Adam (eds.). Washington languages in the everyday usage it may be D.C.: National Academy Press (National difficult to transfer meaning in a one to one Research Council) 2002, 117–149. relationship. However, translating loosely 6. Bense, Max. Einführung in die deterministic (aesthetic) texts, as in our informationstheoretische Ästhetik. example here, with respect to other cultures, Hamburg. Rowohlt, 1969. may create a third system which becomes a 7. Blackmore, Susan. The Meme point of reference for the two previous Machine. Oxford and New York. "originals". Translating in such a Oxford University Press, 1999. conventional sense certainly is a part of 8. Blackmore, Susan. “Imitation and the comparative scholarship. In addition, Definition of a Meme”. Journal of translation in connection with the model Memetics – Evolutionary Models of proposed here is the reconstruction of Information Transmission, 1998, vol 2, different "text"-meanings which are based No. 2: http://jom-emit.cfpm.org/. on and are interdependent with the various 9. Blackmore, Susan. “Memetics is structural and functional levels of the given useful”. Contemporary Debates in text. The analysis of this kind of translation Philosophy of Biology, Version aims to forward a more precise language of January 2009: description and analysis in comparative http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Cha scholarship. pters/CDPB.htm 122 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
10. Christakis, Nicholas and James 19. Meyer, John W. et al. “World Society Fowler. “The spread of Obesity in a and the Nation State”. American Large Social Network over 32 years". Journal of Sociology. 103 (1997), The New England Journal of 144-181. Medicine. 357 (2007), No. 4, 370-379. 20. Jahnke, Thomas and Wolfram, 11. Dawkins, Richard. The Selfish Gene. Meyerhöfer. Pisa & Co - Kritik eines Oxford. Oxford University Press, Programms, Hildesheim. Franzbecker- 1976. Verlag, 2006. 12. Epstein, Erwin H.: “Editorial”. 21. Mukarovsky, Jan. Aesthetic Function, Comparative Education Review, 41 Norm and Value as Social Facts. New (1997), No.2, 117-119. York: Oxon Publishing, 1979. 13. Firbas, Jan. Functional Sentence 22. Nöth, Winfried. Handbook of Perspective in Written and Spoken Semiotics. Bloomington. Indiana Communication. Cambridge: University Press, 1990. Cambridge University Press, 1992. 23. Osborn, Maryling. “National Context, 14. Golden, Seán. Cross-Cultural Transfer Educational Goals and Pupil and the Imaginaire: Some Case Experiences of Schooling and Studies in Intersemiotic Sophistication. Learning in Three European http://www.fti.uab.es/sgolden/imaginai Countries”. Compare, 29 (1999) No.3, re_(English).htm - last access: May 3, p. 287 - 301. 2009. 24. Prigogine, Ilya and Isabelle Stengers. 15. Hedström, Peter. "Rational Imitation." Order out of Chaos: Man's new Social Mechanisms: An Analytical dialogue with nature. Flamingo, 1984. Approach to Social Theory. Eds. P. 25. Sloterdijk, Peter. Sphären III - Hedström and R. Swedberg. Schäume. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 2004. Cambridge: Cambridge University 26. Stachowiak, Herbert: Allgemeine Press, 1998. 306-327. Modelltheorie. Wien: Springer, 1973. 16. Heyting, Frieda. „Die begriffliche 27. Torres, Carlos A. “Globalization and Welt der Erziehung“. Bildung und Comparative Education in the World Weiterbildung im Erziehungssystem. System. Editorial”. In: Comparative Eds. Dieter Lenzen & Niklas Education Review. 45 (2001) No. 4, Luhmann. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp, 1997. iii - x. 17. Klees, Steven. “What's wrong?” CIES 28. Wallerstein, Immanuel. World-Systems Newsletter Nr. 106, May 1994, 3-10. Analysis: An Introduction. Durham, 18. Laszlo, Ervin. Evolution: The General North Carolina. Duke University Theory: Foundations of a General Press, 2004. Theory (Advances in Systems Theory, 29. Wright, David. Translating Science: Complexity & the Human Sciences). The Transmission of Western Cresskill, N.J. Hamptom Press, 1996. Chemistry into late Imperial China, 1840-1900. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
MODERN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN TEACHING FOREIGN LANGUAGES
Blanka Frydrychová KLÍMOVÁ 1
Abstract: Teachers are all the time looking for different ways of increasing the quality of their teaching. At present the use of computers and new technologies has become an important aspect of foreign language learning. They have enabled the language teaching community to redefine some of the strategies and concepts of teaching and learning. In this climate computer- based distance learning courses have emerged. One of the supports of the distance learning is e-learning, which is widely used at the University of Hradec Králové. Sometimes e-learning is also used in the so-called blended learning. The research concentrates on the perception of the term blended learning, its possible model, reasons of its exploitation and contribution. This done by applying a comparative and contrastive research methods together with WebCT environment for creating e-learning courses. Furthermore, one of the representative blended courses is introduced and evaluated. In conclusion, the main results are exemplified, such as improved pedagogy, increased access/ flexibility or increased cost effectiveness.
Key words: benefits, blended learning, definitions, language courses, models.
1. Introduction (e.g. textbooks) employed in e-learning environments; and 3) the combination of a The term blended learning has become number of teaching and learning extremely fashionable nowadays, approaches irrespective of the technology particularly in corporate and higher used (Driscoll, 2002). As Bonk and education settings. But what, in fact, does Graham (2005) claim, blended learning is blended learning mean? The term itself is part of the ongoing convergence of two quite difficult to define since it is used in archetypal learning environments. On the diverse ways by different people. Overall, one hand, there is the traditional face-to- the three most common meanings for face learning environment that has been blended learning are the following (see around for centuries. On the other hand, also Whitelock & Jelfs, 99-100): 1) the there are distributed learning environments integration of traditional learning with that have begun to grow and expand in web-based on-line approaches; 2) the exponential ways as new technologies combination of media and tools have expanded the possibilities for
1 Department of Applied Linguistics, Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Králové, Czech Republic. 124 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV distributed communication and interaction integration of face-to-face teaching and (Fig. 1.). In this paper, following Littlejohn learning methods with on-line approaches. (2006), blended learning is perceived as an
Fig. 1. Development of the blended learning systems (Bonk & Graham, 2005)
2. Feasible Model of Blended Language tasks on their own and in classes teachers Courses (a Hradec Králové Case) can concentrate more on listening and speaking activities. The blended learning is particularly As Rychtářová (104-5) has shown, for suitable for language learning when teachers at elementary and secondary conventional face-to-face teaching is schools, of the four basic communication sometimes necessary for developing skills the most important skill to master is speaking communication skills. In this way speaking (94%) and listening (71%), while it is used also at the Faculty of Informatics reading (62%) and writing (49%) are and Management in Hradec Králové when considered less important. speaking of language teaching. Students A complementary part of the blended can do, for example, writing and reading learning in Hradec case is e-learning, Klimova, B.: Modern Information Technologies in Teaching Foreign Languages 125 which is being widely developed at the 3. Blended Course on Academic Writing faculty. The Faculty of Informatics and Management (FIM) of the University of One of the representative blended Hradec Králové has been intensely courses at the faculty is, for example, an involved in the application of e-learning optional one semester course on Academic in teaching since 1999 as its teachers Writing. The course is aimed at the whole continuously attempt to improve the process of writing and gives advice on how quality of their teaching. E-learning to write professiontally. It shows the namely enormously contributes towards component parts of the writing process, increasing effectiveness and efficiency of that is: envisaging what to write, planning educational process. E-learning started to an outline, drafting passages, writing the be widely used at the faculty in 2001 whole thing, revising and rewriting it, and when a few selected courses created in finishing it in an appropriate form, together virtual learning environment WebCT with publishing all or parts of a text. In (web communication tools) were addition, it focuses on those features which introduced for part-time students. In 2002 are different in English and Czech, such as these and other on-line courses, often making references, quoting bibliography or called OLIVA (on-line teaching = On- using appropriate English. As for the last Line VyukA), began to be used as a new aspect, there are independent sections on quality support for full-time students as grammar structures in written English, well. At present more than 150 e-courses lexical structures, and punctuation. are being fully exploited in teaching at The course tries not only to address a the faculty. In English teaching more than lack of students’ formal writing in the 45 e-courses are being used. Some of English language but also to approach it in them, such as Teaching Written Business a new way. The course exposes students to English, can be taught completely on- blended learning. That means they meet a line. However, most of them are blended teacher once into two weeks to discuss and as there are usually a few tutorials. At clarify the mistakes they made in their tutorials (face-to-face teaching) students assignments (i.e. essays), which together usually discuss the problems they come with a deeper self-study of the materials across when doing different types of implemented in their on-line e-learning tasks or writing assignments. This is course, they write every second week. particularly suitable for the university In the summer semester of 2008 the distance students and interuniversity course was attended by 12 students of study, the so-called RIUS (Development Management and Tourism. To discover of Interuniversity Study) project. whether the integration of face-to-face Moreover, sometimes there are regular teaching and learning methods with on-line classes and e-courses are used as approaches was successful in imparting reference courses (i.e. students can once learning, students were given the following again read the information obtained in evaluation form: class and do some additional exercises to 1) Please comment on the overall practice their knowledge) for further self- structure and content of the course. study or revision of the lecture. This is, 2) Did you find the reference on-line for example, true for teaching Culture of course (OLIVA) motivating/ not motivating Great Britain or History of the USA. and why? 126 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
3) List three activities which were the As for question 5, the main motivation most useful to you? factor for attending and studying the 4) Were there any activities you did not course was students’ eagerness to improve find useful and why? their English, especially their skills of 5) What or who motivated you to attend formal written English. The second the course (e.g. friends, credits ……)? motivation factor was their intention to 6) Did you welcome the possibility to write a Bachelor paper in English. Among have a face-to-face course once every two further additional factors were, for weeks or would you prefer to have it every example, another way of obtaining needed week? credits or that a friend recommended them 7) Would you recommend the course to to attend the course. other people? Except for two respondents, who would 8) Further comments? have liked to have the face-to-face course Thank you. every week, everybody welcomed a chance to have the course once every two weeks. Generally, all respondents (12) were Overall, the responses to the given satisfied with the overall structure of the questions were very positive, and it is course. They stated that the information noteworthy that respondents indicated in given to them during the whole course had their answers to question no. 7 that they been very useful. Moreover, they thought thought the course would be useful for all this subject should be compulsory in the students at the faculty. second year of their study when preparing for their Bachelor paper. 4. Conclusion As far as the on-line course is concerned, it also seemed to be quite useful and The above-mentioned information motivating. Students appreciated its well- demonstrates both institutional and elaborated structure, self exercises they teachers’ effort to improve a sustainable could do at any time and have an process towards the educational quality of immediate feedback on them, see their teaching and learning at the faculty by mistakes they have made, and print all the applying new technologies in education. materials. Just two students mentioned While acknowledging some problems, these technical problems with the new system of seem to be outweighed by the advantages, WebCT – they found it annoying when the for example, an opportunity for distance system did not work. learning, which undoubtedly increases the The most useful activities according to quality for education and goes beyond the respondents were: writing essays, traditional ways of teaching and learning, discussing common mistakes, which and thus extends further possibilities for appeared in students’ essays, discussing learning. the structure of a Bachelor paper, using an In the literature on blended learning, the on-line course, or translating. Furthermore, most common reason given for its there was no activity that students implementation is that it combines “the best considered not worth doing. Only two of both words”. Graham et al. (2003) state students commented that there had been three main reasons why blended learning too many tasks in the on-line course, and should be chosen: that not all were useful. Klimova, B.: Modern Information Technologies in Teaching Foreign Languages 127
1) improved pedagogy; As far as language teaching is concerned, 2) increased access/ flexibility; modern information technologies do offer 3) increased cost effectiveness. challenging ways of teaching and learning, such as easy access to study materials, the 1) Blended learning undoubtedly opportunity to proceed at an individual contributes to the development and pace, and to choose the time and place of support of more interactive strategies studying, and almost immediate feedback not only in face-to-face teaching but on writing with e-mail tutorial support. also in distance education. Developing These benefits are, however, only a partial activities linked to learning outcomes solution for learners who need to develop namely place focus on learner speaking skills. However, this problem can interaction, rather than content be solved to some extent by using telephone dissemination. In addition, distance and video conferencing. Nevertheless, learning can then offer more conventional face-to-face training is still information available for students, necessary to provide the practice and better and faster feedback and richer feedback on performance that can really communication between a tutor and a help to improve speaking skills. Therefore, student. Obviously, it offers more blended learning can be a solution to a opportunities for communication (both number of problems. As Sharma (58-59) face-to-face and on-line). says, ‘on the one hand, technology is here to 2) Access to learning is one of the key stay. On the other, the teacher will never be factors influencing the growth of replaced. I believe it is crucial that the distributed learning environments. teacher remains in control as the person Students can access materials at any creating the course programme, meeting the time and anywhere. Furthermore, they learners, interpreting or assigning the can proceed at their own pace. material and honing the course. The Consequently, it means higher technology should not ‘lead’.’ motivation and stimulation for students (ibid). References 3) The increased cost effectiveness is particularly true for the corporate 1. Bonk, C.J. and C.R. Graham. systems where people are permanently Handbook of Blended Learning: busy and hardly ever can afford to Global Perspectives, Local Designs. attend face-to-face full-time classes. San Francisco, CA. Pfeiffer However, the blended learning enables Publishing, 2005. them after finishing their work, family 2. Driscoll, M. “Blended Learning: Let’s Go beyond the Hype.” E-learning. 1. and other social commitments to start March, 2002. learning. Also universities are all the 3. Graham, C.R. et al. “Benefits and time looking for better quality Challenges of Blended Learning enhancements and cost savings. For Environments.” In: M. Khosrow-Pour example, the blended learning is an (Ed.). Encyclopedia of Information asset for their distance learning Science and Technology. I-V. courses or investment learning Hershey, PA. idea Group Inc., 2003. projects.
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4. Littlejohn, Allison. Planning Blended 7. Whitelock, D. and A. Jelfs. “Editorial: Learning Activities. UK. Routledge- Journal of Educational Media Special Falmer, 2006. Issue on Blended Learning.” Journal 5. Rychtářová, Květa. “Odborný jazyk a of Educational Media. 28(2-3). 2003: jazyková přípravenost učitelů ZŠ a 99-100. SŠ.”Cizí jazyky. 3. 2003/04: 104-105. 6. Sharma, Peter. “Future in the Balance.” English Teaching Professional. 42. January, 2006: 58-59.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
SEVERAL SPEAKING DIFFICULTIES IN TEACHING FRENCH TO NON-PHILOLOGY STUDENTS
Ioana - Paula ARMĂSAR1
Abstract: Foreign language has become a ‘fundamental’ subject in training non-philology students for everyday life. In order to achieve this major goal, revised teaching techniques have become a priority, especially as there are no hard and fast rules in the field of foreign language teaching. The proper assimilation of the spoken French pattern (punctuation, stress, intonation, pronunciation) is of the utmost importance in the process of learning French.
Key words: spoken vs. written message, stress, intonation, pronunciation, paronymy.
1. Introduction graduates can choose from a multitude of specialities, can opt to attend a national or Scientific and technical progress during European university, and even may decide the past few decades has opened up a new to work abroad and choose the best offer stage in the development of higher on the European labour market – now that education with a view to training skilful the implementation of Bologna programme specialists for the challenges lying ahead. has led to the intrinsic validation of As for the teaching of foreign languages, Romanian university degrees within the the prospects look rather bleak in point of boundaries of the European Community. It teaching-learning methods and strategies, is exactly this opportunity that places great as teachers encounter a variety of problems emphasis on the study of a foreign when working with non-philology language. We cannot possibly think today students. It is precisely these young people of a good specialist if unable to speak at who need to be encouraged and supported least one foreign language of wide in achieving language skills and circulation at a level which allows them to performance, as this is the shortcut to both handle specialised language. In order to intercultural cooperation and personal achieve this major goal, revised teaching fulfilment. Social, political and economic techniques have become a priority circumstances that made it possible for especially as there are no hard and fast Romania to become a member of the rules in the field of foreign language European Union are now creating great teaching. opportunities to study. Thus, high-school
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov. 130 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series IV
2. Spoken vs. Written Message pronouns en and y, si conditionnel, the sequence of tenses, etc. A special emphasis It is obvious that our daily lives are should be placed on those words that caught in an intricate web of audiovisual present extremely slight variations in messages and body language. But the vast meaning and which are hard to define. majority of received messages are of Thus, the French words adroit, habile, linguistic nature. Most often the same capable, experimenté, ingenieux, message happens to have both heads and industrieux, entendu all imply a sense of tails, just like a coin, i.e. a spoken vs. ability, but each has a particular, written duality. Spoken message makes use distinctive nuance. These synonyms cluster of additional informative elements, which around a nucleus-word, which usually is can hardly be found with a written the most frequently used in everyday message. These are discourse markers such speech. Thus grouped and placed in as: intonation, speech breaks, verbal flow, relevant contexts, the synonyms gain more intensifying stress – all vitally important precision and distinctiveness in terms of for the receiver’s understanding of the meaning. Although the main objective of a message. Yet how can a written message French language course taught to preserve all these? Using punctuation is an engineering students is to build up improper procedure in marking intonation, technical vocabulary, the matter of while non-verbal communication (gestures, synonymy cannot be ignored, as it plays a facial expressions) which accompanies crucial part in developing students’ skills speech acts is compensated by description, to produce both varied and accurate so that the written message usually language output. becomes longer than the spoken one. Sometimes, confusion may easily come 3. Stress. Intonation between the graphic (written) and phonetic (spoken) message if the student is not Stress is yet another difficulty in the helped to pronounce correctly some correct usage of a foreign language. complex graphic string (see here Léon’s Intonation was considered by Dascălu- theory). One method in dealing with this Jinga ‘the first linguistic element to acquire issue would be to substitute that particular (during childhood) and the last to lose graphic string with a known grapheme. (either willingly, when learning a foreign Otherwise, learning and using a phonetic language, or unwillingly, in pathological alphabet arise as a necessity in solving the cases)’ (21). It is necessary the proof that basic problem of reading accuracy and punctuation can simultaneously convey sound-letter relationship. semantic and/or grammatical, as well as It is important, during the practice prosodic information. Paradoxically, the sessions, to focus on those French words most common case ‘seems to be not the whose usage entails a series of difficulties rendering of intonation through or ‘traps’ into which Romanian speakers of punctuation (as it is generally believed), French tend to fall, due to numerous but the rendering of feelings and/or similarities in terms of vocabulary and attitudes that, in speech, can or cannot be language structures between the two expressed by means of specific prosodic languages. It is therefore vital that students elements.’ (Dascălu-Jinga 124). In should be provided with extended practice Romanian, each polysyllabic word has a on those constructions with no equivalent certain syllable with a more stressed in Romanian, such as: the adverbial pronunciation than the rest. In most of the
Armăsar, I.P.: Several Speaking Difficulties in Teaching French to …. 131 cases, a change in stress position cannot effort. Sometimes, stress coincides with a alter the meaning of a word, but only give speech break which allows the speaker to it a sort of unnatural ‘sound’. There are recover their breath – these breaks trigger cases, however, when stress position the so-called ‘breathing groups’, the most determines the meaning of the word, and important being that which separates two this phenomenon proves the ‘phonemic’ sentences. Normal stress may be character of the stress in Romanian accompanied by an additional type of language. For example, in the sentences: stress, used by the speaker in two Mergeam la lumina lanternei and particular cases: either to express an Lanterna nu lumina îndeajuns, the stressed emotion (in which case the important word syllable in lumina determines the is marked out by first-syllable stress – e.g. grammatical category of the word (noun C’est un accident effrayant) or to and verb, respectively) and consequently emphasise a syllable vitally important for its meaning. Comparatively, in French the understanding of the message: Il ne language the stress is always fixed and faut pas confondre inverser et déverser cannot alter the meaning of words. (Morel 125). With French, one may notice that the Other considerations in this paper will accurate pronunciation of a sentence has to regard intonation (or modulation, as it is meet certain requirements (e.g. a spoken sometimes reffered to) and its inherent string does not correspond to the graphic difficulties. To stick to the French division into words). In this case, we are language pattern, we can say that it has confronted with a matter of stress (the both a rising and falling intonation (with intensifying stress is an extra force used questions or commands). Let us consider when pronouncing a particular syllable in a the following utterance: Il est parti. polysyllabic word at the expense of greater According to the speaker’s intonation, the energy and longer utterance span). We are listener will recognise either an assertion: familiar with the fact that certain languages Il est parti. (voice rises then falls on the have a very important intensifying stress, last syllable) or a question: Il est parti? which is not placed according to the same (voice rises steadily and remains in pattern on all the words of their vocabulary suspence), whereas in the example: Partez (e.g. in English: beautiful, across; in d’ici! (voice starts at a high pitch and falls German: der Vater, die Philosophie). steadily), the listener will recognise a These are languages with word stress. command. In the assertive utterance, a sort French also has an intensifying stress, but of balance establishes between the rising this is fixed and always placed on the last and falling intonation. In the case of a syllable: amateur, patriotisme (most often, longer utterance, however, the problem this type of stress triggers a prolongation becomes more complex. This is because it of the corresponding vowel). French is a language with group stress rather than is rather difficult to say exactly where the word stress. Consider the following voice starts to fall towards the end of the examples: Elle est venue me voir avec sa utterance. Mention should be made that mère. Vous aussi vous viendrez. Sa soeur intonation may vary according to speaker était accompagnée par sa meilleure amie. and particularly with a literary text. Yet One can notice that, at sentence level, these variations do not refute the general stress tends to mark out groups based on considerations discussed so far. meaning and to regulate the locutionary
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4. Discourse Markers. Pronunciation words like: six [s], exact [gz], sixième [z], texte [ks], etc.). We are not discussing here Attention should also be paid to oral French pronunciation according to the discourse markers – that is, what actually regions where it is spoken, nor the various represents the word being about to be tendencies of native speakers to cut down on uttered. There are two particular types of their speech effort. On the contrary, we hesitation, originating either in the believe that one of the major goals in speaker’s uncertaity, doubtedness, rethink teaching a foreign language is that of getting of the matter, or in a discord with the the student to acquire the correct, standard syntactic patterns. In general, French language. Therefore, we consider that regular possesses three types of markers to exercises of pronunciation are always ‘socialise’ hesitation. The prolongation of welcome at any level of language knowledge. the final syllable (by keeping voice The French consonant system is steady intensity steady) often accompanies a shift and, for this reason, pronunciation does not in viewpoint and functions as a disguise raise any difficulties. But care should be for the process of finding the idea, in taken with double consonants: contrary to which the speaker’s mind is engaged. That current beliefs, they are pronounced as a hesitational ‘euh’ is a sort of incidental single consonant: pomme, terrible, lexeme which functions as a link to the essentiel, etc. However, the double subsequent utterance. Word repetition, consonant is pronounced in the following extensively used in French, allows the situations: when it occurs by virtue of marking of the syntactic class of the prefixation: immense, irradier, subsequent lexeme and ensures an surréalisme; when with the same verb the adequate discourse continuity. In French, double consonant distinguishes between as in many other languages, oral the French tenses imparfait and communication is the privileged meeting conditionnel présent: courait vs. courrait; place of incidental words whose discursive when two identical consonants are status is hard to define. Some control the pronounced together as a result of a silent e message (tu vois, écoute, hein, quoi), coming between them: tu me mens vs. tu others modulate the qualification of the mens, tu le lui as dit vs. tu lui as dit. The referent (disons, enfin, je sais pas); some problem of letter h has to be taken into impose a restriction to the referential field account, as it is never pronounced in into which the subject of discourse falls French, whether aspirate or not. In the (pour, sur, question, point de vue, genre), former case, however, there will be no link while others emphasise the argumentation or elision in front of it. Silent e also raises (donc, alors, et puis, et). Some of these some pronunciation difficulties. It is easily elements organise into correlative or recognisable by spelling, occurring with a opposite couples, marking either frequency of 10.06% in written French, as agreement or disagreement on the part of compared with 4.9% in spoken French. Its the speaker. Several considerations with pronunciation is either compulsory (e.g. regard to pronunciation problems are with interrogative pronoun que, or within a further made to complete the image of word, when preceded by more than one speaking difficulties in teaching French to pronounced consonant: de belles crevettes) non-philology students. It is a fact that, or optional (e.g. at the end of a word: Elle most often, French spelling is based upon est blache, or within a word, when etymology, but this cannot serve as a rule preceded by one pronounced consonant: un (cf. the different pronunciation of x in cheval de course) (Léon, 1986, 74). Oral
Armăsar, I.P.: Several Speaking Difficulties in Teaching French to … 133 links between words, specific to those take several meanings is virtually languages which did not adopt a phonetic ambiguous, and some paronyms preserve spelling, represent another prerequisite for their ambiguity even placed in a context. It the teaching process. The link is made by is precisely this property that can be used pronouncing the final consonant of a word to create puns, aphorisms, repeated – usually a silent one – when this particular discourse and proverbs. word merges into a phrase and its final The vocabulary of any language is consonant meets the vowel (or silent h) subject to a continuous evolution and with which the subsequent word starts. changes in various ways: either borrows Thus, we can distinguish, in terms of new words from other languages, or, under pronunciation, between Il est un enfant their influence, attaches a new meaning to charmant and Il est un charmant enfant. those already in use and thus replaces Sometimes, it is difficult to specify every them. The new words, borrowed or linking situation, but it should be noted recently created, make it possible the that it represents an additional sign of similarity between them and some pre- cohesion between adjacent language units, existing words in the language. Thus, apart and it can only occur within a stressed from adding up to the expressiveness of phrase. Certain linked consonants, communication, they become a source of however, do not correspond to their written errors. Since in Romanian a lot of form (e.g. s and x which are pronounced z: paronymic pairs are neologisms of French grands enfants, beaux habits; d which is origin, the problems are mutual. For pronounced t: grand ami; f which is example, the French paronymic pair pronounced v: neuf ans). interpoler/ interpeller corresponds to the The problem of paronymy in French Romanian a interpola/ a interpela. language is very important, the more so as it In both languages, the substitution of the is interrelated to other lexical and semantic two verbs is conditioned by their categories, such as: synonymy (marin/ apparently identical forms. These maritime), antonymy (émerger/ immerger; paronyms, apart from a great degree of émigrer/ immigrer), or homonymy (abbaye/ formal likeness, also suppose a difference abeille). Its functionality, materialized in in meaning: interpoler (Fr) – a interpola speech, its capacity to attract and formally (Ro) – 1. To add something in the middle associate two words (paronyms), shows that of a piece of writing. 2. to calculate a the paronymic attraction conditions the number or quantity between two other occurrence of paronymic pairs (Grădinaru numbers or quantities; interpeller (Fr) – a A., 151). Being an asymmetric interpela (Ro) – To question someone construction, the paronymic attraction is a formally concerning official or government deviation from the linguistic norms. policy or business. Another characteristic of paronymy – Thus, in defining paronymy, not only the which is worth teaching the students – is criterion of formal quasi-identity, but also that of conditioning the occurrence of the functional criterion should be taken semantic ambiguities. The formal quasi- into consideration in order to avoid identity of the paronyms may lead to linguistic shocks. several interpretations. This phenomenon The concept of ‘paronymic attraction’ highlights the interrelation between form derives from a heterogeneous combination and meaning. In practice, the students will of terms in Romanian and French be asked to choose the right word linguistics. It resides in the fact that one according to context. Any form that can word in a paronymic pair, more frequent
134 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series IV and better known to the speakers, ‘attracts’ Romanian ‘a snack that is eaten before a and replaces the other less known word. meal’). Initially an ‘alteration phenomenon’, it occurs especially with cultured speakers. 5. Conclusion Thus, its mechanism consists in the fact that the word most familiar to the speaker All things considered, we believe that, in substitutes, during communication, the less the teaching process, it is very important to known word. Most often, this sort of pay special attention to the extent to which attractions take place due to the speaker’s our students are familiar with the spoken insufficient knowledge of the right patterns of a particular foreign language. meaning of the paronyms. In teaching The above-mentioned speaking difficulties technical vocabulary, however, this are necessary guidelines on teaching/ situation is hardly encountered. learning French effectively. In learning French, a major part is played by the Romanian vocabulary which, References starting with the mid-19th century, borrowed a large number of French words. 1. Dascălu-Jinga, Laurenţia. Melodia The similarity between the two languages vorbirii în limba română. Bucureşti: of Latin origin is, undoubtedly, of great Univers Enciclopedic, 2001. help to the Romanian learner/ speaker of 2. Grădinaru, Angela. Unele French. But, paradoxically, this similarity considerente privind problema also has its drawbacks. In this brief atracţiei paronimice în limba presentation, another speaking difficulty is franceză./Probleme actuale de noteworthy, which derives from the fact lingvistică glotodidactică şi ştiinţă that French vocabulary, as compared to literară. Chişinău: USM , 2004. ours, displays numerous instances of 3. Léon, Pierre. Introduction à la parophony and homophony. Certain phonétique corrective. Paris: Hachete- associations may lead to the complete Larousse, 1964. change of meaning in a sentence. It is the 4. Léon, Pierre. Prononciation du case of those words which in French have français standard. Paris: Didier, 1986. a very similar form – both graphically and 5. Morel, Mary Annik and Laurent phonetically – to the Romanian ones (for Danon-Boileau. Grammaire de example: un apéritif means in French ‘an l’intonation, l’exemple du français. alcoholic drink that is drunk before a Paris: Bibliotheque des faits de meal’, while un aperitiv means in langues, 1991.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE INFLUENCE OF A TEACHER’S NON-VERBAL BEHAVIOUR ON STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION
Elena BUJA1
Abstract: The paper investigates the way in which a teacher’s non-verbal behaviour (i.e. my own behaviour) in class may influence students’ motivation. The study is based on the analysis of anonymous feed-back provided by my students along a number of years. What their honest opinions reveal is that they pay a great deal of attention not only to the message itself but also to the way you convey a message. At the same time, they may help a teacher improve his/her teaching style in order to motivate students to attend classes.
Key words: non-verbal behaviour, students’ motivation, needs analysis, professional/personal development, learning environment.
1. Introduction Teacher development draws on the teacher’s own inner resource for change. It is Professional/personal development is centred on personal awareness of the part of the quality improvement process possibilities for change, and of what used in educational institutions. Successful influences the change process. It builds on professional development will benefit both the past, because recognizing how past students and teachers by improving the experiences have or have not been effectiveness of teaching, by raising developmental helps identify opportunities achievement, by providing a systematic for change in the present and future. It also approach to training and development, and draws on the present, in encouraging a fuller by enhancing job satisfaction. awareness of the kind of teacher you are and Development means change and growth. of other people’s responses to you. It is a Teacher development is the process of self-reflective process, because it is through becoming the best teacher that one can questioning old habits that alternative ways personally be. To the extent that teachers of being and doing are able to emerge. are regularly asking themselves ‘How can I Rossner, 1994 (quoted in Head and become a better teacher?’ ‘How can I Taylor, 1997:2) mentions a couple of enjoy teaching more?’, ‘How can I feel characteristics of teacher development that I am helping learning?’ they are among which the one that I found really thinking about ways of developing. They relevant is the following: ‘Teacher are acknowledging that it is possible to development is not just to do with (…) change the way they teach and perhaps teaching: it’s also about (…) counseling also the preconceptions that they have skills, assertiveness training, confidence- about teaching and learning. building, computing, meditation, cultural broadening – almost anything, in fact.’
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The present paper aims at showing how Thus, I consider that the feed-back I get a teacher can develop as a result of the from my students could have positive comments/suggestions provided by consequences both in the following stages students with the aim of increasing their of the course with the same group of intrinsic motivation. The body of the paper students (or for the groups to come), by consists in the analysis of some comments better selecting the topics and adjusting the provided by my students in the end-of-term materials to the new realities, and in the feed-back on my courses with respect to long run by increasing the students’ my non-verbal behaviour in the classroom. responsibility for their learning and developing their skills. 2. Students’ Motivation One other thing that needs to be underlined is that motivation does not exist As part of my teaching activity, at the as such, but is created by forces that act end of each semester I ask my students to upon the students from outside the provide me with anonymous feed-back on classroom (extrinsic motivation) and the courses I teach. What I basically within the classroom (intrinsic motivation). looked for in the feed-back were negative Generally, students are highly extrinsically and positive aspects related to the course motivated and this is reflected in their and seminars and suggestions for choice of a particular faculty. But they are improvement. I have done this being aware very little, or not at all, intrinsically that if the students’ needs are fulfilled, they motivated. In the learning process the will be more motivated to take part in the students will be more successful if they lectures and seminar activities. One have both kinds of motivation for the important conclusion is that the students problem is that of supplying and increasing are quite objective in depicting their lacks the intrinsic motivation. And this is the and wants. What has to be pointed out is responsibility of the teacher who should that connections between different pay attention to the following issues: responses could constitute the basis for the - to create and maintain a stimulating and teacher’s future activity. challenging learning environment; The multiple functions of the classroom - to encourage students to take context can be integrated into a dynamic responsibility for, and be active in, their process of validation-reconsideration own learning; directed towards the teaching/learning - to set expectations that make appropriate activities. The emphasis is on the learner’s demands on students. response and his/her role in evaluating current and selecting future 3. Analysis of the Students’ Comments materials/teaching techniques in on the Teacher’s Non-Verbal accordance with the various criteria and Communication in the Classroom expectations of those involved in the instructional context. The basic assumption The classroom is a veritable goldmine of is that the learners may develop the non-verbal behaviour. Acceptance and willingness, the means and the capacity to understanding of ideas and feelings on the decide upon what kind of input and part of teacher and students, encouraging activities they would like to process, and criticizing, silence, questioning, etc. – provided they are treated as active all involve non-verbal elements. All participants in a complex interaction and teachers have encountered in their activity not as passive audience. the ‘frantic hand weaver’ who is sure he
Buja, E.: The Influence of a Teacher’s non-Verbal Behaviour on Students’ Motivation 137 has the answer, or the student who is sure ‘What I like about you is that you smile he does not know the answer and tries to all the time, even if our class is at 7.30, avoid eye contact with the teacher. Facial when people are usually grumpy’. expressions, threatening gestures, and tone ‘I didn’t notice that you didn’t feel well of voice are frequently used for discipline, last week; it’s because you always smile’. not only in elementary school but also at ‘I hope you will keep the smile on your higher-level education. A teacher’s trust of face on the day of our exam; this way we his students is sometimes indicated by will think that the exam paper will be an his/her arrangement of seating and his/her easy one or that you will have mercy with monitoring behaviour during examination. us’. One should not forget the variety of ‘The fact that you smile all the time techniques used by students to make creates a friendly atmosphere and we don’t sleeping appear to be studying or listening. feel afraid to answer your questions Sometimes, the teacher–student interaction because we feel encouraged, even if we may be influenced/affected by the know that our answers are not the most students’ dress and hair length. correct ones’. In what follows I will focus on non- What I have gathered from these short verbal issues pertaining to the teacher, with fragments is that a smile, provided it is special focus on my behaviour as pointed genuine, can create a friendly atmosphere out to me by my students. The analysis which is a crucial factor in fostering will follow some of the non-verbal codes. education. If students felt threatened by the facial expressions of the teachers, most 3.1. Kinesics1 in the Classroom probably they would feel reluctant to interact with him/her in the educational a) Facial expressions. All people and process and also less keen on acquiring the thus certainly teachers and students use knowledge transmitted by him/her. facial expressions to communicate Another element of the face that attitudes related to the opinions they have communicates a lot is the eye of one another. A cold stare has long been behaviour/gaze. Eye behaviour seems to in the repertoire of a teacher’s weapons. be of particular importance since it is Similarly, a smile can be a useful tool in generally used to indicate whether one is reinforcing desired student behaviours. open to communication. This can be A teacher can also use the students’ noticed when the teacher asks the students facial expressions as valuable sources of questions. Students who have the answer feedback. Thus, when I deliver a lecture, I to the question will generally look at the use my students’ expressions to determine teacher, while those who don’t will try to whether or not to slow down, speed up, or avoid eye-contact. in some other way rephrase my In my activity I try to keep eye-contact presentation. The teacher, on the other with my students as much as possible. hand, probably communicates more Here are some of their remarks: accidentally by his/her facial expression ‘I like that you don’t read to us from than by other means. books or pages, like other teachers, and Here are some bits of information that you look at us’. concerning my facial expression I gathered ‘I know that it is difficult to remember all from my students. Since they are our names, but when you look at us for an anonymous, I cannot indicate their exact answer, especially if we sit at the back of source: the classroom, we don’t know exactly who
138 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV you are looking at and thus whom you you teach and that you try to make us expect to speak.’ understand it and like it as much as you ‘I’m a shy person and I don’t like talking do. Your gestures seem to indicate that the in front of the others, especially if I am not subject is a piece of cake, but when I go confident that I know the answer. When home and read my notes, it’s not as easy as you look at me waiting for an answer, I it seems in the class.’ panic and feel so stupid.’ ‘Sometimes you move your hands so Both positive and negative aspects are much that I tend to focus on your rings and revealed concerning eye-contact with my lose track of what you are telling us’. students. On the one hand they feel that I have to admit that I was not aware of they get my attention equally, that I don’t my excessive gesturing, either in a positive favour some over the others. On the other or in a negative way, but I tend to think hand, they brought to my attention the fact that the hand gestures I use are meant to that sometimes I am too insistent and that underline/enhance the idea I am expressing this might de-motivate especially the less while teaching. It may happen that for confident students and make them feel some students these repeated movements embarrassed. So, what I have to do in the of my hands can become distracting, so I future is to try to find a way of have to try and control them as much as I encouraging such students to interact with can. Some gestures that I am aware of me but not necessarily by prolonging my during the teaching process, and for which gaze with them. Also worth taking into I sometimes apologize (although they have account is the other negative comment, not been mentioned) are folding my arms namely that the students cannot figure out across the chest and placing one of my whom I am addressing. I really do not hands on the hip. I adopt these two know if there is a solution to this, since I positions while listening to my students. usually lecture around 60 or 70 students Both are defensive positions. The former and sometimes even more. The farther may be misinterpreted by the students away they are from me, the less accurate either as reluctance on my behalf to the direction of my gaze towards a interact with them or as a sign that their particular student seems to become. But a message is not correct. The second gesture bit of confusion, now and then, may bring is not very lady-like and may be a touch of cheerfulness to the class, a interpreted as lack of interest/of moment of fun in the serious activity of involvement on behalf of the listener. teaching. When a listener folds his/her arms, s/he not b) Gestures represent another element of only is more critical about the speaker, but body movement (kinesics). A modern at the same time s/he pays less attention to definition of gesture is provided by Tenjes’ what the speaker is talking about. Since I (1996:164): ‘a gesture is a hand movement accompanying speech and acquiring its apologize and explain that I find these meaning in a context of conversation or positions relaxing taking into account that I possessing a language independent never sit while teaching, the students have meaning’. never perceived them as ‘hostile gestures’. Two comments emerged from my c) Body posture may also communicate a students’ feed-back concerning my certain message, as I have been made gesturing: aware by a student who wrote ‘We cannot ‘The way you smile and use your hands see your smile when you write on the when you teach shows that you love what board.’ This piece of information made me
Buja, E.: The Influence of a Teacher’s non-Verbal Behaviour on Students’ Motivation 139 realize that the back represents the non- by my head nods by commenting on the communicative part of our body. It also answers the students provided, made me aware that a solution to this emphasizing the good part of the answer, problem may be the use of modern devices and pointing out why the rest was not (i.e. laptop+ projector). But unfortunately, correct. this could come true only when teachers of our faculty don’t have to ‘commute’ from 3.2. Vocalics one building to another. But even so, a comment like the one above may motivate The proverb ‘It is not what we say that any teacher to start using modern counts, but how we say it’ reflects the technology. importance of vocalics. Paralinguisic cues d) Head nods, as kinesic elements, may often reveal emotional conditions. convey different messages, depending on Difference in loudness, pitch, rate, rhythm the gender of the sender. According to and enunciation all relate to the expression Maltz and Borker (2007), women are more of various emotions. In the classroom, this involved than men in maintaining social powerful non-verbal tool can affect student interaction and they also do more in order participation. Generally, to correct to facilitate the flow of conversation. answers, the teachers respond with positive Consequently they encourage responses verbal reinforcement, enhanced by vocal from their interlocutors, often using pitch or tone, expressing the acceptance of backchannel sounds like ‘mm hmm’ or or agreement with the students’ answer nodding their heads. Gumperz (1977) (this being often accompanied by a smile shows that a minimal response such as a or head nods). head nod means different things for men There is one aspect pertaining to and women. Thus, for a woman a nod may vocalics that we, as human beings, cannot indicate a simple message like I’m change, namely the pitch of our voice. This listening to you, please continue. For men, represents our genetic heritage and we the same message has a stronger meaning cannot do anything about it. But we can such as I agree with you or at least I follow definitely adapt/change all the other your argument so far. I think that because paralinguistic elements according to the of the fact that my students experienced situation. both messages in their previous education, Two things have been brought to my as they had both male and female teachers, attention by my students with respect to they felt a bit confused at my nodding my paralinguistic cues, as revealed by the while I was listening to their opinions. following comments: Consequently, in one feed-back paper I ‘I like the fact that you speak freely encountered the following short comment: when you teach, but sometimes you speak ‘Whenever you ask us something and we so fast that I cannot put down what you are answer your question you keep nodding saying.’ and smiling at us. We can’t possibly The second comment comes from a always give the correct answer but you student whom I seem to have sent out of give us the feeling that we are right in the classroom because of his/her chatting what we say. Is that really so?’ during the lecture. I received this comment about four years ‘I know that I disturbed your class and I do apologize for it, but it is not entirely my ago. Since then, I have tried to avoid any fault. Since we are so numerous at the misunderstanding or confusion triggered lecture, I do not always find a seat in the
140 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV front desks and at the back of the kind of communication between the classroom we cannot hear what you say’. teacher and the students, as well as among I fully agree with both comments. It is the students. The most traditional type of true that I sometimes get carried away classroom arrangement consists of the with the teaching and I do not realize that teacher standing in front of the board or my speech organs move faster than my sitting at the desk which is placed in front students’ hands. After reading this of the students’ desks. Within this comment, I have tried to reduce the tempo arrangement, the teacher dominates the of my speech, to pause when something interaction in the classroom, and since the important has to be written down, and to students are seated side by side, their read my students’ non-verbal behaviour primary focal point is the teacher. Thus for signs of dissatisfaction for not being most of the interaction will go from the able to take notes. One can easily notice teacher to the students and from the students bending over their neighbours’ students to the teacher. This arrangement is notebooks to catch up with what they frequently associated with the function of have missed. As far as the second sending messages of power on behalf of comment is concerned, I now realize that the teachers, as it has been signaled by my I might have overreacted by kicking out students’ comments: that particular student. When we teach, ‘When you stand in front of us, we have we have to take into account the acoustics the feeling that we are so small, of the classroom (which is usually bad), insignificant and stupid, but when you the noise of the traffic in the street and the mingle with use during the seminars we noise produced by the students. The voice feel that you are one of us’. of the teacher has to cover all these other It is very true that the teachers are in noises, but if our voice is not strong charge of the educational process and that enough, we cannot work wonders. A we have to impose ourselves on the solution to this problem would be for the students because otherwise they will not university to provide with microphones take us seriously. On the other hand, we the classrooms designed for lectures with have to give them the feeling that we are a large number of students, so that every always open to discussions and to learning learner should have clear access to the from the students, too, as in this profession information conveyed by the teacher. The you keep learning as long as you live. visual information (be it written on the One other proxemic aspect relates to the blackboard or projected on a screen or way I make use of the blackboard. wall) is only the skeleton of the lecture; Somebody commented on it as follows: the comments of the teachers come to ‘Teacher, please don’t mind my flesh in the skeleton, to create a whole. bluntness, but you are very messy when you write on the board. You speak and 3.3. The Use of Space (Proxemics) and write very fast, you jump from one Time (Chronemics) blackboard to the other, and by the time we finish writing something in our Research in the area of proxemics2i notebooks, we don’t know where you wrote shows that the use of space in the the other piece of information on the classroom can have a major impact on board. One other thing: your handwriting communication. The classroom itself has a is too small, so that when I sit at the back limited amount of space and the way that of the classroom I cannot figure out what space is employed will certainly affect the you wrote on the board.’
Buja, E.: The Influence of a Teacher’s non-Verbal Behaviour on Students’ Motivation 141
Here is an honest opinion which made me ‘I hate the fact that the class is at 7.30 in aware of my flaws. Using power-point the morning. I cannot get up so early.’ presentations and a projector will diminish ‘The class is too early in the morning the problem posed by my small and messy and I cannot arrive on time because I handwriting. Students are much happier with commute’. the modern facilities and since our The situation was not much better for the department owns modern technology, why afternoon classes. Although one lecture should we not use it to avoid such problems. was scheduled for 3 o’clock p.m., lots of As far as the use of time (chronemics) is students arrived later than that. Moreover, I concerned, E. T. Hall (1959) divides also came across the following complaint: cultures and people into two types: ‘The class is too late in the afternoon, sequential and synchronic. Sequential there are too many students in the people/cultures centre their attention first classroom and the atmosphere tends to on one thing and then move to something warm up, so that towards the middle of the else (e.g. the British people and the course I tend to fall asleep.’ Germans). They are also known to be very From these two types of comments one punctual because they schedule their can draw the conclusion that irrespective activities very tightly and a delay of a few of the time of the day when the classes are minutes will affect their entire day. scheduled, students will always be late and Synchronic people/cultures, on the other that there will always be persons who are hand, track various activities in parallel dissatisfied with the time-table. (e.g. the Latin cultures). They are also less On the other hand, what is interesting to insistent upon punctuality. notice is the fact that my punctuality has I tend to think of myself as a sequential been commented upon positively by some person, who insists on being punctual and of students: who demands punctuality from students. ‘… and you always come in time to But it seems that there is a clash between classes, unlike other teachers who make us my own and my students’ use of time. I wait for them and sometimes never show believe that my being a sequential person up.’ is the result of the German education I ‘Sometimes when I run to fetch the bus I benefited from as a child. On the other pray that you may be late, but you are hand, since most of the students are always in time. Don’t you travel by bus?’ Romanian and since we are of Latin origin, As teachers we have to set a good they tend to pay little attention to coming example for our students in all respects, to classes on time, and this resulted in a including the use of time. It is sad that not number of ‘uncomfortable’ situations. all my colleagues are aware of this issue Though at the beginning of the semester I and they make compromises with the specifically informed them that I students: since they arrive late for classes, appreciate punctuality, the students kept they allow the students to be late too, and coming late. We tried to negotiate a ‘limit then those teachers who insist on of lateness’ and we came up to 10 minutes, punctuality will be criticized and disliked. but unfortunately they did not stick to it I am aware that sometimes there are and I had to send them away from the objective reasons for being late, and that class. They were dissatisfied, and we need to be understanding, but this consequently in the feed-back I received, I should not turn into a habit. came across a number of complaints about the time our classes are scheduled:
142 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
4. Conclusions References
The feed-back provided by students 1. Gumperz, John J. “Sociocultural could constitute a good source of knowledge in conversational information concerning their needs, lacks inference”. Linguistics and and wants and teachers should not be afraid Anthropology. Saville-Troike, M. to ask their students to provide them with (ed.). Washington, D.C.: Georgetown such tools. We should not feel offended by University Press, 1977. the bluntness of our students’ statements, but 2. Hall, Edward T. The Silent Language, analyse our activity from all points of view. I Garden City, New York: Doubleday, see no reason why a student might want to 1959. hurt our feelings by stating something that is 3. Head, K. and P. Taylor. Readings in untrue. Both students and teachers will Teacher Development. Macmillan benefit from such an evaluation tool: Education, 1997. teachers will try to improve their activity in 4. Tenjes, Silvi. “Gestures in Dialogue”. all respects according to the needs and wants Estonian in the Changing World. of the students, complying nevertheless with Haldur Oim (ed), University of Tartu, the curriculum imposed by the university. 1996, 163-192. On the other hand, the students may become 5. Underhill, Anne. “Foreword” for Allan more motivated to come to school, to interact Maley’s The language Teacher’s with the teachers and their peers. Voice, Hong Kong: Macmillan To be successful, it is not enough for a Publishers Ltd, 2000. teacher to know the subjects s/he teaches and 6. Malz, D.N and R.A. Borker. “A how to teach the subject to the students but Cultural Approach to Male-Female also to think systematically about his/her Miscommunication”. A Cultural practice, of his/her non-verbal behaviour in Approach to Interpersonal the classroom and learn from experience. Communication. Monaghan, L. and Teachers need to become learners Goodman, J.E. (eds.). Oxford, UK: themselves now and then. They don’t have to Blackwell Publishing, 2007. view school as their place of work or a place where they come to teach, but rather a place where they themselves come to learn. Hence, 1 Kinesics or body language refers to any kind of they should grasp the idea that the whole bodily movement or posture, which transmits a message to the observer. Every part of the human environment, as well as the students around body, either in motion or stillness, conveys a them, can become their teachers. As meaning which depends upon the physical, social, Underhill (2000:v) points out, ‘teacher and cultural context of the action. development means taking a step back to see 2 See the work of E.T.Hall, 1959. the larger picture of what goes on in learning, and how the relationship between students and teacher influences learning. It also means attending to small details which can in turn change the bigger picture. Teacher development is a continuous process of transforming human potential into human performance, a process that is never finished’.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE ROLE OF THEORY IN APPLIED LINGUISTICS RESEARCH: A study of vocabulary learning strategies
G. CUSEN1 E. BUJA1
Abstract: The role of theory in research in general, and in applied linguistics in particular, appears to be a matter of making decisions as to ‘what data would be relevant [to the investigation of a research issue] and how such data will be best obtained’ (Johnson and Johnson, 274). Such decisions involve the researcher’s position with respect to a choice between a theory-first and/or a data-first approach to research. This paper examines both these positions in relation to the investigation of vocabulary learning strategies. The paper concludes that whether the researcher adopts either of the two positions or both, this will have an impact on the whole research process.
Key words: vocabulary learning strategies, SLA theory, interpretive approach, Grounded theory.
1. Introduction Theory (Glaser and Straus) will be discussed since the analysis of the data in This paper first introduces the the aforementioned study was partly philosophical approach which a study of guided by this form of analysis of the vocabulary learning strategies of qualitative data. Romanian learners of English has followed, i.e. an interpretive approach 2. An Interpretive Approach to (Cohen and Manion; Ellis). This study, Vocabulary Learning Strategies guided be the overarching research question: ‘What do experienced learners of Firstly, having decided that the study English who are studying to become was to be an exploratory investigation of English teachers, Romanian English major language learner behaviour, an interpretive and minor undergraduates, do to learn (or approach appeared to be the most improve their knowledge of) vocabulary?’ appropriate. Ellis maintains that in this is an investigation of the vocabulary tradition, unlike in the ‘confirmatory learning strategies reported by university research tradition’, in which there seems to undergraduates in language learning be a distance between research and the diaries and interviews. teachers as practitioners due to a We then consider some aspects of hierarchical top-down relation: cognitive theories of language learning and ‘The beliefs, values, and perceptions of their relation to learning strategies. And teachers are not ignored (or controlled) finally, some of the principles of Grounded (…) but are given a constitutive place in
1Dept. of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Transilvania University of Braşov. 144 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV the research. The traffic of ideas between be] grasped through the apprehension of teacher and researcher is, potentially at their inner meaning; the meaning that led to least, two way.’ (Ellis, 1997, 19-20) their production’ (Hughes 90). For him the Ellis’s words seem to be a good example essence of social interaction lies in the of why we decided to place our research meanings that social actors give their actions with the interpretive paradigm. This is so and so this is what social analysis must be mainly because both my experience and directed at. This entails eliciting data, e.g. position as a language teacher and my through questionnaires and interviews. recently assumed task of a researcher into Sayer states that meaning in everyday language learning are seemingly life is contestable in that not just any complementary. interpretation of a given phenomenon is Our claim that the research presented in acceptable. Moreover, since the meanings this paper is of the interpretive type also that: seems consistent with Hughes (94), who ‘social actors use and understand are sees the interpretive approach as: embedded in practices and relations, [they] ‘a reaction against the very strident can establish descriptions and evaluations claims of positivism and its “scientised” of people and their circumstances, they can conception of the social actor which they influence our identities and what we can [representatives of positivism] see as do in society.’ (Sayer 222). embodied in orthodox social science of a Sayer (27) adds that social practices are positivist persuasion.’ ‘text-like’ and have to be ‘read and For Hughes, in the interpretive paradigm, interpreted’ and such data as those the argument is about ‘the character of the obtained by the use of verbal reports, objects of social scientific inquiry’. The use answers to questionnaires or interviews or of the positivist correlational apparatus in manuscripts ‘can never be taken the empirical description of social action, he unproblematically as “brute data” but claims, would not get at ‘the proper subject- require interpretation by the analyst’. matter of social science’, that of giving a This is the kind of data that we have plausible interpretation of patterns of collected for our research into vocabulary interaction in terms of their occurrence, their learning strategies and that we have time and place so that it is ‘faithful to its interpreted in order to see whether my status as a human product’ [10] p.94. It is respondents can bring new insights to the this type of ‘human product’ that this study understanding of the many highly of vocabulary learning aims to describe, unobservable strategies used by learners to explain and understand, primarily through acquire/learn a foreign language. the expressed views of students which we Sayer acknowledges one of the virtues of interpret as an informed analyst. interpretivism as the researcher’s Relevant to this approach are the notions sensitivity to the ‘frame of meanings’ (28) of meaning, subjectivity vs. objectivity and she/he is using and the possible differences intersubjectivity, and verstehen (Hughes; existing between this frame and those of Sayer). Meaning, notes Hughes, is the the researched. This encourages the main concern of interpretivists as their researcher to consider these differences study of the human society aims at and to avoid imposing “alien” frameworks understanding such phenomena as history, on respondents in interviews and society, art, all products of the human questionnaires (28). The question here mind and ‘not at all like material things’, may be whose view the researcher finally as ‘lived experience of others [which can sees as privileged. Cusen, G. et al.: The Role of Theory in Applied Linguistics Research 145
Another way of ‘regarding meaning’ is and statistical kind’. This does not entirely to consider it as a subjective or internal apply to our study since the statistical element of behaviour. Hughes (95) argues elements in it are restricted to counting that such a view of meaning would ‘draw a numbers of main types of strategies and contrast between the objective features of calculating percentages necessary to the social action and its subjective elements’. discussion of the results of the analysis. Sayer (27) also elaborates on the concept Sayer (28) on the other hand, does not see of subjectivity of meaning in social science verstehen as a ‘method’ but rather as a and states that ‘constitutive meanings are ‘piece of the ordinary process of not wholly reducible to individuals’ beliefs understanding others in everyday life’. about what they are doing’. The concern of The interpretive approach is however the social scientist is not so much with problematic for our own research. As, Sayer subjectivity (the term implying something puts it, one of the problems of interpretivism private to the individual) as it is with is that it deals ‘with the material side of intersubjectivity (i.e. between researcher society’. My study does not, really, deal and researched), ‘which is social’. with the material but with behavioural Our research in this respect is likely to be aspects of the interaction between intersubjective because it involves my individuals and the language they are attempts to construct meanings when doing striving to learn with the aim of analysis of the main set of data, i.e. communicating in this language for various language learning diary data. Moreover, purposes. On the other hand, however, prior to the collection of interview data, i.e. actual or imagined material contexts and the supporting data set, we involved our referents are essential for the learning respondents in an evaluation of our processes. A case in point would be an understanding of what they reported in the individual learning to ask for directions in diaries in relation to their learning of the street in a foreign language and needing vocabulary. to know the material referents of the Linked to the study of social actors’ particular expressions and the material subjective experience within the contexts in which they are used. framework of interpretive social science is Another limitation of the interpretive the concept of understanding and social science is that, according to Sayer, it interpreting and even attempting to exaggerates the cognitive side of behaviour reconstruct this experience, what both as opposed to the social because it seems Hughes and Sayer call verstehen. Hughes to be all about individual understandings. (93) sees this as an interpretive We believe however that the cognitive understanding ‘which gives social aspect of language learning strategies in observers a method of investigating social our study is not overestimated since these phenomena in a way that does not distort strategies also focus on social-affective the social world of those being studied’. aspects of learning such as co-operation in This seems rather unlikely because, learning or encouraging oneself when in according to Labov’s famous ‘Observer’s difficult learning situations. paradox’, perfect lack of distortion of the ‘social world’ of the observed cannot be 3. The Role of SLA Theory achieved. However, since this ‘method’ is subjective (probably in the sense We now examine the role of SLA theory mentioned before), Hughes notes that it in the study of language learning strategies must be supported ‘by data of a scientific as cognitive processes. This precedes the 146 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV relationship between this domain of help could come from cognitive language study and cognitive psychology psychology. theory in the description of learning In this respect, it seems appropriate to strategies as complex cognitive skills. briefly pay attention to some aspects of The theoretical developments that have cognitive psychology such as the two characterised work in second language major kinds of knowledge: declarative acquisition in recent decades addressed knowledge (facts, definitions, rules, general cognitive processes mainly in images and sequences) and procedural terms of various aspects of cognitive style knowledge (skills, such as applying and or other learner predispositions towards using rules) identified by Anderson. That language learning. In this respect, Ellis’s both knowledge types are helpful in consideration of how learners learn a language learning, especially for second language addresses factors that are adolescents and adults, was a matter both external and internal to the learner in assumed by such linguists as Ellis, Faerch an attempt to answer the question: ‘How and Kasper, Johnson, O’Malley, Chamot do learners acquire a second language?’ and Walker, and O’Malley and Chamot. (Ellis, 1994, 15-16). The external factors Declarative and procedural knowledge are involve a consideration of ‘the role played stored differently in memory. Anderson by the social situation in which learning (1983) assumes that declarative knowledge [takes] place and how the language learner is stored as nodes, associated by links of is exposed to [it]’ (16). Among these various types, while procedural knowledge factors, social language learning strategies is stored via “production systems” (if-then (see, for example, Rubin or Oxford) might systems involving conditions and actions) account for language acquisition in terms in three stages, ranging from conscious to of their being useful to the learner both in automatic. In relating this to language her or his dealing with new language input learning, Ellis (1994, 533) maintains that and with language production. Secondly, declarative knowledge means ‘knowing the internal factors which affect second that’, whereas procedural knowledge is language acquisition, equated by Ellis with ‘knowing how’. If the first type of ‘the mental processes that the learner knowledge consists of internalised rules use[s] to convert input into knowledge’ and memorised chunks of knowledge, the (Ellis, 1994, 16), can be thought of as latter is represented by the strategies (and learning processes by means of which the other procedures) that the learner employs learner uses existing knowledge to to process second or foreign language data improve her/his knowledge of a foreign or for acquisition and for use. Ellis comes to second language. In using these processes, the conclusion that, for research purposes, the learner may be using strategies which ‘strategies can be defined as production can help in the learning process both by sets that exist as declarative knowledge directly handling new knowledge and and are used to solve some learning indirectly managing this process itself (i.e. problem’ (1994, 533). O’Malley and most of Oxford’s direct and indirect Chamot (43) also treat language learning language learning strategies). As regards strategies in relation to Anderson’s theory, the investigation of external factors, Ellis noting that since strategy use is similar to considers that researchers need to make any other complex skill, strategies can be use of ideas and methodologies from ‘described as a set of productions that are sociolinguistics. In the study of internal compiled and fine-tuned until they become factors (e.g. strategies), he maintains that procedural knowledge’. Cusen, G. et al.: The Role of Theory in Applied Linguistics Research 147
4. The Role of Grounded Theory general and in that of language learning and vocabulary learning According to Cohen and Manion (23), strategies in particular; interpretive researchers: • our experience as teachers with ‘begin with individuals and set out to both success and failure in helping understand their interpretations of the our students learn and retain world around them. Theory is emergent vocabulary; and must arise from particular situations; it • our experience as learners still should be “grounded” on data generated by trying to improve our own the research act (Glaser and Strauss 9)’. knowledge of vocabulary and that As already indicated, my research is of of users of strategies and, the interpretive type and its main aim is to • our attempt to develop our ‘small understand how my respondents approach theoretical framework’ while the learning of vocabulary. The term of ‘asking questions about the data, ‘theoretical sensitivity’ is frequently making comparisons, [and] associated with grounded theory (see thinking about what [we could] see Glaser and Strauss and Strauss and Corbin) in them (Strauss and Corbin 43). which has partly guided this research into vocabulary learning strategies. According 5. Conclusion and Implications for the to Strauss and Corbin, (41-42) ‘theoretical Study sensitivity (…) indicates [the researcher’s] awareness of the subtleties of meaning of In this paper we have drawn a general data (..) [which] can also be developed picture of how theory plays a role in further during the research process’. It was research in a language learning area: that during the process of analysing our data by of language learning strategies and, more means of an existing analytical framework specifically, of vocabulary learning (Oxford) that we gradually became aware strategies. In doing so, we have located our of the fact that it did not ‘fit’ our data investigation the wider picture of (Glaser and Strauss), i.e. that these data interpretive research and placed ourselves appeared to ‘say’ more than the analytical in the position of researchers who have framework could accommodate. By decided to approach their data from both investigating the data from the perspective the theory-first and data-first perspectives. of grounded theory, we attempted to alter One important result of reviewing the Oxford’s analytical framework for the use literature in the field was to realise the of strategies in language learning and to implications of our understanding of this include in it certain additional strategies relevant literature for the study referred to that emerged from the data in the process in this paper. The definitions, taxonomies of collection, analysis and interpretation. and factors which pertain to language The sources of this theoretical sensitivity, learning strategies and which are present in Strauss and Corbin note (42-43), can be the literature have clarified the concepts traced in the literature, professional and and helped in the data analysis, i.e. in the personal experience and in the ‘analytic identification and coding of the strategies process itself’ as the researcher interacts reported by the respondents and later in the with her/his data. In this study, such interpretation of the findings. Next, the sources might be: methodological issues reviewed have • our extensive reading in the field informed the decisions of what research of second language acquisition in instruments to choose, how to use them 148 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV and to evaluate both their advantages and 10. Hughes, John. The Philosophy of disadvantages in terms of research Social Research. (2nd edition). objectivity and also in terms not only of Longman, 1990. time and space constraints but also of 11. Johnson, K. Language Teaching and subjectivity issues and questions of how to Skill Learning. Oxford: Blackwell, approach and select respondents. Finally, 1996. the examination of the role of theoretical 12. Johnson, K. and H. Johnson. approaches to research in social sciences Encyclopedic Dictionary of Applied and in second language acquisition enabled Linguistics. London: Blackwell, 1998. us to locate this study within the two 13. Labov, Weinreich. The Study of respective fields. Language in its Social Context. Studium Generale, vol. 23, pp. 30-87, References 1970. 14. O’Malley, J.M.; A.U. Chamot and 1. Anderson, J. R. Language, Memory, Walker, C. Some applications of and Thought. Hillsdale. NJ: Erlbaum, cognitive theory to Second Language 1976. Acquisition. Studies in Second 2. Anderson, J. R. Cognitive Psychology Language Acquisition, vol. 9, pp. and its Implications. San Francisco: 287-306, 1987. Freeman, 1980. 15. O’Malley, J.M. and A.U. Chamot. 3. Anderson, J. R. The Architecture of Learning Strategies in Second Cognition. Cambridge Mass.: Harvard Language Acquisition. Cambridge: University Press, 1983. Cambridge University Press, 1990. 4. Cohen, L. and L. Manion. Research 16. Oxford, R. L. Language Learning Methods in Education. (3rd edition) Strategies: What Every Teacher London: Routledge, 1989. Should Know. Rowley, Mass.: 5. Ellis, R. Understanding Second Newbury House, 1990. Language Acquisition. Oxford: OUP, 17. Rubin, Jonathan. “Learner Strategies: 1985. Theoretical Assumptions, Research 6. Ellis, R. The Study of Second History and Typology”. Learner Language Acquisition. Oxford, OUP, Strategies in Language Learning. A. 1994. Wenden and J. Rubin (eds.). London: 7. Ellis, R. SLA Research and Language Prentice-Hall, 1983 Teaching. Oxford, OUP, 1997. 18. Sayer, Andrew. Method in Social 8. Faerch, C. and G. Kasper. “Plans and Sciences. (2nd edition). Routledge, Strategies in Foreign Language 1992. Communication”. Strategies in 19. Sayer, Andrew. Introduction to the Interlanguage Communication. Philosophy of Social Sciences. Faerch, C. and G. Kasper (eds.). Research Student Training London: Longman, 1983. Programme. (2nd revised edition). 9. Glaser, B. G. and A. L. Strauss. The Lancaster University. Faculty of Social Discovery of Grounded Theory. Sciences, 1995. Strategies for Qualitative Research. 20. Strauss, A. M. and J. Corbin. Basics of London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, Qualitative Research. Grounded 1967. Theory Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage, 1990.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
DOM IN ROMANIAN AND THE REFERENTIAL FORM-MENTAL ACCESSIBILITY INTERPLAY
Sofiana CHIRIACESCU1
Abstract: It is generally assumed that the form of the NP (proper name, definite NP, etc.) reflects the degree of activation of the referent introduced by it in the discourse (Givon 1981; Ariel 1988, etc.). I will show in this paper that the relation between a referring expression and the activation status associated with it plays an important role when trying to explain the distribution of pe-marking (in the sense of differential object marking) in Romanian, i.e. the pe-marked direct objects are more prominent in the discourse than their pe-unmarked counterparts.
Key words: discourse prominence, anaphoric and cataphoric continuity.
1. Introduction indefinite or definite nominal phrases (NP). Romanian is one of many languages After analyzing different texts I observed which exhibit the phenomenon of that differentially marked direct objects differential object marking (DOM). So, a realized as a NP are more prominent in the direct object can appear in an unmarked or discourse in comparison to the unmarked in a marked form, the latter being ones. It seems that we need an additional morphologically realized by means of the discourse-based parameter to account for autonomous lexeme pe. Animacy, (at least) these cases of DOM in referentiality and topicality are the Romanian. generally acknowledged factors that This paper is organized as follows: determine if a direct object will be Section 2 deals with the phenomenon of preceded by pe or not. If a direct object is DOM in Romanian, concentrating on the situated high on one or more of the above “controversial cases” (indefinite and mentioned scales, then the probability of it definite NPs) which still need to be being pe-marked is high. explained. Section 3 comprises the The picture is not that simple as it theoretical frame of the present paper. might seem at first glance, though. Concepts like “topic continuity” and Instances which cannot be explained “accessibility hierarchies” underline the solely by the above mentioned factors existent (co)relation between the form of a are encountered, especially when referent and its accessibility in the minds analyzing direct objects realized as of the discourse participants. Bearing this
1 Transilvania University of Braşov and University of Stuttgart. My research was supported by the German Science Foundation by a grant to the project C2: Case and referential context, as part of the Collaborative Research Center 732 Incremental Specification in Context at the University of Stuttgart.
150 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV in mind, we will see in Section 4 that the referentiality and topicality) to explain the differentially marked direct objects receive controversial cases of pe-marking in a special status in the production and Romanian. A more detailed picture of the perception of the discourse. Section 5 principles involved in DOM-marking arises comprises the summary, the concluding from an analysis of the particular discourse remarks and some suggestions for further context where these constructions occur. As research. it will be shown in Section 4 below, the pe- marked direct objects have a special status 2. The “Controversial” Cases in the production and perception of discourse. I will use the concept of “topic In what follows I will concentrate on continuity” introduced by Givon (1981) to direct objects realized as indefinite or underline the fact that pe-marked objects definite NPs which involve not clearly are more prominent in the discourse than delimitated or explained alternations their unmarked counterparts. between the pe-marked and the unmarked construction. The examples (1) and (2) 3. Degrees of Mental Accessibility below illustrate this variation: 3.1. Topic Continuity (1) a. Ana o vizitează pe o fată Ana CL visits PE a girl Before the seminal work of Givon, the ‘Ana visits a girl’ concept of topic was understood in an b. Ana vizitează o fată intuitive way, a sentence was therefore Ana visits a girl conceived as containing at most one topic. ‘Ana visits a girl.’ Givon (1981, 1983) was the first to introduce the graded concept of “topic (2) a. Ana o vizitează pe fată continuity” (the situation in which the Ana CL visits PE girl same topic extends over several clauses) ‘Ana visits the girl.’ for the behavior of discourse referents b. Ana viziteaz ă fata across more than one sentence. In other Ana visits the girl words, every discourse entity exhibits ‘Ana visits the girl.’ some degree of topicality. This behavior is mirrored by the form of The direct objects in the examples (1a) referential expressions used, as it can be and (2a) which are realized as an indefinite seen in (3). Givon (1983) showed that an NP and as a definite NP respectively are entity realized as a zero anaphor is an preceded by pe. In the (1b) and (2b) accessible topic and is most continuous, examples, the direct objects appear while an indefinite NP is less accessible unmarked with pe. However, when and therefore usually discontinuous. comparing the sentence (1a) with (1b) and (2a) with (2b), we realize that they differ (3) zero anaphors minimally and that animacy, referentiality [most continuous/ accessible topic] and topicality cannot account for all cases, in which pe-marking seems to be optional1. Constructions as the ones presented above indefinite NPs underline the limitations as well as the [discontinuous/ less accessible topic] insufficiency of the general acknowledged criteria that trigger DOM (i.e. animacy, Chiriacescu, S.: DOM in Romanian and the Referential Form-mental Accessibility … 151
Assuming that more important referents conclusion, the referential form of the tend to be more anaphorically accessible and referent mirrors its accessibility status and cataphorically persistent, Givon (1983) tested its prominence in the discourse. the topicality of referents in an indirect way, This correlation was analyzed by many by analyzing the referential continuity in two linguists and psycholinguists, however, opposite directions, as shown in (4): even if the terminology of Givon (1983), Ariel (1988) or Gundel et. al (1993) differs (4) Measures of topic continuity in that they talk about “different degrees of (Givon 1983): mental accessibility”, “activation” or about “hierarchies of cognitive states”, they Anaphoric continuity/ referential distance/ unanimously agree upon the fact that all Look back referents are part of a prominence scale. What they tried was to capture the relation between the accessibility of an entity and referent the referential expression through which it is realized by means of a scale, as for Cataphoric continuity/ Topic persistence/ example the “Givenness Hierarchy’ in (5). Look forward (5) Givenness Hierarchy (Gundel, Hedland Referential distance determines how & Zacharski 1993) recently an entity has been mentioned, by uniquely looking at the sentences on the left of the type in acti- fami- identi- refe- referent. The smaller the distance between identi- focus vated liar fiable rential fiable antecedent and anaphora, the more > > > > > prominent/ important the denoted referent that, that N indef. it the N a N is in the analyzed discourse segment. this this N this N Topic persistence gives evidence about the more accessible less accessible further mentions of the referent. The more often the referent is mentioned again in the This approach suggests that the mental following discourse, the more prominent/ accessibility of an entity has a strong important it is for the text segment. impact upon the reference form which will be chosen to refer to it. Examples 6 (a-f) 3.2. Accessibility Hierarchies show the relation between the referential form and the mental accessibility of the Accessibility, giveness or salience referent it designates: theories offer a procedural analysis of the referring expressions, as marking different (6) a. I couldn’t sleep. It kept me awake. degrees of mental accessibility. In this b. I couldn’t sleep. That kept me framework, where “accessibility” is awake. regarded as a gradient category rather than c. I couldn’t sleep. That dog (next a categorical one, as in DRT, a discourse door) kept me awake. referent can be more or less accessible. d. I couldn’t sleep. The dog (next The basic idea behind this theory is that door) kept me awake. referring expressions are actually e. I couldn’t sleep. This dog (next accessibility markers indicating the door) kept me awake. addressee how to retrieve the appropriate f. I couldn’t sleep. A dog (next door) mental representation of an entity. In kept me awake. 152 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
The hearer of the (6f) sentence only has We will see in Section 4 that the to know what a dog looks like to apparent optionality of the pe-marked understand the least restrictive construction construction and the unmarked one can be “a dog”. However, the hearer of a sentence explained (in most contexts) in a similar like that in (6a) cannot understand the most manner as the variability presented above. restrictive form “it” unless s/he has a concrete mental representation of the dog 4. The Diachronic Study the speaker is talking about. It is the correlation between different cognitive In order to investigate the factors statuses and the referring expression that triggering DOM in Romanian, I performed are important in Gundel’s approach. a diachronic study that comprises the time As it became obvious in (5) above, period 1900-2000. Due to lack of space I there are two determiners which can cannot discuss the study on detail, but see precede a NP in English in a specific Chiriacescu (2007) for an ample discussion indefinite context: the indefinite article a of the factors triggering DOM in and the determiner this (the referential and Romanian. The part of the survey which is not the deictic this determiner). However, especially relevant for the purposes of this these two forms cannot be used paper is the investigation of the behaviour interchangeably. Ionin (2006) notes that of the referents of the pe-marked objects besides their different scopal behavior with respect to their persistence in the (this-determiners do not take narrow scope subsequent discourse. with respect to intensional or modal operators and negations), the two forms 4.1. The Corpus Data also differ with respect to the noteworthiness property. The examples 7 The investigated time span of 100 years (a) and (b) underline the latter difference: was segmented into two time periods of 50 years each. I analyzed 200 direct objects (7) a. She wrote √an/ #this article and then found in 3 short stories written during went straight to bed. 1900-1950 and another 200 direct objects b. She wrote √an/ √this article and found in 3 short stories written during realized only afterwards that it had 1950-2000. no title. The reason for choosing the prose fiction type “short story” was because of the If the speaker uses this over an in (7a), relative limited number of highly animated s/he conveys additional information about referents occurring in such texts in the NP headed by the determiner. comparison to novels, for example. Accordingly, the hearer expects that the Furthermore, short stories provide a good speaker will talk about the article again, starting point for diachronic analyses since perhaps explaining what the noteworthy they tend not to be conservative with quality of the article is. Because this respect to language change. Also, the expectation remains unfulfilled in (7a) in language used is usually neither restricted contrast to (7b), the usage of this is to one register only, nor is it specialized (in rendered infelicitous. So, in the so called comparison to Bible translations, for “transparent context” as in (7), a example). noteworthy referent can be preceded by Each referent of a direct object found in this if it will be implicitly or explicitly these short stories was coded for two referred to again. properties: i.) the grammatical function of Chiriacescu, S.: DOM in Romanian and the Referential Form-mental Accessibility … 153 the anaphor (the DO itself) and ii.) the 4.2. Results and Discussion “referential persistence” (in the sense of Givon 1983, Ariel 1988) of every newly Parts of the findings of the diachronic introduced referent realized as a DO. We can analysis are summarized in the table (9) assume that within a discourse, important below: referents are mentioned more frequently. This method measures the number of times RP 1900-1950 1950-2000 within the next five clauses that a referent of measure a NP persists as an argument of the clause, [-pe] [+pe] [-pe] [+pe] following the point in which it was S. 1 8% 39% 12% 52% introduced as a DO. The values that are S. 2 7% 29% 7% 55% assigned are from 0 to 5. The referential S. 3 3% 24% 5% 45% persistence (RP) thus indirectly underlines S. 4 5% 24% 4% 34% the referent’s prominence/ importance in the S. 5 8% 15% 1% 21% subsequent text. To briefly exemplify the application of The table above shows that the referents the RP measure developed by Givon of the morphologically marked direct (1983), consider the text segment in (8) objects ([+pe]) are more often taken up in below: the following 1-5 sentences than the referents of the unmarked objects ([-pe]). a. Pe Bălan îl avea de mult. This means that the referent of a direct b. Cum [el] împlinea trei ani şi jumătate, object grows in importance when it is 1 preceded by pe. Moreover, this study c. i2-a cumpărat din iarmaroc de la Frumoasa, o nadişancă nouă-nouţă. underlines the fact that the special status of the pe-marked direct objects did not d. Un an întreg şi-a plimbat boierul soţia, th e. în nadişanca trasă de căluţul change since the beginning of the 20 sprinten . century. 3 f. După acest an fericit, coana Casucai muri. 5. Concluding Remarks g. Boierul, amărât ca vai de lume, nu-şi mai găsea astâmpăr. The above presented diachronic study h. De la o vreme află leacul2. confirmed many linguists’ intuition about the special status DOM-marked The direct objects in (8) above behave as direct objects have (c.f. Guntsetseg on follows: The first referent, “pe Bălan”, is Mongolian, among others). In this paper, introduced in the clause (8a) above. Within I have provided evidence for the fact the next five clauses- (8b) through (8f) - it that the referent of a direct object will be is mentioned again three times. The second more often mentioned again in a character “soţia”, is introduced in the text discourse, if it is pe-marked. The reason as an unmarked DO in (8d). Within the for this behaviour is the high activation/ next 5 sentences the referent of this object accessibility of the pe-marked referent in is mentioned again only once, in (8f). the memory of the discourse Returning to the main analysis, it is participants. The results of this study worth mentioning that it does not include underline the necessity to introduce a cases where an anaphor refers to the entire discourse-based parameter on the list of previous clause, or to a superset or subset the DOM-triggering factors in of previously mentioned referents. Romanian. 154 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Given the possibility that other Discourse”. Language 69, pp. parameters (e.g. different verb classes) 274-307, 1993. could interact with pe-marking as well, 7. Guntsetseg, Dolgor. Differential further research is needed. Object Marking in Mongolian. In: SinSpec. Universität Stuttgart, 2008. Acknowledgements 8. von Heusinger, K. and S. Chiriacescu. “Definite “bare” nouns and pe- I would like to thank Klaus von marking in Romanian”. Proceedings Heusinger and the audience of the Second of the IV Nereus International International Linguistics Symposium held Workshop Definiteness and DP in Bucharest for ample discussions. Special Structure in Romance Languages. thanks to two anonymous reviewers and to M.T. Espinal, M. Leonetti and L. the editors of this volume for their McNally (eds.). Arbeitspapier 12x. comments and suggestions. Fachbereich Sprachwissenschaft. Universität Konstanz , 2009. References 9. Ionin, Tania. “This is definitely specific: specificity and definiteness in A. Works cited article systems”. Natural Language Semantics. Springer. Vol. 14, pp. 1. Ariel, M. “Referring and 175-234, 2006. Accessibility”. Journal of Linguistics, vol. 24, pp. 65-87, 1988. B. Analyzed short stories 2. Chiriacescu, Sofiana. Pe-Markierung und Diskurs-Prominenz im 1. Butunoiu, A. Nedumerirea Rumänischen. Magisterarbeit. Cumặtrului. Bucureşti: pp. 29-32, Universität Stuttgart, 2007. 1992. 3. Chiriacescu, S. and K. von Heusinger. 2. Galaction, Gala. Viteazul Jap”. “Pe-marking and referential Nuvele. “ Bucureşti: Editura de Stat persistence in Romanian”. pentru literaturặ şi Artặ, pp. 27-33, Proceedings of the Workshop Focus at 1931. the Syntax-Semantics Interface. E. 3. Gârleanu, Emil. ”Nadişanca”. Nuvele. Onea and A. Riester (eds.). SinSpec. Bucureşti: Polirom, pp. 22- 26, 1905. Universität Stuttgart, 2009. 4. Gârleanu, Emil. ”Cea dintîi durere”. 4. Givon, T. “On the Development of the Nuvele. Bucureşti: Polirom, pp. 9-14, Numeral 'one' as an Indefinite 1924. Marker”. Folia Linguistica Historia 5. Popescu, D. R. Pặpuşa spânzuratặ. vol. 2, pp. 35-53, 1981. Bucureşti: Editura Adevarul, 1962. 5. Givon, Talmy. “Topic Continuity in 6. Velea, Nicolae. ”În treacặt”. Povestiri. Discourse. An Introduction”. Topic Bucureşti: Nemira, 1967. Continuity in Discourse. A Quantitative Cross-Language Study. T. Givon (ed.). Amsterdam/ 1 For an ample discussion of ot]her relevant Philadelphia: Benjamins, pp. 1-41, aspects concerning DOM with indefinite NPs 1983. and definite NPs, see Chiriacescu & von 6. Gundel, J. et al. “Cognitive Status and Heusinger (2009) and von Heusinger & the Form of Referring Expressions in Chiriacescu (2009). 2 Emil, Gârleanu “Nadişanca” (1905). Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE ETHNOGRAPHY OF COMMUNICATION
Mădălina MATEI1
Abstract: This paper surveys the most important frameworks of analysis that could assist the ethnographer in detecting the functional mechanisms of such items as ‘elaboration of identity’ or ‘change of identity’. The relationship between speech and social class is also discussed and a model of ethnographic research is provided. The main argument is that research in the ethnography of communication presupposes the acknowledgement of the inextricable link between language and the extra-linguistic, cultural context.
Key words: dialect, communication, ethnography of speech, register, style.
1. Introduction functionally not formally within society. The form of language is the one that might Communication is theoretically a neutral suffer alterations in accordance with the way of sharing knowledge or worldviews manner in which functions change within and of maintaining social relationships. daily communication. Practically, some aspects of Dell Hymes (in Hall 142) was the author communication can vary according to who developed an approach to the study of geographical areas, social class, gender, language called the ethnography of age and level of education. This analysis communication whose central unit of terms communication any written, spoken, analysis is the communicative event. The graphical or acoustic form of message aim of the ethnography of communication, transmission available in the world. A according to Hymes, is to detect patterns of photograph, a letter, a conversation or a language use that help members of commercial manage to be successful particular socio-cultural groups to create instruments of communication but, at the and reflect their social world in particular same time, efficient means of proffering contexts. Saville-Troike (126) defines group-specific communication skills, ethnography of communication as the stereotypical representations and linguistic discovery and explication of the rules for automatisms. Speech communities that contextually appropriate behaviour in a exist in the world testify to the perpetual community or group or what the individual functioning of this propagation needs to know to be a functional member mechanism. of the community. Languages and speech communities do This paper will combine theoretical not exist in a vacuum. That is why a considerations on the ethnography of functional perspective in the ethnographic communication with practical analyses of analysis of communication is mandatory: the manner in which group-specific we have to see how language behaves discourses are constituted.
1 Transilvania University of Braşov. 156 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
2. The Ethnographic Study of Speech Use the key, tone or manner in which the respective message is delivered have to be Sherzer and Darnell refer to this subject sought for. of the ethnographic study of speech use The participants, the setting and the from the perspective of cross-cultural norms of interaction are also valuable variability of speech use. After analyzing aspects to be considered. But the element several speech communities in contrast, the that reunites all the above mentioned two authors came up with a set of relevant coordinates is the goal of the speech event observations for any ethnographic research under consideration: functionally, the goal endeavour. First, Sherzer and Darnell is a constructed instance towards which (550) claim that a community and its everything in the speech event converges. members have linguistic repertoires which In other words, the topic, the channel, the are formed of linguistic varieties. key and all the other elements are but Varieties, the two authors further claim, building bricks in the construction of the are to be defined in terms of their goal. functional role and in terms of historical The goal is the ‘situated meaning’ that provenience or structural features. Garfinkel (302) found central to the Linguistic varieties function in the ethnographic approach. ‘Situated meaning’ community and can fit into categories such is constructed in specific contexts by actors as formal/informal, public/private, out- who must actively interpret what they hear group/in-group. for it to make sense. In other words, the These dichotomies are useful tools of orderliness, rationality, accountability of analysis but, as the authors themselves everyday life is a ‘contingent, ongoing admit, not the only possible ones in the accomplishment’ and the basis of culture is ethnographic study of speech. Other not shared knowledge but shared rules of functional dichotomies could be interpretation, a sort of commonsense intellectual/non-intellectual, male/female, knowledge of the world. high class/ middle (low) class, Meaning is consequently confined within criminal/law abiding. The last dichotomy the boundaries of commonsensical refers to the fact that the language (speech) knowledge and that is why the researcher’s of criminals becomes a dialect with interpretation of messages is possible as stereotyped expressions and language long as s/he shares the same cultural, structures. We might think of the most commonsensical coordinates. And perhaps famous example of the Italian mafia that this is why researchers studying messages almost developed a separate language, a coming from different cultures than his/her new manner of communicating coded own is confronted not only with language- messages. generated difficulties but also with In point of message transmission Sherzer interpretation difficulties. and Darnell (551) identify several We might say that way in which functional coordinates that have to be commonsensical knowledge can be analyzed in order to understand the various acquired by individuals is by means of the functional purposes that speech acts have educational system (both family and in society. Thus, first and foremost, one school instruction) that has the role of has to identify the topic of the message, act turning individuals into ‘social beings’ that or event. Secondly, the channels (spoken, react, talk and interpret their life events or written, sung, etc.) through which the speech events in accordance with the message might be transmitted as well as Matei, M.: The Ethnography of Communication 157 above mentioned commonsensical ethnographer’s task is to look both at coordinates. speech and beyond in order to discover the This is not to say that individuals are deep mechanisms of culture transmission. passive recipients of knowledge. On the contrary, they find an active personal 2.2. Speech and Social Roles interpretation and a strong inner motivation for any meaning that they Bernstein and Bloom and Gumperz put construct so as to be in accordance with forth the hypothesis that different forms of their cultural coordinates. social relation can generate quite different In Garfinkel’s (304) terms culture is not ‘speech systems’ or ‘communication a ‘replication of uniformity’ but an codes’. In the same line of argumentation, ‘organization of diversity’. In the light of Bernstein (473) further argues that the discussion above, the ‘social’ different speech systems or codes create individual tries to circumscribe his diverse different orders of relevance and relation views to the coherent societal system of for their speakers and that is why the interpretation. experience of the speaker may suffer transformations by what is made 2.1. Socialization and Speech significant by different speech systems. For instance, when children learn speech Behavioural and linguistic patterns are or rather specific codes regulating their not ingrained but socially transmitted verbal acts, they also learn the practices that are acquired by individuals requirements of their social structure. from early childhood and constantly Consequently, the experience of the child improved and adapted to the ever changing is transformed by the learning generated by social and cultural environments with his/her seemingly voluntary acts of speech. which they have to cope throughout their In other words, social structure becomes a lives. One of the means through which substratum of the child’s use of speech and children and later adults acquire cultural thus every time he/she speaks or listens, and social knowledge is speech. Among the social structure in enforced and his/her others, according to Hudson (99), speech is social identity is permanently shaped. an instrument of socialization - defined as According to Bernstein (474) individuals the process whereby children are turned learn their social roles by means of into competent members of their society. communication. A social role is defined as Hudson argues that a great deal of ‘a complex of coding activity controlling culture is transmitted verbally and our both the creation and organization of ‘cultural evolution’ is only one of the specific meanings and the conditions for benefits that verbal interaction brought their transmission and reception.’ Due to about. Thus, any ethnographic study of the above mentioned controlling function, speech should also concentrate on its children who have access to different abilities to lead to a shaping of behaviour speech systems or codes by virtue of their and thought. The latter function is not to be family’s class position, may display quite taken as an inherent property of speech, different social and intellectual orientations however. Speech can be considered a tool, despite the fact that their actual potential a trigger at most and, as Hudson (105) may be identical to that of children remarked, it is ideas that can shape pertaining to other (sometimes presumably language and not the other way around. inferior) social classes. Consequently, we can claim that the 158 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
3. Verbal Transmission of Social Class because especially children from working- Codes class families not often have the power to impose their personal social-class Bernstein (472) argues that social class communication systems. Most often we may be carried not genetically but by encounter the change of social identity means of a communication code promoted process that may happen even by the social class itself, a code which can unconsciously without the children’s emphasize a communal and positional conscious and responsible decision on form of social control. In the case of what to part with and what to adopt. schoolchildren, it may happen that, when the already acquired communication code 3.1. Social Class Scales is not in accordance with the orders of learning and relevance pertaining to the The most difficult endeavour of the school, two situations may arise. ethnographer is to ‘place’ individuals in One would be that the child becomes the right social class. In their support, sensitive to the orders of relevance and several more or less complex scales of learning provided by the school and social-class membership have been consequently give up his/her social-class devised. Wardhaugh (145, 146) presents a generated communication code, a few of these scales which take into account phenomenon which is called change of factors such as occupation, education, social identity. The other presupposes that housing and income. the child is not sensitive to the An occupational scale may divide communication system at school and people into major professionals and his/her school experience becomes one of executives of large businesses, lesser symbolic and social change. This second professionals and executives of medium- phenomenon is called elaboration of sized businesses, semi-professionals and identity. owners of small businesses, skilled Bernstein provides an interesting workers, semi-skilled workers and example of this phenomenon: in referring unskilled workers. An educational scale to working-class children, he argues that may consist of the following categories: there might be a discontinuity between the graduate or professional education, college communication system of the school and or university degree, attendance at college that of the community to which the or university but no degree, high school respective child pertains. graduation, some high school education The case of Romanian children from and less than seven years of formal rural areas could support Bernstein’s claim education. in the sense that the respective children Certainly, an ethnographic study of might sometimes be confronted with speech might take into account these entirely different communicational codes: categories as well as others that are that of the school and of their family. This relevant for the research. These criteria and difference is enhanced when children go to others can be used to distinguish social school in neighbouring cities and are classes. Trudgill (in Wardhaugh 147) forced either to adapt and to adopt the makes such a classification and communicational code of the school or to distinguishes five social classes: middle become a social outcast among the other middle class (MMC), lower middle class children. Rarely do we encounter the (LMC), upper working class (UWC), phenomenon of elaboration of identity Matei, M.: The Ethnography of Communication 159 middle working class (MWC) and lower become languages (Latin became French, working class. Spanish, Italian, Romanian and so on) The informants, adults and children, that Ethnographers drew maps which were Trudgill interviewed were classified taking included in dialect atlases. These dialect into account occupation, education, geographers try to delimit the boundaries income, type of housing, locality and (isogloss) of a particular linguistic feature. father’s occupation. His lower working As it has been discovered, the dialect class is, for instance, defined as those who boundary coincides with geographical or use certain linguistic features (e.g. he go) political factors such as the boundary of an more than 80 percent of the time and so on. old principality or country, a mountain This classification is very complex but, ridge or a river. As Suzanne Romaine (2) depending on the type of research, the claims, if regional dialects have to do with ethnographer can make and use a more geographical boundaries such as the ones schematic categorisation. mentioned above, social dialects have to do with boundaries of a social nature (e.g. 4. Regional Variation between different social class groups). Thus, the difference between the social and Social class is not the only factor regional dialects is that the former say who according to which communication in we are and the latter where we come from. general and speech in particular may vary. Apart from regional and social dialects, Regional differences are one of the most Romaine (19, 20) speaks about two other exploited areas of ethnographic research of varieties referred to by sociolinguists as communication on account of their being register and style. Register can be defined so complex with respect to the number of as the specialized communication pattern communicative instantiations of language of a domain of activity or profession and is called dialects. concerned with variation in language Wardhaugh (133) distinguishes between conditioned by uses and not by users. regional dialects and social dialects of a Different registers can be distinguished by language. The former marks off the identifying either special vocabulary or residents of a particular geographical area special meanings given to ordinary words whereas the latter is a variety associated in a particular professional context. with a particular social class or group, Hudson (48,49) defines register as differentiating that class or group from ‘varieties according to use’ in contrast with others. An instance of social dialects dialects which are ‘varieties according to related to social class has already been user’. In other words one’s dialect shows discussed. who you are while one’s register indicates Dialect geography is one of the most what you are doing. important research areas in the Style is related to register and it can ethnography of communication. It may be range from formal to informal depending said to detect the functional variations of on social context, relationship of the languages that differentiate internally as participants, social class, sex, age, physical speakers distance themselves from one environment and topic. Romaine (21) another over time and space. This change, illustrates stylistic variation in vocabulary Wardhaugh (134) claims, leads to the by providing such examples as ‘The formation of dialects of the languages. It teacher distributed the new books’ versus can also happen that, in time, dialects ‘The teacher gave out the new books’. Stylistic differences can occur at the level 160 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV of syntax as, for example, an increased use event. The purpose of this model is to of the passive voice in formal speech (in connect linguistic forms to cultural English): ‘The meeting was cancelled by practices and to discover what ideologies the president’ versus ‘The president called about the world may be hidden behind the off the meeting’. In pronunciation we can practices of individuals. Each letter of the encounter such stylistic differences SPEAKING model represents one between colloquial pronunciations ‘readin’ component of the communicative event: or ‘singin’ and more formal ones ‘reading’ ▪ Situation – physical and temporal and ‘singing’. setting and scene as well as its cultural Wardhaugh (141) identifies the basic definition. The situation can determine the conceptual tool in the analysis of style as topic, the verbal behaviour and being the linguistic variable, a linguistic expectations of the participants according item which has identifiable variants. For to the manner in which they interpret the instance, using one of the examples above, respective situation. ‘reading’ can be pronounced either as ▪ Participants – their identities in terms ‘reading’ or as ‘readin’ therefore it is the of age, gender, ethnicity, social status, etc. final sound in this word that can be called and their roles, relationships and the linguistic variable (ng) having two responsibilities as participants in the event. variants [ŋ] in ‘singing’ and [n] in ‘singin’. In point of roles, the speech event could But linguistic variables need not occur have the speaker and listener, writer and only at the end of words. Different degrees reader or in more general terms addresser of nasalization of vowels or r-less and addressee, performer (emitter) and pronunciation can constitute linguistic receiver. Hymes (in Stern 222) remarked variables as well. An example of r-less that some speech acts such as the pronunciation as linguistic variable can be monologue, thinking aloud or prayers are seen in words like farm and far. In this not dyadic as they do not include an case, the linguistic variable is (r) and its addressee. Speech events could also be two variants are [r] and Ø. triadic involving a third participant, hearer The ethnography of communication or audience. should seriously take into account such ▪ Ends – (expected) outcomes of the variations of style because they can be an event, group and individual participant indication of class or group membership. goals Also, style variations could, in some cases, ▪ Acts – form, content and sequential indicate the geographical area or the age- arrangement of the speech acts that group of the respondents and thus offer constitute the event. additional information about the ▪ Key (tone) – humourous, serious, respondents’ motivation in choosing one playful, solemn, ironic, formal and particular form over the other. informal ▪ Instrumentalities – tools that are used 5. A Model of Research in the construction of the speech event: code (language or language variety) and Perhaps the most efficient model of channel (vocal or non-vocal e.g. oral – research, called the SPEAKING model, written, verbal or non-verbal means e.g. was put forth by Hymes (in Hall 143) who prosodic features vs. body movements). aimed at finding a way to describe ▪ Norms – of interaction and systematically the links between language interpretation of language behaviour form and context in a communicative including turn-taking patterns Matei, M.: The Ethnography of Communication 161
▪ Genre – generically different speech but also in opening up and maintaining social acts such as storytelling, gossiping, joking, functions. Spolsky (3) provides the relevant lecturing, interviewing, poem, myth, tale example of a mother speaking to her child, proverb, riddle, curse, prayer, oration, the function of their talk being that of commercial, form, letter, editorial, etc. nurturing the social bond between them. (adapted from Hall 143 and Stern When two friends are talking, much of their 222,223) conversation functions to express and refine Obviously, this is a very comprehensive their mutual companionship. model that could have a practical The referential or representational application in research conducted on the function of language refers to the adaptation ethnography of communication. Perhaps of speech to the contextual situation of the some of these aspects represented communication event. In other words, it guidelines for researchers even before the refers to relating language to the non- issuing of this model but what is to be linguistic context of the speech event. acknowledged is that it covers a wide The instrumental use of language refers range of components which are to using speech with the purpose of inextricably connected to the speech event making the recipient do something. Events and which could add valuable information such as requesting, commanding and about the purpose, function and nature of urging can be said to have an instrumental the message that is being transmitted. function but also instructing and teaching are types of communicative behaviour 6. A Functional Classification of Speech intended to determine the addressee to do Acts something, in this case to learn. The heuristic function (Halliday and Any utterance which is taken in its Robinson in Stern 225) refers to the use of context may fulfil more than one function language in enquiry or questioning. If the in a given situation and one of the aims of expressive function designates the use of ethnographic research on communication language for its own sake, to give pleasure is precisely that of detecting the functions (imaginatively or aesthetically) the of speech in its social context. Stern (223) metalingual function (Jakobson and makes a classification of speech acts Robinson in Stern 225) refers to the use of according to the possible functions that language to speak about language. In this they may have within communication. category we can include explanations and Thus, from a functional point of view, comments about speech acts such as ‘I speech acts can serve to express the repeat’, ‘I must emphasize’, ‘What does speaker’s personal state of mind or this word mean?’. attitude. In this category, events such as The ethnography of communication exclamations, a child’s cry, grunts or sighs benefits from such a functional could enter. Robinson (in Stern 225) classification which can furnish valuable claimed that speech acts have the function data on the type of communication event in of marking the emotional state, personality which participants are involved. Also, we and social identity of the speaker. might say that there are functions of Another function of speech acts, the speech events that indicate different interractional function, consists in bringing degrees of education or formal instruction the participants in contact to each other. This such as the expressive function which is is a key function in establishing role not generally encountered within relationships and in regulating encounters communicative events. 162 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
7. Conclusion 3. Garfinkel, Harold. “Remarks on Ethnomethodology.” Directions in This paper has dealt with various Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography theories and tools of analysis that the of Communication. Eds. Gumperz, ethnography of communication uses. It John J. and Dell Hymes. Oxford: is clear, judging from the various Basil Blackwell, 1986. pp. 301-325. theoretical frameworks of analysis that 4. Hall, Joan Kelly. Teaching and exist, that the ethnography of speech is Researching Language and Culture. a science that can assist the researcher London: Pearson Education, 2002. in finding valuable information on the 5. Hudson, Richard A. social-linguistic behaviour of people Sociolinguistics. Cambridge: CUP, within the speech community. It is 1980. important, in any ethnographic study, 6. Romaine, Suzanne. Language in to adopt a functional approach to Society. An Introduction to speech events as it is only within their Sociolinguistics. Oxford: OUP, functional contexts that 1994. communicative events can provide a 7. Saville-Troike, Muriel. “The motivation for the linguistic choices Ethnographic Analysis of that speakers make. Communicative Events.” Sociolinguistics. A Reader and References Coursebook. Eds. Coupland, Nicholas and Adam Jaworski. New 1. Bernstein, Basil. “A York: Palgrave, 1997. pp. 126-144 Sociolinguistic Approach to 8. Sherzer, Joel and Regna Darnell. Socialization.” Directions in “Outline Guide for the Ethnographic Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography Study of Speech Use.” Directions in of Communication. Eds. Gumperz, Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography John J. and Dell Hymes. Oxford: of Communication. Eds. Gumperz, Basil Blackwell, 1986. pp. 465- John J. and Dell Hymes. Oxford: 498. Basil Blackwell, 1986. pp. 548-554. 2. Bloom, Jan-Petter and John J. 9. Spolsky, Bernard. Sociolinguistics. Gumperz. “Social Meaning in Oxford: OUP, 1998. Linguistic Structures”. Directions 10. Stern, Hans H. Fundamental in Sociolinguistics: The contexts of Language Teaching. Ethnography of Communication. Oxford: OUP, 1983. Eds. Gumperz, John J. and Dell 11. Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Hymes. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 1986. pp. 407-435. London: Blackwell, 2002.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series VII: Philology and Cultural Studies
SYNTACTIC CONVERGENCE: MARATHI AND DRAVIDIAN
1 Indira Y. JUNGHARE
Abstract: The purpose of this paper is to examine some syntactic structures in Marathi and show that they share the pattern of the Dravidian syntactic constructions, which are absent in other Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindi. The paper claims that Marathi syntactic structures, which look like Dravidian, did not result from simple borrowing, but they are a case of conversion. Furthermore, they provide support to the claim that Marathi developed as quasi-Creole from pidginized Prakrit. Both Pidgin and Creole are trade languages. Such a linguistic development would not have been possible without the trade interaction between the two language groups, Maharashtrians (Aryans) and Dravidians. The development of Marathi as quasi Creole indicates the fact that contacts between the two groups, Aryans and Dravidians, occurred at the deeper levels of languages and cultures.
Key words: Indo-Aryan, conversion, pidginized Prakrit, quasi-Creole.
1. Introduction Conversion indicates that Marathi developed as quasi-Creole from pidginized Marathi is the southern-most Indo-Aryan Prakrit through the socio-cultural language, but some of its most striking interaction between the two linguistic features resemble those of the neighboring groups, Maharashtrians (Aryans) and Dravidian languages like Telugu and Dravidians. Kannada. Scholars, such as Bloch (1914) and Southworth (1971) noted many of these 2. Syntactic Constructions influences in the area of phonology and morphology. 2.1. Full Relative Clauses: This paper examines some syntactic structures in Marathi (relative clauses, Like other Indo-Aryan languages Marathi passive construction, zero pronouns, etc.) and relative clause construction consists of two compares them to Dravidian syntax. This clauses containing co-referential NP's. The paper claims that these similar structures did relative clause may precede or follow the main not result from simple borrowing, but that clause. they are a case of conversion.
(1) Marathi: jo mānus titha ubhā āhe to mājhā bhāu āhe Hindi: jo ādmī vahā khaŗā hai vah merā bhāi hai who man there standing is he my brother "The man who is standing there is my brother”. Telugu: ------
1 University of Minnesota, MN, United States. 164 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
(2) Marathi: ĵe pustak tu malā dila te maĵha hātāt āhe Hindhi: ĵo kitāb tūne muĵhe dī vo mere hātme hai which book you to-me gave that my hands-in “The book which you gave me is in my hands.” Telugu: ------
2.2. Reduced Relative Clauses: clause structure, which is similar to other Indo-Aryan languages, such as Hindi, From the examples in (1) and (2), it is Marathi has reduced relative clauses. We clear that Dravidian languages do not use a can categorize them in two types: (1) full relative clause construction. In these relative clauses without the relativized NP languages the only dominant clause (or without the relative pronoun and NP) construction is the reduced relative clause and (2) Participial relative clauses. construction. In addition to the full relative Consider the following example.
(3) Marathi: titha ubhā āhe to maņus mājhā bhāu āhe Hindi: * vahā khaŗā hai vo ādmī merā bhāi hai there standing is that man my brother is "The man (who is) standing there is my brother."
Marathi, being more inflectional than the construction, Marathi makes use of Dravidian languages, allows such a participial constructions. Basically it deletion since the confusion of reference makes use of three types of participles, does not arise due to agreement patterns. In past or perfect, progressive and habitual. addition to this reduced relative clause
(4) Marathi: [malā pāhilelā] mulgā paļālā Telugu: [nānnu tsūsinā] pillādu paripōyādu Hindi: *[muĵhe dekhā huā] laŗkā bhāgā me-acc. seen boy ran away "The boy who saw me ran away." (Rel: Subj.)
(5) Marathi: mī [padlelyā māņsālā] pāhila Telugu: nēnu [padina vaņņi] tsūsænu Hindi: *maine [gire huye ādmīko] dekhā I - inst. Fallen man-acc. saw "I saw the man who fell." (Rel: Dir. Obj.)
(6) Marathi: [mī pustak dilelā] māņus Telugu: [nēnu ami pustakam iččina] ayana Hindi: *[maine kitāb diyā huā] ādmī I-inst. book given man "The man to whom I gave the book." (Rel: Indr. Obj.)
Junghare, I.: Syntactic Convergence… 165
(7) Marathi: [kāl tina pustak dilelā] māņus Telugu: [vadu ninna ami pustakālu iččina] ayana Hindi: *[kal usne kitāb diyā huā] ādmi yesterday she-inst. book given man "The man she gave the book to yesterday." (Rel: IO)
(8) Marathi: [rāmne bolāvlelā] mulgā āt ālā Telugu: [rāmudu piličādu] attadini lopāliki waččādu Hindi: *[rāmkā pukārā huā] laŗkā andar āyā "The boy called by Ram came in." (Rel: DO)
If we compare the structure of Marathi, 2.3. Passive Construction Hindi, and Telugu, examples (4), (5), (6), (7) and (8), Marathi resembles the relative The more topic prominent a language is, clause structure of Telugu, whereas, Hindi the less it uses the passive. does not allow the relativization or modification of subjects, direct objects, De-Passivization and indirect objects by participle phrases.
(9) Marathi: māĵhyā kadun te kām kela gela nāhi me-by the work did went not "I was not able to do that work." (Capabilitative)
(10) Marathi: diwāļičā diwši laxmiči pujā keli jāte diwali of day laxmi's worship did goes "Laxmi is worshipped on the day of Diwali." (Perspective)
An examination of the Dravidian 2.4. Deletion of Co-referential Constituent languages shows that they do not have (Use of Zero-NP Anaphora) passive constructions. To quote Caldwell (1956: 463) "The Dravidian verb is entirely This rule of deleting co-referential destitute of a passive voice, properly so constituent is governed by pragmatics or called, nor is there any reason to suppose that discourse considerations. In noting the it ever had a passive. None of the Dravidian application of this phenomenon, Gundel dialects possesses any passive particle or (1980) has made the following suffix, or any means of expressing passivity generalization: by direct inflexional changes...." The more topic-prominent a language, The function/usage of the passive is to the less restricted its use of Zero-NP mark the passivity or indirectness of the Anaphora. action, which is clearly a discourse strategy. But when languages use another It has been suggested that it is the topic strategy for indicating the indirectness of rather than the subject that controls the the action, or do not involve the subject by deletion of co-referential constituent (Li & de-emphasizing it, there is no need for Thompson 1976, Gundel 1980). The more those languages to develop the passive. Zero-pronouns a language has the more 166 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV topic prominent it is. Indo-Aryan make more use of Zero-pronouns than languages are more topic prominent than Indo-Aryan languages. Naturally, Marathi they are subject prominent (Junghare being contiguous to Telugu makes more 1981). Dravidian languages are more topic use of Zero-NP's than Hindi. prominent than Indo-Aryan and hence
(11) Marathi: rām itha āhe. mi tyālā pāhila Hindi: rām yahā hẽ. maine usko dekhā ram here is I him saw Telugu: rāmu ikkada unnādu. nenu (atanni) chusænu ram here is I 0 saw
"Ram is here. I saw him."
(12) Marathi: [tu] kuņālā pāhilas? [mi] tyālā pāhila Hindi: tumne kisko dekhā? maine usko dekhā you whom saw I him saw Telugu: 0 evarini chusavu? 0 atanni chusænu
“Q: Who did you see? A: I saw him."
(13) Marathi: [tu] kuţha cāllis? [mi] deuļāt cālli Hindi: tu kahā jā rahī? maĨ mandir jā rahī hũ you where going (I) temple going am Telugu: 0 ekkadiki veļtunnāru? 0 gudiki veļtunnānu
"Q: Where are you going? A: I am going to the temple."
2.5. Word Order and Topicalization constituent to occur in the sentence initial position and to become topic. There does The word order both in Indo-Aryan and not seem to be any constraint on what can Dravidian is flexible, which allows any serve as the topic.
(14) "I bought that book for Ram."
Marathi: mi rāmsāţhi te pustak ghetla Hindi: maine rāmkeliye vah kitāb kharidī Telugu: nēnu rāmudi kōsam ā pustakam konnānu I ram for that book bought
(15) "For Ram, I bought that book."
Marathi: rāmsāţhi te pustak ghetla mi Hindi: ?rāmkeliye vah kitāb kharidī maine Telugu: rāmudi kōsam ā pustakam konnānu ram for that book bought I
Junghare, I.: Syntactic Convergence… 167
(16) "That book, I bought for Ram."
Marathi: te pustak mi rāmsāţhi ghetla Hindi: ?vah kitāb maine rāmkeliye kharidī Telugu: ā pustakam rāmudi kōsam konnānu that book ram for bought I
2.6. Basicness of Topic Comment structure seems to prevail in these Structures and Marking of languages. Post-positional noun phrases Definiteness seem to occupy the sentence initial position when they are topics; whereas Word order in Indo-Aryan and Dravidian subject noun phrases, when indefinite, is, to a large extent, determined by topic- occur somewhere else in the sentence. comment relation rather than by Sentences in (17) illustrate this point. grammatical relation. Topic-comment
(17) "There is a book on the table."
Marathi: ţeblāvar ek pustak āhe Hindi: ţebalpar ek kitāb hai Telugu: ţēbulu mīda ō pustakam undi table on one book is
(18) "The book is on the table."
Marathi: pustak ţeblāvar āhe Hindi: kitāb ţebalpar hai Telugu: pustakam ţēbulu mīda undi
Several grammatical constructions have Clearly, Marathi contains two kinds of been examined: full relative clauses, relative clauses: (1) Full relative clauses reduced relative clauses, participial relative which resemble Indo- Aryan structure, clauses, passive, deletion of co-referential comparable to Hindi, another Indo-Aryan NP's or the use of Zero-NP anaphora, language. And (2) Reduced relative clause word-order variation, and topicalization in structure, comparable to Telugu, a Marathi, Hindi, and Telugu, a Dravidian language. Synchronically, they representative of Dravidian language seem to represent two levels of discourse, family. The analysis shows that Marathi formal as opposed to informal, written vs. stands between Hindi and Telugu. There is spoken. Full relative clauses represent no doubt that the influence of Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, and formal speech, whereas, particularly of Telugu, on Marathi Reduced relative clauses present Dravidian grammar is significant. Generally, due to pattern and are more colloquial. contact, languages borrow at the levels of Southworth (1971) remarked that the phonology, morphology, and lexicon. speech of the uneducated (particularly non Marathi seems to have gone further into - Brahmins) and also of women is the level of syntax. consistently less Sanskritized, or more 168 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Dravidianized. Changes in the direction of Southworth states that the present the Dravidian are often carried through characteristics of Marathi are probably the more consistently in non-standard speech. result of a prolonged process of mutual Can the syntactic patterning be explained adaptation between an Aryan language and simply on the basis of the borrowings due a local Pidgin-Creole (or more likely, a to cultural contact? series of pidgin-Creoles). The Marathi syntactic and semantic Marathi, even in its oldest known form patterns cannot be satisfactorily explained (tenth century A.D.) presents a picture of by the process of borrowing from syntactic and lexical convergence; on Dravidian. These similarities show that the lexical grounds, it is Indo-Aryan, and intimate parts of the grammatical grammatical footings, it is Dravidian. structures were relatively secure from Grammatical and semantic resemblances outside influence. These structures show with Dravidian have been massive. non-lexical influence, that is the use of inherited Indo-Aryan morphemes (in most 4. Other Morphological, Semantic and cases) according to completely Dravidian Phonological Resemblances: pattern. The process of borrowing involves primarily the transfer of lexical items from (1) Morphological: Marathi has one language to another, though extensive developed a whole set of negative borrowing may also contribute to structural auxiliaries on the Dravidian pattern: karat changes of various kinds. nāhi 'doesn't work' karu nako 'do not work' Some of the structural similarities, such (Southworth 1971). It appears that Marathi as the patterning of reduced relative constructions consist of inherited Indo- clauses and other syntactic processes could Aryan material (including the initial be explained by the pidginization process, morphemes) but have been modeled on the which is distinct from borrowing in that it prevailing Dravidian pattern. involves a sharp break in transmission and the creation of a new code, which serves (2) Semantic: The most important for communication between two groups resemblances between Marathi and which previously had no common Dravidian are found in the realm of language. Pidgins are popularly thought to semantics; for example, the inclusive and combine the vocabulary of one language exclusive first person plural pronoun with the grammar of the other. Marathi [āpaņ] 'we' (you and I/we, or just us); and seems to have the vocabulary of Indo- absence of copula which identifies one NP Aryan and grammar of Dravidian. with another (for example, mājha nāv rashmī). Also, Marathi shows the 3. Implications of Syntactic Similarities development of verbal sequences, called with those of Dravidian verbal operators such as khāun ţāk (finish up eating). In order to explain the grammatical structures of Marathi which are similar to (3) Phonological: The development of Dravidian, Southworth suggested that dental affricates, c, and j, and frequency of Marathi is a quasi-Creole language, retroflex ņ and ļ seem to resemble the meaning it might have developed from a phonological features of Telegu and pidgin or pidginized parent language. Kannada. Junghare, I.: Syntactic Convergence… 169
5. Summary & Conclusion: India has been known for social stratification. In Sanskrit plays, the language The paper has examined some Marathi of the low classes and women characters was syntactic structures and compared them Maharashtri Prakrit. The language of upper with the similar structures in the classes and men was Sanskrit. neighboring languages: Hindi (Indo- Southworth (1971) claims that pidginized Aryan), and Telugu (Dravidian). The Prakrit resulted as a language of syntactic constructions included full and communication between the Dravidian reduced relative clauses, participial workers and Indo-Aryan employers. Later clauses, passive constructions, use of Zero pidginized Prakrit was adopted as mother pronouns (or deletion of co-referential tongue by both groups and became Creole constituents), word order variation, topic- from which developed present day comment structures, and marking of Marathi. The adoption of pidginized definiteness. The analyses showed Prakrit as mother tongue changed its status remarkable resemblances between Marathi from pidgin to Creole or quasi-Creole (not and Telugu syntactic constructions, which fully Creole.) lead us to conclude that such syntactic The following diagram indicates similarities cannot be attributed to simple Southworth's analysis about the origin of borrowings and that they have resulted Marathi. from the process of conversion. The complex and elaborate structure of Marathi: Full Relative Clauses + Relative relative clauses in Marathi, particularly the clauses without relative pronouns + reduced relative clauses which are patterned Reduced Relative clauses after Telugu, and which are not so (participial clauses) extensively used in other Indo-Aryan languages, seem to provide additional Telugu: (Dravidian) Only reduced or support to Southworth's theory of the participial clauses creolized nature of Marathi and its origin from a pidginized Prakrit. It is recognized Hindi: Full Relative Clauses + limited that Marathi was developed around 10th reduced relative clauses century A.D. from Maharashtri Prakrit which was the language of common folks; Prakrit Marathi: Two levels: meaning "naturally evolved." Whereas, (1) Formal, Standard (Indo-Aryan) Sanskrit "well formed" language was the (2) Informal, Colloquial (Dravidian) language of Brahmins and the educated.
OIA => Prakrit => Maharashtrian (Upper class) Pkt. ⤵ Creolized Pkt. => Marathi Prakrit => Maharashtrian Pidgin Pkt ⤴ + Dravidian local lg.
Whether Marathi qualifies as a true which cannot be explained by the process Creole or not, the study of its grammatical of simple borrowing is surely a case of structure and its patterning after Dravidian, convergence. It points to the socio-cultural 170 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV interaction between the Dravidians and the 5. Gundel, J. Zero “NP-anaphora in Maharashtrians. Initially, the Russian: A case of topic-prominence. Maharashtrians, as Indo-Aryan, might have ”Papers from parasession on pronouns been employers and considered themselves and anaphora, Kreiman, J. and Ojeda, to be superior to the Dravidians. But in due A. E. (eds.). Chicago Linguistic Society course of time, they must have developed (CLS), 1980, p. 139-146. neighborly and brotherly economic and 6. Junghare, I. “Discourse considerations socio- cultural relations that helped shape for Marathi and Hindi Syntax”. Indian the language of basic Dravidian structure Linguistics 49(March 1990), p. 66-80. 7. “Topic prominence and zero NP- with the lexicon from Indo-Aryan, i.e. anaphora in Marathi and Hindi.” Marathi. Languages and cultures, Jazayery, M.
and Winter, W. (eds.). Berlin: Mouton Acknowledgements De Gruyter. 1988, p. 309-328. 8. “Topic prominence in Indo-Aryan and Thanks are due to Professors Rocky Dravidian”. International Journal of Miranda, and K. V. Subbarao for providing Dravidian Linguistics (IJDL) 14 the data from Dravidian languages. (1985) No. 2. 9. Lehmann, W.P. “From topic to subject References in Indo-European”. Subject and topic: A new typology of languages, Li, C. N. 1. Apte, M.L. “Pidginization of a lingua and Thompson, S. A. (eds.). New franca: A linguistic analysis of Hindi- York: Academic Press, 1976. Urdu spoken in Bombay”. International 10. Li, C.N. and Thompson, S.A. (eds.). Journal of Dravidian Linguistics (IJDL) Subject and topic: A new typology of 3 (1974) No. 1, p. 21-41. language. New York: Academic Press, 2. Bloch, J. La formation de la langue 1976. marathe. 1914. Dev Raj Chanana 11. Pandharipande, R. “Passive as an (English Trans.), The formation of the optional rule in Hindi, Marathi, and Marathi language. Delhi. Motilal Nepali.” South Asian languages Banarsidass, 1970. analysis 1, Kachru, B.B. (ed.). Urbana, 3. Caldwell, R. A comparative grammar rd IL: University of Illinois, 1979, of the Dravidian languages. 3 ed. J. p. 89-106. L.Wyatt and T. Ramakrishna Pillai). 12. Southworth, F. “Detecting prior Madras: University of Madras, 1956. creolization: An analysis of the 4. Gumperz, J. and R. Wilson. historical origins of Marathi.“ “Convergence and creolization: A Pidginization and creolization of case from the Indo-Aryan/Dravidian languages, Dell Hymes (ed.). border”. Pidginization and creolization Cambridge: Cambridge University of languages, Dell Hymes (ed.). Press, 1971, p. 255-273. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971, p. 151-167.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
TERMINOLOGY DYNAMICS - CONCEPTUAL PATTERNS OF TERM FORMATION
Laura SASU1
Abstract: This paper dwells upon the basic issues concerning the currently increasing necessity of term formation in the perspective of scientific and domain-specific terminology dynamics. It briefly outlines the recommended conditions that must be complied with according to standardised terminology regulations as counter-balanced by thereto marginal specific cases emerging in practice and use, hereby attempting to clearly establish the coordinates for the conceptual patterns of term formation and coherence in use.
Key words: terminology, designation, conceptualisation, intra-term relations.
1. Introduction terminology with concrete solutions for each particular existing difficulty. The increasing trends of Recent years have witnessed an internationalisation, globalisation, and increasing interest in the study of “ termini technology development lead to “more and tehnici” (technical terms - hereinafter more specialized communication acts” shortly “terms” for conciseness), however (Muller 193) whereas an increased the study of terminology, namely the necessity for communication is hereby theoretical and applied study of terms as merely a logical consequence. The hereby coherent systems of lexical items endowed emerging terminology, linguistic, with creative dynamism, remained so far comprehension and cultural barriers that neither clearly defined nor is there a may result in failure of communication in general agreement about its scope. most situations are to be subdued by means of terminology and translation. Despite the 2. Function and Purpose of Domain – high level of standardisation, and Specific Terminological Study internationalisation, there are many deeply rooted cultural, communicational, and For a strict outline of the function and linguistic differences in all domain related purpose as well as of the practical specialised terminologies. It is the task of application scope of terminology (be it in the terminology expert or the translator, one or parallel in multiple languages, be it and the translating activity in general, to a systematic or a punctual analysis of the eliminate or at least diminish this field specific terms, commonly referred to communicational hindrance, by means of as “termini tehnici” or terms of art, it is relevant to clearly understand the
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov.
172 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV background and the causes resulting in the language, therefore resulting in the current state of this area. conclusion that terminology is subordinate Since the past century has brought about to the domain-specific language as being a an explosive rate of growth in all fields of part thereof. science and hence in all related domains of The boundary between domain-specific technology domain specific language and general language is basically communication has accordingly gained an easily recognisable, however there are increasingly important role. several interference areas of the two that Along with the exponential progress in require further analysis. “The core area of most scientific domains there is an increase a language, used by all members of a in the area, amount and use of the technical language community is designated as terms herewith related, often resulting in general language” according to Norm DIN communication hindrances or (DIN 2342 part 11986 2 ) whereas this misunderstandings even between experts in definition only raises the rather difficult different fields, but sometimes within the question on how to set the boundaries and same domain and obviously between distinguish between the general language speakers of different languages. and the domain-specific languages on one It is therefore necessary to pinpoint the hand, and between the several existing newly emerging domain specific terms domain-specific languages on the other immediately after their emergence, to hand. exactly explain and establish the inherent Regarding the relation between domain- meaning so as to further ensure the correct specific language and general language it use thereof, both in that domain specific is relevant that there are interactions language as well as to make them available between the two, some of the most for common language use. important aspects of this interaction being The relation between terminology and terminologisation of semantic units— domain-specific language in point of where a known, (usually general language function of practical terminological study word form receives a new conceptual in each field should be therefore the meaning) and vice versa general language following: terminology should aim to be imports terms from the domain-specific the standardised mediation and language preserving or changing the initial communication bridge that makes the meaning attributed to the. transfer process for knowledge in the field Statistically there are by far more of domain-specific language possible. situations of the latter interaction type accounted for by the intrusion of technology 3. Standardisation and Norms for Term at an unprecedented rate into the every day Formation and Use life of language communities. However, the more concise and precise a Therefore standardisation of terminology domain-specific language remains the less theory is the basic step in standardisation comprehensible and available it is for the of terminology practice and application. general language community. Terminology is according to Norm DIN The current situation in this respect is on part 1 (DIN 1986 7) “the total of concepts the contrary, one where more and more and their designations in a specific domain-specific terms enter the general domain”. Since terminology is coined as language area that results in a phenomenon the vocabulary of a certain domain it has to perceived as an oversaturation of the be considered as a part of that specific passive vocabulary. Sasu, L.: Terminology Dynamics- Conceptual Patterns of Term Formation 173
A further consequence is that numerous formation imply several conditions that are domain-specific terms that are actually not always complied with in disseminated by means of mass practice. A term should be: communication media are interpreted, - linguistically correct; understood and further brought in use in - precise (motivated); the general language area as partially or - concise. entirely incorrect or ambiguous, which can A term should permit (if possible) the be therefore regarded as the reverse formation of derivatives. process of terminologisation, namely a process of determinologisation. 3.2. Actual Shortcomings of Term This situation unfortunately exists and Formation Resulting in Ambiguity continues to occur increasingly, while or Misinterpretation countless examples of such determinologised terms enter the general The accuracy (motivation) of a term language hereby affecting both the correct must be seen as its ability to reflect as far use and conceptualisation and also as possible the features that are provided in sometimes casting a significant reflection the definition. upon the actual initial concept attributed to a A term should be concise. Undue length of term in the domain-specific language area. a term represents a serious shortcoming. Hence, the permanent interaction Firstly it breaches the principle of linguistic between domain-specific language and economy, and secondly it frequently leads to general language as well as the thereto ellipsis (omission), which in turn can only related issues imply a coherent further create ambiguousness and quite often transmission of terms between the two misinterpretation or even overlapping with a fields, starting from standardised different concept. The resulting alternative terminology rules and completed by the designation can lead to misunderstanding. practical study and coinage thereof. The requirement of characteristics often conflicts with that of accuracy and the 3.1. Term – Concept - Designation greater the number of characteristics Interaction in Terminology included in a term, the more complete the Dynamics representation of the concept and the more accurate the term. The term and its related elements need to be Thus, the term is considered to be the further dwelled upon in order to emphasise all central element of terminology the unit potential interaction possibilities that may consisting in the concept and its designation. emerge in the currently continuous process of However, there are countless examples of term formation and hereinafter use. terms that do not comply with a desirable As a term is defined as the designation of a condition for term formation, namely the defined concept in a special language by a mono-semic correspondence between a term linguistic expression, the central unit that and a concept. It is justly recommended needs to be carefully analysed when however not attainable to the extend that forming, or using a newly formed term is may exclude misinterpretation, ambiguity or actually the concept. overlapping within the same language but A term may consist of one or several different domain-specific language areas, words that is a simple term or a complex not to mention correspondence between term or even contain symbols, acronyms or different languages. For standardized shortenings and therefore does term terminology, it is desirable that one term be 174 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV assigned only to one single concept, and However, term formation is not to be that a concept be represented by one term. mistaken for absolute term creation in the In scientific and technological sense of invention of linguistic elements, terminology the breach of this principle which occurs only in exceptional such as polysemy, synonymy, homonymy situations, yet generally making use of may result in serious misunderstandings and elements pre-existing in a language and above that rather severe translation hence increasing the potential for mistakes, even translation impossibility that ambiguity of misunderstanding and misuse is usually solved by importing the term with of terms. The means of term formation the designation in the language it was first accounted for by terminology dynamics coined, facts that only further increase the refer to basically using all lexical means of comprehension gap and increase ambiguity the general language including and lack of precision in use . Therefore, terminologisation, composition, derivatives when creating new terms, elaborating the -by pre-fixation, suffixation of pseudo- appropriate definitions and systematizing suffixation, conversion, import of terms, the already existing terms, several shortenings, acronyms and term creation. procedures should be followed. Before a The basic aspects that need to be new term for the concept is formed it should observed at the conceptual level refer to be ascertained whether any term already the relations between the terms and their exists in that language for the concept to be constituent aspects or elements, the designated and in case there are several relations between the constituent aspects as synonyms for a one single concept the one well as the nature of the conceptual which satisfies the largest number of formation combination used in the requirements mentioned above should be construction of terminology. selected. References 4. Conclusion on Terminology Dynamics in Point of Desirable Theoretical 1. Arntz, Reiner. Terminologievergleich Standardisation Provisions versus the und Internationale Terminologie- Existing Practice angleichung. Tubingen und Basel: Snell Hornby Francke Verlag, 1994. Designation creation is thus of utmost 2. Arntz, Reiner and Picht, Heribert. importance under the circumstances of a Einführung in die Terminologiearbeit. continuous unabated and explosive rate of Hildesheim Zürich: Georg Olms growth in all scientific domains and needs Verlag, 1995. to be investigated, elaborated and applied 3. Muller, Bernd Dietrich. accordingly. Domain-specific languages Interkulturelle should not attempt to merely attribute to Wirtschaftskommunication. 2nd ed. designations existing in general language Munchen: Iudicium Verlag, 1993. areas new domain-specific meanings and 4. Reiss, Katharina and Vermeer, Hans. hereby alter the concepts, even if this is Grundlegung einer allgemeinen one of the most productive processes. The Translationstheorie. 2nd ed. Tubingen: newly emerging concepts need to be Max Niemeyer Verlag, 1991. accounted for, as much as possible, by new 5. Stolze, Radegundis. Grundlagen der designations hereby coining new terms, Textubersetzung. Heidelberg: Julius since more or less productive word Gross Verlag, 1982. formation pattern exist in each language. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
GERMAN WORD ORDER
Mihaela PARPALEA1
Abstract: The idea that German word order is governed by more than one principle can be found in the works of the linguists where two types of languages are distinguished. In the first type the verb is modified by preceding, in the second one by succeeding, elements (structures XV and VX respectively). German is on the way from the XV to the VX type. Thus, the existence of not only various, but even contradictory principles have to be assumed for German word order.
Key words: communicative dynamism, functional sentence perspective, thema/ rhema, initial/ central/ final - position.
1. Introduction [1]f Der Boss hat gestern Abend das Geld dem Gangster gegeben. Sentence patterns, although forming the basis of all sentences, are no more than a Similar sets of six (in cases [2-4]) and of theoretical construct which can be twenty-four variants (in case [5] all four modified in many ways. For example, a elements right of hat can change places) particular sentence pattern makes no are possible, if dem Gangster, das Geld, statement about the word order found in a gestern Abend or gegeben change places sentence based on it. This article tries to with der Boss: shade some light upon one of the bugbears of many learners of German: German [2]a Dem Gangster hat der Boss das Geld WORD ORDER. Apart from daunting gestern Abend gegeben. qualities it may posses, a German sentence [2]b Dem Gangster hat der Boss gestern Abend based, for example, on Engel’s pattern 013 das Geld gegeben. etc (subject, accusative object, dative object) can have many confusing variants: [3]a Das Geld hat der Boss dem Gangster gestern Abend gegeben. etc [1]a Der Boss hat dem Gangster das Geld [4]a Gestern Abend hat der Boss dem Gangster gestern Abend gegeben. das Geld gegeben. etc [1]b Der Boss hat dem Gangster gestern Abend [5]a Gegeben hat der Boss dem Gangster das das Geld gegeben. Geld gestern Abend. etc [1]c Der Boss hat das Geld dem Gangster gestern Abend gegeben. All in all, there are 48 possible variants, most of which would be considered ’good [1]d Der Boss hat das Geld gestern Abend dem German’ or, at least, acceptable, some, Gangster gegeben. however, only under very particular [1]e Der Boss hat gestern Abend dem Gangster conditions. das Geld gegeben.
1 Faculty of Philology, Transilvania University of Braşov. 176 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Stress is one of these conditions. A fairly [7] Der Boss hat dem Gangster das Geld also neural variant of sentences [1a-5x], for gestern Abend weggenommen? example [1b] would, like most German [8] Nein, GÉGEBEN hat er es ihm! sentences, contain one element marked by stress as prominent (indicated by 1 above implying ’not taken away, but given’ the relevant word or syllable) and elements (Fuchs, Akzent, 1976: 293-312). marked as less important by lesser degrees It is not always easy to decide whether of emphasis (2, 3, 4, etc). Sentence [1b] sentences such as [8] follow the emphatic could be represented as follows (Kiparsky, stress pattern or simply have their normal 1966 ; Bierwisch, 1966): intonation centre in initial position. Besides the variants which mostly occur 4 3 4 4 3 5 4 5 [1]b Der Boss hat dem Gangster gestern with contrastive or emphatic stress a large number of variants remain, variants 3 5 4 1 5 3 5 without particular stress conditions, but Abend das GELD gegeben. with varying order. The question is Some variants of [1a-5x] are, at least as whether these variants are freely isolated sentences outside a given context, exchangeable or, if not, what differences only possible if the stress pattern is also there are between them, and, further, by different from normal. For example what conditions the position of an element in a sentence is determined. First of all, 5 1 5 4 4 3 4 3 5 however, a firm point of departure is [5]b GEGEBEN hat der Boss dem Gangster searched for in the further considerations 4 3 4 5 1 5 of word order. das Geld gestern ABEND.
2. Firm and Unfirm Elements in in which case the sentence would probably German Word Order or, at least, could be continued by An unbiased reading of the first section 4 1 5 4 5 4 4 of this article might lead to the idea that [6] VERSPROCHEN hatte er es 4 3 1 5 anything is possible in German word order ihm schon LANGE. but to the distress of very foreign learner of German this is not so. A careful reading The word order as given in [5b], will have observed the element that supported by the appropriate stress, is remained consistent in sentences [1-5]. It is possible if gegeben/gestern Abend are– the finite part of the verbal group: hat. explicitly or implicitly–contrasted with For the position of hat only two changes other elements. can be imagined. The first would result in [5b] would also be possible with a remarkable change in the communicative emphatic stress on gegeben only, with a function of the sentence: sentence [9] general reduction of all other stresses, if it would be interpreted as a question, a is, for example, used as a correction of [7]. change of intonation presupposed (falling In this case it is, however, likely that Boss, intonation in [1-8], rising in [9]). Gangster, and Geld appear in a pronominalized form [8]. Gestern Abend [9] Hat der Boss dem Gangster gestern Abend may be left out altogether. das Geld gegeben?
Parpalea, M.: German Word Order 177
The second is only possible under very (ii) infinitive with zu depending on verb particular conditions, ie if a conjunction is (verb) added at the beginning, and the sentence is (iii) enumeration (:) integrated as a clause into a complex structure: (iv) second component of comparisons with als or wie (first component, see [10] Es steht fest, DASS der Boss dem Gangster sentences [11a-b]) gestern Abend das Geld gegeben hat. (v) apposition (head noun) In the affirmative proposition, however, (vi) parenthesis with und zwar (whole the finite part of the verb retains its sentence) position as in sentences [1-5]. If there is a (vii) second and further components of a non-finite part of the verb, it normally multi-componential expression, assumes the final position, allowing few copulative or adversative (first elements to follow. Initial position as in [5] component) depends on contextual conditions, or on particular stress conditions. Thus, a (viii) elliptic clause corresponding to the scheme of word order in the affirmative first part of the sentence sentences can be drawn up for showing the Apart from these cases it is mainly for frame-constituting function of the verb stylistic reasons that elements are shifted to (Drach, Grundgedanken, 1940). The the final position, eg to avoid a weak non- bracketed V and final position are not infin finite component of the verb, which might present in all sentences: appear separated from its corresponding Initial (Final finite component by too complex noun position Vfin Central position (Vinfin) position) phrases (Duden, Grammatik, 1973: 625): [11]a dem Gangster das als
Der Boss gab Geld heute früher heraus gestern. [12] Ich drang EIN in die Musik, in die [11]b dem Gangster das als Architektur der Fugen, indie Der Boss hat Geld heute früher gegeben gestern. verschlungenen Labyrinthe der Symfonien, [11]c dem Gangster das als in die harten Gefüge des Jazz (Weiss). Der Boss will Geld heute früher geben gestern. [11]d dem Gangster das als Der Boss gab Geld heute früher gestern. Similarly, the initial position can be described briefly for the time being. It The final position can be dealt with in contains, at least in neutral written brief, for although it is open to all sorts of German, a single noun phrase or adverbial elements-especially in the spoken phrase, which is sometimes preceded by a language- the types of elements for which conjunction. Thus, it is the central position final position is the normal one are very that contains the bulk of the actants and restricted. They usually have circonstants. corresponding elements in the rest of the sentence (given in brackets), and carry 3. Functional Sentence Perspective their own intonation centre (Beneš, Ausklammerung, 1968: 294-295): The concept which has proved most (i) subordinate clauses (head in the main useful in the description of German word clause) order has become known under the name of Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP). Its principal idea is that information is not 178 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV transmitted in random order, but that the German translation, which is equally odd, speaker seeks to give his information to his will make this clear: interlocutor in portions, normally starting [20] *? Der Boss gab dem Geld den Gangster. from what he assumes is common to both (the THEME, topic) and proceeding to what From these and other examples two he regards as important new information conclusions can be drawn: (the RHEME, comment). (i) Firstly, indicating different degrees of Let us consider the following sentences: CD is not the only function of word [13] Was gab der Boss dem Gangster? order. In English, the main function of word order is to signify syntactic [14] Der Boss gab dem Gangster das Geld. relationship. In German, where this [15] Wem gab der Boss das Geld? function is carried out mainly by [16] Der Boss gab das Geld dem Gangster. inflexional cases, word order can be used to express differences in CD of It is significant that the most important the sentence elements – at least as far items of information-Geld in [14], as the central and initial position Gangster in [16], their importance is elements are concerned. evident from the questions – take up the (ii) Secondly, as sentence [19] shows, final positions in [14] and [16]. In fact, word order is not the only way of [16] would not be a suitable answer to indicating CD. Besides word order [13], and neither would [14] to [15], at syntactic constructions [19], particles least if we ignore stress variation for the (eg focusing adjuncts: eben, sogar; time being. As it appears, the difference in nur; gerade) and especially phonetic word order of [14] and [16] reflects a devices (eg prominent stress on the difference in the “extent to which a element with the highest CD) play an sentence element contributes to the important role, notably in languages development of the communication” which, for syntactic reasons, (Firbas, Defining the theme, 1964: 270), a demonstrate little flexibility with difference in what Firbas called the regard to word order. COMMUNICATIVE DYNAMISM (CD) of the respective elements. In German, whose word order is more This function of word order becomes still flexible than English, but still less flexible clearer if these sentences are matched with than Romanian, all possible ways of equivalent English sentences: indicating CD are used. Usually they cooperate: in [14] and [16] stress and [17] The boss gave the gangster the money. position assign the highest CD to Geld and Gangster respectively. [18] *? The boss gave the money the gangster. [19] The boss gave the money to the gangster. [14] Der Boss gab dem Gangster das GÉLD. Sentence [18] is odd not because there is, [16] Der Boss gab das Geld dem GÁNGSTER. in English, no need to emphasize the gangster - this is expressed in [19] - but But in the case of the verb stress must because this position signals a different suffice, the verbal position being fixed: syntactic relationship between the elements of the sentence, which in turn is not [21] Der Boss GÁB dem Gangster das GÉLD. compatible with this view of the word. The Parpalea, M.: German Word Order 179
Sometimes, in case the different means (iii) SEMANTIC-CONTEXTUAL FACTORS (stress, position) conflict, stress overrides closely related to the last point: deictic word order. elements (eg personal pronouns), the use of which is only possible in [22] Der Boss gab dem GÁNGSTER das Geld. unambiguous contexts, tend to have low CD. Similarly, the definite article As a rule of thumb one can say that the has – according to Firbas – a closer the prominent stress moves to the dedynamizing effect, the indefinite front, and thus away from the position article a dynamizing one. marked as prominent by word order (final, or at least near the end), the more likely it As a further semantic-syntactic factor is that the element bears some emotional one could add the distinction (obligatory) actants and circonstants, which seems to be emphasis and/or is contrasted. the basis of the different influence exerted Even though other means of indicating by different verb classes (Firbas, Thoughts, the CD of a sentence element do exist, the 1959: 41-42). Despite many convincing close connection between word order and analyses along these lines, Firbas’s FSP should require some further attention. Being marked as the intonation centre of analysis of sentence elements as theme, transition, etc is still based on (his) the sentence, the element with the highest linguistic intuition. Attempts to make his CD – the rheme proper in Firbas’s term - is analysis susceptible to objective particularly easy to distinguish (Firbas, Defining the theme, 1964: 268). Assuming verification, for example by developing that each element of the sentence carries its question tests, have not, so far, been entirely successful (Chomsky, Deep particular load of CD, and that the elements Structure, 1972: 89-103). In longer can be ordered as theme proper, theme, sentences especially, it is difficult to transition, rheme and rheme proper on the establish clear boundaries between theme basis of increasing CD, the interest moves and rheme. Nevertheless, the influence of on how can the CD of a sentence element the distribution of CD must not be ignored be determined and how can degrees of CD in studies of word order. be measured. Firbas manages to show that the CD is influenced by the interplay of various factors (Firbas, Thoughts, 1959: 4. FSP and the Position of Accusative 42-44): and Dative Object
(i) The BASIC DISTRIBUTION OF CD, As seen in the previous section, due to which Firbas sees as a continuous rise the inability to measure CD on the basis of from the theme proper (lowest CD) at testable criteria, it is difficult to assign the beginning of a sentence to the degrees of CD indisputably, especially in rheme proper (highest CD) at the end, longer sentences. Lenerz (Abfolge, 1977) if unhampered by other word order manages to show, restricting himself to the principles. study of elements in immediate sequence, (ii) The CONTEXT (verbal and situational): the importance of the CD load for the elements expressing notions that are position of the elements in question, at the known or may be gathered from the same time demonstrating the influence of context are relatively low CD, new other factors: definiteness, the sentence elements of relatively high CD. frame, and the relative length of the elements. 180 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
The first problem in determining the A further criterion, however, modifies sequence rules of dative (E3) and the traditional view of some FSP linguists accusative (E1) object is whether the that indefinite articles have a dynamizing sequences E3E1 and E1E3 are both equally effect, and should, consequently follow the possible or whether one of them is dedynamizing definite articles (Boost, basic/unmarked, ie possible under all Untersuchungen, 1955: 52). It can easily conditions, and the other marked, ie be shown that the sequence indefinite- possible only under certain conditions. For definite is possible [14a, 24a]. Although it this purpose, sentences similar to [13-14] is true that the distinction between definite are used to test whether all variants are and indefinite article has an influence on possible: word order, the conditions are more complicated, as examples [14-16c] show: [13] Was gab der Boss dem Gangster? [14] Der Boss gab dem Gangster das GÉLD. E3É1 [14] Der Boss gab dem Gangster das GÉLD. [23] *Der Boss gab das GÉLD dem Gangster. [14]a Der Boss gab einem Gangster das GÉLD. [15] Wem gab der Boss das Geld? [14]b Der Boss gab dem Gangster GÉLD. [16] Der Boss gab das Geld dem GÁNGSTER. [14]c Der Boss gab einem Gangster GÉLD. [24] Der Boss gab dem GÁNGSTER das Geld. É3E1 The rheme element is indicated by ′. [24] Der Boss gab dem GÁNGSTER das Geld. Whereas sequence E3E1, both for CD [24]a Der Boss gab einem GÁNGSTER das Geld. distribution lower/higher [14] and [24]b Der Boss gab dem GÁNGSTER Geld. higher/lower [24], the sequence E1E3 is possible only if the CD distribution is [24]c Der Boss gab einem GÁNGSTER Geld. lower/higher [16], or equally high, for E1É3 example in contrast [25]: [16] Der Boss gab das Geld dem GÁNGSTER.
[16]a Der Boss gab Geld dem GÁNGSTER. [25] Der Boss gab das GÉLD dem GÁNGSTER und der SCHMÚCK seiner FRÁU. [16]b Der Boss gab das Geld einem GÁNGSTER. [16]c *Der Boss gab Geld einem GÁNGSTER. Consequently, E3E1 is the unmarked – normal sequence (Lenerz, Abfolge, The sequence É1E3 can be left out of 1977: 43). consideration as it has already been found So far, these results are in agreement to be unacceptable on the grounds of CD with those of the traditional CD analysis, distribution. It can be seen that again the which, however, was founded on the basic marked variant E1É3 is affected by distribution of CD, which – according to restrictions. Beneš (Thema-Rhema-Gliederung, 1973: On the basis of these investigations it is 45) – can be found in sentences in which possible to formulate the following rules no element is contextually bound (made for the sequence of E3 and E1 (Lenerz, clear by the indefinite articles and present Abfolge, 1977: 45, 55, 63): tense): (i) sequence E1E3 is impossible if E1 has a [26] Ein Boss gibt einem Gangster Geld. higher CD than E3.
Parpalea, M.: German Word Order 181
(ii) sequence E1E3 is impossible if E1 is an 5. FSP: The Initial Position indefinite noun phrase. Even if the view that only one element Two more rules are more of stylistic can precede the finite verb must be nature: modified (Betz, Überprüfung, 1973: 242- (iii) There is a stylistic tendency to place 267), here sequence problems are not as the more complex element (ie the one important as in the central position. containing relatively more words) after Neither is it very difficult to decide which the less complex. elements may occur in initial position: according to Engel most elements (iv) There is a stylistic tendency to avoid – in sentences without a verb frame– occurring in the central position are possible in initial position as well. weightless endings ([27a-27b]). Therefore discussion has been For this reason [27] is considered better concentrated on the role the initial position than [27a]. plays in FSP, and on the factors that determine how it is filled. There is general [27] Der Boss gab das Geld dem Gangster, agreement that the element preceding Vfin den er seit Jahren kannte und schätzte. can be part of the rheme (as rheme proper [27]a Der Boss gab dem Gangster, den er seit marked by the intonation centre of the Jahren kannte und schätzte, das Geld. sentence), in which case the sentence is marked as expressive and/or emotional, or If, however, the final É1 in [27a] is thematic, the normal, unmarked case. supported by the non-finite part of the The thematic status of the initial position verb, as in [27b], final position is has caused considerable confusion, acceptable: because some linguists (for example Boost, 1955: 26-31) have suggested that the status [27]b Der Boss hat dem Gangster, den er seit of theme should be assigned to the element Jahren kannte und schätzte, das Geld in initial position in all cases. However, if gegeben. thematic/rhematic are defined as carrying lower/higher CD, the theme (Firbas’s The rules of German word order can – rheme proper) having the highest CD, it notwithstanding the rules of CD can be shown that the first element in a distribution – possibly not be reduced to a sentence is not necessarily the theme: single principle. The set of factors would have become more complicated if [28] Die Zahl der Arbeitslosen ist seit 1970 in including the position of pronouns in allen Ländern Europas gestiegen. In investigation. As Engel (Syntax, 1977: Deutschland lag sie im August 1977 bei 191) remarks, it is not enough to define 900,000. word order rules on the basis of sentence elements (objects, adverbial clauses, etc), In Deutschland, as specification of one has to take their different realizations Länder Europas, carries more information into account (noun phrases, pronouns, etc). than sie, which merely takes up die Zahl Apart from this, knowing the conditions der Arbeitslosen. In FSP, it has therefore governing sequences in which neither been found useful to distinguish between element is the rheme proper of the theme proper (the element with the lowest sentence is another important problem to CD) and basis (the part of the theme in be investigated. initial position, not necessarily the theme
182 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV proper). The choice of basis is mainly 5. Boost, Karl. Neue Untersuchungen determined by the linguistic and/or zum Wesen und zur Struktur des situational context. The thematic elements deutschen Satzes. Berlin: can occur freely in initial position without Akademieverlag, 1955. giving special expressive value to the 6. Chomsky, Noam. "Deep Structure, sentence. Which of the thematic elements surface structure and semantic is finally chosen depends not so much on interpretation" Studies on Semantics in the CD structure within the theme, but on Generative Grammar. The Hague: the prominence an element has in the Mouton, 1972. speaker’s mind at the moment at which he 7. Drach, Erich. Grundgedanken der starts his sentence. This is, as a rule, an deutschen Satzlehre. Frankfurt/ Main: element of the closer context; in German, Diesterweg, 1940. its syntactic function hardly plays any role. 8. Duden, Konrad. Der Grosse Duden German word order cannot be explained Band IV. Grammatik der deutschen only by CD distribution. When it comes to Gegenwartssprache. ed P. Grebe. filling the initial position, contextual Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut, factors play a particularly important role. 1973. The detailed investigation of the 9. Engel, Ulrich. Syntax der deutschen interrelationship of word order and context Gegenwartssprache. Berlin: Schmidt, is another task for the future. 1977. 10. Firbas, Jan. "On defining the theme in References Functional Sentence Analysis." Travaux Linguistique de Prague I, 1. Beneš, Edvard. "Die Ausklammerung 1964. in Deutschen als grammatische Norm 11. Firbas, Jan. "Thoughts on und als stilistischer Effekt." Communicative Function of the Verb Muttersprache. 78. 1968. in English, German and Czech." Brno 2. Beneš, Edvard. "Thema-Rhema- Studies in English I, 1959. Gliederung und textlinguistik" Studien. 12. Fuchs, Anna. "Normaler und Sitta and Brinker Ed. 1973. kontrastiver Akzent." Lingua 38. 3. Betz, Werner. "Zur Überprüfung 1976. einiger Wortstellungsregeln" Studien. 13. Kiparsky, Paul. "Über den deutschen Sitta and Brinker Ed. 1973. Akzent" Untersuchungen über Akzent 4. Bierwisch, Manfred. "Regeln für die und Intonation im Deutschen. Studia Intonation deutscher Sätze" Grammatica VIII. Berlin: Untersuchungen über Akzent und Akademieverlag, 1966. Intonation im Deutschen. Studia 14. Lenerz, Jürgen. Zur Abfolge nominaler Grammatica VII. Berlin: Satzglieder im Deutschen. Tübingen: Akademieverlag, 1966. TBL Günter Narr, 1977.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
A CA VERSUS A CDA APPROACH TO CROSS-GENDER TALK-IN-INTERACTION
Cristina DIMULESCU1
Abstract: This article attempts at demonstrating that language of talk-in- interaction is a resource that can provide direct access to the world and people’s perceptions of it. Representatives of Conversation Analysis consider that the researcher should not impose variables such as age, class, race or gender on the analysis as critical discourse analysts do, and that these variables will only be considered relevant if the participants orient to them. Nevertheless, a correct understanding of the context in which the linguistic interaction takes place has been proved to be of paramount importance.
Key words: Conversation Analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis, talk-in- interaction, cross-gender.
This paper aims at presenting a brief explain certain categories of conversations overview of Conversation Analysis and where the understanding is based on Critical Discourse Analysis, two meaning outside the excerpt. approaches to the study of talk-in- interaction. Whereas the former looks for A: I have a fourteen year old son answers strictly within the boundaries of a B: Well that’s all right given dialogue, the latter crosses the limits A: I also have a dog of the text at hand, bringing context into B: Oh I’m sorry the analysis. (Levinson cited in Mey, 186) The following discussion is centered around a comparison between the two This conversation is taking place within approaches, stressing on the importance of the context of A trying to lease a flat. A the context to the analysis of dialogue. mentions he has a son, information to As early as 1993, Jacob Mey called which the landlord does not object. Conversation Analysis a “minimalist However, on hearing he also has a dog, B approach” (185) which strictly operates utters “I’m sorry”, meaning that the leasing within the boundaries of co-text and can prospects have become rather dim. Mey only explain phenomena at hand. Mey thus proves that the social context is of stresses on the fact that understanding talk- paramount importance when analysing in-interaction means “a correct language in use. understanding of the whole context in Most mainstream sociology and which the linguistic interaction takes psychology treat language as a resource place” (186). The following example that can provide direct access to the world demonstrates that a CA approach cannot and people’s perceptions of it. In Gender
1 Transilvania University of Braşov. 184 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Talk, Susan Speer treats talk that invokes of purportedly ‘extra-discursive’ features descriptions of the world and the mind as a of context, such as participants’ age, class, topic that is researchable in its own right gender, sexual orientation, participants’ (97). Speer’s precept reiterates Harvey goals and so on, should not be assumed to Sacks’ hypothesis and reformulates be relevant to the interaction, or be statements by Hutchby and Wooffitt: “talk- imposed on the analysis by the researcher” in-interaction can be treated as an object of (2005, 115). Contrary to Deborah analysis in its own right, rather than simply Tannen’s theory of genderlects, CA a window through which we can view maintains that the analyst should not other social processes or broader conceive of gender as a “pre-given variable sociological variables” (21). or trait that determines the linguistic Conversation analysts are not concerned resources men and women use to speak, with the underlying social, cultural and but instead treats it as something that is psychological messages that are rendered constructed and oriented to in talk” (Speer, through talk, but with describing the ways 2005, 115). According to Schegloff, a CA in which speakers coordinate their talk to approach “offers to the study of cross- produce meaningful conversational gender communication a perspective that is actions. Each successive turn is a resource different from the one given by critical, which helps participants establish how politically oriented and feminist others understand their actions. researchers” (cited in Billig 573). Drew and Heritage state that the Schegloff suggests that CA approaches interactional context is not determined by social reality directly, examining it in the outside factors, but it is “continually being participants’ own terms. He contrasts this developed with each successive action” with Critical Discourse Analysis, which, (18), and contexts are “inherently locally he claims, imposes its own categories on produced and transformable at any participants. Schegloff suggests that CDA, moment” (19). Thus, the analyst does not because it is driven by prior theorizing, need to start the study having in mind the finds itself in the impossibility of unveiling socio-cultural variables or any other new things. Schegloff argues that CDA is information about the conversational often short on detailed, systematic analysis context beyond the talk. Speer states that of text or talk, for instance as carried out in “the idea that social contexts do not CA (1997). His opponents (Billig, ‘contain’ or ‘determine’ our actions Weatherall, 2000) agree that traditional CA represents a significant departure from minutely and correctly analyses talk in most mainstream sociology which interaction, but also find that this work conceives of the social world in terms of unnecessarily avoids further social analysis two contexts or realms – the ‘macro’ and critique, while being naive in such context of social structures and institutions, epistemological claims as limiting one’s and the ‘micro’ realm of local social analysis to participant categories only. processes and actions” (2005:98). Schegloff is critical of the approach in Identity and context can be formulated in which “the participants’ identities as men many ways: speakers possess multiple and women drive the analysis” (Speer, descriptions of identity which are 2005, 93). Following Schegloff, the use of potentially available, but it is not in all gender as an analytic category would only interactions that they make use of all of be appropriate when it is an observably them together (Speer, 2005, 115). Speer salient feature of the participants’ talk and states that “this means that a whole range conduct. Schegloff defends this judgement Dimulescu, C.: A CA versus a CDA Approach to Cross-Gender Talk-in-Interaction 185 as it would, on the one hand, provide a This example, instead of being solution to the problem of when to interpreted as male dominance through privilege gender over other possible interruption, on the Zimmerman and West dimensions of social identity that may also model, is an illustration of how be relevant to the interactional context, participants, irrespective of their sex, deal such as age or ethnic background. On the with weak agreements to assessments. In other hand, it would prevent feminist turn 1, “well that’s awful” is an emotional researchers from imposing their theoretical response, namely an assessment of what preoccupations with gender on the text to happened to their son (the burglary). In be examined. Tony’s turn, the pause signifies to Martha Ann Weatherall (2000) maintains “contra that he finished what he had to say. What Schegloff that gender is omni-relevant in follows in the overlap is an attempt to interaction” and Margaret Wetherell answer Tony’s question. Once Tony has (1998) “aims to balance these two views of completed his assessment in the second what counts as appropriate context” part of his turn, Marsha says “Yeh” (4) to (Bucholtz, 53). Lakoff highlights the same show agreement, and then she proceeds to opinion saying that “a complete analysis have another go at answering Tony’s requires both [close micro-analysis and question: “his friend Stee-”. In 5, Tony broad political analysis], and each level performs an upgrade of his initial will inform and deepen the other” (166). assessment, and in 6, Marsha utters a full In Schegloff’s example of a male-female agreement with Tony’s assessment: “Oh telephone conversation, apparent it’s disgusting”. interruptions, that critically oriented Schegloff claims that it is solely by researchers might interpret as an example examining actual instances of negotiated of male power and dominance, are interaction that we can explain context in explained from the point of view of such a way as to avoid using and conversational features that participants perpetuating essentialist generalizations use regardless of their sex. Schegloff about gender roles. The analyst is not maintains that, since there is no explicit supposed to privilege his/her own evidence that gender is directly relevant to interpretation, but “the orientations, the participants during the conversation, meanings, interpretations, understandings, interpretation of the patterns of etc. of the participants” (Schegloff, 1997, interruption and overlap along gender lines in Speer, 2002, 785). This entails that the would be incorrect. The excerpt discussed researcher should not impose variables belongs to a longer conversation between such as age, class, race, gender on the Martha and Tony who talk about their analysis. These variables will only be son’s car being burgled: considered relevant if the participants orient to them. 1 Tony: W’t’s ’e g’nna do go down en Marjorie Harness Goodwin mentions a pick it up later? Er series of other researchers who criticize, 2 somethin like ( ) [well that’s aw]:ful like Schegloff, the association between 3 Marsha: [His friend ] particular patterns and gender: Hopper and 4 Marsha: Yeh h[is friend Stee- ] LeBaron (1998), McHoul (1998), Stokoe 5 Tony: ]That really makes] me ma:d (2000), Kitzinger (2000) (715-730). 6 Marsha: Oh it’s disgusti[ng ez a Hopper and LeBaron openly contrast the matter a’f]a:ct. conversation analytic approach with (Schegloff, 1997:173) feminist research: “we should not … say 186 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
‘oh, look, here’s a man and a woman judgements about the type of talk being talking: let’s look at how they talk; oh, we studied (i.e. institutional, doctor/patient, can make these conclusions about domestic, etc.), and thus begin their gendered communication’. But rather we research from an implicit sociological should say, ‘gender only becomes an issue understanding. Categorizing the speakers when the participants themselves make it as ‘participants’ or ‘co-participants’ one and we can point to different things reflects the analysts’ understanding about about that’” (cited in Stokoe and the nature of the interaction being studied. Weatherall, 707). So the researcher is not Stokoe and Smithson suggest that CA supposed to apply blindly traditional provides “a new way of studying the links feminist theoretical work to any instance of between language and gender and […] a cross-sex conversational interaction, but useful tool for making claims about the he/she should demonstrate “that and how relevance of gender in talk-in-interaction gender is procedurally relevant for because such claims are grounded in speakers” (Stokoe and Weatherall, 708). speakers’ orientations” (219). At the same Nevertheless, Stokoe and Weatherall are time, the researchers assert that it is not striving to demonstrate that gender is only speakers’ orientations to gender that always relevant to interactions. They cite represent a valuable tool, but also Ehrlich who concludes that the participants’ and analysts’ culture and Schegloffian notion of participants’ common-sense knowledge. orientations is “too narrow and restrictive Billig closes his article while defining to adequately capture the significance of the differences between CA and CDA: “a gender as an organizing principle of firm distinction would be misleading institutions” (in Stokoe and Weatherall, because CDA, like CA, encourages the 709). One of the consequences of the close examination of spoken interaction; Schegloffian perspective is that “it does indeed, CDA often uses the methods and not allow researchers to characterize findings of CA. However, there are interactions as, say, ‘sexist’ – no matter differences between CDA and ‘traditional’ how tempting and obvious such a reading CA. The specific tasks of CDA are might be – unless such concerns are frequently part of a wider analysis of social attended to by participants” (Beach, 2000, inequality. Moreover, CDA wishes to cited in Stokoe and Weatherall, 708). theorize the presuppositions that must be In 1999, Michael Billig, in a response to brought to the micro-analysis of Schegloff, suggests that CA is by no means interaction. CDA does not claim “so methodologically or epistemologically epistemological naivety in the fulfilment of naive as Schegloff suggests” (573). He its methodological tasks, but explicitly claims that CA researchers bring wishes to incorporate insights from social presuppositions to the analysis too. Billig theory and other social sciences, including does not plead for the elimination of all macro social science, into the analysis of presuppositions, on the contrary, he thinks particulars” (Billig, 576). that the epistemological and Ann Weatherall, the same as Billig, methodological naivety that Schegloff discusses Schegloff’s assumptions. She recommends is neither desirable nor highlights the fact that feminists achievable. Billig gives an example in philosophers of science have stated that in order to demonstrate that prior judgements any analytic approach, impartiality is cannot be avoided. Before conducting the impossible. Schegloff himself, Weatherall analysis, the researcher must make some argues, while claiming to limit the scope of Dimulescu, C.: A CA versus a CDA Approach to Cross-Gender Talk-in-Interaction 187 the analysis to what the actors observably strict version of CA. By looking closely at orient to, “seems to commit the very kind the sequential organization of the of act that he describes as self-indulgent” conversation, Schegloff builds his (2000, 287). He thus provides important argument that what some feminist analysts background information about the parties might interpret as male power enacted involved: Marsha and Tony are Joey’s through interruptions of the female speaker parents, Joey is a teenager, Marsha and is instead an outcome of interactional Tony live apart, Joey lives with Tony. This issues, such as the negotiation of turn- background information is by no means taking, responses, agreements, and explicit from the excerpt presented, but assessments. The researcher does not reject gives the analysis coherence. Weatherall the possibility of a gender-based analysis concludes that “even if gender is not of the interactional data, but he insists that explicitly privileged by participants as feminist analyses of conversation be based relevant to the conversation, it is an on the clearly evident interactional salience omnipresent feature of all interactions” of gender rather than on analyst’s own (2000, 287-288). To make this conclusion theoretical and political concerns. even clearer, the linguist provides an The application of CA to the study of example by Cameron in an article gender has generated a heated debate, as published in Discourse and Society in articles by Billig, Stokoe and Smithson, 1998. The utterance “Is there any ketchup, Kitzinger, Edley and Weatherall Vera?” produced by a husband to his wife, demonstrate. Nevertheless, this debate by Vera, is used to demonstrate that gender numerous scholars working in the fields of subtly influences communication and CDA and traditional CA does not imply social interaction. The wife does not “that these fields themselves are in understand the utterance to be a question conflict, or even that they are incompatible with a yes/no answer, but a request for her research areas. There is good CA-oriented to fetch the ketchup. Although there is no work on talk that also addresses societal, explicit reference to gender in this line, the political and critical issues. And vice versa, pragmatic implication is clear an the many scholars doing more critical work, analysis must obviously take the gender for instance on gender, use conversations variable into consideration. as data and analyse these at least partly Schegloff and his followers caused a from a CA perspective. Thus, this debate wave of indignation among CDA should not be framed as a false dichotomy researchers. Speer, following Schegloff, between CDA and CA” (Van Dijk, 459). arguments that an adequate discursive In this paper I have offered a brief psychology does not need to venture contrastive overview of CA and CDA, two beyond the limits of the text to explain approaches that deal with the use of why participants say what they do. She language. My point has been that the recommends, the same as Schegloff does, researcher may broaden the scope of the that analysts restrict themselves to “the study and reach a more refined set of orientations, meanings, interpretations, conclusions while extending the analysis understandings etc. of the participants”. of a piece of talk-in-interaction beyond the Arguing against the theories and limits of the participants’ words, to a methods of CDA, an explicitly political context that goes from physical approach, Schegloff twice analyzes the surroundings and relationship between same data transcript, first according to a speakers, to broader cultural values and feminist model, and second according to a expectations. 188 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
References 9. Mey, Jacob. Pragmatics. An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell 1. Billig, Michael “Conversation Publishers Ltd, 1993. Analysis and the claims of naivety” 10. Schegloff, Emanuel. “Whose text? Discourse and Society 10(4): 572-578, Whose context?”, Discourse and 1999. Society 8(2): 165-187, 1997. 2. Bucholtz, Mary. “Theories of 11. Schegloff, Emanuel. “Discourse, discourse as theories of gender: pragmatics, conversation analysis”, Discourse Analysis in language and Discourse and Society 1(4): 405-435, gender studies” in Janet Holmes and 1999. Miriam Meyerhoff (eds.) The 12. Speer, Susan. “What can conversation Handbook of Language and Gender analysis contribute to feminist Malden Oxford Carlton. Blackwell, methodology? Putting reflexivity into pp.121-128, 2005. practice” Discourse and Society 13(6): 3. Drew, Paul and John, Heritage. 783-803, 2002. “Analyzing talk at work: An 13. Speer, Susan. Gender Talk. London introduction”. In P. Drew and J. and New York: Routledge, 2005. Heritage (eds) Talk at Work: 14. Stokoe, Elizabeth and Janet, Smithson. Interaction in Institutional Settings. “Making gender relevant: conversation Cambridge: Cambridge University analysis and gender categories in Press, 1992. interaction” Discourse and Society 4. Edley, Nigel. “Conversation Analysis, 12(2): 217-244, 2001. Discursive Psychology and the Study 15. Stokoe, Elizabeth and Anne, of Ideology: A Response to Susan Weatherall. “Gender, language, Speer” Feminism and Psychology conversation analysis and feminism” 11(1): 136-140, 2001. Discourse and Society 13(6): 707-713, 5. Harness-Goodwin, Marjorie. “Building 2002. power asymmetries in girls’ 16. Van Dijk, Teun Adrianus. “Critical interactions” Discourse and Society Discourse Analysis and Conversation 13(6): 715-730, 2002. Analysis” Discourse and Society 6. Hutchby, Ian and Robin, Wooffitt. 10(4): 459-460, 1999. Conversation Analysis. Principles, 17. Weatherall, Anne. “Gender relevance Practices and Applications. in talk-in-interaction and discourse” Cambridge: Polity Press, 1998. Discourse and Society 11(2): 286-288, 7. Kitzinger, Celia. “Doing feminist 2000. Conversation Analysis” Discourse and 18. Weatherall, Anne. “Towards Society 10(2): 163-193, 2000. understanding gender and talk-in- 8. Lakoff, Robin. “Language, gender, and interaction” Discourse and Society politics: putting ‘women’ and ‘power’ 13(6): 767-781, 2002. in the same sentence” in Janet Holmes and Miriam Meyerhoff (eds.) The Handbook of Language and Gender Malden Oxford Carlton: Blackwell, 2005.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
EVENT STRUCTURE AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS
Ferenc KIEFER1
Abstract: In the present article it will be assumed that events may be split into subevents and that there is a temporal relationship of precedence or overlap between subevents. Event structure is understood as the set of subevents together with the temporal relationship holding between them. An essential part of event structure can be determined by means of temporal adverbials. It will be claimed that at least ten different verb classes can be identified on the basis of event structure. It will also be pointed out that in some cases event structure has to be derived compositionally.
Key words: event structure, subevents, temporal relationship, verb classification, compositionality.
1. The Notion of Event Structure which denote a single punctual event, e.g. cry out(x), represented as ePunctual. The verb Predicates have an argument structure and outlive(x,y) has a more complex event an event structure. Minimally, event structure: if a person outlives another, he/she structure consists of the set of subevents is still alive after the second person has died. constituting the event and of the temporal We’ll assume that presupposed relationships between these subevents states/processes as well as implied (Pustejovsky 1995, Engelberg 2000). There states/processes are integral part of event are at least tw types of temporal relationship: structure. In the case of build(x,y) the (a) temporal precedence ’<’ and (b) resulting state is implied, in the case of simultaneity or temporal overlap ’<>’, E.g. reach(x,y) the preceding process/activity is the event denoted by the verb build(x,y), if presupposed. used nonprogressively, consists of two consecutive subevents, a process (the process 2. Verb Classification of building y) and a resulting state (y is ready); the process precedes the resulting Verbs have often been classified on the Process State state: e1 < e2 ; the event denoted by basis of their event structure. In quite a few the verb accompany(x,y) consists of two cases, event structure can be identified by simultaneous or overlapping subevents: means of temporal adverbials (Vendler Process Process e1 <> e2 . Stative verbs denote a 1967, Dowty 1979). However, normally single event: the event of being in a certain only four event types were discussed: state, e.g. hate(x,y), which can be represented states (own, know, hate), processes (run, as eState. Simple process verbs, too, denote a write, listen), achievements (reach, find, single event, e.g. run(x), which can be win) and accomplishments (build, grow up, represented as eProcess. There are also verbs recover).
1 Research Institute for Linguistics, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest. 190 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
1. Bill owned an expensive car for two The event denoted by occupy is compatible weeks/at five o’clock/*in two hours. with punctual and delimiting temporal 2. John was running for two hours/at five adverbials whereas the event expressed by o’clock/*in two hours. survive is only compatible with by- 3. Mary wrote a book in three months/*at adverbials. five o’clock/*for three months. 4. The children reached the top in two 7. a. Bill survived his wife by ten years/*at days/at five o’clock/*for two hours. five o’clock/*for ten years/*in ten years. States and processes can be distinguished b. The students occupied the university by means of temporal adverbials provided for five days/in five days/at five that we also take into account the meaning o’clock. of the temporal adverbials. Time point adverbials may have different functions in Since survive does not represent a verb the case of states, processes and class, we will leave it out of consideration. achievements. Activities take for- and at-, The fact that the verb occupy is compatible accomplishments in-, and achievements in- with in- and at-adverbials implies that it and at- adverbials. For-adverbials are just can be a punctual and a process verb. durative (they denote in (2) the length of In some languages some verbs may the process though they may also denote take until-adverbials only. Compare the the length of the subsequent event, as we following Hungarian sentence, in which shall see presently), in-adverbials delimit the verb elborozgat ’drink wine for a the duration of a process (in fact, they are while’ expresses the delimitative ambiguous, they may either denote the aktionsart: length of the process until its termination or the time span from speech time until the 8. Öt óráig/*öt órán át/*öt óra alatt/*öt time point when the event takes place: Bill órakor elborozgattak. will leave in two hours, in this case they ’They were drinking wine until five are purely deictic) and at- adverbials are o’clock’ punctual (and are normally deictic but can also be used to identify punctual events). To sum up, we have to count with the In addition to these three temporal following temporal adverbials: adverbials at least the following three types of adverbials must be taken into 9. a. for-adverbials referring to the length consideration: by-adverbials, as in (5), for- of a process (G. während, F. pendant, adverbials denoting the length of the H. át) subsequent state, as in (6), and until- b. in-adverbials (G. in, F. en, H. alatt) adverbials denoting the end point of a (the deictic use is rendered in H by process, as in (8). the postposition múlva) c. at-adverbials (G. um, F. à, H. –kor) 5. Bill survived his wife by ten years. d. for-adverbials referring to the length 6. The students occupied the university for of the subsequent state (G. für, F. five days. pour, H. -ra e. until-adverbials (G. bis, F. jusque, vH – Note that in (6) the for-adverbial denotes ig) the length of the subsequent state while in (2) it refers to the length of the process. Kiefer, F.: Event Structure and the Classification of Verbs 191
Note that at-adverbials identify punctual the race (*They won the race for two events if no other temporal adverbial is hours), i.e. if the object noun is spelled out. admitted (cf. below example (12)). (In Hungarian the difference would appear Recall that so far we have identified the in the form of the presence/absence of the following verb classes: verbal particle: nyer ’win’ – meg-nyer ’win something’.) Note that ePunctual < eState (a) states (own, resemble, consist, know, characterizes win the race but not win, the hate, perceive) latter being a punctual event without a (b) processes (run, walk, work, read, paint) subsequent state and belongs in this respect (c) accomplishments (build, grow up, to the class of verbs represented by knock, recover) wave, tap, etc.. These verbs differ from (d) achievements (reach, stop, recognize, other punctual verbs such as cry out, call find, win, die) out, shout out, which can never occur with for-adverbials: States are represented by eState, processes by eProcess, accomplishments by eProcess < 12. He cried out *in two hours/*for two eState , the event structure of achievements hours/at five o’clock. as in (d) contains a punctual event and a subsequent state: ePunctual < eState . However, The main semantic difference between achievements are a heterogeneous class: the stop-type and the cry out-type verbs the verbs reach and stop presuppose a seems to be that the former are preceding process: eProcess < ePunctual < eState , achievements (eProcess < ePunctual ), whereas whereas this is not the case with recognize the latter are not. Notice that the cry out- and find (I found ten dollars in the street). type verbs have no place in the Vendler- The verbs reach and stop, too, differ from Dowty-typology. each other because stop, but not reach, is To sum up, we have established the compatible with for-adverbials referring to folllowing verb classes thus far: the length of the subsequent state: (a) states (own, resemble, consist, know, 10.a. They stopped for two hours. hate, perceive) b. *They reached the top for two hours. (b) processes (run, walk, work, read, paint) The difference between (10a) and (10b) (c) accomplishments (build, grow up, is that in the former case the ’stopping’- recover) event can be reversed, i.e. movement can (d) punctual verbs with a subsequent be resumed whereas once the top was state but without any preceding reached, no reversal is possible. Finally, process there is also a difference between stop and (e) (recognize, find) win, as shown by (11a,b). (f) punctual verbs with a preceding process and a subsequent state (reach, 11.a. They stopped for two hours. stop, win b. They won the whole week long. (g) with a direct object) (h) punctual verbs which are not (11b), but not (11a), expresses a achievements, and which do not succession of punctual events, which presuppose any preceding process yields an imperfective reading. This and do not imply any subsequent state reading is not possible in the case of win (cry out, shout out). 192 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Class (e) can still be split into two (15) denotes an iterative event, i.e. subclasses according to whether the several ’winning’-events, win-type verbs subsequent state is reversible (stop, pause) are in this sense related to the knock-type or irreversible (reach, win) since the verbs (cf. (16a,b) but their event structure former, but not the latter admit for- is identical with that of the reach-type adverbials which denote the length of the verbs: subsequent state. It can be argued that reversible states are controlled states 16. a. Bill knocked at the door at two (controlled by the Agent) in agentive o’clock. sentences and belong thus to the class of b. Bill knocked at the door for two so-called dynamic states. If we distinguish hours. normal states from dynamic states, we can assign two different event structures to Knock-type verbs are compatible both pause and reach, i.e. eProcess < ePunctual < with at- and for-adverbials, they are verbs eDynState and eProcess < ePunctual < eState . The without a preceding process and a verbs open, lock, go out, leave are similar consequent state. The verb knock, and to the pause-type verbs since they imply a similarly wink, tap, wave, cough, denotes a dynamic state but they differ from them repetitive process. As for event structure, since they presuppose a preceding state knock-type verbs and cry out-type verbs rather than a process: eState < ePunctual < have lexically identical event structures, eDynState . In other words, class (e) contains but they represent two different verb three classes of verbs, all with different classes. Notice that (16a,b) seems to event structure. contradict the claim that at-adverbials can be used to identify punctual events only if (e1) punctual verbs with a preceding no other temporal adverbial is admitted. process and a subsequent dynamic state However, (16b) does not express a single (stop, knocking event but a series of such events. pause) At least one further verb class must be (e2) punctual verbs with a preceding added to the ones discussed thus far: the process and a subsequent state (reach, win) live through-type verbs are incompatible (e3) punctual verbs with a preceding with any temporal adverbial (cf. We have state and a subsequent dynamic state lived through the war, the verb denotes a (open, go durative but at the same time terminated out) event). The class of these verbs imply another durative event (or events), which is The second class can further be split into contained in the temporal interval of the two subclasses: (intransitive) win, but not event denoted by the verb. reach, is compatible with for-adverbials denoting the length of the (iterated) (g) live through-type verbs (live process. through, go through)
13. The car stopped for a couple of The verb live through is incompatible minutes. with temporal adverbials for the simple 14. *They reached the top for several reason that the duration as well as the hours. termination of the event is determined by 15. The won for hours. another event denoted by an event noun:
Kiefer, F.: Event Structure and the Classification of Verbs 193
17. They lived through the war *in six The verb dust is clearly a process years/*for six years/*by six years. (activity) verb with the event structure eProcess , the termination is brought about by There are some other verbs, which seem the presence of the in-adverbial in (20b), to be incompatible with temporal where the event structure eProcess < eState is adverbials for other reasons, e.g. fail, derived compositionally. (Of course, dust forget. must be characterized as belonging to a separate lexical verb class.) Similarly, it 18. The bomb failed to explode *at five can also be argued that knock-type verbs o’clock/*for five hours/*in five hours. are turned compositionally into iterative 19. John forgot to call you up *at five predicates. o’clock/*for five hours/*in five hours. A large number of process verbs exhibit 20. The plan failed at five o’clock/for five the same phenomenon. For example, verbs hours/*in five hours. of motion with directional adverbials 21. I forgot your name at five o’clock/for denote predicates with a subsequent state: five hours/*in five hours. He was running – He was running into the room. Similarly, transitive activity verbs These verbs refer to something that did with optional object arguments are not take place, the negation of an event is processes if the object noun is not spelled not an event, fail and forget don’t have any out. They can, however be turned into event structure. accomplishment predicates by means of an overt object (depending on the form of the (h) fail and forget verb and on the type of the object noun): He was writing – He wrote a book. To summarize, then, we have arrived at Languages may differ in the ways ten verb classes ((a)-(h) and the subclasses process verbs are being turned into of punctual verbs), which all have different accomplishment verbs or punctual events. event structures. However, it should be Compare the following English and made clear that we did not aim at Hungarian sentences: completeness: a more systematic examination of verbs may lead to some 23.a. She dried her hair for ten minutes. more verb classes. b. She dried her hair in ten minutes. 24.a. Tíz percig szárította a haját. 3. The Compositionality of Event b. Tíz perc alatt megszárította a haját. Structure There is a resulting state in (23b), but not Yet another verb class is respresented by in (23a). The verbs are identical, the verbs such as dust, clean, dub, which are difference can only be explained compatible with both for- (process) and in- compositionally: the accomplishment adverbials, in the first case they have a reading is brought about by the process-reading, in the second case an composition of the process verb with the accomplishment-reading: delimiting temporal adverbial. In Hungarian, on the other hand, the process 22.a. Bill was dusting the living room for verb szárít in (24a) is turned into an hours. accomplishment predicate by prefixation: b. Bill dusted the living room in two meg-szárít ’particle + dry’. In this respect hours. 194 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Hungarian is similar to the Slavic Consequently, the punctual reading is languages. brought about compositionally: it is due to Compositionality can also be observed in the adverb once in English and to the the case of verbs with phasic structure such verbal particle meg- in Hungarian. as wag. In English the process reading is expressed by the progressive past, the References semelfactive by the simple past. In Hungarian the semelfactive contains the 1. Dowty, David R. Word Meaning and prefectivizing particle meg. The difference Montague Grammar. The Semantics of between the process and punctual reading Verbs and Times in Generative is exemplified in (25a,b) and (26a,b). Semantics and in Montague’s PTQ. Dordrecht: Reidel, 1979. 25.a. The dog was wagging its tail (for 2. Engelberg, Stefan. Verben, Ereignisse several minutes). und das Lexikon. Tübingen: Niemeyer, b. The dog wagged its tail once (at five 2000. o’clock). 3. Pustejovsky, James. The Generative 26.a. A kutya csóválta a farkát (több Lexicon. Cambridge, MA: The MIT percen át). Press, 1995. b. A kutya megcsóválta a farkát (öt 4. Vendler, Zeno. Linguistics in órakor). Philosophy. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1967.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
AN ASPECT OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND MENTAL STRUCTURES
Andrei Petru BARNA1
Abstract: One of the problems the EU has brought about is that of the language all the community members will communicate in with one another. In the Western civilization including the European countries and the United States, it is English that has increasingly been imposing itself, to the detriment of French, as early as the middle of the last century. The Humboldt’s theory on the existence of some structural connections between language and culture or ethnicity, taken over by scholars in various fields who are referred to in this paper, points out the interdependence between language, thought and psychosocial personality, and at the same time, the threats entailed when a language imposes itself. Moreover, the use of technical languages implies changes in the human thinking. Confronted with these objective laws, the author of this paper asks himself what is to be done.
Key words: lingua franca, western civilisation, language, psychosocial profile, formalisation of thought.
1. Introduction a common language, a «lingua franca», in general, and a compatible technical and To state that the idea of a United Europe scientific language able to satisfy all the has brought about more problems than it members of the multinational community solved is certainly a truism. about to be born. Thus, if things are heading for an end as much spectacular as beneficial, in so far as 2. Lingua Franca in the Western regards the higher education and scientific Civilisation research, by i) the subscription of almost all of the member or future member states If we make a short incursion into the to the sole educational system comprising history of civilizations, including of course two basic educational cycles, ii) the the Western one, i.e. the civilization generalization of the transferable credits developing on the European territory and system on account of the similarities in the United States, the assertion that the created among the curricula, and iii) language of the dominant power imposes increasingly frequent mobility among itself as the lingua franca is absolutely students, teaching staff and researchers due valid. In this respect, it is known that from to their common objectives, we cannot the 17th century to the end of the 19th state the same thing about the need to find century, it was France the one giving the
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Transilvania University of Braşov.
196 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV lead in Europe, the French language independent of the fact that it is the subject overrunning the other national languages, of a discussion. But there are also imposing its political, administrative, philosophical judgements that bring military, scientific languages and even its seriously in question the independence of turns of phrase. the language on the reality in discussion. We have been witnessing for some With certain elements of pragmatics in the decades to a general regress of the French building process of the word meaning as language and to its gradual replacement by the starting point, it comes to assign to the English, as the lingua franca of the language not only the representation Western civilization and therefore of the function but that of creating the reality, the world. This can be only partly accounted world (Morris, 265). The issue of the for by the huge expansion, in the 19th influence the language exerts upon the century, of the British Empire, trade and conception we have about the world is not finance. The determining element was the new in philosophy. Kant asserted that sudden appearance of the United States as space and time are ways of the human a dominant political power. spirit to perceive reality, and are It should be noted one more difference «superposed» by the human spirit upon the between the manner the French language objective reality; only with the aid of exerted its influence in the 18th and 19th “glasses”, the perception modalities, can centuries, and the manner the influence of the objective reality be recognized (they the English language is exerted nowadays. can actually deform reality). Herder Although spoken by a minority elite reproached the Kant’s Critique of Pure French had a long-term profound influence Reason with the complete disregarding of upon the vocabulary and sometimes (as in the language. In its turn, language the case of the Romanian language ...) influences the perception modalities. upon the syntax of a large number of When Humboldt writes that: “Language European languages. Occurring in a is the formative organ of thought” society with more democratic structures (Humboldt, 55) the conception saying that and at a moment of the civilization when language is an accurate reproduction of the most national languages have already reality comes definitively to an end. lived their classical ages in literature, the Humboldt also mentions: “The subjective influence of English seems to restrict itself activity of thinking is the one creating the at the level of vocabulary and in specific object, for there is no thought that can be fields which will be drawn along the page. considered as the pure receptive (Spengler, Toynbee, Djuvara) contemplation of a previously designated object. The activity of assigning some 3. Language, Thought, Psychosocial meanings has to form a synthesis with the Profile inner activity of spirit... For such a thing language is essential” (Humboldt, 102) Language is an instrument to represent And further on: “The reciprocal reality, this being perceived independent of interdependence of thinking and verb the language is an assertion that seems to obviously shows that languages are not be true at first sight. For instance, when means of representation of an already Buhler (Buhler 24) defines language known truth, but means to discover a truth saying that “someone talks to someone ignored by then” (Humboldt 41). about something” that something talked Such thesis implies without question about has an existence and a form some consequences, with multiple Barna, A.P.: The Synergy of Language in the University-Industry Relation 197 implications. If the perception of the linguistic community, assumes the world, or of the truth about it, cannot be characteristic mentality of the community conceived without the aid of language, which shapes it in such a way that its it might be immediately deduced that mental activity is more strongly language is one of the elements determined by the conception about the determining the conception about the world of its mother tongue than by its own world of the members of the linguistic individual personality” (Weisgerber 75). communities speaking it. The next step is In the same period with Weisgerber, but that each different language thus brings having no connection with him, Sapir about different conceptions about the wrote in one of his studies about the world, within the various linguistic conceptual categories in the primitive communities of its members. Humboldt language: “We seldom misunderstand the saw very clearly the consequences of his relation between language and experience. thesis: “the mental features and the Language is not just an inventory, more or development of one nation’s language are less systemized in various items of so closely linked that, knowing one of experience that seem relevant to the them, the other can be deduced, for the individual ... (language) is a symbolic intellect and language allow and take only autonomous creative structure that does forms reciprocally compatible. Language not refer only to an experience mostly can be considered an outer expression of acquired without its aid but which, in fact, the nations’ spirit. Language is their spirit defines the experience for us ... ” and their spirit is language. They both are (Sapier 573). rigorously identical” (Cassirer). Thus, language appears among the Therefore, the image a man receives by factors the modern psychology knowledge (Kant) or by language acknowledges as co-determinants in the (Humboldt) depends not only on the nature development and quality of the perception, of the perceived object, but it always learning and thinking processes. The new implies an active contribution of the outlook over the social perception individual, too. As Cassirer suggests, it is especially underlined the importance of not about imitation (Abbild) but about motivation and experience in the way the creation (Urbild). perception and learning are organized. The characteristic way each language Among such factors, language has a organizes itself in order to express its own special position: it is less powerful than the “conception about the world”, is what biological and physiological factors Humboldt terms “the inner form of a operating over the entire species, but its language”. influence is stronger than all the other Humboldt’s thesis was resumed and social, situational and individual factors. It developed within several fields, aiming for is not the direct experience of the different goals. individual and its personal motivation what The names of some scholars as contributes to its conception about the Weisgerber in linguistics, Sapir and Whorf world, as it is language (comparable to the in ethnology, Cassirer in philosophy, and sensorial organs we are physically of others can be mentioned. As early as endowed with) the one placing to its 1931, Weisgerber worded the basic disposal the necessary tools to acquire such principle of all these developments: “We experience. And these tools are among have to recognize to what extent the those that cannot be refused by the individual, by virtue of its belonging to a individual, who is compelled to use them. 198 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
It is sometimes very difficult to find the message created and transmitted through proper words for what we see, but once an usual channel by the transmitter, should found, these words «work» the reality like be completely known by the receiver, in a as many little hammers that the craftsman certain given context and a register pre- uses to work copper” (Benjamin 44). established by both of them: the technical one, of course. In a formalized language, 4. Language Structure Formalisation – the expressive or emotive function and the Formalisation of Thought poetic one are reduced to zero. The register functions (referential and metalinguistical) One of the ultimate consequences of the determine constraints from the direction of above-stated concerns the mental the reference field the language expresses, structures/verbal structures relation, a becoming objectified, communicating biunivocal one, which therefore exclusively objective relations, by reciprocally condition one another. From adequate means to the objective reference here one can easily deduce that a certain field. Thus language becomes more type of formalized verbal behaviour selective in terms of achieving some induces a certain type of mental behaviour. syntactical constructions specific to the This idea has historical roots: the first signs conditions imposed by the given reference of speech formalizing coincide with the first field direction, by technical terms but not writings, where the expressive function of limited to them, having only one the language is cancelled by a neutral destination: the specialist. By cancelling reference field – official deeds, documents – the expressive function, the technical or, later, by the development of the scientific language becomes depersonalized and will and technical subjects. Thus a common never make use of the lexical or language imposes itself, formalized at the grammatical means that would emphasize specialist’s and speciality level, as a a subjective point of view. In other words, requirement of extra-linguistic nature at the level of code function and referential determined by a certain reference field, context, of register in the technical which could be expressed and transmitted reference field, an objective approach of only within the limits of some adequate the technical processes and lack of interest patterns. By the generalization of schooling in the subject describing that process is and readjusting the training by subjects of a supposed. By the cancellation of the scientific or technical prevailing nature, the expressive function, all the language impact of the formalized verbal structures means contravening to the technical over the intellectual behaviour becomes a register function are automatically mass phenomenon. excluded. The result is a standard structure, The formalization of the scientific and whose basic features are, apart from the technical language structures is a natural specific vocabulary, the rigidity of the and determined phenomenon that can be syntactic construction and its repetitive theoretically motivated by the way it is character, and the occurrence of the same achieved at the level of the language structures in the same contexts functions. respectively. Thus, the formalization of the In order to be effective as a language, it technical language has an objective is necessary that the „classical” functions explanation and an inevitability character – of the language should be effective in it is not possible otherwise – and the same communication.1 In order that the message for the consequences resulting from this should be formalized, the code of the fact. Barna, A.P.: The Synergy of Language in the University-Industry Relation 199
One of the consequences is that dependent on a professional style, and this unspecific means, with a continuously style, formalized, is a formative one. The increasing frequency, are introduced into verbal behaviour/intellectual behaviour or the everyday language, such as compressed verbal structures/mental structures relation syntactical structures and placing the becomes in this way a fact. logical subject at the beginning of the sentence. 5. Conclusions Another consequence is the specialization by technical, univocal The resulting conclusions which, operations, to the detriment of the unfortunately, allow us only to wait for a originality of expression, and of the word predictable end with our eyes open, are plasticity. The force of the word and of the valid on two directions. metaphorical syntagm is replaced by the If we accept the assertions of the above- technicized syntax and by the mentioned coryphaei of the “history of agglomerations of logical-operational civilization” and of other historians as syntagms. The technical register of well, it will be English the language that language is the one processing the will increasingly impose itself. So much information, in agreement with the the more it is necessary to find a solution requirements of the reference field. for the homogenization of the technical The structures produced in such a way languages. offer only the possibility to be copied, the On the other hand and in another view, if originality in a creative sense being we give trust to the Humboldt’s vision on excluded. The increase in the direction of the language that proved its validity both formalization therefore entails the decrease by itself and by the researches it has of the originality potential at the level of inspired, we will accept the following language creation. sentence, which is as sibylline as it proves Repeating in the course of time the to be possible, containing in ovo a possible formalized language structures, solution to the language problems standardized syntactical structures and concerning us: “Language combines the agglomerations of verbal syntagms, universal convergence and the individual corroborated with the decreasing of the specialization in such an amazing way that language creative potential facilitates on it is as much justified to talk about a single one hand the transfer of formalized language peculiar to the human species as structures from speciality specific fields to we can talk about a specific language unspecific, everyday fields. On the other peculiar to each individual” hand, as transformed into language (Humboldt 103). automatisms by long-time use, the formalized language cancels in part the References original intellectual behaviour and creates a type of false intellectual behaviour. We 1. Benjamin, William. "San Gimignano” refer to the fact that we are often in the Thèmes de culture en France. Le position to see that the formalized verbal Havre: Garnier, 1958. structures and syntagms take the place of 2. Buhler, Karl. Sprachtheorie. thinking, as we automatically build Translated from French by F. Dubois- sentences, especially when the reference Charlier, Théorie du langage. Paris: field is an abstract one. This is because we Larousse, 1978. become, with or without our will, 200 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
3. Cassirer, Ernst. Philosofie der Papers. New York: Braziller symbolischen Formen. I: Die Sprache, Publishing House, 1955, 2nd volume translated from English by R. (Belknap Press of Harvard University Manheim, The Philosophy of Symbolic Press, 1960). Forms, I: Language, New Haven: Yale 8. Sapir, Edward. “Conceptual Categories University Press, 1953. in Primitive Language”. Selected 4. Djuvara, Neagu. Civilisations et Lois writings in language, culture and historiques. Paris: Mouton & Cie, personality. University of California 1975. Press, 1949. 5. Humboldt, Wilelm von. Über die 9. Spengler, Oswald., Der Undergang Verschiedenheit des menschlichen des Abendlandes. Translated from Sprachbaues und ihren Einfluss auf die French by M. Tazerout. 2 vol.. Paris: geistige Entwicklung des Gallimard, 1948. Menschengeschlechts. Translated from 10. Toynbee, Arnold Joseph. A Study of French by H. Back şi D. Ermot. Paris: History. Translated from French by E. Gallimard, 1949. Julia, L’Histoire, un essai 6. Jakobson, Roman. Linguistique et d’interprétation. Paris: Gallimard, poétique, Essai de linguistique 1951. générale. Paris: Editions de Minuit, 11. Weisgerber, Leo. Vom Weltbild der 1964. deutschen Sprache. Translated from 7. Morris, Charles William. “Signs, French by J.-F. Longacre. Paris: Albin Language and Behavior”. Collected Michel, 1953.
1 The six functions of the language are the following: transmitter, receiver, code, channel, message and content. The operational mechanism is the following: the transmitter transmits a message to the receiver. In order to be operational, the message needs first a referential context and then a code, both of them being common, and fully or partly known by the transmitter and the receiver. Finally, the message benefits from a contact, a physical channel and a connection between the transmitter and the receiver. Each of these six elements give birth to various functions: the expressive or emotive function, focused on the transmitter; the conative function, focused on the receiver; the referential function, denotative, focused on the context; the metalinguistic function, oriented on the code; the fatic function, oriented on the contact established through the channel; and the poetic function, focused right on the message (Jakobson, 135).
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
CONSTRUCTING AND MAINTAINING WORKPLACE RELATIONSHIPS THROUGH TALK
Stanca MĂDA1
Abstract: Workplace interaction is a site for achieving objectives: both the transactional objectives, embedded in the organizational targets, and the relational objectives i.e. linked to the concepts of power and politeness. This paper focuses mainly on the communication strategies used by the chairs of two meetings, which took place in Romanian organizations. The direct and indirect manifestations of power aim at controlling the development of the meetings and at building and maintaining hierarchical relationships. Positive politeness strategies foster collegiality and strengthen workplace relationships.
Key words: Workplace interaction, transactional objectives, relational objectives, power, positive politeness strategy.
1. Introduction 2. Power and Politeness: the Role of the Chair In many workplaces, meetings cover a significant period of working time, Generally speaking, seniority and representing the main forum for authority are the main factors in meeting information, planning and organizing the management. The role of the chair has activity. It functions “as one of the most specific discursive functions and important and visible sites of determines the content and style of organizational power, and of the reification meetings, their general structure and the of organizational hierarchy’ (Mumby direction taken in the discussion. Explicit 1988: 68). Decisions are reached and manifestations of power are overt people cooperate for solving problems. strategies of meeting management. They Meetings represent a dynamic include setting the agenda, maintaining communicative process, in which discussions within the track (the topic), participants focus on both transactional marking each stage of the meeting, and relational objectives of the summarizing progress and reaching organization. This paper focuses on the decisions. “relational work” (Fletcher 1999) that One of the most obvious way in which people do in order to construct and someone can influence the content of a maintain good working relationships meeting is by determining what goes on during meetings. Participants use various the agenda. Managers set the agenda and communicative strategies for building make explicit at the beginning of the power hierarchy and maintaining meeting what they expect to cover and in discussions in the limits of politeness. what order.
1Romanian Language and Literature Department, Faculty of Letters, Transilvania University of Braşov.
202 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Example 11 (Context: The beginning of a board alternative agenda. We can observe this meeting in which Ina (the general manager) when a participant, other than the chair, states the agenda): proposes a different agenda or diverts the (RO) discussion for a considerable time. INA: Deci pe ordinea de zi, azi avem discutarea rezultatelor din 2005… cu Example 2 (Context: A board meeting. Ina (the diversele influenţe pe care le-au avut general manager) proposes to move forward to anumiţi parametrii pe care nu i-am… another subject. Eni, Matei, and Carol are stabilit… nu i-am avut în vedere la department managers. Irina works in bugetare… Vom trece în revistă administration.): obiectivele pe care ni le-am asumat în (RO) 2005, cele generale ale 1 INA: aşa… şi dacă tot suntem la tipărituri… companiei…şi...ăă..vom discuta apoi ce Ai văzut că nu a fost greu… asta a fost tot obiective ne asumăm în 2006…urmând despre espresso. ca să trecem la discuţii individuale pe 2 ENI: mai sunt… obiective, cu fiecare în parte, după ce 3 INA: a, mai sunt… stabilim obiectivele companiei… 4 IRINA: cel mai important mi se pare că e folosirea siglei de (EN) 5 CAROL: a… INA: So, today on the agenda we have 6 IRINA: către terţi discussing the results from 2005…with 7 INA: insurance documents… the influences of various parameters we 8 IRINA: acolo. didn’t… establish… didn’t consider at 9 INA: aicea la insurance mă uit eu… asta budgeting… We’ll go through the merge la tehnic… objectives we assumed in 2005, the 10 IRINA: se ocupă cineva? general ones of the 11 MATEI: da (…) company…and…we’ll be discussing 12 INA: certificatele de calitate what objectives we are assuming in 13 MATEI: tot la tehnic. 2006…then we’ll go on with individual 14 IRINA: tot la tehnic? discussions, with each of you, focusing 15 INA: da…şi după ce sunt puse la punct să on objectives, after we establish the le dăm la logistică şi să le trimită odată cu objectives of the company… produsele… 16 CAROL: nu ar putea fi făcută o chestie…în Setting the agenda is a strategy that funcţie de ce sort avem noi atunci, în occurs in meetings irrespective of size, momentul în care tipăreşte factura să iasă being signalled through statements such as: şi un certificat de calitate…să-şi ia We shall talk about…; What I’d like to do numărul de lot…şi aşa mai departe. is…; So, what I propose to discuss in this 17 INA: deci… meeting…; We will analyze…; we will 18 CAROL: introdus în baza de date. focus upon... and we will discuss about…; 19 INA: mentorul este în comă… Let’s roll through the main issues from the 20 CAROL: mentorul este în comă de? agenda. These utterances indicate that the 21 INA: timp, pierdem foarte mult timp… (EN) speaker is organizing the discourse 1 INA: so…and if we’re talking about prints… according to the aimed objectives. you saw it wasn’t so difficult… this was Explicitly stating the agenda represents all about Expresso. an efficient means through which the chair 2 ENI: There are more… controls the discourse and affirms the 3 INA: oh, there are… authority. A useful strategy of resisting 4 IRINA: the most important (fact) seems to authority or subverting the established be the usage of the sigle by… power structures is attempting to set an 5 CAROL: oh… 6 IRINA: third parties Măda, S.: Constructing and Maintaining Workplace Relationships through Talk 203
7 INA: insurance documents… digression. This chair uses topic control 8 IRINA: there. strategies typically signaled by a discourse 9 INA: here at insurance I’ll check … this marker such: da (right), sigur (sure), bine goes to technical… (okay), deci (so), or even more explicitly: 10 IRINA: is anybody in charge? let’s get back to the point / back on track. 11 MATEI: yes (…) 12 INA: quality certificates A related strategy is the use of crisp, 13 MATEI: technical, too. businesslike statements and responses to 14 IRINA: technical? contribution of others. These are meant to 15 INA: yes…and after they are brushed up interrupt the discourse strategically, in we pass them to logistics to send them with order to move the discussion along or to the products deal with a particular issue briskly. This 16 CAROL: couldn’t it be done something strategy signals the speaker’s wish to solve like…depending on what sort we are on, the problems efficiently, avoiding any when it prints the invoice, to select a unnecessary digression. quality certificate…to be able to take the batch number…and so on. Example 3 (Context: A board meeting. Ina, the 17 INA: so… general manager, attempts to move the 18 CAROL: Put it into the database discussion forward, preventing Matei’s 19 INA: the mentor is in coma… digression.): 20 CAROL: the mentor is in coma of? (RO) 21 INA: time, we lose a lot of time… 1 MATEI: părerea mea… 2 INA: da. In the above example we have two 3 MATEI: este că facem un talmeş-balmeş din subversive moves, one assumed by Irina, toate…ne trebuie cineva să răspundă… să and other by Carol. The authority of the ne facă toate traducerile, adaptările, de chair (Ina) in setting the agenda is fapt… questioned by Irina who diverts the 4 INA: deci anumite documente da, altele nu. discussion (lines 4, 6, and 8). In line 9, Ina 5 MATEI: să le aducem în discuţie pe fiecare assumes solving the problem and attempts în parte…să le citim apoi să… to move on. In line 10, Irina initiates and 6 INA: sigur, le parcurgem şi apoi am putea să successfully completes assigning the le împărţim ca şi sarcini… (EN) responsibly before Ina does. Ina brings 1 MATEI: in my opinion… quality certificates into discussion (line 2 INA: yes 12), Matei offers a solution (line 13), Irina 3 MATEI: is that we do a mambo-jumbo out asks for confirmation (line 14) and Ina of these… we need somebody to take ratifies the decision and sets the course of responsibility… to do all the translations action through a directive (line 15) The for us, adapting, in fact… second subversive move is Carol’s attempt 4 INA: certain documents yes, others no. to propose a different technical solution 5 MATEI: we should discuss each of them… (lines 16 and 18), which is abruptly to read them, then to… rejected by Ina (line 19). She chooses a 6 INA: sure, we’ll go through and then distribute them as tasks… disconcerting expression (line 19) in order to bring discussions on track, explaining Ina’s contributions (lines 2, 4, 6) are the reason for her decision (line 21 pithy and focused and serve to minimize The chair’s role is to take responsibility discussion and keep exploration of the for ensuring the agenda is fully covered in problems they face to a minimum. The the time available. Keeping the discussion group knows each other well and the on track involves moving a group back to attention to politeness factors is minimal. the agenda topic during or after a 204 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Another related strategy involves keeping she mentions even the position of the the discussion on track by ensuring people figures on the handout. thoroughly cover a topic before moving Sometimes, summarizing progress is made on, thus making sure they do not digress. overtly only before and after a break. In general, this strategy is functioning only Example 4 (Context: A board meeting. Ina backwards, summarizing what has been gives a summary of the situation.): discussed so far. In the following example, we (RO) have a forward orientation of this strategy. INA: din punctul meu de vedere… ceea ce aveam de discutat în plen am acoperit… Example 6 (Context: The end of the first part dacă voi mai aveţi ceva de comentat… vă of a board meeting. Ina is reconsidering the rog să comentaţi. agenda according to what has left to be (EN) discussed.): INA: as I see it… what we had to discuss in (RO) plenary meeting, we’ve covered…if you 1 INA: (…) deci ăăă dacă vreţi facem o pauză have anything else to say… please do. după care revenim să discutăm punct cu punct subiectele din expresso şi cine The role of the chair is very important in răspunde de implementare şi să dăm introducing every topic of the meeting, termene… pentru că termenele erau 31 decembrie 2005. Facem pauză? summarizing progress and reaching 2 MATEI: facem. decisions. 3 INA: dacă vreţi… dacă nu… continuăm Example 5 (Context: Board meeting. Ina (…) surveys the budget statement for the last year 4 INA: La fix ne vedem. Da? (…) with the department managers.): 5 INA: reluăm… deci foarte multe în plen nu (RO) mai avem, decât despre expresso… INA: şi…dacă nu aveţi nimic împotrivă o să (EN) încep…să vă prezint (…) hai să 1 INA: (…) sooo…if you want, we can have deschidem (…) prima dată şi ne a break and then discuss item after item the concentrăm pe această coloană… şi pe topics from expresso and who is responsible for implementing them, we set aceasta… da? (…) acum ajungem la B… st deci am comparat 2004 cu 2005. Hai să deadlines…because the old ones were 31 vedem, mai ştim să bugetăm? (…) şi hai of December 2005. Shall we have a break? să ne uităm şi la (…) şi acum hai să vă 2 MATEI: Let’s have it arăt cum ne-a influenţat (…) 3 INA: if you want…if not…we’ll go on (…) INA: deci asta e bifată, da? 4 INA: See you at sharp. Ok? (…) (EN) 5 INA: Let’s see…so we don’t have much in INA: and…if you don’t mind, I will plenum, only about expresso… start…presenting (..) let’s open (…) first and focus on this column…and on this Ina is not only summarizing progress, but one…okay? (…) now we go to B… so also reminding the participants what has we’ve compared 2004 with 2005. Let’s see, left from the initial agenda. She draws do we know how to make the budget? (…) attention to deadlines, prioritizing subjects and let’s look over (…) let me show you and does a preview of the second part of how we were influenced (…) the meeting. Her attitude is a powerful one, INA: so, this one is checked, okay? asserting disponibility of continuing the meeting without a break. The first part of the meeting is dedicated Reaching decisions represents an to budget analysis. Ina is marking every important function in the meeting step of this analysis using visual aids. In management. Below we provide some order to prevent any misunderstandings, Măda, S.: Constructing and Maintaining Workplace Relationships through Talk 205 brief illustration of how decisions are decision (example 7). Carol’s superior arrived at and ratified. The most overt and status (manager) determines Ina to adjust simple strategy for managing the decision- her strategy. She is waiting for Carol’s making process is to simply state the consent (even a silent one) before ratifying desired decision, especially when dealing the decision (example 8). A collaborative with routine and uncontentious issues. decision is reached at the end of such Example 7 (Context: Board meeting. Ina discussions and the negotiation strategies arrives at and ratifies the decision on record.): involved in the process may be very (RO) complex. The chair is often responsible for 1 INA: condiţiile generale de vânzare le-am the downstream consequences of a discutat, aşa…şi cu disclaimers… care decision and, no matter who else proposes trebuie să apară pe scrisori, pe mailuri şi pe a solution, the manager should ratify it, aşa mai departe…de astea se ocupă Irina în and, consequently, assume responsibility. aşa fel încât să avem formularistica la zi şi să After reaching a decision, the managerial nu mai vină mail-uri fără… mechanism moves forward to a new topic, 2 IRINA: da, aia e uşor. which is presented, analyzed or negotiated, (EN) 1 INA: We’ve already discuss the general and closed under the form of a ratified selling conditions, so… and about decision. Analysis of our data clearly disclaimers… that have to appear on letters, indicates that attending to the face needs of mails and so forth… these will be handled others and nurturing good workplace by Irina so that we shall have the forms up- relationships also play an important part in to-date and there won’t be any mails processes like decision-making. Holmes without… (2003: 77) demonstrates that “participants 2 IRINA: Yes, that’s easy. in a workplace where authority Example 8 (Context: Same meeting, later): relationships and relative statuses are (RO) 1 INA: deci sunt nişte texte care trebuie emphasized and regarded as paramount să apară obligatoriu pe orice prospect şi will more readily accept a unilateral având în vedere în continuare că de decision on a contentious issue, while prelucrarea prospectului ăstuia se workplaces with a more egalitarian work ocupă…da? sau dai la altcineva? ethic and an emphasis on participation will 2 CAROL: (dă din cap aprobator) be more likely to engage in negotiation in 3 INA: atunci Carol are grijă ca… Carol are such circumstances”. A possible solution is grijă ca aceste disclaimers traduse… să apară pe toate documentele tipărite… using humour, as a means of attenuating (EN) the face threat (Brown and Levinson 1978) 1 INA: So there are some texts that have to of a veto, a contestive or disagreeing appear on every prospect and considering statement or a difficult decision. that the further perfection of the prospect is taken care of…yes? Or you give it to Example 9 (Context: Board meeting which somebody else took place on January 13th, 2006. The manager 2 CAROL: (nodding) (Ina) emphasizes the idea of an outdated 3 INA: then Carol is taking care of… Carol is deadline that needs postponing.): seeing that these translated disclaimers… (RO) appear on all printed documents… 1 IRINA: cât de repede trebuie introduse? 2 INA: 31 decembrie Ina modulates the legitimate use of 3 CAROL: a, da? power according to the interlocutor. She 4 INA: da treats Irina (her assistant) overtly, without 5 IRINA: 31 decembrie care? asking for her consent before ratifying the 6 INA: 2005 206 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
7 CAROL: noroc că nu am apucat…(…) please interrupt me, ok?) etc. The chair 8 IRINA: atunci când? decreases the authoritative dimension of his / 9 CAROL: la sfârşitul anului trebuia să fie gata her role (the power) and emphasizes 10 INA: e depăşit…la sfârşitul lui februarie politeness strategies, in order to maintain 11 IRINA: sfârşitul lui februarie good working relationships and, 12 CAROL: 29 13 INA: anul ăsta nu are 29 consequently, to successfully implement the 14 CAROL: 31 da? 31. decisions resulted from the meeting. (EN) It is important to recognize that 1 IRINA: When do they have to be management strategies may be very subtle implemented? and sophisticated as well as overt and 2 INA: December 31st. explicit. Summarizing the discussion, for 3 CAROL: Oh, really? instance, gives the summarizer a good deal 4 INA: Yes. st of influence over what is overtly recognized 5 IRINA: Which December 31 ? as having been agreed, or what is noted as 6 INA: 2005 important, as opposed to what is quietly 7 CAROL: Lucky we didn’t get to…(…) 8 IRINA: When then? dropped. While the manager and the chair 9 CAROL: It should have been ready by the are the most obviously influential roles in end of the year. relation to meeting management, others also 10 INA: it’s outdated…the end of February make contributions that may be important in 11 IRINA: the end of February some contexts. A recognized “expert”, on a 12 CAROL: 29th particular topic, may have considerable 13 INA: This year doesn’t have 29th influence in the discussion related to his / her st st 14 CAROL: 31 , yeah? 31 . area of expertise. Contributions from less Humour is a useful strategy of resisting powerful meeting participants may be re- Ina’s authority. On the one hand, Carol evaluated and later developed by more realizes the impact this decision will have on statusful and authoritative participants. his working program and tries to postpone In egalitarian cultures, workplace is the site the new deadline to a later date. On the other for daily interaction and negotiation. hand, Ina is forced to impose a closer, but Workplace communicative patterns are manageable deadline. The conversational described as total commitment of participants, joke raised by this situation resides in the excellent skills of adaptation to context and placement of the deadline in the calendar. constant need for face-to-face interaction. The Without realizing it, Carol proposes an boundary between personal and professional inexisting date. When Ina contests it, Carol is more opaque and social talk may interfere comes with an even more unrealistic date, even in workplace meetings. February 31st. Sensitivity to the distinctive workplace The chair of the meeting adopts a culture in which a manager operates is facilitative role, which can be seen as a evident in the attention paid to interpersonal manifestation of deference or politeness, or and relational factors, group dynamics and perhaps as a collegial gesture to assist a team the face needs of other participants. This to resolve a problem or decide on a course of concern is reflected in politeness strategies action. Very often the chair asks for people as: avoiding to impose a solution and opinion, agreement and understanding, using encouraging free discussions over a expressions like: De acord? (Agree?) Uitaţi- contentious topic, as well as clear and vă! (Look at that!) Ce credeţi? (What do you repeated marking the difficulties and think?) Dacă nu înţelegeţi vă rog să mă negotiating agreement before making the întrerupeţi, da? (If you don’t understand, final decision. Măda, S.: Constructing and Maintaining Workplace Relationships through Talk 207
Example 10 (Context: A department meeting authoritative manager, who controls the between the manager of the department and the discussion and ensures decisions are area managers. The chair is analysing the sales reached. In addition to more overt figures and the course of action required for strategies, such as complimenting some of the dealers.): participants on their work and their (RO) CARMEN: deci avem o sută de dealeri care professional attitudes (He is very nu vând deloc (…) fiecare va face o efficient… in fact he is the only one who analiză pe zona lui şi nu numai o analiză, managed to reach the top… the bonus vor face şi un raport (…) Da? Deci analiza top…) Carmen uses humour, especially dealerilor care nu vând, dar au self-deprecating humour, to ease tension in standuri…se va prezenta raport de către meetings (I should check the job fiecare director în parte şi aici să analizăm description… Fetch the job description of îi mai ţinem la anul…nu îi mai ţinem, ne the sales department manager). She is scoatem standul…avem stand pentru că e systematically addressing to each area într-o zonă bună şi atunci sigur…îl manager, stimulating their participation in lăsăm…îl mai ţinem…dar aici fiecare…o să vedeţi fiecare ce trebuie să facem şi ce the meeting. She encourages them to ask nu…da? (…) Dacă doriţi aici să discutăm questions and to offer details. Good ceva? Analizaţi fiecare pe zona listening skills are very important for voastră…da? Şi la următoarea întâlnire o managers. They are marked in să vedem ce facem aici unde avem conversation by verbal and non-verbal standuri…să vedem care e soluţia…le contributions such as: nodding, asking desfiinţăm sau nu. open questions, using short expressions of (EN) approval etc. CARMEN: so we have a hundred dealers that don’t sell at all (…) each of you will have 3. Conclusions an analysis on your area and not only an analysis, but also a report (...) ok? So the analysis of the dealers that don’t have We have identified and exemplified sales, but have presentation stands…each situations of overt or subtle manifestations of the managers will have a report done of power in workplace talk. The role of and then we should analyze…shall we chair in a meeting is instantiated through keep them next year…or not, we take the control strategies especially at discourse stand out… we have the stand because it level: setting the agenda, maintaining is in a good area and then sure…we’ll discussions within the track (the topic), leave it…we’ll keep it…but here marking each stage of the meeting, again…each of you…you’ll see what we summarizing progress and reaching have to do and what we don’t…ok? (…) If you would like here to discuss anything? decisions. Several positive politeness Each of you…analyze on your area…ok? strategies (paying compliments, using self- And next time we discuss what we do deprecating humour, expressing here…where we have stands…to find a appreciation, interest and concern to the face solution…keep them or not. needs of other participants) were meant to stress the importance of creating and Carmen’s management style (especially maintaining good workplace relationships. her consultative strategies for assisting the What results can be rendered as such: meeting to reach a satisfactory decision) politeness is the mirrored image or the other contrasts markedly in this respect with that coin-side of power. One without the other is of Ina. However, there is extensive worthless, but together they create an evidence that Carmen is also a capable and efficient communicative symbiosis. 208 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
References 12. Holmes, J. and M. Stubbe. Power and Politeness in the Workplace. London: 1. Bargiela-Chiappini, F. and S. J. Pearson Education, 2003. Harris. Managing Language: The 13. Holmes, J. “Sharing a Laugh: Discourse of Corporate Meetings. Pragmatic aspects of humour and Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 1997. gender in the workplace”. In: Journal 2. Bidu-Vrânceanu et al. Dicţionar de of Pragmatics 38: 26-50, 2006. ştiinţe ale limbii. Bucureşti: Nemira, 14. Ionescu-Ruxăndoiu, L. (ed.). 2001. Interacţiunea verbală în limba 3. Boden, D. The Business of Talk: română actuală. Corpus. Schiţă de Organizations in Action. Cambridge: tipologie. Bucureşti: EUB, 2002. Polity Press, 1994. 15. Ionescu-Ruxăndoiu, L. Limbaj şi 4. Brown, P. and S.C. Levinson. comunicare. Bucureşti: All Politeness: Some Universals in Universitar, 2003. Language Usage. London: Cambridge 16. Jaworski, A. and N. Coupland (eds.) University Press, 1978, 1987. The Discourse Reader. London, New 5. Culpeper, J. Towards an anatomy of York: Routledge, 2001. impoliteness, Journal of Pragmatics 17. Mumby, D. K. Communication and 25: 349-367, 1996. Power in Organizations: Discourse, 6. Drew, P. and J. Heritage (eds.). Talk Ideology and Domination. Norwood, at work. Cambridge: Cambridge NJ: Ablex, 1988. University Press, 1992. 18. Pearson, B. A. “Power and politeness 7. Dwyer, J. The Business in conversation: encoding of face- Communication Handbook, Sydney: threatening acts at church business Prentice Hall, 1993. meetings”. Anthropological 8. Eckert, P. and S. McConnell-Ginet. Linguistics 30: 68-93, 1998. “Communities of Practice: where 19. Watts, R., S. Ide and K. Ehlich (eds.). language, gender and power all live”. Politeness in Language. Studies in K. Hall, M. Bucholtz and B. History, Theory and Practice. Berlin, Moonwomon (eds.) Locating Power: New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1992. Proceedings of the Second Berkeley 20. Wenger, Etienne. Communities of Women and Language Conference, Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge Berkeley CA: Berkeley Women and University Press, 1998. Language Group: 89-99, 1992.
9. Fairclough, N. “Dialogue in the 1 Public Sphere”, Sarangi and The examples in this paper were collected by Coulthard (eds.) Discourse and Social the author as part of the research for her PhD paper and they are to be published in a corpus of Life. London: Pearson Education, workplace interactions at Transylvania University 170-184, 2000. Publishing House in 2009, as part of a larger on- 10. Fletcher, J. K. Disappearing Acts: going research project entitled „Professional Gender, Power, and Relational Language in Present-day Romanian. Linguistic Practice at Work. Cambridge, MA: Patterns and Discoursive Structures and is MIT Press, 1999. supported by a governmental grant (CNCSIS, ID 11. Hatch, M. J. and S. B. Ehrlich. 142). The examples are structured in three parts: “Spontaneous humour as an indicator the context, the original Romanian version (RO) of paradox and ambiguity in and the translated version (EN). organizations”. Organization Studies 14 (4): 505 – 526, 1993. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
EVALUATION IN INSTITUTIONAL TALK
Gabriela CHEFNEUX1
Abstract: The paper starts from the assumption that evaluation is a pervasive linguistic phenomenon which provides information about speakers and their environment. Using as its theoretical framework the four main types of evaluation identified by Higgins and Slade for casual conversation, the paper applies them to analyse a telephone conference recorded in a multinational company, where English is lingua franca. Its aim is to identify similarities and differences between evaluative language used by Romanian and foreign speakers of English.
Key words: institutional talk, appreciation, affect, judgement, amplification.
1. Theoretical Framework four categories, namely appreciation, affect, judgment and amplification, all Evaluation is a pervasive part of related to attitudinal meanings of words language, functioning at different levels used in conversation (125). and being expressed in a variety of ways. Appreciation is basically related to Linde (166) claims that it plays a major personal evaluations made by speakers part in every day communication, about people, objects, entities and can be expressing one’s self, action and subdivided into reaction (whether we like environment. Evaluation brings together an object), composition (concerned with the linguistic and the social levels, in other the texture of a text or process) and words the analysis of the situation in which valuation (the evaluation of the content of the interaction takes place involves the message). Affect relates more to discourse and interactional structures as feelings and can express happiness/ well as the operational demands unhappiness, in/security and (Linde 170). satisfaction/dissatisfaction. Thirdly, This paper starts from Eggins and judgments express evaluations about the Slade’s concepts related to the evaluation ethics, morality or social values of of casual conversation, but uses these people’s behaviour and they can refer to concepts to analyse types of evaluation in social sanction or social esteem. Fourthly, institutional communication, which is amplification, which helps speaker grade defined as talk aimed at solving their attitude, can be subclassified into professional tasks. The authors present enrichment, augmenting and mitigation. appraisal, involvement and humour as the Eggins and Slade conduct a fourth stage three main areas of interpersonal analysis of a personal conversation by semantics. Appraisal, the attitudinal identifying the appraisal items, classifying colouring of talk, includes evaluation, them, summarizing appraisal choices and which the two authors further classify into finally interpreting them.
1Transilvania University of Braşov. 210 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
The conclusions they reach relate to The best represented type is mitigation, 19 social values, contributions to the group instances, out of which 13 produced by cohesion, patterns of dominant speakers, Romanians and 6 by the team leader. ways of perceiving the world, more Mitigation is used by participants to generally how people share their downplay the negative issues raised during perceptions and feelings about the world, the conversation. each other and material phenomena (143). For example R1 expresses his surprise at a connection that was not made as planned, 2. Analysis of the Telephone Conference but he downplays it by resorting to “a little bit” twice and laughing to ease the possible Eggins and Slade’s four types of tension: evaluation are used to analyse a telephone e.g. R2: …. I I was a little bit conference recorded in a multinational IT confused because uhm when we last company that brings together foreign and spoke in B, I was told that we’ll you’ll Romanian employees and where English is route the connections of the board so used as lingua franca1. None of the uhm uhm [laugh] uhm (3) this was a participants is a native speaker of English. little bit in contradiction with with uhm what I saw in the four dot one The purpose of the analysis is to identify uhm dot nineteen. differences of use of evaluative language Another instance is illustrated in the next between the two groups. example, where R2 accounts for his slow There are five participants in the meeting progress by stating that he is “just” about – four Romanians, R1 being the manager to understand the digital part: and R2, R3 and R4 team members, while e.g. R2: and that’s why I’m making F1, the team leader, is a foreigner. The uhm uhm slower progress than I four Romanian employees are in Romania, expected while the team leader works abroad. The er I er examined the schematics and telephone conference lasts 34 minutes and now uhm I’m uhm I’m just uhm I’m it ends abruptly because of the about to understand digital part disconnection of the line. There are two instances where negation The content of the discussions can be combines with augmentation, which divided according to the team leader’s actually downtones the statement interlocutor rather than the topic. Thus, e.g. R3: but uhm the last few days I after the general introduction made by F1 don’t study very much if uhm in and R1 the discussion moves to these days I think. professional issues: welcoming a new team Mitigation is achieved as a combination member, a discussion between R2 and F1 of “few” and the use of “I think”, which related to issues that R2 wants to clarify, makes the message more indirect. then a discussion between F1 and R3 The second one occurs when R3 explains mainly related to purchasing software, and to the team leader why he has not finished finally a few more questions that R2 asks one of his tasks: he has not found an F1. The conversation ends abruptly, appropriate programme “yet” and it seems without the participants’ taking their leave. that he cannot make “complex The type of evaluation used most connections” on the gap. By combining frequently during the telephone conference “not” with augmentation (“very complex”) both by the Romanian and foreign R3 actually resorts to mitigation; participants is amplification (speaker R3: and I don’t uhm don’t make grading his/her attitude) – 28 instances. very complex connected so on gap Chefneux, G.: Evaluation in Institutional Talk 211
F1 uses mitigation for similar purposes, Another instance of appreciation is F1’s he talks about a difficult situation using reaction to R2’s future plans (“that’s good” “basically” twice: uttered twice): e.g. F1: uhm because [unclear] a e,g. R2: ok I'll forward you a copy of the difficult solution and basically it’s e- mails I uhm I er wrote as soon as basically it’s uhm the CN two dash the uhm this uhm conference one and we can use that for every finishes board F1: yeah, that’s good, that’s good Augmenting is used more frequently by F1 evaluates longer messages or Romanians (6 times) than F1 (2 times). evaluates situations, while Romanian F1 uses it (too difficult) to justify his speakers tend to evaluate products or, very decision of not starting a discussion about seldom, situations: a particular issue e.g. R2: the kit is fine e.g. F1: let’s not introduce that R3: they explained to me very well. because because that’s too difficult An interesting case occurs twice during On the other hand, Romanians use the conversation - R2 asks F1 to evaluate augmenting in order to emphasise the high his understanding of the situation: speed of their actions (right now) or to e.g. R2: ok one question I have. uhm in explain why they did not do some of the the uhm in the uhm ES four four tasks: (even, too) seven, at uhm paragraph four point e.g. R2: because at the moment I one point nineteen, I saw that we can’t even I can’t even open the will use uhm light tubes for the le- files for thee-uhm LEDs. is it correct because I have a message of too this? many connexions. F1: that’s correct. Enrichment is used only once by R3 to Reaction (whether the speaker likes an state that no more programmes are object, etc.) occurs 10 times (6 times used necessary for the time being: by F1, 4 times by Romanians). R2 uses it e.g. R3: CORP is more than enough to express his satisfaction when he finds for the moment. out that the team has F1’s approval to go to Next in terms of occurrence is a conference: appreciation (speaker’s personal e.g. R2: that means you you agree that evaluation), which is used for 27 times. we we can uhm we can go to we can Out of them, valuation is used for 17 times, attend that conference on uhm on Tuesday? 13 times by F1 and 4 times by Romanians. F1: yeah F1 often evaluates the message conveyed R2: correct. thank you. by the other participants, or the situation In the second instance, R2 asks F1 to described. For instance, when R2 describes evaluate whether the way in which he what he did about the schematic diagrams, understood the future plans is correct: F1 concludes with “ok, that’s good”, an R2: ok uhm and another problem instance of valuation. ... I don’t know if you remember e.g. R2: yes the schematic diagrams I uhm uhm on a VB eight uhm dash examined, uhm the digital part uhm board uhm uhm VB eight plastic the vsp in ihm lca part most of it I and uhm I uhm as far as I understand uhm familiar now this with this CN now we will we abandon this idea two schematic and use CM two dash one correct? F1: ok that’s good. F 1: that’s correct 212 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
One of the main reasons for this The two instances of affect are both exchange is for R2 to make sure he produced by Romanians while the understood the situation correctly. judgment ones, again two in number, occur However, as this is a possible conflicting in questions asked by Romanians of the situation, he resorts to mitigation (“as far team leader. as I understand”) and he begins his turn by In terms of use, Romanian participants stating its topic – “another problem”. resort to mitigation and augmenting, while Affect (relating to feelings) is seldom the foreign team leader makes frequent use used during the conference, actually twice, of valuation. both times by Romanians to express The explanation is twofold – situational satisfaction and insecurity (‘don’t know for since a team leader is expected to pass sure”): judgement on what happens in the e.g. R3: mhm I have schematic company but also cultural, in terms of but I don’t think it’s the final one yet Romanians’ resorting more frequently to I have an idea but uhm don’t know mitigation and affect. for sure yet. There are few instance of judgment References (evaluation of people’s behaviour). Actually there are two instances when 1. Egging Suzanne and Diane Slade sanction is expressed, but it is professional (eds.) Analysing Casual Conversation, not social, as described by Eggins and London: Cassell, 1997. Slade. The example is provided by R2 who 2. Coposescu Liliana and Gabriela asks the team leader to decide whether it is Chefneux (eds). Institutional Talk and acceptable for the team to attend a Intercultural Communication in conference (“is ok also from you”): Multinational Companies: Corpus of e.g. R2: he establish to ask if uhm this Spoken Interaction in English. Braşov: is ok also from uhm from you and if Editura Universităţii Transilvania din and if and if you say it’s ok if we Braşov, 2008. can uhm uhm reschedule our ohm uhm conference either on Monday or 3. Linde, Charlotte. “Evaluation as on Wednesday. Linguistic Structure and Social Practice”. The Construction of 3. Conclusion Professional Discourse. Gunnarsson, B.L. et al (eds.). London: Longman, In conclusion, the most frequent type of 1997. evaluation is amplification, particularly mitigation, which is justified by the 1 participants’ desire of avoiding unpleasant The data were collected as part of a CNCSIS- issues. Augmenting serves a similar funded project whose aim was to identify communicative and cultural practices specific purpose. to two multinational companies in the area of The second most frequent type is Braşov. The whole corpus of data consisted of appreciation, which is often used by the about 14 hours of spoken interactions in team leader to evaluate situations and English, out of which this telephone conference information and also by Romanians, to is a part. The conference was audio-recorded evaluate objects and situations. and then transcribed.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
REFORMING SPANISH BUREAUCRATIC LANGUAGE
Raluca ALEXE1
Abstract: This paper emphasizes the great potential of bureaucratic language as pattern of linguistic production and briefly describes the main problems of the use of Spanish language in bureaucratic texts. It also outlines reforming efforts of contemporary Administration towards simplifying bureaucratic communication according to pragmalinguistic criteria and ensuring its adequacy to the rules of non-sexist use.
Key words: bureaucracy, language, reform, linguistic sexism.
1. Language of the State. State of the legitimacy attributed to bureaucratic Language. language requires coherence, adequacy and clarity on the part of all its users and, These past decades we have witnessed an especially, on those in charge of drafting increasing interest of the entire academic bureaucratic documents. society for the quality of the language used However, that is hardly the case of most by the different media and public documents produced by Public institutions. Special attention, however, Administration. In a seminar on has been directed towards what is now “Administration and Language”, organized widely known as the language of by The INAP (Instituto Nacional de bureaucracy or bureaucratic language. Administración Pública), in 1987, This rather recent interest the linguistic Gregorio Salvador, distinguished member community has taken in this specialized of the Spanish Royal Academy, gave a language, defined as a sub-variety of legal lecture on the protection of Spanish language, is highly due to its peculiar language in legal and bureaucratic nature of addressing and affecting all communication, in which he emphasized citizens, as “there breathes hardly a soul the general lack of linguistic responsibility who has not dealt with a bureaucrat“ in the process of producing bureaucratic (Salvador, 117). texts and accused public authorities of Investigators of bureaucratic language displaying a rather careless attitude have emphasized the great potential of this towards the linguistic standard of such language as pattern of linguistic production texts. since the State as supreme authority and According to M. Martínez Bargueño, a Administration have long been perceived fervent investigator of bureaucratic as one reality. This aspect has been largely language, the need for reform in this field dwelt upon by R. Sarmiento (15) who can no longer be postponed. Bureaucratic refers to bureaucratic language as texts should be easy to read, precise, “language of the State”. This status of unequivocal and user-friendly, but they
1 Dept. of Foreign Languages, Transilvania University of Braşov. 214 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV end up being over-elaborate, nebulous and complex sentences with numerous ambiguous instead (225). digressions and references, archaic The concise analysis which R. Sarmiento phraseology and lexical formulas, (18) makes of the relationship between abundant use of learned words, technical language of the State and state of the terms, adverbials and gerunds (the latter language indicates that the solution for has become known as “the gerund of the improving the language of bureaucratic Boletín Oficial”), complicated syntax and texts lies in education and training, in the ridiculous replacements of some words awareness of the fact that bureaucratic by their definitions - those “periphrastic language is a transcendent pattern, a pedantries” as Salvador mockingly pattern of spoken and written language for identifies them (124) -. All of these have all citizens. led to inefficient communication and Since the 80’s, which opened a whole difficult comprehension of the message of new perspective on the topic, with the these texts. The obvious alternative is the launch of the famous Plain Language use of a more accessible language, closer Campaign in Great Britain, most Western to everyday language, with simple syntax, European countries have taken standard vocabulary. To this end, revision considerable steps, not only in simplifying of bureaucratic documents according to bureaucratic procedures and, thus, communicative and pragmalinguistic rendering communication more effectively criteria has been encouraged. with citizens, but most importantly, in These reforming measures have included protecting their national languages against training all government employees in the the confusing, excessively formal, correct use of Spanish as well as frequently ungrammatical and full of establishing rules of clarity and concision clichés use which bureaucratic texts make for all documents produced by Public of it. Administration in accordance with the international recommendations made by 2. Steps towards Modernizing and the OCDE towards simplifying all types of Standardizing Bureaucratic bureaucratic communication. Language in Spain In the early 90`s, as a result of one of Spain`s annual international seminars on Contemporary administration has been the topic of bureaucracy and language, a very concerned with changing the group of Spanish linguists, among which traditional pattern of the so called separate professor R. Sarmiento, under the Administration which has made coordination of the INAP, accomplished an communication between the State and its extremely important project: writing a citizens rather difficult. book of style for bureaucratic language, The example of other European Manual de estilo del lenguaje countries, pressing social demands as well administrativo. This work, ranked as as economic reasons attributed to the high monumental at the time of its publication, costs of administrative documents have is still considered “an instrument of impelled greater doctrinal attention intellectual work by means of which towards this matter and Spain has bureaucratic clerks can make better use in embarked upon an intense process of administrative contexts of the various reforming bureaucratic language. possibilities Spanish language has to offer” Such efforts have aimed to rid the (Bargueño, 230). language used in bureaucratic texts of Alexe, R.: Reforming Spanish Bureaucratic Language 215
Over the years, Spain has continued to thought; it transmits and consolidates enable an effective dialogue between identities, values, stereotypes, public institutions, experts of the representations of reality and, as M. administrative field and linguists with the Bengoechea points out, “we have been purpose of elaborating guidelines for the taught to see and read with masculine eyes improvement of Spanish bureaucratic and, thus, lack the means to detect sexism language. in written texts or public discourse” (12). Last but not least, an exceptionally Since the 90`s, feminist organizations intense standardizing activity in the field of together with language experts have been bureaucratic language has characterized creating strategies to fight linguistic Spanish bilingual regions. Not only have sexism and have published subsequent they created special organisms (in a recommendations for the revision of public fashion very similar to France with its well documents and dictionaries. These known Terminology Commissions, The recommendations have also been taken High Committee of French Language and into account by the European Community the CERCA) to establish the bureaucratic which is now strongly supporting terminology of their co-official languages adequacy of all types of bureaucratic and to impose the correct use of these communication to the rules of non-sexist languages in the area of bureaucracy, but language. they also rely on a rich bibliographic Nevertheless, at present, the possible production. For instance, Catalonia alternative to the solution of this problem publishes the only existing magazine in is neither simple and universal nor Spanish language, specialized on topics of applicable both to written and spoken law, bureaucracy and language (Revista de language. In A. García Messeguer`s view, Llengua i Dret). “the best way this problem can be tackled at the moment is by outlining existing 3. Non-Sexist Use of Bureaucratic errors and suggesting ways of eliminating Language forms and uses that are extremely sexist” (58). In more recent years, the reform of According to Calero Fernández (23), the bureaucratic language has also become syntagm “linguistic sexism” can be applied extremely concerned with matters of to the discriminatory use of language by gender discrimination, so common in all means of certain words or structures, that bureaucratic documents. This violence of is, due to its form not its essence. In his gender is, however, one of the main opinion, Spanish language offers enough problems of present day society as stated resources, both morpho-syntactic and in the introduction of a recent work lexical semantic, meant to avoid linguistic coordinated by A. Medina Guerra of the sexism. As a matter of fact, the quite University of Málaga. generous Spanish bibliography on this Although modern legislation establishes topic offers an array of solutions for the equal rights for both men and women, use of grammatical gender with reference everyday practice proves that women are to people, their attributes, activities and still disadvantaged as compared to men public positions. Among these are: the use and, perhaps, one of the most noticeable of pronouns without gender specification, manifestations of this inequity is the the omission of the subject, the use of discrimination of women on the level of abstract nouns or repetitions. Also, when language. Language is the projection of trying to avoid abuse of generic masculine, 216 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV one may find it quite efficient to resort to 4. Conclusion collective nouns, phrasal constructions, metonymy or non personal forms of verbs. Although avoiding sexist use of language Equally useful in this respect is adapting may not always be possible, bureaucratic words to their feminine inflection, with language must constantly take into account corresponding suffixes. Homogeneous any linguistic strategy which, without discourse treatment of both sexes is highly neglecting grammar rules, may help advised against context ambiguity and, against gender discrimination. most certainly, systematic placing of masculine forms ahead of feminine ones is References to be avoided. The latest work published by the Instituto 1. Bengoechea, Mercedes. “¿Es posible Canario de la Mujer includes some reformar la lengua?”. Perspectivas. valuable recommendations of non-sexist Nr.5. 1997: p.11-13. use of Spanish language in bureaucratic 2. Calero Fernández, María. Sexismo contexts. Thus, documents issued by lingüístico. Madrid: Nancea, 1999. Public Administration should mark 3. García Messeguer, Álvaro. El sexismo distinctions based on sex not gender when en el lenguaje. Málaga: CEDMA, referring to persons, men and women, as it 1999. is the biological and not the cultural 4. Instituto Canario de la Mujer. differences that are brought forward here. Orientaciones sobre uso no sexista del Also, they should ensure a good balance of lenguaje administrativo. Las Palmas: formal treatment of persons of both sexes Dante Diseño, 2007. as well as of job titles in masculine and 5. Martínez Bargueño, Manuel. “La feminine. modernización del lenguaje While it is true that the gradual administrativo.” Revista de estudios de incorporation of women to the professional la Administración Local. Nr. 250. field and, most importantly, to managerial 1991: p.217-234. positions has created many feminine forms 6. Medina Guerra, Antonia et al. Manual of nouns that usage had long fixed only as de lenguaje administrativo no sexista. masculine and which are now well known Universidad de Málaga, 2002. to the entire Spanish speaking community 7. Ministerio para las Administraciones and are present in the latest editions of Públicas. Manual de estilo del dictionaries, the grammatical feminization lenguaje administrativo. Madrid: of jobs and positions has not yet been INAP, 1993. extended to all major bureaucratic 8. Salvador, Gregorio. “Observaciones documents such as employment contracts. sobre el lenguaje de la Administración These suggestions towards avoiding Pública.” Actas del XVIII Simposio de linguistic sexism attempt to make the la Sociedad Española de Lingüística. entire speaking community aware of the Murcia: 1987: p.115-126. values and stereotypes we are using and 9. Sarmiento, Ramón. “El lenguaje de la passing on. The changes produced in the Administración.” Revista de Llengua i social roles of both sexes require language Dret. Nr.43, 2005: p.13-46. adequacy so that it should be cleared of discriminatory stereotypes.
CULTURAL STUDIES
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
COHESIVE AMBIGUITY AS A MODERN RESPONSE TO SOCIAL DIVERGENCE
S. A. MATEI1 C. DOBRESCU2
Abstract: The paper proposes that “modernity”, as it has emerged in contemporary social and cultural theory, needs to get past coherence-based models. It needs to be conceptualized as a dynamically stable vortex of ambiguous meanings, generated by social fragmentation.
Key words: modernity, ambiguity, social experience, pluralism, incertitude.
To define modernisation was actually an better self of of the judicial and political action essential and constitutive to the very reasoning that has traditionally articulated process it pretended to reflect upon. There the Western societal order (Popper, 1957). is no undisputed consensus among scholars Other unavoidable controversies are the with respect to what modernity means, one ones that roam between a rational choice of the main reasons being that the concept description of social change, that poses the allows quasi-antagonistic understandings. adaptive capacity of human analytic It has been argued, for instance, that the intelligence as the basic incentive of focus on political change, on development and growth processes (Olson parliamentarian democracy, on the rule of 1982), the constructivistic approach that law and the human rights, on the sees normative conformity as the force rationalization of the institutions, markers behind succesive waves of de- and re- that have traditionally delineated the traditionalization of the society (Heelas, semantic perimeter of the notion, can be Lash & Morris), and culturalist analyses drastically relativized if we shift to the that postulate the primordial, irreplaceable expressive perspective on the social life, part that the voluntaristic change of where the dominant features are an urge foundational beliefs plays in the processes toward authenticity, intensity of of social transformation (Harrison & experience, emotional cohesion or militant Huntington, 2000). symbolic thinking (Calinescu 1987). But it Considering the possibility of is also a fact that the political overcoming these contradictions, we rationalization of modernity not always propose that meaning ambiguity and kept pace with the rationalization of the prevalence of loose social structures that social production of knowledge, that is to rely on individual agents and at the same say with the practice and the worldview of time construct the identity of these agents the natural sciences. Therefore, the logic of are some of the most distinctive scientific research has been hailed by characteristics of modernity as an successive generations of positivists as the intellectual and existential experience.
1 Department of Communication, Purdue University. 2 Department of Theory of Literature, University of Bucharest.
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Scholars of rather different theoretical creates chronic moral doubt (Bauman persuasions tend to consider pluralization 1993, Taylor 1989). and ambiguity of meaning as a side, rather Modernity can most parsimoniously be than main, effect of modernity. In other described as a vortex created by chronic words, they see modern ambiguity as a conflict between plural self-legitimating weaker and opposed force to the one that discourses. Modern individuals believe in really moves ahead modernity, namely its the ability and natural right to decide for irrepressible drive towards all- themselves in all matters of principle, be encompassing control or explanation they religious, economic, political, or (Adorno & Horkheimer 1987, Foucault artistic. Individuals consciously assume a 1972). Ambiguity is, in their personal ideological perspective on the understanding, the unintended aura of the world and try to act on it (Wuthnow 1976). will to rational totality. There are, If we accept that the core of modernity is however, thinkers that reverse this one of conflict and individual autonomy, causality and suggest that modernity is par the question that arises immediately is: excellence a form of order-generating what prevents modernity from collapsing ambiguity (Bauman: 1991, Giddens: into itself due to its inner conflicts? The 1991). answer, as suggested by Durkheim, Weber Irrespective of these different or Simmel, is that contradictions are approaches, there is an emerging dampened by a final, if grudging consensus around describing modernity as acceptance of the idea that the fundamental an individualistic, divergent, and units of agency, individuals animated by fragmented social order, in which particular values and ideas, should accept meanings are not given but continuously pluralism of values and opinions and the disputed, inducing continuous changes in tensions they entail as the basic given of vocabularies (Rorty, 1989), and generating life. Rational self-understanding and a proliferation of interpretive communities individuation end up completely fused (Fish, 1980). Modern social order is with a consciousness of ambiguity as described as a cluster of opposite indeterminacy. Modern individuals live in tendencies and impulses (Dobrescu, 2001; an intellectual environment that, although Matei, 2004). It involves a growing hard to predict, they nevertheless perceive number of individuals and social groups in positive and prospective terms. found in inner and inter- (but also intra-) Uncertainty is seen less as a weakness and subjective debates over their basic values, as a threat, and more as a source of the meaning of their lives, their opportunity (Beck 1991). Self-consistency institutions, and their symbolic identity. and self-doubt coexist by keeping each Thus, the distinguishing character of other in check. As one becomes more modernization might not be radicalized, the other becomes equally epistemological and moral consistency, as intense. At least in theory, doubt and it was constantly upheld by confident certainty cancel each other, keeping the essentialists (Gellner: 1992, Polanyi: 1944, modern world in balance. Wallerstein: 1974), but a process of fission In modern societies, divergent and even of traditional authority and social order. It opposing sets of knowledge, cultural generates social fragmentation at the level preferences, and personal identification of traditional social institutions (ethnic or (defined by ideology, race, gender, racial groups, gender-defined social roles, ethnicity, class, etc.) are the ultimate parties, classes, families, etc.) and it reality. Preserving their coexistence is the Matei, S.A. et al.: Cohesive Ambiguity as a Modern Response to Social Divergence 221 great enterprise of communities and Christian God is paternalistic, controlling, governments. Yet, pluralism by itself vengeful, and inflexible for some, or cannot prevent the contending forces found maternal, embracing, loving, and accepting at the heart of the modern vortex to catch for others. It is a male for fundamentalists, up with each other and to consume their ambi or nongendered for some reform reciprocal rejection in a final conflagration. Christians, and feminine for radicals. The Pluralism needs a stabilizing force. Similar democratic ideal means for the to a nuclear reactor, which needs neutral Jeffersonian activist a return to the ideal of graphite bars to prevent the reaction direct participation, for the conservative between the rods of fissionable uranium adept of Leo Strauss a return to a from triggering a core meltdown, modern philosophic aristocracy of virtue, while for society needs to intersperse between plural, the socialist activist democracy means divergent at times, viewpoints, social ensuring that there is fairness in the way in forces, and spiritual yearnings a set of which life chances, or outcomes, are deflector shields. These are a series of distributed in society. The modern artistic social compacts. ideal is disputed between those who The first is that social divergence is believe in inner meanings and conceptual acceptable and even desirable (Dahrendorf discovery of beauty and those (few) who 1988, Habermas 1973). The second is that still cling onto the classical cannon of a halo of conceptual and value ambiguity idealized representation. should envelope the central concepts of To summarize, we propose that social discourse. The first social covenant modernity is caught in a “vorticist” social accepts that the social moorings of who we order that: a) is characterized by social are cannot be organized only along one divergence and inter-group conflict; axis. As Daniel Bell emphasizes, the basic because b) it relies on an individualistic contradiction (and characteristic) of ideal that enhances the process of social modernity is that its economic, social and fragmentation, which c) produces cultural axes tend to diverge (Bell 1977). ambiguity in the realm of social knowledge Social prestige and power are justified in and meanings. As a corollary, a tentative several ways, not always congruent with definition of modernity can be proposed. each other: economic, cultural, lifestyle- Modernity is a type of social order that based, sexual orientation, etc. In other paradoxically leverages divergence words, society tends to be fragmented into through ambiguity for keeping itself in a many sets of only partially overlapping state of shifting equilibrium. groups, each defined by lifestyle, sexual orientation, wealth, subcultures, ethnicity, References race, etc. and none of which could be construed as “naturally superior”. 1. Adorno, Theodor, Max Horkheimer. This structural divergence translates into 1987. Gesammelte Schriften. Band 5: a corresponding state of chronic meaning Dialektik der Aufklärung und Schriften pluralism. All major issues (religion, 1940–1950, edited by Gunzelin politics, art) are disputed by the multiple Schmid Noerr Fischer, Frankfurt am groups that form modern societies. A Main, 1987. plurality of only partially overlapping 2. Bauman, Zygmunt. Modernity and vocabularies is used to explain core Ambivalence. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell concepts. For each major societal concept University Press, 1991. there will be a plurality of definitions. The 222 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
3. Bauman, Zygmunt. Postmodern 14. Heelas, Paul, Scott Lash and Paul Ethics. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Morris (eds.). Detraditionalization. Mass.: Blackwell, 1993. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell 4. Beck, Ulrich. Politik in der Publishers, 1996. Risikogesellschaft. Frankfurt a.M.: 15. Harrison, Lawrence E., Samuel P. Suhrkamp, 1991. Huntington (eds.). Culture Matters. 5. Bell, Daniel. “The Return of the NY : Basic Books, 2000. Sacred? The Argument on the Future 16. Matei, S. “From Counterculture to of Religion.” British Journal of Cyberculture: Virtual Community Sociology 28(4). (1977). Discourse and the Dilemma of 6. Calinescu, Matei. Five Faces of Modernity.” Journal of Computer- Modernity. Durham : Duke University Mediated Communication, 10(3), Press, 1987. article 14. (2005). 7. Dahrendorf, Ralph. The Modern Social http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol10/issue3/m Conflict. University of California atei.html Press: Berkeley and Los Angeles, 17. Olson, Mancur. The Rise and Decline 1988. of Nations. New Haven: Yale 8. Dobrescu, Caius. Semizei şi rentieri. University Press, 1982. Despre identitatea burgheziei moderne 18. Polanyi, Karl. The Great (Demigods and Rentiers. The Identity Transformation. NY, Toronto: of Modern Bourgeoisie). Bucharest: Rinehart & Co., 1944. Nemira, 2001. 19. Popper, Karl. The Poverty of 9. Fish, Stanley. Is There a Text in This Historicism. Boston: Beacon Press, Class? The Authority of Interpretive 1957. Communities. Cambridge, MA: 20. Rorty, Richard. Contingency, Irony, Harvard University Press, 1980. and Solidarity. Cambridge: Cambridge 10. Foucault, Michel. Histoire de la folie University Press,1989. à l'âge classique. Paris: Gallimard, 21. Taylor, Charles. Sources of the Self: 1972. the Making of the Modern Identity. 11. Gellner. Ernest. Reason and Culture: Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University the Historic Role of Rationality and Press, 1989. Rationalism. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, 22. Wallerstein, Immanuel. The Modern USA: Basil Blackwell, 1992. World-System. NY: Academic Press, 12. Giddens, Anthony. Modernity and 1974. Self-Identity: Self and Society in the 23. Wuthnow, Robert. The Consciousness Late Modern Age. Stanford: Stanford Reformation. Berkeley: University of University Press, 1991 California Press, 1976. 13. Habermas, Jürgen. Legitimations- probleme im Spätkapitalismus. Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp, 1973.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE POWER OF MONEY – THE MONEY OF POWER
1 Hans-Jürgen KRYSMANSKI
Abstract: We live in a US-dominated phase of financial expansion, in which „an expanded mass of money capital sets itself free from the commodity form, and accumulation proceeds through financial deals.“ (Giovanni Arrighi). The money elite within the present cycle of financial expansion embodies the liberation of huge amounts of money and their transformation into forms of pure power. Once money has been set free from the commodity form, financial deals are just the first step on the road towards detaching money from the economic process all together. Money will be turned directly into social, cultural, political and military power – and, just as important, vice versa.
Keywords: Money, economics of power, money elite, power elite.
I breathless crowd every night ...: Who ‚Don’t Hate Them Because They’re are all these people? Where did they Rich’, proclaims Daniel Gross and come from? When will things return to fantasizes about the ‚trickle-down effect of normal? ridiculous, ostentatious wealth’. Not long ago, the superrich were a According to Giovanni Arrighi we live in knowable entity—as New Yorkers, a US-dominated phase of financial we were on something of a last-name expansion, in which „an expanded mass of basis with them. There were so few of money capital sets itself free from the them that when we saw a commodity form, and accumulation Guggenheim or a Rockefeller ... we proceeds through financial deals.“ The felt a certain familiarity ... But money elite within the present cycle of somewhere along the line, as great financial expansion embodies the torrents of cash came pouring into liberation of huge amounts of money and Manhattan, it stopped being possible their transformation into forms of pure to ignore them ... [Consider Santiago power. This is a very old phenomenon Calatrava’s residential skyscraper at based on the fact that money is not only 80 South Street]: the entire building used to make more money, but also to will be made up of $35 million effect ‚anything’ imaginable. apartments—$35 million each! ... And let us remember William Pfaff’s Many restaurants, shops, and service remark from the Clinton years that the industries have reoriented themselves most significant transformation in our to this new unreality, like that place times has been the growing importance of that serves $700 sushi and draws a money in America’s political system. This
1 University of Münster, Institute of Sociology. 224 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV role was never slight, but a new dimension Philosophical Manuscripts’ of Karl Marx, was added when the Supreme Court ruled written in 1844, during his Hegelian, pre- that money that was spent on election economic period. The musings of the 26 candidates and on the furtherance of year-old Marx on the power of money still private and commercial interests is an shed a glaring light on the ‚psychology’ expression of free opinion protected by the and empirics of the ‚class of the rich’. Constitution. This turned a representative Here is a first quote: republic into a plutocracy. “That which is for me through the So what is the meaning of the other term, medium of money — that for which I ‚the money of power’? I think that once can pay (i.e., which money can buy) — money has been set free from the that am I myself, the possessor of the commodity form, financial deals are just money ... Thus, what I am and am the first step on the road towards detaching capable of is by no means determined money from the economic process all by my individuality. I am ugly, but I together. Money will be turned directly can buy for myself the most beautiful into social, cultural, political and military of women ... I am bad, dishonest, power – and, just as important, vice versa! unscrupulous, stupid; but money is Former President Harry S. Truman wrote honoured, and hence its possessor ... I in his memoirs: "I could never lend myself am brainless, but money is the real to any transaction, however respectable, brain of all things and how then should that would commercialize on the prestige its possessor be brainless? Besides, he and dignity of the office of the can buy clever people for himself, and presidency.“ In the six years since Bill is he who has a power over the clever Clinton left office, he has pocketed a not more clever than the clever?” staggering $40 million alone in speaking fees ( Jacoby). Afghanistan’s and Iraq’s Fourteen years ago I did a documentary warlords are being paid with dollars that for German Spiegel TV on a young New never were part of any economic cycle - York foreign policy expert who had put most likely money printed somewhere for forth the proposal, to the acclaim of just that purpose. I think using the term American millionaires, that the USA ‚money of power’ (or: ‚the economics of should take up an implicit offer by Boris power’) might help to set free the Jelzin and buy Siberia, the whole of sociological and political imagination with Siberia, converting it into the states regard to the many new and sometimes number 51 to 55. More Stars in Our Flag, hidden means, methods and instruments of he wrote. His name was Walter Russell exercising power. Mead, who today is the Henry A. Kissinger Senior Fellow in U.S. Foreign Policy at the II Council on Foreign Relations (CFR). Since Marx wrote, that „the riddle of the Commenting, in 2001, on the publication money fetish is the riddle of the of his book ‘Special Providence. American commodity fetish“ (187ff), generations of Foreign Policy and How It Changed the Marxists have tried to untangle the World’, Mead gave a rare insight into the theoretical riddles implied by Marx’ inner workings of the CFR, this court of economic model. In order to get some clever people in the service of the East feeling for the empirical reality behind the Coast elite. He expressed his gratitude for concept of fetish, I want you to join me on the privilege of “sharing the life of this a short revisit to the ‚Economic and community of scholars, policy makers, and Krysmanski, H.-J.: The Power of Money – The Money of Power 225 brilliant lay readers and thinkers.” (355) „If I have the vocation for study but no ‘Brilliant lay readers and lay thinkers’? money for it, I have no vocation for This is exactly the group Marx meant study — that is, no effective, no true when he asked: “Is he who has a power vocation. On the other hand, if I have over the clever not more clever than the really no vocation for study but have clever?” Walter Russell Mead went on to the will and the money for it, I have an thank “a group of donors who helped effective vocation for it. Money ... underwrite my salary and expenses”. transforms the real essential powers of A second quote from the ‚Economic and man and nature into what are merely Philosophical Manuscripts’ interprets a abstract notions ..., just as it transforms passage from Shakespeare’s ‚Timon of real imperfections and chimeras ... into Athens’: „Shakespeare stresses especially real essential powers and faculties.“ two properties of money: 1. It is the visible (Marx 187ff) divinity — the transformation of all human and natural properties into their contraries, This transfer of contradictory attributes the universal confounding and distorting of pervades the world of philanthropy: The things: impossibilities are soldered Los Angeles Times reports on the conflicts together by it. - 2. It is the common whore, that exist within the Melinda & Bill Gates the common procurer of people and Foundation between the companies that the nations“ (Marx 187ff). foundation invests in and the grants that it Let us stick with money in its disguise as makes, particularly in Africa. For instance, the common whore for a moment. The office Gates is investing in an Italian oil of U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders from company, Eni, that spews pollution - 250 Vermont, self-described democratic socialist, toxic chemicals and soot that have long in commenting Bush’s budget proposals been linked to respiratory disease and came up with some interesting numbers. cancer – in the same part of the world „If the Estate Tax were to be repealed where the Gates Foundation grants completely, the estimated savings to millions of dollars on vaccinations to just one family -- the Walton family, immunize children against deadly diseases the heirs to the Wal-Mart fortune -- like polio and measles (Fine). would be about $32.7 billion dollars Thus, as Marx writes, „Money ... over the next ten years. The proposed transforms fidelity into infidelity, love into reductions to Medicaid over the same hate, hate into love, virtue into vice, vice time frame? $28 billion. ... Or how into virtue...“ (Marx 187ff) about this: if the Estate Tax goes, the heirs to the Mars candy corporation -- III routinely ripped by human rights All this leads me to a final quote from organizations for trafficking in child the ‚Economic and Philosophical labor -- will receive about $11.7 billion Manuscripts’ of 1844. In it, the young in tax breaks. That's more than three Marx writes, just as the old Marx would times the amount Bush wants to cut have, about a utopia, an anti-monetary from the Veterans’ Adminstration utopia already existing in and around us: budget ($3.4 billion) over the same „Assume man to be man and his time period“ (Taibbi). relationship to the world to be a human one: then you can exchange love only A third quote turns to the contradictions for love, trust for trust, etc. If you want and confusion money creates: to enjoy art, you must be an artistically 226 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
cultivated person; if you want to property rights are being put to the final test. exercise influence over other people, Content producers outrun copyright law. you must be a person with a The riddle of the money fetish and of the stimulating and encouraging effect on commodity fetish might be solved by what other people. Every one of your the digerati of the Eighties and Nineties relations to man and to nature must be proclaimed: Follow the Free. We are thus a specific expression, corresponding to forced to recognize that culture essentially is the object of your will, of your real not about selling, but about sharing, not individual life“ (Marx 187ff). about profiting, but about giving...
Renouncing the ‚visible deity’, the References ‚common whore’ of the money fetish has been a deep undercurrent of American life, 1. Arrighi, Giovanni. “Hegemony from the early settlers to the Hippie Unravelling – 2”. New Left Review 33, movement. Let’s once more hear Daniel May/June 2005. Gross of New York Magazine, whom I http://www.newleftreview.org/?view= quoted at the start: 2565. Accessed May 9, 2009. „For literally centuries, New Yorkers 2. Fine, Allison. “How Generous Is the have complained about the effects of Bill Gates Foundation?”, AlterNet, extreme wealth on the city. Many would, Posted on February 7, 2007. of course, prefer an egalitarian paradise http://www.alternet.org/story/47713/. where the working man has a window on Accessed May 9, 2009. Central Park, too. But such utopian 3. Gross, Daniel. “Don't Hate Them notions obscure what is, in fact, a very Because They're Rich”. New York successful aspect of New York. The Magazine. April 11, 2005. historical record clearly shows that when http://nymag.com/nymetro/news/culture/ the very rich lose interest in living in a features/11721/. Accessed May 9, 2009. city, the dominoes tumble. Look at 4. Jacoby, Jeff. “Harry Truman's obsolete Philadelphia or Cleveland.“ integrity”. The New York Times, March 2, 2007. Now: quite contrary to what this servile http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/02/opi soul thinks, the wastelands of Philadelphia nion/02iht-edjacoby.4775315.html. or Cleveland or Buffalo might be exactly Accessed May 9, 2009. the places where utopian experiments will 5. Marx, Karl. Capital, vol.1. New York: have a chance in the future. International Publishers, 1972 (1967). * 6. Mead, Walter Russell. Special It is the digital revolution that might Providence: American Foreign Policy eventually topple the visible deity, the and How it Changed the World, New common whore of the money fetish. On one York: Knopf, 2001. hand, cyberspace, as the great third 7. Pfaff, William. International Herald technological revolution of capitalism Tribune, December 6, 1999. (Fredric Jameson), has led to an 8. Taibbi, Matt. “Maybe We Deserve to unprecedented expansion of the possibilities Be Ripped Off By Bush's of the money power play, an unbelievable Billionaires”. Rolling Stone Magazine, explosion of money exchange and February 20, 2007. interactive financial shenanigans. On the http://www.alternet.org/columnists/story other hand, though, cyberspace is where /48278. Accessed May 9, 2009. Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
LE DISCOURS INTELLECTUEL EN ROUMANIE. CE QUI N’A PAS CHANGÉ DEPUIS 1989
Alexandru MATEI1
Abstract: After 1989, Romanian intellectuals have emerged from a sort of underground position and eventually arrived to speak in the centre of the agora. Nevertheless, the superior moral position they had used before 1990 in addressing their audience (based on their status of dissidents), have become paradigmatic and have been slowing down their own efforts of constituting a “civil society” in Romania. We are referring to the echoes produced by the Jurnalul de la Păltinis written by Gabriel Liiceanu and first published in 1983, echoes gathered in a book edited by the same author, called Epistolar. We focus mainly on two letters exchanged between Alexandru Paleologu and Gabriel Liiceanu.
Key words: Romania, Communism, intellectuals, ethics, aesthetics.
Le titre de mon article présuppose que pas produit en 1918 justement à cause du 1989 est un moment charnière dans type de société qu’il ait rencontré : la l’histoire de la Roumanie et que, par société bourgeoise, avec une faible conséquent, un certain discours intellectuel conscience sociale et idéologique ; c’est le en cours avant ce moment aurait dû communisme donc qui aurait finalement changer après. Mais permettez-moi permis aux Roumains de démarrer la d’inscrire ce moment dans un pan véritable émancipation sociale nationale d’histoire plus large, qui commence après tant rêvée. En 1989, il n’en eût rien été : 1918, avec l’Union, passe par la guerre, c’est à peine après la chute du par l’avènement du communisme en 1947- communisme, imposé par l’extérieur, que 1948 et, en passant par 1989, continue sa la Roumanie pourrait trouver sa voie. Et, marche vers l’émancipation. Il y a, durant d’ailleurs, les tout premières années qui cette période, plusieurs moments qui succèdent à la révolution de 1989 voient, devraient enclencher un changement : au niveau culturel et politique, deux sortes 1918 aurait dû être le moment du début du de résurrections : la montée en puissance devenir de la Roumanie enfin une et du discours intellectuel de l’entre-deux- indivisible ; la guerre aura vite fait de guerres, celui de la génération Eliade- couper ce fantasme – et puis c’est le Cioran-Noica-Ionesco, à laquelle s’ajoute second volet de cette histoire qui suit. la « reconstruction » des partis politiques 1947-1948 aurait dû de nouveau être, dans « historiques » tels que le Parti Paysan la logique du jour, le moment du Chrétien-Démocrate et le Parti National changement radical qui, de fait, ne se serait Libéral. Il s’agit donc plutôt d’une
1Faculté de Langues et Littératures Etrangères, Université “Spiru Haret”, Bucarest. 228 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV continuité que d’une rupture, et d’une prolongé pendant le communisme de vision historique où c’est le communisme Ceauşescu, auraient finalement eu qui aurait constitué la rupture dans l’occasion de continuer – et je souligne – le l’évolution naturelle de l’histoire. Comme travail de résurrection nationale si l’histoire était quelque chose de donné interrompue par le mise du pays au service que les manigances de quelques-uns des Soviétiques et puis de leurs complices pourraient usurper, comme s’il y avait une roumains devenus par la suite les histoire naturelle et une histoire-imposteur dirigeants de l’Etat roumain communiste. qui pourrait s’y opposer. Ce qui n’a pas changé depuis 1989 – Ces premières réflexions sur l’histoire c’est-à-dire le discours intellectuel qui contemporaine roumaine m’ont été constitue l’objet de cet article – ne se inspirées par un texte que j’affectionne rapporte pas seulement à l’époque du beaucoup, le chapitre « Le Révolutionnaire » communisme, mais aussi à l’époque d’avant écrit par Bronislaw Bazcko dans le volume la Seconde guerre mondiale : une certaine L’Uomo romantico1, là où il s’intéresse aux vision du discours intellectuel à l’intention révolutionnaires français qui, après la chute d’offrir un modèle ou des modèles de l’Empire napoléonien, ont été exilés et se d’émancipation, intellectuelle et morale, sont retrouvés ensemble dans le désir de nationale. Dans cette perspective, tout refaire, d’achever la révolution avortée. « La discours vaut pour autant qu’il se constitue Révolution, écrit Baczko, lègue ainsi à en « initiative », culturelle ou pragmatique, l’imagination sociale un souvenir et une mais nécessairement d’importance promesse, un mythe et une utopie, un historique, tel que considère Emil Cioran : langage symbolique et une eschatologie, „Son entreprise (de Hitler, n. n.) a été bref, une religion – pour reprendre le terme pourtant la dernière intiative de employé par Herzen et Michelet – que les l’Occident”3. On verra que, la période révolutionnaires ont adoptée. »2 Le stalinienne mise à part – en gros les années renversement de l’ordre social continue, pour 1950 et le début des années 1960 – la eux, à embraser les imaginations mais ce génération intellectuelle qui s’inspire et n’en est là que la projection d’un désir qui ne continue celle de l’entre-deux-guerres ne produit plus rien d’efficace dans l’ordre de procède, ni sous le régime communiste, ni, l’action politique. La figure du ce qui intéresse davantage cet article, révolutionnaire de Bazcko est ainsi après, à la relativisation des prétentions l’incarnation du projet tué dans l’œuf, de la ilocutionnaires qu’elle assigne à son marche qui se bloque et dont les enjeux se discours. On verra que, depuis 1918 retrouvent reportés mais jamais abandonnés, durant, l’intellectuel roumain en tant que car il y allait de l’identité des Roumain ne considère jamais la société où révolutionnaires de se donner une raison il vit suffisamment mature pour la supérieure pour survivre à l’échec de dispenser des attaches imaginaires à un modifier la réalité selon ses vœux. avenir de justice et vérité que, tour à tour, Or, il me semble que les intellectuels l’histoire nous aurait promis et refusé. roumains les plus en vue après la chute du En France, le discours « intellectuel » communisme, dont Gabriel Liiceanu, Ana est, depuis des lustres, en proie à de Blandiana, plus tard Horia-Roman nombreuses critiques, venues Patapievici se sont conduits comme des essentiellement de la part des philosophes révolutionnaires qui, après un exil qui se réclament de l’école dite Matei, A. : Le discours intellectuel en Roumanie 229 analytique : Le Philosophe chez les Ungureanu, « hiérarchique, c’est-à-dire autophages, écrit par Jacques Bouveresse inégalitaire (...). » C’est-à-dire: ce qui vaut et publié chez Minuit en 1984, alors qu’en plus que tout, c’est la personne qui parle, 1989 un autre philosophe d’inspiration non pas les présupposées qui président à analytique, Vincent Descombes, fait son discours. L’intellectuel roumain et paraître toujours chez Minuit Philosophie français vivent dans des sociétés similaires par gros temps, où il s’en prend a quelques du point de vue du rapport entre l’individu mauvaises habitudes intellectuelles et les institutions: « Les Roumains ne font européennes, chez Heidegger par exemple. pas confiance aux institutions, qui La critique des sophismes livrés en pâture fonctionnent avec la lenteur bureaucratique aux lecteurs censés admirer, aimer ou haïr française, centralisée et inutile. » un discours, à l’écouter plutôt qu’à (Ungureanu 203). Mais, à partir de ce l’entendre, ne cesse de s’étendre depuis les point, les différences commencent à années 1980. Le sociologue Bernard poindre. Prenons cette opinion du même Lahire affirme au début de son recueil de anthropologue: « Le dialogue intellectuel textes intitulé L’Esprit sociologique : n’existe pas dans une société « Pourtant, dans l’état actuel des choses, essentiellement inégalitaire, fondée sur des celui qui exerce son sens critique est rapports de pouvoir. Il y a, d’un côté, les souvent soupçonné d’agressivité, de savants institutionnalisés, qui ont des méchanceté ou de dureté, et ce, contacts politiques ou dans les médias. Ils indépendamment de la justesse de la détiennent le monopole du discours et ont critique. La rigueur intellectuelle est, pour devant eux un public amorphe. Le modèle certains, un simple signe de rigidité morale de structuration de la vie intellectuelle (...) ou psychique et l’exercice de la critique est donne naissance à des gloires factices, réduit à une entreprise malveillante, voire comme Jacques Lacan ou Bernard-Henri terroriste » (Lahire 17). Lévy (...) – ou, plus proche de nous, Il y a donc cohérence, dans le rejet de la Constantin Noica et H.-R. Patapievici. » demande de « rigueur intellectuelle », de la (Ungureanu 218). Les types de public part d’un certain discours intellectuel diffèrent entre la France et la Roumanie – continental: puisque la mobilisation qu’il c’est la première différence à remarquer. vise est plutôt d’ordre sensible, la critique Le « public amorphe » est une réalité à laquelle il se voit soumettre est assimilée roumaine, et pour cause. La culture au même niveau de la sensibilité : cela fait française, quoiqu’elle privilégie la figure l’affaire de toute recherche d’alibis au cas de l’intellectuel et le « sacré de l’écrivain » où un certain argument « sensible » est également, a depuis longtemps vu et discuté dans le registre du raisonnable, là encouragé, au moins depuis la borne 1789, où tout habitué à l’espace public peut les débats publics; elle a vu naître et voit légitimement intervenir. survivre « la société civile ». L’adjectif D’un point de vue extérieur, l’intellectuel « public » qui détermine un espace social roumain et français se ressemblent: tous les est considéré comme un acquis de la deux, ils évoluent dans deux cultures pensée française du siècle des Lumières4. centralisées et centralistes et, en partie, Aujourd’hui encore, en France, la société « personnalistes ». Qu’est-ce que cela veut civile est une communauté, sans doute de dire? Une mentalité personnaliste est, selon plus en plus atomisée, suffisamment l’anthropologue normalien Dan informée et constituée de gens 230 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV consciemment engagés dans un camp ou intellectuel et spirituel (ordres d’ailleurs dans un autre, qu’il s’agisse du politique, souvent confondus) était logé dans les de l’idéologique, voire de l’esthétique. En lieux clos de la méditation retranchée, là Roumanie, en revanche, l’intellectuel n’a où l’on pouvait faire fonctionner à échelle pas à se soumettre au contrôle d’un même réduite des bribes de sociétés secrètes ou type de public. La voix de ce qui, en initiatiques. Le mal, c’était tout ce qui était Roumanie, devrait porter le même nom de déclaré publiquement et officiel, ce présent « société civile » manque d’exercice historique représenté par les médias critique, ce qui rend le dialogue ou du entièrement politisés comme l’antichambre moins la querelle publique impossible. du paradis sur un axe vertical dont La présence de l’intellectuel au centre du l’origine était une histoire roumaine marché culturel roumain, à la fois comme glorieuse, interrompue après star médiatique, écrivain génial, figure de l’indépendance, en 1877, par l’avènement proue morale et proche de l’espace de la dynastie des Hohenzollern et qui a politique avait presque disparu pendant le refait surface après le 23 août 1944, le jour régime communiste. Certes, pour le pire. où l’armée roumaine est devenue l’alliée Mais sa résurrection tout de suite après des Soviétiques. Or, le nationalisme du décembre 1989 a brouillé les cartes de régime Ceausescu a troublé ce partage, l’évolution sociale vers la création d’une surtout dans les années 1980. En „société civile” fondée plutôt sur le travail s’identifiant à une histoire jamais collectif de l’intelligence publique que sur accomplie, à une „initiative” de dimension le tropisme d’une morale métaphysique. historique qui voulait faire de Roumanie La raison principale de l’admiration dans une puissance mondiale moyenne, laquelle les Roumains tiennent la figure de Ceausescu n’a pas moins incarné, au-delà l’intellectuel est le statut moral supposé de de la figure du dictateur borné et ce dernier. C’est l’intellectuel qui, en finalement exalté, une idée de Roumanie, sait d’une part ce qui est bon ou « roumanité » dont les intellectuels formés mauvais dans les processus sociaux en dans la veine de la droite de l’entre-deux- cours et qui, de l’autre part, possède la guerres ne pouvaient pas rejeter jusqu’au capacité non seulement à évaluer les projet. Certes, « l’initiative » de Ceausescu retombées et les significations historiques est dérisoire par rapport à celle d’Hitler : des événements qui lui sollicitent telle histoire, tel dictateur. Mais cela l’attention, mais en outre d’orienter, par n’empêche que Ceausescu ait eu des rapport à ces événements, l’émancipation semblants d’initiative, de la création d’un de l’esprit roumain. Or, le bien et le mal pays qui puisse se procurer tout ce dont il a sont deux valeurs dont il faudrait souligner besoin à l’intérieur jusqu’à cette énorme l’écart entre, d’une part, une projection systématisation des villages, en passant par fantasmatique dans un espace clos, dual, le Palais du peuple, qui peut nier absolu et, d’autre part, une image de plus aujourd’hui l’envergure du projet de en plus trouble et friable que ces valeurs Ceausescu ? possèdent dans le monde occidental. Ce Dans ce qui suit je vais prendre préjugé a été aussi puissant avant et après l’exemple d’un livre culte dans les années 1989. Avant, pour les intellectuels qui 1980 en Roumanie, et qui l’est resté tout héritent du discours intellectuel de l’entre- de suite après 1989, le Journal de Paltinis, deux-guerres, le bien, du point de vue écrit par le philosophe roumain Matei, A. : Le discours intellectuel en Roumanie 231 heideggerien Gabriel Liiceanu, un livre qui confisqués par le politique – de la pensée porte sur le « modèle d’éducation et de l’esprit, mais aussi sur le socle païdéique » incarné par l’« école » destiné aux héros; cela faisait qu’aucune informelle créée par et autour du critique éventuelle de sa pensée ne pût être philosophe Constantin Noica, à partir de formulée, car qui pourrait nourrir ne fût-ce 1975 (Noica meurt en 1987). Pour que l’ombre d’un doute envers un commencer, nous citons d’un article intellectuel anticommuniste? Cette récent portant sur l’influence de Constantin autonomie morale de l’intellectuel roumain Noica sur la culture roumaine: a été perpétuée après 1989 sans aucune « C’est grâce à Constantin Noica que la solution de continuité, sur la même toile de philosophie jouissait en Roumanie des fond de la contradiction entre un pouvoir années 70-80 d’un immense prestige, communiste en agonie mais qui étaient incroyable pour un pays assujetti à un encore en place, et un pouvoir culturel régime totalitaire. Noica lui-même est toujours étouffé. Les lettres échangées par devenu presque un phénomène de masse les acteurs du Journal de Paltinis, telles (...) Des milliers de jeunes rêvaient qu’elles ont été éditées au début des années d’apprendre le grec et l’allemand pour 1990 par G. Liiceanu même, attestent avoir accès aux sources fondamentales de l’existence de perspectives critiques sur le la philosophie. Des centaines de personnes discours du maître. Il y avait donc des lui rendaient visite, de véritables critiques de la pensée de Noica et surtout pèlerinages à sa cabane, située dans un de sa vision de la culture, mais timides et village de montagne en Transylvanie. Bref, en quelque sorte mitigées par la culpabilité le phénomène „Noica” a marqué de de celui qui les avaient formulées (en manière radicale la culture roumaine l’occurrence, Alexandru Paleologu, contemporain. » (Ciocan 4). premier ambassadeur de Roumanie à Paris Certes, nous ne voudrions pas insister après 1989). Vingt ans après, en revanche, sur ce que l’on pourrait remarquer comme il n’est pas difficile de se rendre compte paradoxal, l’association du syntagme « on que ces critiques n’ont jamais pu mettre en est privé de liberté » à l’oeuvre d’un doute la légitimité de la figure du héros philosophe faisant partie de ce « on », que Constantin Noica incarne toujours, et oeuvre qui compte dix titres, parus dans la que ce sont ses élèves les plus chéris, dont Roumanie communiste entre 1970 et 1986. l’auteur du Journal, qui se prévalent, en Je m’intéresse davantage à ce qui, dans cet tant qu’intellectuels, du même argument article paru en 2005, est appelé « le moral pour maintenir le discours phénomène Noica », lequel présuppose une intellectuel à l’écart de tout mobilisation spirituelle exemplaire pour le questionnement radical. D’autre part cela prestige que l’intellectuel, en Roumanie maintient ce que devrait être la „société comme en France, est appelé à produire civile” dans le même état d’admiration afin de se voir consacrer comme tel. Mais inconditionnelle devant le discours produit en Roumanie, le fait que Noica eût subi par ce type de figures héroïques. des persécutions de la part du pouvoir en L’argument moral dont nous parlons place dans les années 50, l’a porté non ressort avec évidence dans une lettre que seulement sur le devant de la scène – une Gabriel Liiceanu adresse à Alexandru scène seulement imaginée dans une société Paleologu. Ce dernier avait déjà souligné dont les médias étaient complètement la caducité du « phénomène Noica ». 232 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
C’est un livre (il s’agit du Journal, n.n.) être comparé à un coup de cloche au milieu incitant, audacieux, courageux. Et, d’un silence prédestiné à une tour déserte, pourtant: son succès (le mot est bien placé) mais non pas à « la fleur poussée pendant a été grand surtout parmi les lecteurs non la nuit dans ton jardin. » (« Lettre de avisés (...); non avisés mais épatés, tombés Gabriel Liiceanu à Alexandru Paleologu », en extase quand il s’agit de la Epistolar 60-61). « philosophie », et notamment à entendre Cette distinction entre un langage sacré et parler de « Noica » (« Lettre de Alexandru un autre profane, correspond, si vous voulez, Paleologu », Epistolar 100). à la différence que, dans Situations II, Sartre Le livre d’ « épitres » publié par Gabriel dresse entre le langage de la prose et celui de Liiceanu recèle les pièces « à conviction » la poésie. Sauf que pour l’intellectuel d’un discours intellectuel qui, après 1989, roumain qui se reconnaît dans le partage a pu se développer et conquérir une large radical opéré par Gabriel Liiceanu, il n’y a frange du lectorat roumain. Sa lecture pas deux types de langage disponibles à la contribue à la constitution du dossier pratique de tout le monde, mais deux d’analyse de l’„argument moral” parmi les paradigmes de la voix. Il y a des voix qui intellectuels roumains. Dans une lettre que produisent de la poésie quoi qu’elles Gabriel Liiceanu adresse en guise de donnent à écouter et il y en a qui n’y arrivent justification à Alexandru Paleologu, pour jamais, en prose ou bien en vers. argumenter les critiques qu’il lui avait Ce type de discours intellectuel ne pouvait apportées et qui avaient blessé Paleologu, pas encourager la constitution, dans les il opère un partage net entre « esthétique » années 1990, d’une société civile. Puisqu’il et « morale ». Il regrette que Paleologu ait ne s’agissait pas de penser ensemble, de jugé son Journal « beau »: donner à penser, il s’agissait en revanche de J’ose vous contredire dans votre faire sentir, là où le sentir même se trouvait jugement suivant lequel mon Journal serait disjoint entre un sentir esthétique, frivole car un beau livre. Ce terme, dans son temporalisé (moderne) et un sentir moral qui isolement critico-esthétique de type sait éviter l’empreinte du temps et qui, en moderne, qui renvoie au domaine des fait, s’avère un type différent de sentir goûts et du plaisir, me semble, sinon esthétique, proprement romantique (bruit au dénigrateur, du moins – par rapport au milieu du silence, axe vertical au milieu de Journal – entièrement déplacé. Le Journal l’étendue). n’est pas un beau livre, car il n’a pas été Tous les thèmes du discours intellectuel écrit pour faire plaisir à qui que ce soit. (...) roumain ont succombé, pendant les années Le Journal est l’histoire d’une terrible 1990, à ce partage, qui les a tous « endurance », d’une passion et, de par la détournés: le combat contre les tension subjective de l’expérience à rémanences communistes, le rôle de laquelle il donne accès, il peut troubler, l’intellectuel dans la société et le statut de mais non pas plaire. La gravité, qui me la société par rapport à l’intellectuel, la semble être le seul ton de ce livre (d’où sa valeur « esthétique » opposée aux « monotonie »), la pureté, qui est tantôt le dimensions circonstancielles des oeuvres support, tantôt l’idéal du tout, et le littéraires (politiques et morales dans le pathétique, qui ressort par endroits, ne sont sens du politiquement correct), la critique pas de catégories esthétiques, mais de la culture roumaine comme carrefour morales. C’est pourquoi, le Journal peut entre l’Occident et l’Orient, tout cela a été Matei, A. : Le discours intellectuel en Roumanie 233 sanctionné non pas suite à des débats Cette situation peu séduisante commence critiques, mais à des pourparlers qui, dans néanmoins à changer depuis les années les années 1980, étaient menés à l’écart de 2000, avec le changement d’une génération l’espace public. En 2009, il est encore qui connaît et apprécie de plus en plus possible qu’un jeune philosophe roumain « l’éthique protestante et l’esprit du actif, apprécié, Mihail Neamţu, docteur en capitalisme » ainsi que la liberté de pensée théologie du King’s College de Londres, dont se revendiquent depuis toujours les écrive, dans un article consacré au besoin grands penseurs européens, qu’ils soient de « Réinventer l’élite »: allemands, comme Nicolas de Cues, « Un pays qui méprise ses élites hollandais comme Erasme, juifs comme s’écroule dans l’obscurité du ressentiment Emmanuel Lévinas ou Stanley Cavell, ou – tellement propre au frère du fils prodige. français comme Montaigne, Voltaire ou Dans un lieu d’où l’idée de l’excellence a même Sartre. L’heure n’a pas encore sonné disparu, l’ethos de l’admiration se trouve pour parler de cette nouvelle génération de aussi en crise. L’instinct aplatissant penseurs roumains, elle n’est qu’à son âge procèdera à la contestation des hiérarchies des promesses, et, de surcroît, l’appeler naturelles (...) L’élite surpasse, « génération » ce serait donner cours à un inévitablement, les attentes communes ou cliché qui n’offre aucune garantie l’inertie des masses. La rencontre avec les d’adéquation. Ce qui reste néanmoins membres de ce corps aguerri dans les inquiétant en Roumanie, c’est le taux encore réflexes de la tradition représente pour très important d’analphabétisme politique, nous, la masse, un bienfait. Pourquoi? idéologique, historique qui, articulé à une Parce que le rôle de l’élite est celui très grande disponibilité pour l’admiration et d’exprimer avec plus de clarté un sens pour l’opprobre, fait de la société roumaine historique auquel le reste de la de nos jours un territoire de la « pensée communauté participe de façon diffuse, collective » coriace et très commode à passive » (Neamtu 26). manier par les pouvoirs en place. Ainsi, tout ce qui aurait pu faire l’objet d’une critique argumentative nécessaire a Références été jugé à l’aune de l’intensité d’un sentir qui exigeait un type d’exercice qu’on peut 1. Ciocan, Cristian. « Peut-on faire de la appeler ou bien « préréflexif » pour plaire philosophie quand on est privé de à nos amis phénoménologues, ou bien liberté ? Le cas roumain : Constantin « sur-rationnel » pour comprendre, peut- Noica et Alexandru Dragomir », Vox être, même si cet aperçu ne tient pas lieu Philosophiae, (www.filozofie.eu) de raisons, pourquoi le plus grand écrivain 2. « Lettre de Alexandru Paleologu à roumain vivant est aujourd’hui Mircea Gabriel Liiceanu, 26. III. 1984 », Cărtărescu, un « postmoderniste » déclaré Gabriel Liiceanu (éd.). Epistolar. 1996. Bucureşti: Humanitas, 2008. par souci de distinction de la génération 3. « Lettre de Gabriel Liiceanu à littéraire roumaine antérieure aux années Alexandru Paleologu, 22 février 1984, 1980, baptisée « néo-moderniste », qui, par Heidelberg », Gabriel Liiceanu (éd.). son œuvre littéraire nous apparaît plutôt un Epistolar. 1996. Bucureşti: Humanitas, des derniers grands surréalistes de la 2008. littérature européenne. 234 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
1 François Furet (dir.), L’Uomo Romantico, 4 Le syntagme a vraisemblablement été utilisé Laterza et Figli Spa, Roma-Bari, 1995, traduit pour la première fois par Emmanuel Kant, et en roumain Omul romantic, Iasi, Polirom, c’est dans son sillage que Jurgen Habermas se 2000. Le chapitre s’y trouve p. 259-300. place quand il en fait une référence 2 Bronislaw Baczko, « Le Révolutionnaire », in fondamentale dans L'espace public : op. cit., p. 264 (traduction par l’auteur) archéologie de la publicité comme dimension 3 Emil Cioran, Les Silogismes de l’amertume, constitutive de la société bourgeoise (1963). Il trad. roum. Silogismele amaraciunii, Bucuresti, l’y définit comme « le processus au cours Humaitas, 2008, p. 50. duquel le public constitué d'individus faisant usage de leur raison s'approprie la sphère publique contrôlée par l'autorité et la transforme en une sphère où la critique s'exerce contre le pouvoir de l'État. » (Paris, Payot, 1993, p. 61)
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE INTERCONNECTIONS BETWEEN THE GROWTH OF NATIONAL MASS MOVEMENTS AND THE DECLINE OF THE NATIVE LANGUAGE IN 19TH-CENTURY IRELAND
Márta PINTÉR1
Abstract: This paper is part of a longer study (see Pintér 2008) into the history of language policy in Ireland, and is concerned with one of the most complex language-related issues of modern Ireland: In the early 20th century, the nearly extinct native tongue was reconstructed as a powerful symbol and rallying point of national politics. In what follows I aim to explore the origins of this phenomenon and seek to answer two key questions: 1. What interconnections existed between the dramatic decline of Irish and the contemporaneous spread of national mass movements in Ireland in the 19th century? 2. To what extent was the language policy of early 20th- century nationalist Ireland grounded in the linguistic attitudes and behaviour of political movements in the previous century?
Key words: Ireland, Irish language, language shift, national mass movements.
1. Points of relevance main stages of the prolonged Irish-English language shift: works have dated the start My study has been inspired by the of the process either to the pre-Tudor following inadequacies observable in Times, or to the Tudor Era; and the timing literature on the Irish-English language of irreversibility and of most critical phase shift: has ranged from the 17th, through the 18th 1. Although both the Irish language th th st to the 19 centuries (see e.g. Corkery question of the 20 and 21 centuries and 1968, de Fréine 1977, de Fréine 1978, the Irish-English language shift have been Hyde 1967, Kelly 1999, Ó Huallacháin widely researched, a systematic analysis 1994, Ó Murchú 1988, Wall 1969). This that covers the period between the Early th diversity of opinion presumably derives Middle Ages and the 20 century, and is from the fact that the first census including based on a combined implementation of questions on Irish-language use was made historical and language political in Ireland as late as 1851, and language- approaches has so far gained limited related tendencies and phenomena ground (cf. Crowley 2000). characterizing earlier periods have led 2. In previous research there has been no researchers to different observations and consensus as regards the beginning and conclusions.
1 The University of Pannonia Veszprém, Hungary. 236 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
2. Initial Hypotheses language politics is seen to comprise two main components: concepts, plans, and The research aims at supporting four ideologies as well as measures initial assumptions: implementing them (see Kiss 2002: 247). 1. A language-political examination will Both components require the adoption of reveal such details of the language shift an approach which also focuses on the which remain less pronounced with activities, behaviour, mentality and alternative approaches and will yield new attitudes of the community. Accordingly, interpretations of the main phases of the the analysis extends not only to the policy prolonged process. Bartha (1999: 197) of the state and its power but also to the explains the relevance of the study of role of groups or even of individuals, who language shift from the aspect of language maintain various relations with the polictics as follows: the dynamics of authority, and the contexts range from linguistic contacts, language retention and political, social, and economic to cultural language shift can be clearly described in and religious (see G. Molnár 1998: 1). terms of the categories of political activity. 2. From among the possible This belongs to the field of language interdisciplinary links of language politics, policy/language planning. the study grasps those pointing in the 2. An analysis of texts representing direction of historical research. It identifies cultural and linguistic ideologies in their certain historical phenomena of the Irish respective times will result in a linguistic scene from the perspective of reconstruction of the Irish-English language policy, or presents their language language shift as a historically continuous political importance – particularly if they process of language policy, and will make relate to language political developments relevant additions to numerical figures. in contemporary Ireland (see Edwards 3. The Irish-English language shift was a 1985: 47). prolonged process gradually moving down 3. The language-political approach is the social hierarchy, and the gradual integrated with the theoretical frame of restructuring of the linguistic attitudes and colonial studies. Since the Irish-English of the language political orientations of the language shift coincided with the colonial native, colonized society has largely past of Ireland, and since the two processes contributed to the linguistic transformation were closely interlinked, the study seeks to of Ireland. explore the historical embeddedness of the 4. A combined application of the above linguistic change by revealing approaches will open up a dimension of characteristic features of linguistic the language shift which highlights those colonialism/imperialism (see e.g. Galtung changes of linguistic attitude and 1980, Gillingham 1987, Loomba 1998, behaviour that accompany or even precede Moane 1994, Phillipson 1992, Tomlinson numerical alterations in language use, and 1991). will provide for a new and more 4. The study analyzes texts which reflect adequately grounded identification of the cultural and language political tendencies main stages of the language shift. and ideologies characteristic of their respective times, and relies upon these 3. Research Methods texts as primary sources for a language political description of the history of the 1. The research uses a broad Irish-English language shift. interpretation of language politics. Thus, Pintér, M.: The Interconnections Between the Growth of National Mass Movements… 237
4. The Findings of the Research Tudor power meant the nation-wide establishment of an English administrative Whereas most published research traces system, the plantation of English speaking the start of the Irish-English language shift population groups as well as the systematic to the eve of the Tudor conquest or to the destruction of the social and institutional Tudor Times, my findings date the first bases of native culture and language. It language-political signs of the beginning follows that by the end of the Tudor Era, of the process to as early as the late 12th the course of the irreversible language shift century, that is, to the time of the Anglo- had been designated in Ireland: English Norman invasion and the departure of acquired a dominant position whereas Irish colonial history in Ireland. This was reduced to a subordinate status in its observation is supported by the own language country. A significant introduction of the concept of linguistic language political response by the native and cultural sovereignty which says that community to the power shift in the different cultures form, at least in theory, linguistic domain was the abandonment of sovereign entities where the right to make the native culture and the weakening of the culture- or language-use-related decisions generational transmission of the native solely belongs to the community (see language within the ranks of the Tomlinson 1991: 6-7). Consequently, indigenous aristocracy. external dominance over decisions and My language political study highlights practices which normally enable the certain connections between the 12th and community to regulate its own cultural and the 16th centuries which have evaded linguistic behaviour and lifestyles will academic attention so far. According to my result in the violation of the cultural and observation, besides certain politico- linguistic sovereignty of the community. historical transitions (Gillingham 1987), The Anglo-Norman intervention caused the Anglo-Norman and the Tudor periods the first real challenge to Ireland’s cultural also display continuities with regard to the sovereignty and the long-term undermining Irish-English language shift, which, on the of the political power of Irish. Since the other hand, become explicable in terms of Norman invasion prevented the formation continuities in linguistic colonialism. I of a politically sovereign Irish monarchy, demonstrate these continuities by which would also coincide with the analyzing colonial discourse. Here I depart primary use of Irish, never in its history from the supposition that colonial could Irish become the dominant language discourse articulating colonial ideologies of a politically independent state. This also serves as both representation and method meant that in the Anglo-Norman Times the for the basic forces of colonialism, and that process of language change commenced at an analysis of this discourse focusing on the top of the feudal pyramid, in relation to statements related to culture and language, the institution of medieval kingship. will inform us about the progress of In the 16th century the Tudors used cultural-linguistic colonization. My study Ireland as the first scene of England’s compares texts of the Norman conquest modern expansive ambitions. Tudor-time and of the Tudor Times and proves that English ideologists considered cultural and they display remarkable continuity: linguistic assimilation indispensable to the imperialist attitudes which describe the success of permanent colonization. Total subjugated population and its culture as 238 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV subordinate, uncivilized and barbarous and meant that Irish failed to gain ground in which justify colonization by claims of modern political language use and that cultural superiority on the part of the modern Irish nationalism acquired colonizing community are present in the linguistic expression in English in the discourses of both periods. Negative following centuries. stereotypes stigmatizing the Irish language The advancing language shift absorbed and civilization originate in the texts of the further social groups: by the end of the 18th 12th-century invasion of Ireland, and gain century most of the native urban middle ideological reinforcement and extension in classes had also been Anglicized. As is the texts of the Tudor conquest. My revealed by contemporaneous discourse, findings demonstrate that colonial they had accepted the cultural and ideologies and negative stereotypes about linguistic consequences of colonization – the language and culture of the colonized that is, the Anglicization of Ireland – and constituted a vital factor in the language they increasingly identified themselves as shift: the fact that the colonized English speakers (see e.g. O’Conor 1753). community accepted and internalized the The latter half of the 18th century also negative stereotyping about their language witnessed attitudinal changes to Irish served as the mental precondition of among the linguistically most conservative language shift. The seven-hundred-year rural population. This can be demonstrated long process of the Irish-English language by an examination of the so called Hedge change advanced within the Irish social Schools (see e.g. Corcoran 1928, Dowling hierarchy from the aristocracy to the poor, 1968). These grassroots, private schools rural population as the negative linguistic were called to life and maintained by poor, ideologies constructed by the colonizer rural people in the face of the Penal Laws gradually gained recognition and adoption by which the dominant Protestant elite by the same social groups of the native prohibited all kinds of Catholic education. society. Although at the time of their foundation in The fact that the language-political the early 18th century most Hedge Schools ground of the irreversible language shift specialized in Irish and Classical had been laid in the Tudor Times is clearly languages, by the end of the century they indicated by changes in the state and status had become important scenes of formal of Irish in the 17th and 18th centuries. English teaching for the lower native Numerically the language still enjoyed a classes – the latter development having strong position but otherwise it was been initiated by the requirements of the transforming into a means of otherwise Irish-speaking parents. It follows communication that was devoid of a then that although the lowest-ranking rural modern standard, became geographically population still displayed mass use of Irish fragmented and shrinking and existed in in the late 18th century, its linguistic oral, dialectal forms, primarily in the attitude already reflected transitions homes of the rural population. Restriction towards English. The tendency that the to oral use prevented Irish from spreading poor native parents wished to obtain as a language of the press and the printed English language education for their media. Thus, English became the language children demonstrates a loss of status for of newspapers and modern journalism in Irish even among the most backward, rural Ireland (see Anderson 1991). This also groups. On the other hand, English was Pintér, M.: The Interconnections Between the Growth of National Mass Movements… 239 becoming the language of prestige, internalization of its stigmatization, and the associated with social and economic forced and deliberate disruption of its mobility in the linguistic value system of transmission in one or two generations. the same group. Further social response was mass The 19th century should be viewed as the emigration, which also contributed to the closing phase of the language shift. Several acceleration of the language shift with the analyses of the Irish language question active participation of the natives. Since adopt the term “Great Language Shift” to mass emigration from that time on became describe 19th-century linguistic processes. a permanent feature of Irish society, and By doing so they refer to the big numerical since the target countries of migration were drop of the monolingual Irish from 2.5-3 English speaking, the acquisition of million to 21,000, and imply that the 19th English at a young age, at home and at century was the most decisive period in the school, was seen by these groups as prolonged language change. However, my preparation for a better life. findings reveal that the, admittedly On the other hand, these processes took unprecedented and unparalleled, numerical place within the frame of the British-Irish shift was the predictable outcome of Union, which came into force in 1801 and tendencies characterizing the previous provided the British Government with centuries. Its extraordinary nature derived direct control over Ireland. My research from the size of the related population, and draws parallel between the strategies of the from the speed these poor native masses Tudor and of the 19th-century British state abandoned their mother tongue in the machineries aiming at English cultural and course of a few decades. Nevertheless, in linguistic assimilation in Ireland. However, its mental state and linguistic attitudes, I also demonstrate that with the attempted even this social group had been prepared political centralization and socio-cultural for the language change at the turn of the homogenization, the 19th-century British 19th century, and the rapid abandonment of state effected remarkable modernization in their mother language can be interpreted as the country. Since the linguistic context of their collective language-political response all modernization was English, its to 19th-century developments in Ireland. institutions – like public education, The most dramatic of all these was the administration, health care, national postal, Great Famine of 1845-48, which mostly hit police and rail services –, which offered the poor Irish mono- and bilinguals in the career opportunities, social mobility and western and southwestern regions of the financial security, incited the masses to country. To the hunger-stricken language change. agricultural population the potato famine Public primary education, introduced in seemed to prove the validity of those Ireland by the British government in 1831, negative stereotypes about Irish which also fits into this complex language- originated from the 12th-century Anglo- political context. A conservative view Norman conquerors of Ireland, and the holds that the so called National Schools, close relationship between poverty, which were of English medium even in backwardness, lack of education and their Irish monolingual districts, played the most native tongue became an unquestionable important part in the “murder of Irish” in reality for them. Their language-political the 19th century (see e.g. Corcoran 1928, reactions included the denial of Irish, the Pearse 1916). Undoubtedly, the schools 240 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV functioned as important means of cultural century, which brought about the and linguistic assimilation in the policy of accelerated and numerically significant the British state. However, their efficiency conclusion of the language shift. in bringing the Irish-English language shift The over 700-year long linguistic change to an abrupt close largely depended on the was gradually gaining ground within the strong motivation of the native population Irish social hierarchy from top to bottom. It to learn English – the origins of which can commenced at the level of medieval be traced to the late 18th century Hedge kingship, advanced through the native Schools. In fact, we can claim that the role aristocracy and the middle classes until it of the English National Schools in the also absorbed the agrarian population of Irish-English language shift is one of those the westernmost countryside. Each language-political dilemmas which can consecutive stage of the process can be only be fully explored by the balanced interpreted as language political response consideration of the following three given by the involved social groups – components: policy measures by the accompanied and even preceded by the re- assimilating power; active participation by arrangement of their linguistic attitudes, the target population of assimilation in its linguistic value-system and language- own language shift; and the right and political orientation. access of the minority community to those The ideological frame of the process was forms of assimilation which provide them constructed upon the grossly negative with existential security and progress (see stigmatization of the Irish language and Szépe 2001: 107, Szépe-Derényi 1998: 9). culture. This stigmatizing originated with the 12th-century Anglo-Norman invaders of 5. Conclusions Ireland, and can be traced throughout the colonial period in the cultural and My language political study yields the linguistic attitudes of the dominant Anglo- following conclusions. The Irish-English Norman, English and Anglo-Irish groups. language shift was a prolonged process Under the conditions of colonization, the which was taking shape from the late 12th stigmatization of the native language was century to the turn of the 20th century, also adopted by the colonized social during the presence of the English state in groups, in a process moving gradually Ireland, and amid the conditions and down the social scale. The articulation of consequences of colonization. The most language-related ideologies and policies by decisive phases of the language shift the colonizer, and their acceptance by the included the Anglo-Norman invasion of colonized are present in those texts and the late 12th century, which effected the discourses which were being produced by violation of the cultural and linguistic both sides throughout the language shift. sovereignty of Ireland; the Tudor conquest, These discourses constitute the textual which laid the language political basis of representation and an important language- the irreversible language shift; the 17th and political component of the linguistic 18th centuries, which spread negative transformation, consequently, their attitudes to Irish, positive attitudes to analysis is indispensable to a proper English and their transformation into understanding of Ireland’s language- collective language-political responses all related historical phenomena. over the native society; and the 19th Pintér, M.: The Interconnections Between the Growth of National Mass Movements… 241
References 12. Hyde, D. A Literary History of Ireland from Earliest Times to the Present Day. 1. Anderson, B. Imagined Communities. London: Ernest Benn Limited and New Reflections on the Origin and Spread York: Barnes & Noble Inc., 1967. of Nationalism. London-New York: 13. Kelly, P. The Interaction of Languages Verso, 1991. in Medieval and Modern Ireland. A 2. Bartha, Cs. A kétnyelvűség lecture delivered in the Budapest Fonó alapkérdései – Beszélők és közösségek on July 7th, 1999. - Budapest: Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó. 14. Kiss, J. Társadalom és nyelvhasználat. 3. Corcoran, T. 1928. Education Systems Budapest: Nemzeti Tankönyvkiadó, in Ireland from the Close of the Middle 2002. Ages. Dublin: Department of 15. Loomba, A. Colonialism/ Education, University College Dublin, Postcolonialism. London and New 1999. York: Routledge, 1998. 4. Corkery, D. The Fortunes of the Irish 16. Moane, G. “A Psychological Analysis Language. Cork: The Mercier Press, of Colonialism in an Irish Context.” 1968. The Irish Journal of Psychology. 5. Crowley, T. The Politics of Language 15/2-3. 250-265. (1994) in Ireland 1366-1922. A Sourcebook. 17. Molnár, Barbara G. (szerk.) London and New York: Routledge, Nyelvpolitika. Nyelv, politika, oktatás 2000. kiskönyvtár sorozat. Veszprém: 6. Dowling, P. J. The Hedge Schools of Veszprémi Egyetemi Kiadó, 1998. Ireland. Cork: The Mercier Press, 18. Nyelv és politika Írország 1968. történetében. Veszprém: Pannon 7. Edwards, J. 1985. Language, Society Egyetemi Kiadó. and Identity. Oxford: Blackwell- http://digit.kk.uni-pannon.hu:8881/R/, Deutsch. 2008. 8. de Fréine, S. “The Dominance of the 19. O’Conor, Ch. “Dissertations on the English Language in the Nineteenth Antient History of Ireland. Century”. The English Language in Introduction.” [1753] The Field Day Ireland. Ó Muirithe, D. (ed.). Dublin Anthology of Irish Writing. Vol.I: 908- and Cork: The Mercier Press in 909. Deane, S. (gen. ed.). Derry: Field collaboration with Radio Telefís Day Publications., 1991. Éireann. 71-87, 1977. 20. Ó Huallacháin, Fr. C. The Irish and 9. Galtung, J. The True Worlds. A Irish – a sociolinguistic analysis of the Transnational Perspective. New York: relationship between a people and The Free Press, 1980. their language. Baile Átha Cliath, 10. Gillingham, J. “Images of Ireland Dublin: Assissi Press, 1994. 1170-1600. The Origins of English 21. Ó Murchú, M. “Historical Overview of Imperialism.” History Today. the Position of Irish”. The Less Widely February 1987. 16-22. Taught Languages of Europe. Mac 11. The Great Silence. The study of a Mathúna, L.- French, N.-Murphy, E.- relationship between language and Singleton, D. (eds.) Dublin: IRAAL. nationality. Dublin and Cork: The 77-88, 1988. Mercier Press, 1978. 242 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
22. Pearse, P. “The Murder Machine” 25. Szépe, Gy. “Magyarország [1916]. A Significant Irish nyelvpolitikája és a kutatás”. Educationalist. The Educational Nyelvpolitika: múlt és jövő. Writings of P. H. Pearse. Ó Buachalla, Iskolakultúra-könyvek 7. Szépe Gy. S. (ed.) Dublin and Cork: The Mercier Pécs: Iskolakultúra. 107-120, 2001. Press. 371-85, 1980. 26. Szépe, Gy. and A. Derényi A. “A 23. Phillipson, R. Linguistic Imperialism. szerkesztők bevezetője”. Nyelv, hatalom, Oxford: Oxford University Press, egyenlőség. Nyelvpolitikai írások. Szépe 1992. Gy. – Derényi A. (szerk.). Budapest: 24. Pintér, M. “The Examination of the Corvina. 7-14, 1999. Historical Embeddedness of the Irish- 27. Tomlinson, J. Cultural Imperialism. English Language Shift from a London: Pinter Publishers, 1991. Language Political Perspective – A 28. Wall, M. “The Decline of the Irish Brief Summary”. Key Notions in Language”. A View of the Irish English Studies 3. Hock, I. – Language. B. Ó Cuív, B. (ed.) Dublin: Rawlinson, Zs. (eds.) Veszprém: Stationery Office. 81-90. 1969. Pannon Egyetemi Kiadó. 105-118, 2007.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
GRINGOLANDIA: VISUAL METAPHORS AND FRIDA
Reka M. CRISTIAN1
Abstract: The essay focuses on the visual metaphors of America in Julie Taymor’s film entitled Frida (2002) and discusses the ways in which the film constructs and reconstructs with the help of the artist’s paintings the world of the thirties America as seen by a third millennium movie.
Key words: visual metaphors, Gringolandia, thirties, America, woman artist.
1. Introduction version of Frida’s life story in visual metaphors that permit complex subjects to Julie Taymor’s American production be “more intellectually manageable” entitled Frida (2002) arrives at the peak of because biography at its best is “history the intellectual craze labeled as made personal” (Gehring 2003). ‘Fridamania.’ Frida Kahlo (1907-1954) is the acclaimed and controversial Mexican 2. Metaphors of the US painter with hybrid ancestry. Her mother was Matilde Calderón y Gonzáles, a Julie Taymor’s Frida presents this Mexican mestiza, and her father, history made into a personal herstory in Wilhelm/Guillermo Kahlo, a German- myriad of private and public perspectives. Hungarian Jewish photographer (Sárosdy Among of the most intriguing ones is the 2003, Kettenman 7-8). Frida Kahlo’s sequence when Frida Kahlo (Salma paintings are nowadays increasingly Hayek) and her husband, Diego Rivera featured in museum exhibitions worldwide (Alfredo Molina), the famous Mexican and still hold record auction prices while mural painter, are on their trip to the her life has been “variously constructed in United States of America. During its books, operas, plays and documentaries” almost 19 minutes out of the entire length (Clifford 2002). Taymor’s movie is in of this blockbuster American movie – and this context a filmic biography abounding also occasionally passim – the film in visual tropes about Frida Kahlo’s presents a comparative visual American Mexico and her views about the United Studies project. The “Gringo” country or States and France. The protagonist is “Gringolandia,” as the protagonist calls the subject to “a cinematic transition” U.S., needs a “cultural rhetoric as (Cristian 2004), that range from corporeal interpretive focus” (Mailluox 116). One pain to surrealist forms. Kahlo’s art in this can view Taymor’s film as grabbing this filmic biography is made complex, focus that builds around the visual text a controversial and abounding in lyrical heterotopic place for America in digressions. The movie presents us with a concordance with the current trends of
1 Szeged University, Hungary. 244 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
American Studies. Frida is a cultural locus representation “as a country of leveling, that encompasses the symbolic cultural erosion, and shallowness” (Kroes 43). In centers and also the de-centered places of the movie, Frida nourishes similar views the U.S. both from an internal and external before she arrives to the U.S. at the point of view. This film is similar to other beginning of the thirties. The crisis of cultural constructions that “create a place representation in the 1930s in the U.S. for story,” while narrativizing “a local included themes of dislocation and cultural real” (Stewart 3). In Taymor’s bewilderment; in this a context any Frida the local and the particular meet a individual was subjected to “the forces of general “American mythic imaginary” the world rather than the other way round” (Stewart 3) and interpret it, accordingly. (Veitch 5). Frida does not entirely adhere As Mexican visitors, Rivera and Kahlo, to these but Diego, as a potential make up for an interpretive “space on the agringando (Americanized) figure sees the side of the road” that is essentially a place potentials of cultural heterogeneity in the for a multitude of subversive paths, too. “newness” of the U.S. and enthusiastically Frida and Diego are both enchanted and claims that: “There is no reason for any resistant to what America might generally artist to go to Europe for inspiration. It is and particularly mean to them. As an all here: the magnitude, the power, the exercise in cultural otherness the film energy, the sadness, the glory, the attempts, as many similar incursions in the youthfulness of America” (Taymor 2002). style of Kathleen Stewart’s “side of the The film depicts these words on a basis of road” approach, “to perform the diacritical Max Ernst-like surreal vision of some cultural poetics of an “Other” [story] of well-known U.S. metaphors. America” (Stewart 7). These metaphors are presented through a Taymor’s film presents an intriguing suggestive collage of moving images comparative vision in terms of metaphors focusing especially on New York and later about the U.S., especially Kahlo’s pictorial only by allusion, to Detroit and Chicago. or verbal America. While exploring her The film turns here into cartoon-style, a encounter with another America during her subgenre that stresses a specific critical stay in the U.S. and after that, the movie, standpoint of the filmic narrative. The in a reflexive mode, interprets Frida from cartoon-collage presents, at first, a an American perspective. “We are going to steamboat that brings the immigrant crowd take Gringolandia by storm” says Kahlo, to the land of hope, freedom and the “they are never going to know what hit pursuit of happiness - with Frida and them” (Taymor 2002). Her words are Diego on board - The Statue of Liberty uttered in Mexico, before leaving, outside rising from the waves, and American the U.S. and define it with the help of the stamps with the graphics of the Brooklyn collective pronoun “they” and “them” that Bridge, followed by skyscrapers - culturally distances the speakers from the metaphors of American’s vertical ethnoscaped object of speech. Frida, development – embodied by The Empire conscious of her own hybrid, mestiza, State Building and The Chrysler Building. background, sees America as a place of Frida’s voice subtitles the images of the stereotypes, a homogenous place that American myths by subverting them: “I needs “conquering,” that is, redefinition. see the majesty that Diego sees. All the The most widespread metaphors American comfort is a myth […] the rich Europeans and many other nations used to […] thousands are starving” (Taymor visualize America then relied on its 2002). The visual spectacle of the film Cristian, R. M.: Grigolandia: Visual Metaphors and Frida 245 shifts here to a more critical standpoint. definition of the American Dream. The Ford industrial area and the mass- According to the filmic Frida “the Gringos produced Tin Lizzies are presented as are friendly” but the most important things explicit metaphors of industrial, corporate for them is “to have ambition and to and scientific development that lead to an succeed in becoming someone” (Taymor alienated consumer society. The New York 2002). After participating in several Stock Exchange and Wall Street are American bohemian parties, Frida is still explicit metaphors of corporate pessimistic about the American Dream development and cathedrals of capitalism, generally and has doubts about the which are even more disturbing when successful metaphors of the America she placed in a period of economic crisis. On encounters. She says that “everything the background of the industrialist, urban about this country inspires” Diego, who is America, ethnic groups as icons of a ”a big Mexican piñata with enough candy multicultural and multiethnic America are for everyone” (Taymor 2002). However, represented her by Jewish, Chinese, and Frida remains skeptical about Diego’s French quarters of New York by the American success. suggestive image of banners written in Another figure in the line of visual different languages. The intellectual metaphors about America is that of the montage of the film builds on the image of younger Rockefeller (Edward Norton) who the white dove and decadent cocktail glass is the financial patron of Diego and a of the wealthy in symbolic opposition with symbolic representative of the “the culture the image of the workers, and the of capital” (Munslow 23, 44). Rivera is unemployed queuing on the background of about to finish painting the mural of the the one-dollar bill and the slogan of “Labor Rockefeller Center’s Hall in New York but Age” (Taymor 2002). the Rockefellers do not let him have the While in the U.S. Frida tries the figure of Lenin, Trotsky and Engels on the American way of life and entertainment: wall because in the thirties’ America this she goes to see the King Kong movie and offends many. As a criticism of a(ny) finds “ways to entertain” herself while critique of America, Diego’s artistic mural is chewing popcorn. The “Gringo” style of erased from the wall. “My painting,” claims living seems quite surreal. Diego is seen the politically conscious Diego. “On my now as a well-known New Yorker, a wall” replies, in a patronizing mode the celebrated artist; more than 50,000 people young Rockefeller (Taymor 2002). see his exhibition at the Museum of After his political encounter with the Modern Arts. As a metaphor of a partially corporate head, Diego sharpens his Americanized Rivera through the huge criticism of America in a manner that artistic success he encounters, he recalls “the tangible embodiment of transforms into a giant King ‘Diego’ Kong everything that is wrong with capitalism” climbing the walls of The Crysler Building (Kroes 27). His consequently emerging while airplanes fly around him in a anti-capitalism and anti-Americanism newsreel-like picture (Taymor 2002). As seamlessly blend into each other. It is at King Kong, Rivera is on his best way to this point when the movie seems to gather become a new cult figure of America, an the visual metaphors of U.S. in a surreal alien giant on his road to fame. He begins place where Umberto Eco would claim, to live his own American Dream and starts that the American and non-American to be “the most talked about man this side clichés “are having a ball” (Eco qtd. in of Rio Grande.” Frida gives her own Veitch 114). 246 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
During the time of Diego’s artistic crisis, special cultural exchange. This is an Frida undergoes an abortion, which leads exchange between flickers of joy and long to her hospitalization. The film does not moments of rejection, similar to that of mention any particular place but the Simone de Beauvoir, who - in her travel painting Frida Kahlo has painted report L’Amérique au jour le jour - afterwards is entitled Henry Ford Hospital lamented on the fact that while in America o La cama volando (1932, oil on metal). “she was torn between excitement and The abortion is connected with the Henry rejection” (de Beauvoir qtd. in Kroes 26). Ford Hospital by blending the concepts of infertility with vision of excessive 3. The Comparativist Model capitalism in the protagonist’s post-partum depression. It is after this traumatic The comparativist approach of Frida’s experience that Frida insists on going America can be found in the “foreign “home” since she does “not belong” and translation” of Frida Kahlo’s works about because she is “tired of these people” America. This “foreign translation” that (Taymor 2002). The film later shows Frida Taymor’s film presents is through the is in a bathtub, another surreal background, interpretation of the character Trotsky, the now coupled with The Empire State guest of the Rivera-Kahlo couple. Building at her feet. The water in the Trotsky’s reading Frida’s America implies bathtub is symbolically the confluence of a joint interpretation of the American the East River and the Hudson River. On visual metaphors. As a political refugee in the fading background of this surreal Mexico, he is enchanted not only by the image, King ‘Diego’ Kong is falling from personal style of Frida’s pictures but also a skyscraper in a visual metaphor of by the social, ideological and political Rivera’s artistic-ideological rejection that content these have. The film focuses on depicts the end of his American Dream three paintings that Trotsky stops at. One is that ultimately turns into an American the painting about the suicide of Dorothy Nightmare. Diego wants to stay and fight Hale entitled El suicido de Dorothy Hale for his rights in a democratic culture that (1938-1939, oil on wood), a painting that grants opportunities for all. Frida refuses to was ordered by Claire Boothe Luce, the fight in this foreign country not only editor of the Vanity Fair magazine rejected because she sees herself as already the painting because of its horrific content alienated from the person she used to be (Kettenman 50, 51). The painting depicts before arriving to America. She is even the fall of a beautiful American woman more critical when she realizes the from a skyscraper and can be interpreted as consequences of her stay in the U.S. Kahlo Frida’s her critique of the consumer is desolate and seems to subscribe here to society that enables such tragic things to Ter Braak’s words in labeling America as happen. The second painting pertaining to “an entropy, a pointless, senseless waste of America is the one that depicts the bathtub energy” (Braak qtd. in Kroes 20). The film scene, entitled Lo que vi en agua o Lo que freezes here in Frida’s painted image of the el agua me dio [What I saw in the water or New York period entitled Allá cuelga mi What the water gave me] (1938, oil on vestido o New York (1933, oil collage on canvas). This painting connects back to wood) where Frida’s ethnic clothes Frida’s New York period and visualizes symbolizing both her natural and political modern American society with its symbols body dry in the cultural winds of America. of power and all material objects depicting For Frida America represents the site for a the consequent loss of basic human values Cristian, R. M.: Grigolandia: Visual Metaphors and Frida 247 in an industrialized society. The third oil on metal). The painting shows a painting Trotsky encounters in this part of beautiful woman, the artist herself, the film is the New York picture entitled balancing between two worlds: Mexico, as Allá cuelga mi vestido o New York (1933, the natural land of her ethnicity, and the oil collage on wood) (Taymor 2002). U.S., as the politically charged industrial- None of these pictures are shown in filmic corporatist state, the mirror in which she close-up, the only detail the spectator is could see/paint her identity; two seemingly able to see is the art collector’s name different worlds meeting in Kahlo’s private Edward G. Robinson and the price of 200 translation, symbiotically and symbolically dollars a piece for which the American art bordering each other through her natural dealer Julien Levy sold these paintings. and political body. These paintings become part of the
American cultural heritage by the mercantile act they undergo and also by References the topic they depict. Taymor’s film offers a double 1. Anzaldúa, Gloria. “Borderland/La comparativist model of understanding the Frontera”. Literary Theory: An U.S. both as appraisal and criticism. Anthology. Ed. Julie Rivkin and Similar to Nathaniel West’s “self- Michael Ryan. Malden, Mass.: reflexive” approach about the surrealist Blackwell, 1998. 887-902. American literature of the thirties, 2. Brinson, Curiel, Barbara. ”My Border “grounded as it is in the anti-aesthetic Stories. Life Narratives, strategies of Dada and surrealism” (Veitch Interdisciplinarity, and Post- xvii), Frida presents similar self-reflexive Nationalism in Ethnic Studies”. Post- tropes in her visual definition of America. Nationalist American Studies, Ed. John Kahlo’s visual, surreal metaphors of the Carlos Rowe. Berkeley: California U.S. bear a specific importance in her own UP, 2000. 200-218. definition as a woman, as an artist, as 3. Clifford, Katie. “Featuring Frida: A Mexican, and as leftist. The cultural critic Long-Anticipated Film about Frida Barbara Brinson Curiel locates the Kahlo”. Art in America, December, personal pattern of her Mexican 2002. Retrieved March 15 4, 2009 grandmother’s immigration to America, from saying that her grandmother “did not come http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m12 to the United States, but the United States 48/12_90/95107263/p1/article.jhtml came to her” (Brinson Curiel 202). In this 4. Cristian, Réka M. “Ismét Frida regard, Taymor’s movie employs visual Kahlo.” (trans. Dragon Zoltán). 2004 metaphors about the U.S in such a manner 5. Filmkultúra. Retrieved March 15, as to suggests that it is not Kahlo who went 2005 from to the United States but it was rather the http://www.filmkultura.hu/regi/2004/ar United States that ‘went’ to her. And as a ticles/essays/frida.hu.html paradox, perhaps the best example of this 6. Gehring, Wes. “Reassembling the inversion is the painting that is completely Dust: The Art of Biography”. USA missing from the movie: Kahlo’s self- Today, March 9, 2003. Retrieved portrait on the border of Mexico and the January 4, 2004 from U.S. entitled Autoretrato en la frontera http://www.findarticles.com/cf_0/m12 entre México y los Estados Unidos (1932, 72/2694_98829814 248 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
7. Kettenmann, Andrea. Frida Kahlo 11. Sárosdy, Judit (2003). “Frida legújabb (1907-1954) Fájdalom és szenvedély reinkarnációja.” Filmkultúra. (trans. Magda Molnár). Budapest: Retrieved January 5, 2004, from Taschen/Vince, 2003. http://www.filmkultura.hu/regi/2003/ar 8. Kroes, Rob. If You’ve Seen One ticles/films/frida.hu.html You’ve Seen the Mall. Europeans and 12. Stewart, Kathleen. A Space on the Side American Mass Culture. Urbana: of the Road. Cultural Poetics in an Illinois UP, 1996. ”Other” America. Princeton: 9. Mailloux, Steven. ”First Contact, Princeton UP, 1996. Ethnocentrism, and Cross-Cultural 13. Taymor, Julie. Frida. 2002, Communication”. Post-Nationalist MIRAMAX Films. American Studies. Ed. John Carlos 14. Veitch, Jonathan. American Rowe. Berkeley: California UP, 2000. Superrealism. Nathanael West and the 110-124. Politics of Representation in the 10. Munslow, Alun Discourse and 1930s. Madison: Wisconsin UP, Culture. The Creation of America. Madison, 1997. 1870-1920. New York: Routledge, 1992.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
DYNAMICS OF BLOOD IN FRIDA KAHLO’S CREATION
Florina CODREANU1
Abstract: Frida Kahlo is one of the first feminine blazes on the masculine stage of painting. Until the beginning of the 20th century, female artists were associated with water colours, thus Kahlo is a pioneer of oil painting. Moreover, her personalized style gathers elements in a surprising combination that wasn’t experienced by art before. One of these elements is blood and its attributes – national, familial, Christian, uterine, malign, sacrificial, exposed and so on, in a vibrant relation with the idea of staginess and mask. An invitation to the never-ending carnival, Frida Kahlo’s work doesn’t conceive inner transformation, but only interchangeable settings and props. From this point of view her art materializes the dynamics of death.
Key words: blood, mask, self-portrait, death, identity, Modernism, Mexico.
1. Introduction artisticity; in other words she took parts of herself and exhibited them shamelessly on As a whole Frida Kahlo’s contribution to waiting canvas. Nevertheless, in the virility painting history is explosive and of her representations we see a exhibitionistic; throwing art consumers supernatural strife to keep up with the against fulfilled suffering, along with an exclusivist revolutionary masculine milieu impressionistic function that is not of from the beginning of Modernist era. straight identification, but of reluctance and identitary anxiety. 2. The Concert of Isms In the light of a cultural discourse divided into three (what is called Brought up under the exigency of Mexicaness or national conscience personal history, all the same Kahlo arises extended to stereotypy and repetition, from the meeting of some isms which political voice assuming fanatically the partially explain her artistic style. promise of Communist judgement and Humanist through education and gender revealing an impeccable feminist message, as regards life understanding and victimised identity), the artist is at the interrelation, the artist ensured herself a same time the Tehuan Indian, the party place in the world system through a strong activist or the wounded woman by the individualization. negligent lustful man. From Baroque she absorbed the allegory, Artistic value within her existence is later on visible in the act of playing inevitably descended from it: „I painted my between representation akin to kitsch and own reality...“ (Kettenmann 48) As an subliminal meaning. Also, the well-known artist she didn’t fall back on tricks of baroque staginess is reduced to a collection
1 PhD Student, Department of World and Comparative Literature, Faculty of Letters, Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca. 250 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV of masks. For that matter masking is the way it macerates the same suffering, expressed clearly by an impressive number changing only the settings. of self-portraits in which motion and During Modernism, the cultural age gestures are denied from the start. Action synchronous to the biography under is illustrated only symbolically, either as a consideration, there is a relation of partial manifesto, or as a principle, never as synonymy between Frida and experimental motion itself. Therefore, Frida’s universe, art, seeking solutions not only for art despite its bold exteriorization, is actually expression, but also for surviving. The closed, without hope, spinning the never- background consists in deep radicalism: ending vicious cycle of disease, surgeries, challenging the whole human body and infections and corsets. To malign listing carefully all the deformities of repeatability she reacts defensively with a industry and internationalism1. sort of evanescent titanic behaviour The designation of artistic vision as (excessive attitude, parties, bisexuality, dominant religion meant a concomitant alcohol and narcotics). rejection of what is of industrial origin. Predilection for portrait bares uptight Accordingly, the artist initiated a valuation inertness caused by suffering, which can of primitivism, pointing out an be neither overcome, nor ignored. Pain ethnographic interest for Mexican tradition seduction is too powerful, and the viewer and for the vigour of Aztec legacy in terms watching her painting is isolated in the of encouraging the reproductive quality of same contemplation with the artist. art. The civilization kept alive by Moreover, dramatism is just a pose, proliferating technical ramifications, manipulating the spectator by an appeal to smoke, wires or pipes contrasts with the his emotions and rewarding him, in the simplicity and emotional charge of the end, with the revelation of the main non-occidental archaic realm, the cycle of character: the otherness that suffers from nature and the regenerating strength of the centrality. Whether there is or not land. Anyone would say: a voluntary transformation in Frida Kahlo’s art insolent simplification, impregnated with represents the stake for the present study. dark humour and punitive opprobrium! In the 19th century the Realist Reaching the pinnacle of her creative conventions and standards discard was expression, she is wooed by Surrealism issued and the mirror-like world through Breton’s mediation: „The art of representation took over. The future artist Frida Kahlo is a ribbon around a bomb“ precociously felt the world as it is through (Burrus 66), being assigned to Surrealist poliomyelitis. The disease acted as a irrational and subversive matter when as a catalyst for an invalided dissimilar matter of fact Frida’s painting is category: she is going to be identified by tremendously studied. The so-called the children in the suburb as peg-leg Frida repressed creativity, sub-consciousness par (pata de palo). Later on, her creation is to excellence, is actually sought, hunted for re-embrace the world in the mirror through its redeeming value. However what drew nudity elements, anti-capitalist attitude and Frida close to the Surrealists are her virulent social critique. The relevance of humour palpitating of anti-bourgeois social emotional and social order stands at the fervour and her ambivalent attitude, centre of her artistic vision that proliferates sometimes highly negative, towards in accordance with beauty denial and women: not to be forgotten her virile emphasis on contiguous materialism. All portraits, blessed with thick eyebrows, Codreanu, F.: Dynamics of Blood in Frida Kahlo’s Creation 251 moustache and constant endurance of frog, the cannibal, women devourer, an traits! insatiable spirit that lighted up in Frida the A final historic contract is legalised with whole artistic arsenal, providing her with a the Social Realism having as subscribers: meaning against an implacable fate. Frida critique, justice, class-fighting and tested so often physical androgyny (both in declamation of inconvenient truths, such as clothing or emotions) in revenge on man unconcealed ugliness. There is a chopper for his affairs, for being caught in the pressure to look attractive and on that search and consumption of plural score chopping a woman’s hair is viewed femininity. An early desire to overthrow as a feminist manifesto: See, if I loved you, the traditional roles shared within Mexican it was for your hair; now that you’re bald, society is obvious in her revolted I don’t love you any more2. behaviour against the husband. Modern tragedian, with a well-defined 3. Becoming an Artist appetence for blood expressing metaphysical suffering and Christian Frida experienced on her own flesh the passion, Kahlo witnesses above ground her history of art through all the ordeals to own death, without ceasing to hope for a which life itself subjected her. Willingly, new birth by way of corporal dispersal. she didn’t belong to any orientation, trend Her body, hard-to-bear layer, is going to or artistic group, but she undertook from represent the easel of a medical existence – for creative purposes – experiment, reiterated and failed all along everything concerning her physiognomy of the line. Training desperately for the role crossbred sensibility, respectively her of wounded animal, inside the theatre of a acknowledgement of mixed blood, Indian barren world, with a leap in time cancelled and Spanish. by adverse nature5, the human called Frida Duality in Khalo functions as a general isn’t in the know of metamorphosis, but mark, and not only because her origin is only in the know of arrows and nails shared out between German grandparents constellation. on the father’s side and Mexicans on the Concomitantly, almost invariably, by mother’s3: in a happy onset of the world, a means of her underneath ribbons, the artist naked child keeps firm the red ribbon of reminds the viewer under homage or the blood bond. Her gesture confirms fertility silent partner under commission that she and continuance of genetic heritage. By paints for him. Dedication has a symbolic means of idyllism and exoticism, the value in what concerns her personalised representation could fall under the searing staging: I find myself here under your eyes beam of kitsch. Despite this possible for your own privilege – the artist implies. imputation, the allegory of her family hid The allegoric homage that commemorates in fact three spontaneous abortions, an event – mostly traumatizing – belongs ovarian infantilism and the case of to the 150 years old tradition of altarpiece impossibility in having descendants. Still, (retablo). Kahlo’s amendment consists in the same plate of disconcerting irony after putting aside the religious long and hard months of suffering! contextualization and getting inspiration Kahlo’s basal dualism, fundamental for from her own past, from her own panoply the development of the future artist, is at of moments and impressions: „But for constant display within the dyad feminine- having a word to say, she had to display masculine, Khalo-Rivera, the dove and the her scars and personal mythology in front elephant4 - who is to the same extent the of the audience“ (Souter 168). As painting 252 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV is considered an offering materialising understanding complicity up to weakness appreciation or hope, it evokes the so- with his little Frida, being at the same time called ex-votos that were given to cult responsible for early initiation in homes in the past as a token of gratitude photographic art. Obviously, he is to blame for a personal favour or a blessing. Back for the future realism of her portrayal then the donee was God himself or a saint, representations. One would say a whilst herein Kahlo’s god is the doctor photorealism avant la lettre (compromised whose miraculous doings are only at symbolic level) which is going to acknowledged in spite of the subsequent characterize her works until the last backfire6. moment. Just then medicamentary regimen Vehement intimacy between Frida and associated with the doddering hand shall painting produced a style that can be dilute her technique8. Her closing defined as confessional, veracious and obsession is given by Stalin’s figure, visceral. On the canvas met her humours, accompanied by Marxist mysticism in bones and green wounds. By reason of that which the blood spread by the atomic meeting it is almost impossible to bomb under the candidature of the denounce her creation as pseudo-art, as American power is purged by ideological miming or lack of authentic emotion: „Her commitment. Militancy dressed in subjects are personal, staggering, Communist shirt with a red star adorning grotesque, fantastic, humorous, surrealist, her chest (in one of Rivera’s mural ballads) religious and always loaded with feeling“ is going to wrap up a new-born body, (Gariff 166). She painted herself recovered, freed miraculously by crutches.9 notwithstanding solitude or specific feminine dramas. Upon the whole painting 3.1. Meaning of Death is not merely an act of courage, but a manifest narcissist phenomenon, ended up In the cosmological vision of painting predictably in nightmare, suicide attempt affiliated firmly to indigenous culture, and unceasing absorption of pills. death (la pelona) appears either as object By restoring the question of origins and of derision, or as life’s step sister; its valuing blood heritage under the meaning doings are post-mortem portraiture of fertility and renewal of life-death cycle, (difuntitos10) or annual celebrations with the artist is concentrated on the extra amount of cheerfulness, sugar skulls ambivalence of self-birth and creation and masks11. through abortion or double maternal The skeleton, taking into account its root failure7: mother’s death thwarts her own in popular gravure, isn’t terrifying not even birth along with all her possible when it overlaps the pending sleeping descendants. Blood is the significant of life body, therein a rather domestic double than loss and prostration of it into the work of a thrilling one. Either it appears under art; metaphorically it is the stranded train ground, on the street as a habitant of switch on the impeccable sheet of faith. Mexico, climbed on still life or mystically Ambivalence persists at biological level as a third eye, there is no difference in its in Frida’s attitude towards the parental meaning. Only when it is marked with the figures. Her mother was a bitter Catholic, name Frida12 (in a mess of amorphous cruel in her bigotries and very difficult fleshes – the last reminiscences of her standoff and rejection materialized in her ancestral existence or fatidic relationship with the daughter. At once her expectorations at the end of repeated artist-father developed a sustained and infections), the skeleton represents the Codreanu, F.: Dynamics of Blood in Frida Kahlo’s Creation 253 piece de resistance from a pathogen 3.2. Meaning of Life museum. Hidden under a microbial blanket, the being diminished by prolonged In Aztec belief blood is the most suffering and drained off on the canvas in a precious man’s possession, source of vital disparate ontogenesis, is brighten by a energy, and nurture for gods in the large sun – saturated by blood, which constant regeneration of the cosmos: doesn’t warm her, but it signs her sacrifice. „Moreover, dignitaries and priests used to Under the same sacrificial logic it also cut their legs, ears lob, and the tongue in appears the outstretched body on a order to bring the Sun blood tribute“ movable bed13, maimed by the action of (Soustelle 151). The honorific function of incisions, fleetingly sustained by the blood in Aztec society promotes heart on cracked earth and liable to complete the last hierarchic level of the sacred. swallowing. The dualist solar-lunar Thereby it is considered the blossoming principle reduces once again to essence the flower, the exclusive complement of the imagine of back-turned being, dominated god and dedicating it to him represents the by sun in righteous struggle with the solemnest gesture of abnegation. Kahlo is feminine appearance, militant in favour of going to privilege this symbol of bleeding life and governed by moon. Blood leaking heart17 adapting it for the staging of towards death from the first half of the disillusion, loss and complete seclusion. painting appears written with demiurgical The disproportionate size of the heart letters in the second, the sole death thrown near tottering and disconnected accepted being the one concealed under the legs (from the superior limbs) personifies mask of full life. beside organic devitalisation, the re- Another form of death approved by the evaluation of a meaningless life. In The artistic vision is death abbreviated through Two Fridas (1939) in a post-marital urgency and brutality to pure death, to halving, the hearts describe the being which intelligence and human coherence divided between the Mexican woman - haven’t gained access yet, exemplified loved and deceived to blood, and the either in suicide14, or in murder15. Occidentalized woman - rejected and in All together death is poetry, performance jeopardy of bleeding passively to death, inspired from life and long drawn out in kept artificially alive by a surgical clamp. art, where the transit niche (the frame) The value of the double doesn’t simply bears the real maculated imprint of pure refer to separation and marriage crisis, but blood. The outrage is not visible in the act it carries out the beginning of unresolved and its representation, but in the shock and dialectic, namely which is the proper mask disorder pressed against the real: „“16. The hygienic attitude of society sheets but her entire artistic vision, always confronted with blood materializes in the turned towards this ambivalent feminine desire to remove or destroy a painting product. Its morbid quality derives from which takes to such sanguinary exposures. the reality of the accident, the congenital Another hypostasis of blood – abject malformation, the blood evacuation out of violence – maintains artistic ambivalence: her body and the alarming laboratory mediocre in intention, immaculate in act. record. On another hand, its artistic 254 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV quality, namely fertility and creation floral elements, levels and floating ages, nascence, the flow of blood that binds the melting more paintings in a single fantastic six objects of sexuality and miscarriage one. Water refers to the mirror – the self- becomes accordingly the main colour for consciousness in which she plunges to give filling and justifying her existence: „
4. Conclusion clarifies specific adhesion to life, taken on credit and discharged by painful interests, The martyrdom, drawn out in grotesque not so by losing her own body23, but by in The Wounded Table (1940) by signing ritual killing of life in her creation: the up the allusion of the last supper, reveals artist doesn’t transfigure inert matter, the way in which the artist chooses to doesn’t give life, but she paints circumscribe the truth: by creating the indefatigably the poetry of losing it. impression of a lie, of a dazzling theatricality. In this respect she possesses a References farcical sense of comedy that is deliberately infantile, especially in the way 1. Burrus, Christina. Frida Kahlo. it popularizes a Christian Frida, surrounded Bucureşti: Univers Publishing House, by Mexican apostles. Among them a 2007. carton Judah or a skeleton express the 2. Carr-Gomm, Sarah. The Hutchinson regression of Eucharistic sacrament thrown Dictionary of Symbols in Art. Hong away to the floor. For Frida that is a sign Kong: Helicon in association with for embracing a continuous show state: Duncan Baird Publishers, 1995. „Frida created a galleria of images under 3. Chilvers, Ian. Dictionary of Art & the shelter of a mask that had never Artists. UK: Grange Books, 2005. moaned or cried“ (Souter 216). It is 4. Cios, Irina. Dicţionar de artă – Forme, curious how the weeping is just exterior, a tehnici, stiluri artistice (Dictionary of symbolic add-on that belongs to the props, Art – Forms, techniques, artistic allowing her traits the same stretching and styles). Bucureşti: Meridiane firmness, without grimace. Under the hint Publishing House, 1998. or announcement of death, her creation 5. Frontisi, Claude. Istoria vizuală a artei oscillates permanently between mask and (The Visual History of Art). Bucureşti: unmask, between self-concealment and Rao Publishing House, 2007. self-exposure. The introspective serious 6. Gariff, David. Cei mai influenţi pictori and frozen face from the series of self- din lume… şi artiştii pe care i-au portraits (with or without curtain) is placed inspirit (World's Most Influential under the stigma of death, a never-ending Painters... and The Artists They processional expectance, deprived of the Inspired). Bucureşti: Rao Publishing derisory rush of passing away: „She chose House, 2008. to be incinerated in the crematory, because 7. Lehmann, Henri. Civilizaţiile after so many years spent in a bed along precolumbiene (Pre-Colombian her short life, she wouldn’t want to spend Civilizations). Bucureşti: Humanitas an eternity on her back“ (Souter 244). Publishing House, 1995. Only cremation can prolong the allusion: 8. Little, Stephen. Isme – Să înţelegem death is present altogether and it stays arta (Isms – Understanding Art). alive by means of art. Bucureşti: Rao Publishing House, Due to her death once with the accident, 2006. with the debut of full age, Kahlo seeks in 9. Kettenmann, Andrea. Frida Kahlo. art the way or transition towards a different Pain and Passion. Germany: Taschen, life. Her painting has restored the rhythm 2008. of lost breath and the forgotten flow of 10. Ruhrberg, Karl. Art of the 20th blood. The fountain of blood that springs Century. Vol. I Painting. Germany: from her chest in one of her works22 Taschen, 1998. 256 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
11. Souter, Gerry. Kahlo 1907-1954. Oradea: Aquila ´93 Publishing House, 8 For that is to see ”Self-portrait with Stalin or 2008. Frida and Stalin“ (1954) 9 ”Marxism Will Give Health to the Sick“ (1954) 10 1 ”The Deceased Dimas Rosas at 3 Years Old“ Referring to the United States experience, (1937) unveiled in ”Self-portrait on the Borderline 11 between Mexico and the United States“ (1932), ”Girl with Death Mask“ (1938) 12 ”Without Hope“ (1945) ”My Dress Hangs There or New York“ (1933) 13 2 ”Tree of Hope, Keep Firm“ (1946) ”Mira que si te quise, fué por el pelo,/ Ahora 14 que estás pelona, ya no te quiero“ from ”Self- ”The Suicide of Dorothy Hale“ (1938-1939) 15 ”A Few Little Pricks“ (1935) portrait with Cropped Hair“ (1940) in 16 connection to ”Diego and I“ (1949) – self- Recounted by Clare Boothe Luce, Dorothy’s portrait in which her hair works as a noose best friend that had commissioned the portrait 3 for her friend’s mother (Kettenmann 47) ”My Grandparents, My Parents and I“ (1936) 17 4 ”Memory or The Heart“ (1937) ”Frieda and Diego Rivera or Frieda Kahlo and 18 Diego Rivera“ (1931) – wherein marital union ”Henry Ford Hospital or The Flying Bed“ engages also a symbolic tutorship of the Artist (1932) 19 Extras from the artist’s diary (Souter 246) Rivera for his future wife in the field of art 20 5 ”The Wounded Deer or the Little Deer or I ”Self-portrait dedicated to Dr. Eloesser“ am a Poor Little Deer“ (1946) (1940) or ”Self-portrait with Necklace of 6 There is to see ”Portrait of Dr. Leo Eloesser“ Thorns“(1940) 21 ”Self-portrait with Monkey“ (1940) (1931), ”Self-portrait with the Portrait of Dr. 22 Farill or Self-portrait with Dr. Juan Farill“ ”The Love Embrace of the Universe, The (1951) – the sole disclosure wherein pigment is Earth (Mexico), Myself, Diego and Señor Xólotl“ (1949) substituted by her own blood and the palette 23 function is taken over by her heart „“, she wrote in her diary (Kettenmann 84)
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE ROLE OF IDENTITY IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Ildikó HORTOBÁGYI1
Abstract: In a highly mediatized world, where the new media have the great potential to change existing cultural languages, one might assume that differences in communication tend to become levelled off. Or with the emergence of an apparently chaotic network of individual voices, a more thorough insight into the elements of different identities as well as into the verbal and non-verbal components of intercultural communication proves indispensable.
Key words: cultural identities, plurality of identities, multifaceted identity.
1. Introduction multiculturalism. Moreover, to highlight this strong unity one can bring forth the idea of In the process of communication in the Pentagon itself - a building, an general, and intercultural communication in institution, a symbol - the headquarters of the particular, for a proper decoding of the United States Department of Defence, one of messages it is of paramount importance to the world’s largest office buildings, virtually recognize to what an extent people’s identity a city in itself where both military and contributes to formulate and convey the civilian employees contribute to the planning information. and execution of the U.S. defence. As the United States of America with its Architecturally the building is so well tremendous ethnic diversity has always conceived that despite its 17.5 miles of proved a most exciting terrain for linguistic corridors, it takes only seven minutes to walk research, the cornerstones of between any two points of the building. As multiculturalism and the impact of such, figuratively speaking, equipped with a intercultural relations on linguistic wider knowledge and empathy towards any development and language use could be individual, in the myriad of the present-day considered a first step in presenting the media channels, easy access to understand impact of identity on communication. Based the Other is fully facilitated. With these facts on the model of the Ethno-Racial Pentagon in mind, a new pentagon model (Hortobágyi, borrowed from Hollinger (1995), the five 2004) can be designed, where ethnicity, main blocks, namely the Euro-American, identity, discourse, language and education African-American, Asian-American, form a permeable unit based on a common Hispanic (Latino) and Indigenous Peoples core, namely the omnipresence of the (Native American) can be replaced with linguistic element, which is by all means the items that form an indivisible unity within most expressive mirror of one’s identity. the interdisciplinary field of
1 University of Pannonia, Institute of English and American Studies, Veszprém, Hungary. 258 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
2. From E Pluribus Unum to E Pluribus communication but also as a marker of the Plures speaker’s cultural identity. A speech community may decide to maintain the According to Kallen (Steinberg, 2000), commonly agreed rules and norms, but the United States is less importantly a may just as well decide to gradually union of states than it is a union of ethnic, change them according to the racial, and religious groups – a union of communication environment. In addition, otherwise unrelated “natives”. The Great in all communities there is a certain Seal of the United States carries the motto individual deviation from the norms, as not E pluribus unum, “from many, one”, which all the members of a speech community seems to suggest that manyness must be communicate in the same way in a specific left behind for the sake of oneness. Once situation or interaction. there were many, now they have merged In a multicultural setting, when engaging or, in Israel Zangwill’s classic image, have into a conversation, one has to presuppose been melted down into one. But the Great that the members of a speech group usually Seal also presents a different image: the share the same code and an entire system American eagle holds a sheaf of arrows. of symbols, signs and meanings. By Here there is no merger or fusion but only definition, we speak about intercultural a fastening, a putting together: many-in- communication when the participants who one. The adjective American seems to communicate represent a different describe this kind of oneness and would communication system. Differences, which point rather to the citizenship than nativity may often lead to clashes or even conflicts, or nationality. The history of the American occur both at verbal level – certain society has proved a pluralism, in which expressions can be employed to assert there is no movement from many to one, belonging to a group or on the contrary to but rather simultaneity and coexistence, a discriminate and exclude – and at non- group affiliation so remarkably expressed verbal level, when for instance eye- by the motto of the 21st century: E contact, gestures, turn taking can be pluribus plures, “from many, many”. determined by the speaker’s identity. In the complex background of the rapidly 2.1. Identity – a Monolithic or a evolving political, socio-economic and Dynamic Category? financial world, cultural identities become multifaceted, thus often displaying Presently one can choose one’s roots different degrees of ambiguity. In the freely, bearing in mind that the United process of socialization, under the States is endowed with a non-ethnic influence of the above mentioned factors, ideology of the nation, has a the cultural groups reflect the surrounding predominantly ethnic history and can reality; consequently they are continuously create for itself a post-ethnic future in negotiating, re-enforcing or on the contrary which affiliation on the basis of shared redefining their cultural and ethnic descent is more voluntary than prescribed. identities to fit societal needs. This process In each ethnic, racial, cultural or gender- of reshaping also depends on the amount related speech community language use is of personal history and experiences of vital importance. Although each embedded in the current socio-economic individual community has its own norms, realities of each society. codes and forms of communication, In the turmoil of new types of regional language is used not only as a means of conflicts, as early as 1993 Samuel P. Hortobagyi, I.: The Role of Identity in Intercultural Communication 259
Huntington’s in his paper entitled “The speaking, cultural identities usually Clash of Civilizations?”, which led to his encompass both race and ethnicity, two famous book “The Clash of Civilizations categories which develop during the and the Remaking of New World Order” individual’s early socialization and recognized the paramount need to redefine constitute the core of a person’s drive for and reinterpret the role of civilizations in an ethnocentric interpretation of the general and the role of the individual in world. Race is generally interpreted as a particular. Accordingly, with the end of the classification of an arbitrary selection of Cold War, “the Velvet Curtain of culture has physical characters which separate replaced the Iron Curtain of ideology” people into value-based categories, (Huntington, 1993, 31) in a world where defined in relation to common descent conflicts are usually spreading along the and heredity. Along this line, ethnicity fault lines separating the major civilizations, seems to be an extension, an elaborate namely Western, Confucian, Japanese, prolongation of race, as ethnic identity is Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Latin primarily a cultural marker that mirrors American and African civilizations, which not only ancestral origins, shared are basically differentiated from each other heritage, race and traditions, but also by history, language, culture, tradition and economic, cultural, religious and religion. The members of these civilizations linguistic background. Identified also display largely different views on the historically or psychologically, ethnicity basic relations between God and the is more an emotional bond shared by the individual, the individual and the group, members of a group. Since it is parents and children, husband and wife, the extremely difficult to trace the sharp state and the citizen, rights and delimitation of these two categories, responsibilities, liberty and authority, from the end of the 1990s the terms equality and hierarchy. Although identities ethnicity and race have been less are basically negotiated and re-negotiated in commonly employed, instead the term the communication process, cultural cultural identity has been preferred. characteristics and differences are less mutable, thus less easily open to 3. Plurality of Identities compromise than political and economic ones. In a world which is currently In communication and daily experiencing ideological realignment, an interactions people define who they are individual might chose to change political and negotiate their identities with people affiliation (sometimes even switching who are similar to them or different from between two extremes), might have to get them. along with an altered economic status, but cannot and would not deny his/her national 3.1. Types of Identity identity. “In class and ideological conflicts, the key question was “Which side are you Each person has multiple dimensions of on?”… In conflicts between civilizations, identities, usually depending on the nature the question is “What are you?” of the social interaction. The sources of (Huntington, 1993, 27). identity range as follows (Huntington, As mentioned above, cultural identities 2004, 27): are in fact manifestations of social Ascriptive (age, ancestry, gender, kin reality. But what does the concept of (blood relatives), ethnicity (extended kin), “cultural identity” cover? Generally race); 260 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Cultural (clan, tribe, ethnicity (way of usually overtly expressed in language); life), language, nationality, religion, Spiritual identity (depending on the civilization); culture and context, spiritual identity can Territorial (neighbourhood, settlement, be more or less apparent, this identity may country, geographical area, hemisphere, sometimes lead to severe conflicts); etc.); Class identity (which usually influences Political (faction, clique, leader, interest the way individuals communicate with group, movement, party, ideology, state, each other. Often this identity is noticed etc.); only following an encounter with a person Economic (job, occupation, profession, representing another social class); work group, employer, industry, economic National identity (a person’s citizenship sector, labour union, class); of a nation, which often might be dominant Social (friends, club, team, colleagues, over the individual’s cultural identity – leisure group, status). racial and/or ethnic); Regional identity (which may carry 3.2. Properties of Identity positive, negative, real or presumed generalizations about people living in a When dealing with the properties of specific region of a country, often this identity, we distinguish two basic elements identity is stronger than the national i.e. avowal (how a person perceives himself identity). or herself) and ascription (how others Relations among identities are complex perceive and communicate a person’s and often carry strong elements of identity). As far as the modes of expression differentiation. Occasionally an individual are concerned, identity expresses itself residing and working in a multicultural through core symbols, names and labels, and background has to manage the conflict norms. The core symbols manifest between family identity and job identity. themselves in the form of cultural beliefs, Broader identity (national, cultural) might which are actually people’s interpretation of include narrower identities (territorial, the world and of the functioning society. In religious), which at times could be addition, cultural groups, which share these exclusive. People may assert dual core symbols, create norms for proper nationality, sometimes dual citizenship, but conduct and appropriate behaviour in very rarely dual religiosity. relational contacts. In the process of communication all the Social and cultural identities may just as manifestations of a person’s identity are well be classified according to the expressed either through verbal or non- following taxonomy: verbal means. Rarely do people internalize Gender identity, which is influenced by that non-verbal communication is a most the way people are treated in every culture. powerful form of communication. In each society there are shared norms Multicultural differences in body language, according to which communication and facial expression, use of space, and interactions are considered either feminine especially, gestures are often prone to or masculine. Nowadays the media misinterpretation. According to a study influences what is considered feminine or concluded at UCLA up to 93 percent of masculine identity; communication effectiveness is determined Age identity (cultures treat people of by nonverbal cues. Another study indicates different ages in different ways; deep that the impact of a performance was respect or on the contrary lack of respect is determined 7 percent by the words used, Hortobagyi, I.: The Role of Identity in Intercultural Communication 261
38 percent by voice quality, and 55 percent reveals how languages are socially by the nonverbal communication. constructed, but that speech events, (Heathfield, 2009). activities, participants and context display unpredictable modes of expression. 3. Identity and Discourse It is also worth mentioning that much research was consecrated to the A critical post-modern analysis of racial exploration of verbal and discourse genres and ethnic categories of difference points and practices which constitute for instance to the multilayered and fractured the African American speech community. construction of individual identities. Ethnic Discourse genres refer to language and identity is socially constructed and can be communication styles which commonly reformed in discourse and political occur in socially, culturally and politically struggle. Racial identities are unstable and defined contexts. In contrast, verbal genres have shifted according to the drifts of refer to the speaker’s use of culturally political trends. For instance once defined significant varieties and styles which by the U.S. Census Bureau by race, mediate, constitute and construct contexts. Hispanics are now identified by ethnic Thus, while both discourse and verbal categories as Central American, Mexican- genres may co-construct various contexts, American, Cuban and so on. verbal genres can conflict with strongly Giroux (Hortobágyi, 2004)) tackles the framed discourse norms eroding or radical post-modern notion that identities are disrupting well-defined social contexts. shaped in discourse through language use and How can we exploit the advantages of a the content of what for instance students are multicultural or intercultural background? allowed to voice in the classroom. By In the process of developing conscious stressing the importance of the self, Giroux sensitivity to decode the message- argues that little space is available for human carrying elements of identity, it is very action. In the social context of urban important to presuppose their schooling, it is clear that much pedagogical omnipresence. The first step would be to practice rests on the assumption that ethnic admit and recognize the complexity of dialects interfere in the goal of assimilation people’s cultural identity in terms of how for minority students. Many students of they want to represent themselves. In multiple cultural background, for example, case of a person who comes from a immigrants and Mexican-American students country whose society is complex and in border towns and states, are therefore multifaceted, the layers and the depth of silenced or forced to make a choice of such a complex society are as a rule survival, rejecting one of the multiple visible, thus will be shown in identities in favour of assimilation. Clearly, communication as well. In these societies individual identities are woven in discourse, the identity is not only multifaceted but is privileging specific use of language and also continuously shifting. Consequently, silencing other uses. in order to understand the complexity of Research on African-American an event, one has to look at it from discourse, verbal genres and interactions different angles. has been copious, covering the fields of linguistics, folklore, anthropology, 3. Conclusion sociology, psychology, education, and literary criticism. The way African Successful intercultural communication Americans talk to each other not only should grow from an understanding of 262 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV people, culture and society in general. In References the process of conscious multicultural education it is important to be able to 1. Friedman, Thomas. The World is Flat. deconstruct a given experience or situation 2nd ed. London: Penguin Books, 2006. and decompose it into discreet elements 2. Heathfield. Susan. “Listen with Your which allow greater insight and reveal Eyes. Tips for Understanding presumed sources of prejudice. In this Nonverbal Communication.” process not so much national differences About.com.: Human Resources, 2009. are relevant, rather the different senses of Web 28. 04. 2009. belonging to community, class, occupation 3. Holliday, Adrian et al. Intercultural or gender. Two approaches a successful Communication. An Advanced management of intercultural Resource Book. 2004. London/New communication should follow are the York: Routlege, 2007. essentialist and the reductive ones. The 4. Hollinger, D.A. (ed). Haley’s Choice essentialist approach presumes that there is and the Ethno-Racial Pentagon. a universal essence, homogeneity and unity Postethnic America: Beyond in each particular culture; whereas the Multiculturalism. New York: Basic reductive one argues that cultural Books, 1995. behaviour is reduced to concrete factors. 5. Hortobágyi, Ildikó. “Ethnicity – The synergy of these two approaches leads Identity – Discourse – Language – to the development of certain basic Education: a New Pentagon”. A principles indispensable while interacting Nyelvek Vonzásában (Language with different individuals in different Attraction), eds. Kurtán Zsuzsa et al. contexts. Eger/Veszprém, 2004. 272-282. “Where do I as an individual fit into the 6. Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of global competition and opportunities of the Civilizations? The Debate A Foreign world, how can I, on my own, collaborate Affairs Reader. New York: Foreign with others globally?” (Friedman, 11) In Affairs, 1993. the “Global Village” of the technologically 7. Huntington, Samuel P. The Clash of flattened world, We and Them have to Civilizations and the Remaking of negotiate our individual identities to allow World Order. London: Touchstone the emergence of unbiased, prejudice and Books, 1996. manipulation free communication. The 8. Huntington, Samuel. P. Who Are We? construction of multiracial and multiethnic The Challenges to America’s National identities has been dynamic over the past Identity. New York: Simon and two decades. But all over the world, Schuster, 2004. educators have to develop radical 9. Luoma, Irmeli. Introduction to pedagogical structures which provide Intercultural Communication. Theme students with the opportunity to exploit Two: Identity. University of Jyväskylä, their own cultural identities and linguistic 2005. Web. 24.02.2007. realities as a basis of oral and written 10. Steinberg, Stephen. ed. Race and communication. Ethnicity in the United States: Issues and Debates. Blackwell, 2000.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
C H O R O G R A P H Y- A SPACE FOR CHOREOGRAPHIC INSCRIPTION
Nicoletta ISAR1
Abstract: Chorography tries to come to terms with the challenging notion of chôra space in Byzantium. Chorography draws on the intimate relation between the two related Greek notions chôra (chôros) and chorós, translated the first as “space,” and the second as “choral dance,” and which are deeply rooted in the ancient language as an enduring paradigm of Greek thinking and imagination. Chorography is based on the assumption that there is a dynamic relationship contained in these two words chôra (chôros) and chorós, which is creative (generative) of sacred things, and which are fully revealed in the liturgical performance. The contribution of chorography to the study of Byzantine chôra consists in exploring the performative relation between space and movement, insisting on chôra’s dynamic dimension and her cosmic vocation.
Key words: Chôra; chorós; chorography; sacred space; space-in-between; sacred dance; Byzantine image.
1. Chôra Space In-between apophatic (negative discourse/denies speech),2 and oxymoronic. Oxymoron3 is Space is what we see without noticing, among those few figures of style apt to what we hold without possessing, a contain such sacred phenomena located presence that we ignore, merely a trope. It between plans, between visible and was not the same for cultures before invisible, both visible and invisible; Modernity. Chorography tries to come to furthermore both a presence and an terms with the challenging notion of absence – like chôra herself. The ‘sacred space’ chôra in Byzantium. The oscillation between opposites – visible- task is not an easy one, the notion of the invisible, present-absent – the paradoxical sacred (i.e. ‘sacred space’) cannot be phenomenality of the iconic chôra is captured with common theoretical tools; it founded on a theology of kenôsis,4 which can neither be contained by mere modern sole could explain how emptiness and scholarly discourse. ‘Sacred space’ fullness, presence and absence are "foiled" belongs to another order of cognitive and transfigured in the choric space.5 apprehension and discursivity. The Therefore, chorography understands to discourse of the sacred is paradoxical reconstruct the phenomenon of ‘sacred (para-doxa);1 it resists Kantian logic and space’ in Byzantium with its own bricks, any other modern categories of cognition. with the Greek notions chôra (space) and The choric discourse (choro-logy) insists chorós (round movement or circle dance), on the incognoscibility of the sacred; it is borrowed by the Byzantines from Classical
1Associate Professor at the Institute of Art History, Department of Arts and Cultural Studies at Copenhagen University. 264 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Hellenic culture. Byzantine chôra has no translated as ‘writing (graphè) space doubt some kinship with Plato’s chôra, (sacred)’ or ‘inscribing the sacred space whichis commonly translated by the with the dance.’ Chorography studies the philologists as space, to distinguish it from making of sacred space in Byzantium not the place (which is tópos in Greek). Yet as a stable or static notion of some kind, Plato’s chôra remains a specific kind of but as a performative inscription. The space, a third genre, with some kinship discourse of chorography is fundamentally with the Platonic metaxe (the interval), the discourse of the trace of the invisible where the daímôn6 dwells, or a revelation sacred in the visible. The definition of the of some kind occurs. trace (inscription) of thechôra is obviously With the subject of the space in-between at the heart of choro-graphy, due to the we find ourselves on a territory most instrumentality of the graphè in revealing fashionable in postmodern discourse. the sacred (hierós). Difference, repetition, iteration, interval are nothing but offsprings of the notion 2. The Trace of the Chôra in the Visible ‘in-between’; they pervade the philosophical writings of contemporary It is interesting to remember that Plato’s philosophers (Derrida, Deleuse, Serres, chôra, this space-in-the-making, and in- Irigaray) and form an excellent model of between, which partakes both of the indeterminacy and undecidability to intelligible and sensible, although she disrupt the operation of the identities; they retains neither of the phenomenal bodies oppose structures of rigid polar visiting her, she has epiphanic moments of oppositions, mutually exclusive and manifestation in the visible. Plato refers to exhaustive, which dominate Western the appearing chôra. Indeed, Plato refers to knowledge. Yet the in-between-ess of her manifestation in the visible, where the Byzantine chorography serves not the verb phaínesthai means “to become cause of a mere Other – the feminist or the manifest”, “to show (herself)” or “to marginalized voice, the revenant appear to sight” (50b-c). Chôra appears (Derrida’s spectral Ghost7), not even of episodically to sight only the moment Plato’s daímôn – but of the invisible Other, when the bodies collide with her. But she the Sacred, which irrupts hierophanically8 appears only in movement, only in the in the visible – to use Eliade’s language. traces of movement since only the things There is however some-thing or some that move are visible things and leave their special circumstance in which visible and traces in the visible.11 One could therefore invisible are held together in the sacrosanct speak of the chôra as itself only in space in-between. This is a kind of movement, as the moving trace of the movement, “the arc of movement”, to chôra. At the same time, it is fair to say speak like Bergson,9 and this takes us to that the trace of the chôra is an the second term of chorography – chorós – impermanent trace. the round movement or circle dance, which This observation, recently made by John brings the invisible sacred into visible and Sallis,12 is, no doubt, after Derrida’s work makes it leave its trace behind. on chôra,13 the most important Summing up this introductory contribution in the field. Unlike Derrida, exposition, one can say that chorography, a Sallis retains the article (the chôra) as an made up term or syntagm, a project with index of a certain differentiation, without international hierotopic10 vocation, may be which the entire discourse on chôra “will Isar, N.: CHOROGRAPHY – A Space for Choreographic Inscription 265 collapse into itself, into a kind of between content and container, which discursive autarky.” He searches into “the manifests into visible the limitless Word almost paradoxical structure of this self- (aperígraptos Lógos). The iconic showing,” because “it is this manifestation inscription (graphè) is the trace in the that is the most important stake here.”14 visible of this chôra space, which reveals Sallis opens thus up an unexpected field of itself completely only as an imaginary18 possibilities for the study of visibility of (hennoêsei) place. This is how one could the chôra without betraying her understand the oxymoronic term chôrêtòn undecidable nature. The trace, which kaì achôrêton,19 that is, “that which isichnos15 in Greek, translated also as occupies space, and does not occupy imprint, or footprint, is a very important space,” which is the space designated by notion to come close to chôra. Indeed, the the Byzantines to be the matrix of the trace has some indexical relevance,16 but it Incarnation. Scholars of the Byzantine is only relative and temporary, due to the chôra gave full attention to this paradox – impermanence of the trace. Yet the the dwelling space of the uncontainable footstep of the Platonicchôra is volatile: God, expressed in what R. Ousterhout “(It) fleets (phéretai) ever as a phantom called the “typology of containment.” (phántasma) of something else.”17 Chorography takes a further step from this Byzantine chorography takes up this spatial oxymoron of the Incarnation strategy in approaching the hesitant notion discussed in the Byzantine circle of and makes the most of it in order to scholarship of chôra. capture something of the impermanent visibility of the chôra. The trace, i.e. the 4. The Performative Trace in the Visible performative inscription of the chôra, is a of the Invisible Chôra key chapter of Byzantine chorography. Byzantine chorography intends to go 3. The Byzantine Chôra: her Inscription beyond the typology of containment in the Visible ofchôra, and show that chôra space can be perceived not just as an impossible In the history of Byzantium, the visibility containment, but as a sacred movement, a of the iconicimage was the subject of crossing through, where ‘crossing through’ intense debate. The Christian theorist of (X) corresponds to the Greek letter x (chi), the sacred image, Nicephoros the Patriarch as in, for instance, chôra, chorós. The of Constantinople (9th c.), formulates it choric relationships between container and specifically in terms of iconic spacechôra. content, the place where God’s energies The icon has its specific space, which irrupt in the visible, are not static reveals the chôra and not the tópos, spells phenomena. As Marie-José Mondzain out Nicephoros, when he applies to the rightly puts it, the iconic space is verb ekchôréô in order to speak about the “centrifugal” and “invasive,”20 a property iconic inscription (graphè). In Marie-José that derives from the power of iconic Mondzain’s interpretation, the iconicchôra contagion. But in my interpretation, there is a space extension, wherechôréô means is a sense of movement contained already both to occupy a space and to contain in the very word chôra, which is related something, which means that the content with the verb chôréô, with the sense to go and the container coincide. The iconic line forward, or to withdraw, or recede, having (graphè) is the trace of coincidence the effect to generate a particular kind of 266 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV space. Chorography draws on the intimate depth, as the Son of God was also crucified relation between chôra and chorós, in these dimensions.24 True to its between space and movement, deeply etymology, the Byzantine chôra space is a rooted in the ancient Greek language as an space in expansion and movement. enduring paradigm of Greek thinking and “Centrifugal” and “invasive” (Mondzain), imagination. Chorography is based on this the chôra space is vaster than the sacred paradigm and on the assumption that there places and the saints because it contains is a dynamic relationship contained in the the entire universe.25 Yet she is not a mere wordschôra (chôros) and chorós, which is physical extension of space, but a living creative (generative) of things of sacred body of liturgical experience. She is an (hierós), enacted in liturgical performance. orderly moving space, circularly turning its The contribution of chorography to the sacred narrative. Chorós is the ordering study of Byzantine chôra consists in force, which restores creation anew, and exploring the performative relation makes possible the discourse of thechôra. between space and movement, insisting on Chôra space is as much about movement chôra’s dynamic dimension and her as it is about containment; it is a contained cosmic vocation. Her undecidability is the movement or a moving container. It is a source of her vitality since the quality of space of ‘sacred containment’, from which being hierós reaches its fullness in the the modern distinction between contained completion of the circle, the trace of her space and container should be removed in choreographic inscription.21 In my article order to make room to that power of “The Dance of Adam: Reconstructing the creative imagination, which has once Byzantine Chorós,”22 I read the enabled the participation of being in the Resurrection as a cosmic event in which wholeness of the universe and in Being. the space of creation is restored again. ‘Sacred space’ is of course a Creation is restored by the circular conventional term, restrictive in describing movement that initially turned chaos into such complex phenomena like chôra in order, the mystical dance (sacer ludus); I which space and time, figure and ritual are applied it to the Anastasis image and show impossible to dissociate. Chorography will how image becomes space, a sacred space hopefully demonstrate that ‘sacred space’ inscribed out by the holy fire liturgically in Byzantium is a space of presence and performed around the church at the presencing, a verb rather than a noun; Resurrection. This is a chôra-chorós hence the type of realization of sacred (space-movement) type of space, as the space is the dance, in the chorós. Gesture, likes of fire are held in the chôra.23 The motion, choreography – this is the abstract Platonic chôra space becomes in evanescent yet essential language in which Christianity a kenotic space mystically the idea of the sacred is expressed in ‘erased’ and ‘crossed through’. The space. Here, in the dance, one can perhaps crossing through of Christ’s sacrifice is the see united those two elements of sacred trace of the chôra that seals the world space, the material frame and the (Philo, De somniis II, 6). The invisible and numinous sacred presence, which is called paradoxical chôra crosses the visible realm into being within it. For in the dance, as leaving behind her trace. The discourse of Yeats wrote, the two are united: the Byzantine chôra space is the discourse of her trace. It marks the whole world, both ‘How can we tell the dancer from the its length and breadth and height and dance?’26 Isar, N.: CHOROGRAPHY – A Space for Choreographic Inscription 267
References attempts to solve the paradox between the 1. Derrida, Jacques. “Khōra,” trans. Ian nature of God and man as united in Christ. It McLeod, in On the Name, ed. Thomas refers both to the Incarnation and His Sacrifice. Dutoit (Stanford: Stanford University For example in Philippians 2: 7: “Jesus made himself nothing (ekénôse).” Press, 1995) 5 2. Derrida, Jaques. Specters of Marx: The Nicoletta Isar, “The Iconic Chôra. The Kenotic Space of Presence and Void,” State of Debt, the Work of Mourning, Transfiguration 2 (2000), pp. 65-80. and the New International, Trans. 6 Between god and mortal (“A great daímôn, Peggy Kamurf, New York: Routledge, for the whole of the daimonic is between 1994. (metaxe) god and mortal”) 3. Eliade, Mircea. The Sacred and the 7 Derrida calls the ghost "this non-present Profane, New York: Harper & Row, present, this being-there of an absent" which 1957. defies "semantics as much as ontology, 4. Isar, Nicoletta. “Chorography (Chôra, psychoanalysis as much as philosophy" (Jaques Chôros, Chorós) – A performative DERRIDA, Specters of Marx: The State of paradigm of creation of sacred space in Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International, Trans. Peggy Kamurf, New Byzantium”, chapter in the book York: Routledge, 1994, 60). Hierotopy: Studies in the Making of 8 Mircea ELIADE, The Sacred and the Profane, Sacred Space, 2005. New York: Harper & Row, 1957, p. 26f. 5. Isar, Nicoletta. “The Dance of Adam: 9 Bergson’s vision of “the arc of movement” as Reconstructing the Byzantine Chorós” a space of becoming. Bergson himself was a Byzantinoslavica 61 (2003). scholar of the in-between. 6. Isar, Nicoletta. “The Iconic Chôra. The 10 Hierotopy, a compound term based on the Kenotic Space of Presence and Void,” Greek words hierós and tópos, is an Transfiguration 2 (2000). international project conceived by Dr. Alexei 7. Pasanen, Outi. “Double tryths: An Lidov and devoted to the elaboration of the main principles and boundaries of a new field interview with John Sallis,” Man and of research of sacred space. In the description World 30 (1997): 113. My exphasis in of its founder, hierotopy overlaps the the quotation. traditional fields of art history, cultural history, 8. Sallis, John. Chorology On Beginning anthropology, religious studies, but coincides in Plato’s Timaeus, Bloomington and with none of them. It attempts to demonstrate Indianapolis, 1999. the need for the definition and categorization of 9. Sallis, John. Chorology: On Beginning sacred space as an independent subject of in Plato’s Timaeus, Indiana University study, and for the elaboration of a methodology Press, 1999. that would aim at the historical reconstruction and interpretation of this important kind of human creativity. Byzantine chorography is an
1 intimate part of this international project. Paradox is a situation or a statement that 11 The phenomenal appearances, copies of the seems to contradict itself, but on closer eternal Forms, are subject to becoming and inspection, does not. A true statement that visible (mímema dè paradeígmatos…génesin seems contradictory ("Less is more"). 2 echon kaì oratón) (Timaeus, 50c). The discourse on the transcendent which 12 John Sallis, Chorology: On Beginning in contains both saying and unsaying. 3 Plato’s Timaeus, Indiana University Press, A combination of contradictory terms ("living 1999. corpse" or "black light"). 13 4 Jacques Derrida, “Khōra,” trans. Ian The kenosis (from the Greek kénôsis = McLeod, in On the Name, ed. Thomas Dutoit emptying; the verbe kenóô = to empty) (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995) 268 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
14 Outi Pasanen, ”Double tryths: An interview 21 Nicoletta Isar ‘Chorography (Chôra, Chôros, with John Sallis,” Man and World 30 (1997): Chorós) – A performative paradigm of creation 113. My exphasis in the quotation. of sacred space in Byzantium’, chapter in the 15 Timaeus, 53B. book Hierotopy: Studies in the Making of 16 Following the classic distinction made by the Sacred Space, 2005. American semiotician Charles Sanders Peirce 22 Nicoletta Isar, ‘The Dance of Adam: between the iconic and the indexical aspects of Reconstructing the Byzantine Chorós,’ the sign. Byzantinoslavica 61 (2003), pp. 179-204. 17 “how that it belongs to a copy – seeing that it 23 J. Sallis, Chorology On Beginning in Plato’s has not for its own even that substance for Timaeus, Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1999, which it came into being, but fleets (phéretai) p. 119. ever as a phantom of something else” 24 Irenaeus, Demonstration (34 p. 69f) is (Timaeus, 52C) referring back to Plato, perhaps via Justin. See 18 Nicephore Discours, p. 28). RIJNERS, p. 196. 19 Gregory Nazianzus, Epist. 101 (PG 37, col. 25 Nicephore Discours contre les iconoclasts, 177B). note 122, p. 249. 20 Mondzain, “Iconic Space and the Rule of 26 William Butler YEATS, Among School Lands,” p. 67. Mondzain, Image, icône, Children. économie Les sources byzantines de l’imaginaire contemporain, p. 183.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE 'GOOD GOVERNMENT' OF THE GERMAN EDUCATION SYSTEM: BERTELSMANN FOUNDATION
Ingrid LOHMANN1
Abstract: At present, a worldwide privatisation of the political sphere is taking place, blurring the boundaries between economical and political structures. Private foundations, such as the Bertelsmann Foundation in Germany, no longer focus on charitable projects, but are increasingly concerned with the modernization of public administration and societal processes. This article aims to discuss the way the Bertelsmann Foundation is shaping Germany's education system.
Keywords: Germany, neoliberalism, post-democracy, Bertelsmann Foundation.
1. Introduction omissions in communication politics. ... Well-meaning employee participation and At present, a worldwide privatisation of the the right to have a say as they are being political sphere is taking place, blurring the practiced or thought possible at Bertelsmann boundaries between economical and political are meaningless details compared to the structures. The problem with this totality of the influence a future information development is not the privatisation process corporation of Bertelsmann's size will have as such, but the fact that within this process on society“ (Gaus, quoted in Böckelmann & the rich and the super-rich are at an Fischler 217). enormous advantage and are being Instead of taming the Bertelsmann empowered as privileged political subjects – Corporation, as Gaus had demanded then, far beyond the normal degree of bourgeois the governing political parties empowered it individual freedom of action. and its foundation, which has become the In 1970 already, the well-known German main protagonist on Germany's post- publicist Günter Gaus demanded in an article democratic stage. in Der Spiegel magazine that the politicians According to the daily paper Frankfurter of the Federal Republic of Germany put a Rundschau, admonitory voices are stop to the privatisation of the political becoming increasingly louder. On the one sphere by means of legislation: „If it is true hand, the media giant benefited from the ... that the social-democratic governing party charitable status of the Bertelsmann keeps the peace with Bertelsmann because it Foundation through a positive image and was unable to make peace with Springer manifold contacts. On the other hand, its [Publishing Company], a wrong decision is efficiency and competition standards had in preparation these days, the consequences far too big an influence on the Federal of which will reach far beyond previous Republic's politics (cf. Marohn).
1 University of Hamburg, Faculty of Education. 270 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
But, we might ask, don't the rich do good of the company's changeable deeds through the so-called non-profit entrepreneurial course over the last few activities? Possibly. Nevertheless, the decades might ask themselves, a course question arises whether, despite general that leaves to be guessed where the consent for some of the philanthropic work corporation actually sees its core business. of the rich, and all charitable results aside, Böckelmann & Fischler demonstrate how they are not highly doubtful when judged the transformation of the corporation into by the criteria for democratic opinion- the property of the Bertelsmann forming and decision-making processes. Foundation was achieved behind the façade of a philosophy of renouncing 2. The Bertelsmann Foundation power, but nevertheless remained characterised by the Mohns' unlimited With about 80,000 employees and six right of disposal. In addition to the company divisions (in 2006), Bertelsmann Bertelsmann Foundation's share of AG is the world's fifth largest media common stock in the corporation of around corporation. It comprises: Random House, 58%, the family holds around 17% of the the world's largest book publisher with common stock in Bertelsmann AG (cf. more than 100 publishing houses in 16 Meyer). countries; Gruner + Jahr, Europe's largest Funded through profits and tax magazine publisher with Financial Times abatement, the Foundation, in turn, has a Deutschland, amongst other publications, yearly budget of about 70 million euros at and, jointly with Axel Springer AG, its disposal. It likes to be termed a 'reform founder of a printing company that has workshop' or a 'thinking factory'. The become European market leader in foundation's 280 employees work on magazine printing; RTL Group that heads reform bills and model projects on topics the European radio industry with its 67 within the realm of economical, social and companies, from Ufa film and television educational policy (cf. Marohn). They production to Bavarian radio station often cooperate with ministries or Antenne Bayern and Radio Hamburg: associations, the German trade union's „Each day, more than 170 million viewers (DGB) educational network or work in Europe watch TV channels operated by together with other foundations like the RTL Group: RTL Television, Super RTL, Green Party affiliated Heinrich Böll VOX or N-TV in Germany; M6 in France; Foundation or the trade union owned Hans Five in Great Britain; Antena 3 in Spain, Böckler Foundation. However, the RTL 4 in the Netherlands; RTL TVI in Bertelsmann Foundation differs from other Belgium; and RTL Klub in Hungary to foundations in that it functions exclusively name only a few“ (Bertelsmann AG 2009). as a private operating foundation, i. e. it Reinhard Mohn's second wife Liz is does not receive requests for funding from chairwoman of the management company others, but decides itself which projects Bertelsmann Verwaltungsgesellschaft will be pursued by the Foundation or its (BVG), which holds an absolute majority affiliates for the benefit of public welfare. of the corporation's voting shares. Liz Mohn represents Bertelsmann on the 3. Projects Carried out by the Foundation charity circuit, from the German Stroke Foundation to the Carl Bertelsmann Award The activities of Bertelsmann Foundation and to European foreign policy. integrate the definition of public welfare What does Bertelsmann want, observers into a new, dangerous and aggressive Lohmann, I.: The 'Good Government' of the German Education System: Bertelsmann … 271
European policy in the interest of „The public authorities need experienced corporations. In the Bertelsmann managers. Not consultants, but in-house Foundation's new world order, only those professionals who could well earn half a who work towards an opening up of the million or a million euros per annum. In markets for the corporations and vice versa the long run, this is much cheaper for the can be seen as 'democratic'. By pushing taxpayer than dilettantism“ (Keese, quoted forward into this direction, the Foundation in Krysmanski 2004: 117). Through BTI, is presently gaining an almost unlimited 125 states are currently being ranked power of definition over the project of the following the goal of a consolidated, civilian society. market-based democracy (cf. CAP 2008). In 1994, the foundation set up the Centre Countries with a high willingness for free- for Higher Education Development (CHE). enterprise transformations and From that point onwards, it has been privatisation of the public sector receive spearheading the business orientation of the highest scores (cf. ibid.). universities and the implementation of the A further CAP project financed by bachelor and master study system. The Bertelsmann is called Enlarged Europe – Center for Applied Policy Research (CAP) Developing a Political and Institutional at Munich University was added in 1995. Frame of Reference for the enlarged Just like the CHE, it receives the largest European Union. It is concerned with part of its funding from Bertelsmann. The „governability“ (CAP 2004b) „in the view academic quality and the independence of of the continuing deficit in scope of action the CAP activities do, therefore, indeed and democracy“ of the EU-25+ as well as raise some questions. The CAP with its 60 the „inner consolidation of the political employees is run by Werner Weidenfeld, a system“, particularly as far as „issues of political scientist and a networker, who has defence politics“ (CAP 2004c) are been a member of the Bertelsmann concerned. Foundation's board of directors and, later, Meanwhile, the Bertelsmann Foundation its committee since 1992. The CAP is has been preparing a further expansion of working on several joint projects with the the company's main business areas within Foundation. These mainly focus on so- the German educational and academic called strategic concepts for a future system. Thus, in public libraries and Europe, which also includes exerting an universities, kindergartens and schools influence on the draft of a European Bertelsmann returns to its traditional core constitution (cf. CAP 2004a). business: developing and providing content One of the current projects is the through campaigns on topics like Bertelsmann Transformation Index. It Educational Paths in the Information involves setting up a worldwide network of Society (BIG), Business Studies at School consultants. The ranking is intended to and Toolbox Bildung (Toolbox Education), provide „the international public and to name just a few. political actors with a comprehensive view In schools, the Bertelsmann Foundation of the status of democracy and a market equally paves the way for an expansion of economy as well as the quality of political the company business by introducing management in each of these countries“ performance indicators, evaluations and (BTI). This worldview is very much in the further appendages of the new steering vein of the one that Christoph Keese, models. The Bertelsmann project Self- editor-in-chief of Financial Times Responsible Schools and Quality Ranking Deutschland, succinctly stated as follows: in Educational Regions was tackled for the 272 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV first time with initial aid from the Lower considered the moral conscience of Europe Saxony's federal state government: About because of its attitude based on 130 general-education schools received the conservative values, has been marginalised tools provided by the Bertelsmann somewhat by neo-liberalism recently. Foundation in order to set off on their way Amongst other members of the CoR school towards „self-responsibility“. With the SEIS, committee, there are Hamburg's former Self-Evaluation in Schools, programme education secretary Reinhard Soltau, the package, they receive „valuable support”, former chairman of the trade union for comparable to quality management systems education and science (GEW) Dieter in business (cf. SEIS 2009). Wunder, the managing director of North In other cases of privatisation of the Rhine-Westphalia's Association of public sector, the separation of supervisory Chambers of Commerce and Industry as and operative function may be strategically well as the Club of Rome's vice president relevant. For privatisation projects used Eberhard von Koerber. The committee of by Bertelsmann in order to steer the CoR schools is chaired by Peter Meyer- reconfiguration of the educational Dohm, Volkswagen AG's former head of domestic area in the post-democratic personnel development and a member of constellation, however, this can only be the advisory body of the Bertelsmann true if we lower our sights considerably. Foundation's Quality Development of In this area, functions that we would Schools and School Systems (cf. CoR rather see divided according to the schools). CoR schools, again – and now principle of the separation of powers, are we are coming full circle – are evaluated virtually united in the hands of one through the Bertelsmann Foundation's SEIS, Self-Evaluation in Schools. It is company. As a result, incredibly tight networks like these that currently drive the closed-loop systems develop that privatisation of schools in Germany. functions something like this: In There can, however, be no question of Hamburg, for example, the model project voluntariness or even autonomy, as the Self-Responsible School was started (cf. federal governments in question FHH 2004). This project gives „more increasingly tie a school's 'good reputation' autonomy“ to schools – on certain to its participation in Bertelsmann projects. conditions, however: „Self-governing Whether the school heads want it or not: schools“ are asked to „align their profiles they either participate in a Bertelsmann with the Club of Rome's maxims“ (ibid.). project of their own accord or they are An active member of the Club is Liz Mohn (cf. CoR). The schools in question also forced to participate by the respective have to apply for „admission to the Club of federal state governments – caught Rome's nationwide development between Scylla, the policy of 'empty public programme“, with the „mid-term aim of coffers' and Charybdis, the vice-like grip being certified as a Club of Rome school“ of permanent quality evaluations. The (ibid.). A CoR school will then embody Bertelsmann Foundation or one of its everything that has been expected of a affiliates is always already there, providing 'good school' for some time now. a „standardised steering tool“ to The programme is financed by the Club „interested schools“, a tool that helps of Rome-Schulen Deutschland GmbH, „school masters and mistresses/heads of founded by the Club of Rome's German school and their staff to evaluate and plan section. The Club of Rome, formerly school development processes with the help of data“. It feeds from an Lohmann, I.: The 'Good Government' of the German Education System: Bertelsmann … 273
„internationally viable quality concept of third party funds do not equal third party what constitutes a good school“, an funds and even concepts of civil society understanding that Bertelsmann came to do not equal concepts of civil society. through experts that were chosen Secondly, analyse what has become and accordingly and that is being „concretised will become of the general pedagogical through tools (questionnaires for pupils, beliefs that pedagogical acts have a teachers and parents, employees and structure and logic of their own which trainers) that have been scientifically are not the same as economical ones. validated and put to the test in practice“ and Thirdly, carry out network analyses of that have equally evolved from Bertelsmann the new, post-national influence projects. The result of the deployment of this networks by means of Power Structure steering tool are 'School Reports' that serve Research (cf. Burris 2009) or at least as a basis for the planning of measures, i.e. through investigative journalism, and as a basis for driving the schools' own make the results known to the public. At commodification and promoting its market- least, as long as we still have one. like transformation. As a driver in the process of abolishing References public general education, this form of privatisation is currently predominant at 1. Bertelsmann AG. Homepage, RTL school level and in this way even more Group, http://www.bertelsmann.de/ important than direct forms of bertelsmann_corp/wms41/bm/index.p commercialisation like the ones that hp?language=1, 2009. determine the development in the United 2. Böckelmann, Frank & Hersch States, for example. Nevertheless, Fischler. Bertelsmann. Hinter der privatisation and commercialisation are Fassade des Medienimperiums. becoming interlinked, are mutually Frankfurt a.M.: Eichborn, 2004. dependent and reinforce each other: In 3. Burris, Val. Who rules? An internet Germany, too, the „public school systems guide to Power Structure Research: that used to function according to the public http://uoregon.edu/~vburris/whorules institutions' own laws in the economy's 'slip /index.htm, 2009. stream'„ have long become „fields of 4. CAP, Centrum für angewandte commercial activity, where companies begin Politikforschung. Bertelsmann to restructure work forms and pedagogical Forschungsgruppe Politik. Projekte relationships within schools, to divide in Kooperation mit der Bertelsmann school systems into a multitude of specific Stiftung: markets and to incorporate them into a http://www.caplmu.de/projekte/bertel spiritual and material privatisation process“ smann/index. php, 2004a. (Flitner 2006: 246). 5. CAP, Centrum für angewandte Politikforschung. Das Größere 4. Conclusions Europa. Entwicklung eines politischen und institutionellen What can an educational scientist do in Ordnungsrahmens für die erweiterte this situation? On this issue, three things Europäische Union: at least: Firstly, take a closer look in the http://www.caplmu.de/projekte/bertel future at who we cooperate with since smann/europa.php, 2004b. foundation does not equal foundation, 274 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
6. CAP, Centrum für angewandte 11. Flitner, Elisabeth. „Pädagogische Politikforschung. System- und Wertschöpfung. Zur Rationalisierung Politikreformen. Erarbeitung eines von Schulsystemen durch public- Regierungssystems für die erweiterte private-partnerships am Beispiel von Europäische Union: http://www.cap- PISA“. Rationalisierung und Bildung lmu.de/projekte/bertelsmann/systemp bei Max Weber. Beiträge zur olitikreform.php, 2004c. historischen Bildungsforschung. Eds. 7. CAP, Centrum für angewandte Jürgen Oelkers et al. Bad Heilbrunn: Politikforschung. System- und Klinkhardt, 2006, 245-266. Politikreformen. Erhebliche Heraus- 12. Gaus, Günter. „Bonn und Bertelsmann“. forderungen für die Verwirklichung Der Spiegel Nr. 11, 1970. von Demokratie und Marktwirtschaft. 13. Keese, Christoph. „Gastkommentar“. Bertelsmann Transformation Index Spiegel Online, 23 February: 2008, http://www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/0,151 http://www.caplmu.de/aktuell/meldu 8,287582,00.html, 2004. ngen/2008/bti.php, 2008. 14. Krysmanski, Hans-Jürgen. „Priva- 8. CoR, Club of Rome. Homepage. Full tisierung der Macht“. Die Privati- members. sierung der Welt – Hintergründe, Fol- http://www.clubofrome.org/ gen, Gegenstrategien. Reader des eng/people/full_members2.asp, 2009. wissenschaftlichen Beirats von Attac 9. CoR-Schools. Club of Rome-Schulen Deutschland. Ed. Huffschmid, Jörg, Deutschland gGmbH, Homepage 2004, 111-118. >CoR-Schulen >Kuratorium: http:// 15. Marohn, Anna. „Verschwommene www.clubofrome.de/schulen/kuratori Grenzen in Gütersloh“. Frankfurter um.html, 2009. Rundschau Online, 10 November 2004. 10. FHH, Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg. 16. Meyer, Jens J. „Starke Stimmen. Behörde für Bildung und Sport. Brigitte und Christoph Mohn: Nur der Hamburg startet das Projekt Patriarch kann sie an die „Selbstverantwortete Schule“, Presse- Konzernspitze holen“. Süddeutsche mitteilung: Zeitung Nr. 70, 23 March 2006, 17. http://fhh.hamburgde/stadt/Aktuell/beho 17. SEIS, Selbstevaluation in Schulen. erden/bildungsport/aktuelles/bbsnachrich Homepage: http://www.seis-deutsch ten/juni-2004/selbstverwalteteschule. land.de/, 2009. html, 2004. 18. Toolbox Education. Homepage: http://www.toolbox-bildung.de/, 2009.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
AN IRREGULAR HISTORY OF HUNTING
Zoltán KALMÁR1
Abstract: Ortega was an excellent hunter and a brilliant pathfinder. His treatise entitled Meditations on Hunting (1942) is a foreword to architect Count Eduardo Yebes’s hunting manual. Count Eduardo was Ortega’s old friend and hunting partner, and his work provides a detailed analysis of the sport so long pursued by men. This paper addresses readers who are captured by philosophical reflections on scholarly interpretations of hunting stories. The author, who has never practised hunting himself, is a historian and philosopher, who delights in adventures of the exotic world of hunting.
Key words: behavioral civilizational pattern, assymetrical agressivism, mutual combat, animal welfare, libido dominating hunting.
1. Introduction
Let us establish a fact right in the activity that is surrounded by confusion, beginning: Ortega is an excellent hunter lack of comprehension and rejection. and a brilliant pathfinder. His treatise Count Yebes, a dazed devotee of hunting entitled Meditations on Hunting (1942) is a seems almost to recreate the very act of the foreword to his old friend’s, the architect chase, speaking about all that relates to and hunting partner Count Eduardo hunting with enthusiasm verging on mystic Yebes’s hunting manual, which provides a rapture: the fields, the hounds, the rifles detailed analysis of the sport so long and the game. The very words radiate with pursued by men. The essay seems to the discipline, training, and the directly address educated readers. An considerable amount of sacrifice and attractive phenomenon is captured, or danger brought along by a quarter century rather, point blank 1 brought down (Ortega spent in the hills and valleys. (Ortega y y Gasset 5-6) for philosophical reflection Gasset 6). With a zeal akin to Count by a scholarly enthusiast of hunting stories, Yebes’s, the Spanish master of who was meek as a lamb and never existentialism on his intellectual adventure practised hunting himself. A philosopher trip traces the forces deeply embedded in who delighted in adventures of the exotic hunting, the mechanisms working within world of hunting and was a great master of the huntsman and his emotional and style at the same time is indeed worthy of intellectual motifs. The philosopher probes being considered far more than a the nature and deep sense of the activity philosophers’ philosopher after the end of that is hunting with an aim to show the his days. original and peculiar quality of a hunting Writing on hunting in the 21st century lifestyle. In this essay interpreting the recto means revealing issues concerning an and verso of hunting, the activity itself
1 Associate Professor and Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Modern Philology and Social Sciences at the University of Pannonia, Hungary 276 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV surfaces between the lines as a problem of Man, an otherwise remarkably solid, life; hunting is constructed by Ortega out of hard-to-shape being, for whom every the very depth of existential being and, as change is made with blood, sweat and opposed to the constraints of work, it is tears, is able to break away from the identified with the experience of real living. domain of the everyday and abandon the jewels of a culture of intellectual and 2. Nature vs. Nurture anthropological meaning. He may leave behind the safe fields of culture for a Hunting as a sport originates in time longer period of time and retire into the immemorial but has continued to be a World from the noise of culture. The certain privilege throughout the ages. It is cultural being, turned into a risk-avoiding also an enthusiastic activity and a source of fawn by the civilisational process which pleasure and joy to the chosen few. eroded inborn instincts now raises himself Delightful madness, we could say; a sort of above the anxiety- and doubt-ridden entertainment. Ortega nevertheless sets out civilisational atmosphere, steals away from to dispute the view solidly grounded in the the myriad roles pressed on him by culture, modern Western world which considers gets rid of the ballast of common sense and hunting a less than serious pastime. The re-enters the world of sheer immediacy. Spanish philosopher interprets this activity From the cultural context of competition with respect to man as diversion. ”Since to and rivalry he steps over onto the radically be di-verted (di-vertirse) means to be different, biological side of competition temporarily liberated from what we and caution with dissimilar strategies of habitually are – on these occasions we coexistence and beacon lights of conduct. exchange our actual personalities for a He is temporarily relocated into a natural certain period of time with another, form of existence that is alien to his age seemingly arbitrary character and attempt and that floats on the borderline of to transport ourselves for a moment from humanity and non-humanity. He is our world into another one which does not transported into a complex unity belong to us.” ((Ortega y Gasset 7). inscrutable by the human intellect, where According to Ortega, who in this point he can move around with the same ease as follows Polybios, the 2nd century BC in the world he came from. historiographer, diversion is in fact the Breaking away from civilisational complete opposite of our everyday notion patterns means the suspension of cultural of entertainment: it is not specified as self-identity and a dissolution or idleness, a peripheral phenomenon or disappearance of civilisational expecta- illustrative element of human existence but tions and social norms. What then follows as a complex behaviour pattern involving is a marked shift towards reflexive total self-surrender, risk-taking, struggle functions; instincts, elemental forces and and effort. Diversion thus loses its passive energies replace taught behaviour patterns. quality and is transsubtstantiated into an The hunter thus distances himself from his activity of the highest degree. The most very own cultivated persona, entering into active deed one can do is not simply doing a secondary condition of savagery and something but devoting oneself to it2. dishevelment in the peaceful and rugged (Ortega y Gasset 8). In this respect, the world of nature. He assumes a behaviour hunter is a vessel of a certain kind of pattern of closed order that is entirely sacrality, and, as such, should be given due different from that of the cultural being. respect. Zoological aspects gain superiority in his Kalmár, Z.: An Irregular History of Hunting 277 existence while his primary reactions to the entrenched in expectations of law, ethics environment become naturally and morals does not necessarily lead to spontaneous. Man is promoted to be an deformation of character. In fact, hunting apex predator, yet he is not possessed by is not a sports spectacle. There are no the devil: we must not view this onlookers and in the space and time phenomenon as antisocial character provided by nature no one expects the disorder although it is indeed hunter to exhibit a perfectly cut moral dehumanisation in a sense, since the profile once he sets himself free from huntsman’s reactions are mostly restraining norms and rules. There is yet a determined by the biology of his body. The certain something created in the hunter, borderline and the substantial differences who is overjoyed with existence and free between the modus vivendi of hunter and to the bottom of his heart: in want of a prey are melted. The sports hunter’s life is better phrase we might term this a manner determined by the actual blending into of life or conduct of conscience. nature in all its internal delicacy. The The question remains whether we might passion and ritual enthusiasm of the Count speak of conscience in connection with the to sports hunting, which demands courage, hunter who enters voluntary exile from stamina and perseverance may actually be culture if the existence of conscience itself seen as reminiscent of antique Dionysia is doubtful within the defensive walls of where all natural and elemental traits of cultures. Classical Arabic for example human beings were set free. lacks the expression for ’conscience’ 4. In Ortega’s interpretation the main (Hankiss 74) In the Muslim world, where elements in the behaviour of the hunter, the absolute power of divine will is this man with an animal heart, are tied to professed, the ethical notion of sin does not instincts and biological patterns. Instinct is exist – and in our culture it is indeed a known to be a great driving force in the notion connected to conscience which animal kingdom. At the same time, there is defies exact specification and has no sharp a certain kind of smoothly operating borderlines. There are clearly set anchors internal3 system of checks in this and guidelines in the organisation of instinctive behaviour that is distinctly human life for the followers of the Prophet. separated from moral norms and Moral principles and norms do not need to principles. Hunting encapsulates a whole be self-picked by the individual. set of morals, and that in its exemplary and perfect order. Having appropriated this 3. Hunter and Hunted sportsmanlike moral, the huntsman complies with it in utter solitude, his only In his essay, Ortega nevertheless draws witnesses being mountain peaks, fuzzy up the moral silhouette of the sports clouds, stern gazing oaks, shivering hunter’s conscience in clear outline: he is cypresses and the wandering game. convinced that issues connected to the Hunting has always been looked upon as eternally complex nature of conscience can pedagogy of the highest quality or one of never be left behind in a huntsman’s life. the most appropriate means to shape one’s Hunting is an instinctive gut activity which character. (Ortega y Gasset 21, 23) The at the same time is rather sophisticated. Its hunter lives as is biologically fit. At the fundamental element is the competitive same time, the secondary wildness of man situation created by the hunter. There is no does not mean he is a barbarian. hunt without offering loopholes of escape Distracting oneself from culture and chances to disappear. Attention 278 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV devoted to the prey and providing a chance Even if the huntsman’s and prey’s of escape to it is actually paying homage to behaviours and intentions are radically the future prey in acknowledging its different, the essential quality that hunting power. Hunting is not an extreme act of exhibits is a clash of nearly equal chances unruliness. Fair contest is one of its basic despite the inevitable vital inequality and features. The human being, in full the zoological distance between the parties. possession of his free will and in full Hunting is nevertheless eternally control of his life puts restraint upon asymmetrical agression, where one of the himself exactly to the degree his weapons animals attempts to bring down the prey have been perfected. He leaves a field of while the other wants to avoid being play for the animal to avoid the extreme brought down. This naturally means that imbalance of means between the two of bullfighting or venatio may not be looked them. Should he transgress against these upon as activities belonging to the same limits, he would destroy the very essence group as they represent a mutual combat of hunting, transforming it into mere situation (36-37). massacre. Instead of doing everything he is The fundamental qualities of hunting capable of, man checks his limitless facilitate a wide diversity of possible abilities and starts imitating nature, i.e. modes of pursuit. Hunting for food and for reverts to the natural way of life 5 by fun essentially do not differ in hunting taking a step back. (Ortega y Gasset 34, 4) techniques and styles; the development of Mastery of hunting enfolds within these weapons does not introduce basic changes self-imposed constraints, acting along the in the core features of the hunt. The only fundamental principles of patience, factors that set apart sport and sustenance humility, and self-control. The hunter within the phenomenon of hunting are the checks himself, out of his own will, but aims and the means. Hunting for livelihood there are intuitive decisions based on non- means that the main goal of the hunter, the personal motivations behind this attitude of result to be valued is the death of the internal self-discipline. Beyond securing animal. Everything that leads up to this is technical means and facilities, the single only a set of devices to reach the ultimate role of reason in hunting is to assume aim, which is none else than the hunter’s responsibility for the act of self-curtailing, formal intention. A sportsman is not and limit the extent of human intervention. interested in the death of the prey since this (Ortega y Gasset 35). is not his intention. A sportsman is This is clearly seen if we take a look at interested in happenings previous to the the immense versatility of the animal killing, i.e. what needs to be done to kingdom, where a similar internal heat of achieve success: and this is hunting itself. hunting is observed in all strata of the Death is of vital importance since it zoological hierarchy – on proximate but validates the act of hunting; killing the non-identical levels. Hunting is thus an animal is the natural end of hunting (in essentially zoological phenomenon, a clash both senses of the word) but it is not the and duel between two sets of instincts, that hunter’s aim (94-95). of the hunter and the animal on the run. Taking lives has imposed prohibitions in (42) As giving advance to the prey is also a every culture. In dragging the hunter to the wide-spread element of hunting in the pillory we tend to rebuke him with the world of animals, self-restraint may not be words of the Old Testament commandment viewed as a taught behaviour pattern for ’Thou shalt not kill’, which has a concrete, the hunter but must certainly be inborn. legal sense. In our times, when we attempt Kalmár, Z.: An Irregular History of Hunting 279 to extend our system of moral values onto Beyond the inconceivable essence of the the animal world, we tend to place the ultimate reasons, the world of living seems ’Thou shalt not kill animals, either’ to be an eternal arena. One of the interdiction next to the ’Thou shalt not kill’ fundamental motifs of existence is the one. Animal protection is solidly grounded striving by one creature to overcome and in Anglo-Saxon countries; the notions of subdue the other. The possessive attitude animal rights or animal welfare are and hunger for power that is characteristic commonly known. Animal protection and of living beings has been termed libido animal rights movements are also highly dominandi by the eminent French thinker respected.6 People involved in hunting may Pierre Bourdieu. In the case of hunting this not escape facing this strain. A true-cut desire is directed to the possession of life, hunter does indeed experience this burden; whether by capturing the prey alive or by his lethal deeds are infused with a sense of bringing it down. It proceeds from the guilt regardless the historical period he essential qualities of the activity that the lives in. As a result, there is a type of hunter cannot be satisfied with anything internal struggle or trauma he has to go less. It is only this event which brings through. A good huntsman’s mind is fulfillment to the hunt. Natural drama always uneasy about the death he brings to makes hunting. If the sports hunter brings the magnificent animal. (Ortega y Gasset down the game, he does not do so to kill it. 82). There are no clear explanations to why He does not become a murderer; the death it so. Heavy clouds weigh down on the of the animal is the most natural way of intellectual horizon at this point. Although procuring and possessing it. (Ortega y there have been several sweeping scholarly Gasset 38). The trophy symbolises the attempts to grasp the basic existential success of the hunt, the actual victory over motifs of our being, we only possess vague the prey and the total appropriation of it. information on this veiled subject. To put it An element of luck is undoubtedly needed more exactly: we do not really seem to at times to triumph. Passion for hunting understand what we know. There are manifests itself in the collection of always probelms lurking behind the curtain magnificent trophies, among other things. of culture like the unclear nature of man’s Eternal dissatisfaction and a drive to relationship with animals or the inscrutable collect yet more trophies are at work in the quality of the phenomenon of death: its huntsman’s soul. He is spurred on by a secret that defies all inquiry, whether we desire that never finds satisfaction and the speak of natural death or one induced by quantitative race for trophies: this means interference. Likewise, there are centuries- the hunt never ends and is always restarted. long debates about the justification of wars The notion of hunting is difficult to while the essence of war as such is not grasp. For this reason, it may easily merge touched upon at all. We may as well be with the notions of the warrior, the soldier reminded that devastating wars are integral or the nature photographer. The phenomena of various cultures and steady ploughman, the stock farmer, the soldier, components of civilised history targeted to the botanist or the tourist is nevertheless the present day on the annihilation of unable to gain immediate experience of a people. When breath is stopped, one is at a natural way of life as he leaves his instincts loss for words. The question of how far we hanging from the rack on departure and are masters of our lives is quite as arrives as a typical cultural being into unfathomable as the problem that life is so nature, which for him exists as an external easy to crush. entity or a humanised domain. (Ortega y 280 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Gasset 123-127). As opposed to the actual References hunt, Ortega strictly separates weekend hunting, which is created out of a painful 1. Bourdieu, Pierre. La domination mixture of drive and resistance and which masculine. Paris: Seuil, 1998. is seemingly pursued with similar patience 2. Hankiss, Elemér. The Ten and stamina. In this latter type there is no Commandments Today. Budapest: real element of hunting but is only acted Helikon, 2002. out as a fairy play where persons engage in 3. Ortega y Gasset, José. Meditations on making-as-if attitudes. Mere ’target Hunting. Budapest: Európa, 2000. shooting’ of game akin to massacre, executed without effort or simple visual or audiorecordings made by hikers with 1 My emphases 2 gadgets hanging from their necks are also Ortega quotes a longer passage from the work of Polybios (205-123 BC). One of the ideas in the text not regarded to be proper hunting. What is especially important for him: ”[…] Scipio, who happens in the case of game captured on devoted himself to hunting, acquired greater fame tape or film is a tension-free, visual or than the others by executing any sort of similar acoustic pseudo-possession of life’s traces. venture of high risk […]”. (29) 3 There is no real hunter’s passion dwelling My emphases 4 Kant argues in several places that coscience is in the man who is incapable of killing the inseparably linked to man as a human being. animal or will not suffer for its life. Conscience, as opposed to morality based on Viewed from the fortified enclosure of externals, leads man from the inside. 5 culture, these are needlesharp, piercing and My emphases 6 ”Previous to all science and beyond all science chilling words. mankind looks upon itself as a race emerging from the animal kingdom and not certain to have completely surpassed it. Animals continue to be too close to us: we cannot help feeling a mysterious kind closeness to them.” See José Ortega y Gasset 83.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
NARRATIVE THEORIES AND NARRATIVE DISCOURSE
Slávka TOMAŠČÍKOVÁ1
Abstract: In the period of the 1990s narrative is a central topic for literary, cultural, social and communication studies. Since television is considered by many authors to be one of the principle story tellers of the 20th century, media studies cannot ignore such narrative in post-modern discourse that typically blurs the boundaries between information and entertainment. Television is narrative in its substance and narratives are present in both fiction and non-fiction genres of film, the documentary, the news programme, commercials, reality shows and sport that television presents. This paper is primarily concerned with narrative theories applied in the research into media narratives.
Key words: narrative, media, discourse, method, approach.
Narrative has existed from the time the From its earliest days narratology carries first stone-age paintings were drawn in multidisciplinary features. In the 1990s caves and the first stories were told at the because the interest in a variety of aspects tribal fires. In everyday life a person is of narrative within the humanities rises surrounded by narratives from the time significantly, resulting publications reveal he/she is able to understand speech. Tales, a distinctly narrative turn in humanities. jokes, novels, films, cartoons, newspapers, Narrative is no longer the exclusive television news programmes and other domain of literary studies. The concept of people’s obituaries, all of these and narrative, in fact, can be found in almost numerous others allow a person to learn all works produced by researchers in the about history, present day events or future. humanities and social sciences, whether it Whether narratives may be simple or is the primary focus of their work or just complex, individuals need to be able to one element they deal with, whether they understand what their function is in order intentionally do so or are unaware of it. to understand the surrounding world. Consequently, narratology is more than Narratives, from the Latin word narre ‘to ever before open to various methodologies make known, to convey information’, of different fields: philosophy, aesthetics, provide individuals with a tool for learning history, sociology, psychology, religion, and teaching others about the world. ethnography, linguistics, communication Narratives are also used by researchers as a and media studies. metalanguage that enables them both to Since narrative is studied from a variety describe their research and to approach of perspectives, approaches to narrative their object of study as a narrative vary significantly. It may be approached as discourse. a method to produce, as a theory to
1 P. J. Šafárik University, Košice, Slovakia. 282 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV investigate, as a social practice, or as Poetics, written about 330 B.C., he defines politics and strategy. In most cases, works of art as imitations of reality (in however, there are two main theories later introduced terminology known as through which the relationships within ‘mimesis’) and specifies three areas related which narratives are examined - the to imitation, those of medium (language, functionalist and constructionist theories, sound, music, etc.), object (people in the former focusing on the role narrative action, later also calling it plot) and mode plays and the latter on how it is produced (narration or action – acting). For Aristotle (Threadgold, 2005, 262-267). art is a mirror reflecting reality (Aristotle, Paul Ricoeur and Peter Brooks represent 1997). The analysis of television news an existential approach to narrative as a narrative in this work uses Aristotle’s phenomenon giving meaning to people’s imitation (mimesis) as one of the lives. The cognitive approach represented significant elements of narrative discourse. by Mark Turner and Jerome Bruner deals Narrative theory (narratology) is with the narrative as an elementary originally developed by literary critics on instrument of human thought, of cognition. the basis of the Russian formalist and The aestheticians, such as Philip Sturgess, French structuralist traditions. In general whose Narrativity : Theory and Practice narrative theories are, after the WWII, published in 1992 can be used as a primary divided into three main strands. The first example, integrate narrativity, fictionality, one understands narrative as a sequence of and literariness as inseparable features. events and the theorists focus on the Sociologists focus on the contexts in which narrative itself independent of the medium narrative is created. Technical approaches used. These are followers of the formalist prefer language-based narrative analyses Vladimir Propp (1968) and of the and include narratology proper, structuralists Claude Lévi-Strauss, Tzvetan structuralism, linguistics and discourse Todorov (1977) and early Roland Barthes analysis. Their intention is to find a place (1977). The second strand sees narrative as for narrative within discourse theory a discourse. The representatives of this (e.g. in works by Barbara Herrnstein strand are the successors of Gérard Smith, or Dan Ben-Amos). Narrative is Genette, Mieke Bal (1985), and Seymour even characterised as a concept, Chatman (1978), The final strand presents analytical category, discourse type, text narrative as a complex artefact, the type, and macro-genre (Ryan, 2004, pp. meaning of which is endowed by the 2-8). With such a variety of contexts and receiver. Supporters of this post- approaches narratology enlarges into a structuralist approach are the later Roland very complex field. Barthes (2004), Umberto Eco (1979), Jean The term ‘narratology’ is introduced in Francois Lyotard (1991b). 1969 by Tzvetan Todorov (1977), Wallace Martin’s (1986) diagram below originally in its French version portrays the variety of narrative theory in ‘narratologie’. Narratology is considered the second half of the 20th century. The by some theorists to be a part of semiotics. French structuralists (axis 1, but sometimes For the first serious attempt to analyse including axis 5 as well) view narrative as narrative one has to go back to the a manifestation of social organization. philosopher Aristotle. Aristotle (1997) is They use linguistics in order to develop still considered to be one of the most theories connecting literature, influential theorists of narrativity. In his anthropology and sociology. Marxist Tomaščíková, S.: Narrative Theories and Narrative Discourse 283 critics and semiologists emphasize axis 5. influence both their reading. Finally Russian formalists contribute to the reader-response criticism emphasizes axis triangle 2. Point-of-view criticism deals 4 to study how narrative is understood by with axis 3 in order to prove that readers readers. are products of socio-cultural contexts that
social contexts, cultural conventions history 5 3 4 authors narrator – narrative reader
1
formal analytic 2 Literary tradition frameworks (literary, linguistic, interdisciplinary)
Fig. 1. Narrative theories (Martin, 1986, p. 29).
Axis 1 and axis 5 represent the (1968) means the structure, form and theoretical framework of the presented components of a system and his analysis research, the foundations of which lay in reveals the structure of narrative present in sociolinguistics, media and communication Russian folktales. He provides a list of studies, and semiotics. functions attributable to characters which Vladimir Propp together with Viktor are called ‘narratemes’ by present-day Shlovsky represent members of the theorists and which appear, in modified formalist group, Propp’s Morphology of forms, in various kinds of texts in different the Folktale written in 1928 (1968) media even today. His work helps explain becomes a classic for all theorists of the structure of plots and roles of narrative from the 1950s on and none of characters, i.e. the syntagmatic attributes of the works written on narrative neglects to narrative (Berger, 1997, pp. 23-28). He mention it. It is constantly analysed and also distinguishes between story (fabula), criticised by numerous theorists of media which is what happens in life in and many agree on the fact that the fairy chronological order and plot (syuzhet) tale is many people’s first significant which is how the author presents the story narrative and its elements motivate and/or to reader/audience, however it is read, are found in many popular genres (e.g. sci- heard or seen (Lacey, 2000, p.18). The fi films). By morphology Vladimir Propp work of Vladimir Propp (1968), moreover, 284 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV is used by such scholars as Claude representation and who also concern Bremont and Algirdas Julien Greimas, themselves with the study of media texts who, together with Victor Shklovsky, are Charles S. Peirce, Roland Barthes Mikhail Bakhtin, Roman Jakobson (1960), (2004), Jean Baudrillard (1994), Gilles Boris Eichenbaum and Boris Tomashevsky Deluze, Jacques Derrida and Umberto Eco all greatly influence the French (1979). structuralists who have an access to their Claude Lévi-Strauss, the French works as late as the 1950s. anthropologist and structuralist, contributes Structuralism is a method of analysis in the 1960s to the existing syntagmatic used in many social sciences in the 20th analysis by a paradigmatic analysis of text. century. It examines the relations and If syntagmatic analysis deals with what functions of elements in various systems. happens in a text [structure of plots and In linguistics, structuralism it is roles of characters as in Vladimir Propp’s represented by Ferdinand de Saussure; in work (see above)], then paradigmatic anthropology, by Claude Lévi-Strauss. analysis uncovers the meaning of the text Structuralist narratology, building on the to people. Roman Jakobson’s (1960) theories of Ferdinand de Saussure and binary oppositions that are essential for the Russian formalist studies, begins as part of creation of the meaning of concepts, the French intellectual tradition in the notions and ideas and Ferdinand de 1950s and culminates there in the 1970s. Saussure’s semiotics meet in Claude Lévi- Only later, in the 1970s and 1980s, is it Strauss’s approach that identifies the recognized in the English speaking world existence of binary oppositions in the text (Huisman, 2005b, p. 32). as an element that helps readers to Structuralists deal with the features understand the meaning of the text common to all narratives, analysing the (Berger, 1997, pp. 30-32). Claude Lévi- nature, form and function of various Strauss in his work The Structural Study of narratives. They focus on the level of story Myth (1963) shows how structural and use mainly literary narrative in order linguistics can be used in the systematic to study narrative grammar. For instance analysis of cultural contents. Tzvetan Todorov (1977), the Bulgarian Seymour Chatman’s (1978) main structuralist, tries to uncover abstract contribution to the theory of narrative is narrative structures. Only William Labov Story and Discourse. He explains that (1972) and studies that follow him, such as story is the content of narrative (the what those of Joshua Waletzky, deal with the of the narrative) and the discourse is form level of discourse. of narrative (the how). According to the Ferdinand de Saussure, the Swiss author the structuralist theory of narrative linguist, and one of the founders of states that narrative (a narrative text, a semiotics (semiology), investigates the narrative structure) has two parts. The first meaning of signs. His structuralist part, the story, consists of the content (the linguistic theory causes the so-called chain of events) and the existents (the linguistic turn in the humanities in the characters and the items of setting). The 1950s. Ferdinand de Saussure’s work second part, the discourse, is the means by influences the following period that which the content is expressed (Chatman, focuses on deconstruction. Among his 1978, p. 478). followers who deal with narrative
Tomaščíková, S.: Narrative Theories and Narrative Discourse 285
Actions Events Happenings
= Form of Content Characters Story Existents
(Content) Settings ………………………..
People, things, etc., as pre-processed by the author’s = Substance of Content cultural codes
NARRATIVE ………………………..
Structure of narrative transmission = Form of Expression
Discourse ……………………….. (Expression) Verbal Cinematic Manifestation Balletic = Substance of Expression Pantomimic etc.
Fig.2. Seymour Chatman’s narrative discourse (Chatman, 1978, p. 481)
As a semiotic phenomenon, narrative form with its various material conveys meaning of its own and, as such, manifestations (words, pictures, etc.). contains the form and substance of Narrative content also has its substance narrative expression as well as the form and a form. The substance is the set of and substance of narrative content. possible events, actions that can be Narrative expression is the narrative imitated by an author, and result in a discourse and, while story is the substance particular form (Chatman, 1978, of the narrative expression, discourse is its pp. 479-481). 286 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
Narrative is understood by structuralists settings, events and time in the one complex to be a form of communication. The real whole (Fiske, 1987, pp. 128-129). authors communicate a story (the formal When Vladimir Propp (1968) focuses on content element of narrative) by syntagmatic dimension of narrative in discourse (the formal expression element) tales, he describes six parts of narrative to real audiences through implied authors structure (preparation, complication, and implied audiences (Chatman, 1978, transference, struggle, return and p. 483). recognition) with 32 narrative functions Gérard Genette, the French scholar of the within them. Claude Lévi-Strauss and structuralist narratology of the 1970s and Roland Barthes focus more on the 1980s identifies the elementary paradigmatic dimenstion. Lévi-Strauss constituents and techniques of narrative analyses binary oppositions, showing that working with three basic categories. These they represent an even deeper structure. are tense (involving order, duration and Roland Barthes (1977) studies myth as a frequency), mood (involving focalisation universal principle of narrative. and distance, dealing with diegesis, Not only Mieke Bal (1985) but also mimesis) and voice (involving narrators Roland Barthes (1977), the French critic and speech). Mieke Bal (1985) is listed and one of the most significant narrative amongst the most important theorists of theorists, broadens the realm of narrative narrative thanks to her work Narratology: theory by employing the methods of Introduction to the Theory of Narrative structural linguistics and anthropology and published in 1985. She defines a text as “a moves from a structuralist approach finite, structured whole composed of towards post-structuralist understanding of language signs. A narrative text is a text in narrative. In his essay Structural Analysis which an agent relates a narrative. A story of Narratives written in 1977, Barthes is a fabula that is presented in a certain places narrative at the level of discourse manner. A fabula is a series of logically arguing that “the language of narrative is and chronologically related events that are one (and clearly only one) of the idioms caused or experienced by actors…” apt for consideration by the linguistics of (Bal, 1985, p. 8). Mieke Bal is one of the discourse…” (Barthes, 1977, p. 84). first narratologists moving from Narrative, then, represents a hierarchy of structuralism to post-structuralism in the instances and, in order to understand it, period of the 1980s. one must recognize the construction of Summarizing the above discussed issues narrative at the level of individual one can claim that structuralists try to functions [defined by Vladimir Propp uncover a narrative’s langue, i.e. a (1968) and by Claude Bremond], the level universal narrative structure and some of actions (by Algirdas Julien Greimas) elementary principles dealing with both and the level of narration [(the level of syntagmatic and paradigmatic dimensions discourse by Tzvetan Todorov (1977)]. of narrative. The syntagmatic dimension Barthes recognizes the existence of links events rationally, on the basis of a narrative communication, claiming that cause/effect relationship or association. there is no narrative without a narrator and The paradigmatic dimension allows a listener or reader (Barthes, 1977, pp. 84- characters and settings to create another 96). This recognition clearly involves structure within narrative. Both of them elements of a post-structuralist, post- result in sensible arrangements of characters, modern approach. The major step from a Tomaščíková, S.: Narrative Theories and Narrative Discourse 287 structuralist to a post-structuralist platform people’s past experience, but also a is made by Roland Barthes in his later possible explanation and mediator of works (e.g. S/Z published in 1975). present knowledge and practice. Clearly, Post-structuralists analyse structuration media studies cannot ignore narrative that (not a structure) of narrative. By typically for blurring boundaries between structuration they understand the process information and entertainment. through which the meaning is structured Helen Fulton (2005) states that “feature into narrative by both the writer and the films and documentaries tell us stories reader. While structuralist examinations of about ourselves and the world we live in. narrative focus on the text as an object of Television speaks back to us and offers us study, post-structuralist, post-modern ‘reality’ in the form of hyperbole and narrative theorists de-construct the parody. Print journalism turns daily life narrative (the term de-construction is into a story. Advertisements narrativise our adopted from Jacques Derrida, the French fantasies and desires” (Fulton, 2005, p.1). philosopher) and emphasize the role of a The author continues saying that in a post- subject (reader, listener, viewer) in the modern society, narrative is perceived as a process of semiosis/ interpretation of natural inner structure common for all meaning as well as in their understanding humankind. At the same time it plays one of narrative as communication. Taking into of the most important roles in acquiring consideration perspective, subjectivity of economic profit, it sells a product. From interpretation and, consequently, the the point of view of marketing, narrative individual who creates and/or interprets the mediates the sale, presenting the products narrative, for the post-structuralists of media to their potential customers. Thus meaning or the process of signification are narrative strategies are applied in films, socially and culturally contextualised. adverts, commercials, television news In the post-modern period narrative loses bulletins, comics, or newspapers. The it marginal status and its analysis becomes primary function of mass media narrative a crucial element of fields dealing with the is not only just to inform or entertain the study of society, culture and the individual. recipient, but also, and even more Theorists and researchers recognize both importantly, to support the enormous the presence of narrative in the discourse media industry by enhancing sales of its of media and its role in structuring products (Fulton, 2005, pp. 3-4). people’s sense of reality. Recent analyses Jean Francois Lyotard (1991a) perceives of media texts show that both fiction and narrative as a mode of knowledge and at non-fiction genres of mass media discourse the same time as means of legitimisation of are offered to the recipient in the form of media ‘message’. Within his narrative narrative. Not only a horror film, but also a games, knowledge and information are television news programme, provides distributed in society in the form of audiences with either constructed fiction or narrative. Hence the narrative defines created reality through telling them stories. conditions for the distribution of It is more than natural because human information and influences the beings from the beginning of their performance of society. Narratives are the existence ‘draw’ and ‘tell’ stories about means through which society, state, their inner lives and their experience in the institutions, producers, and individuals form of narrative. At present narrative is both legitimise their statements and create viewed not only as a means to understand public consensus for their activities 288 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
(Lyotard, 1991a, pp. 70-74). Media anecdotes and jokes), through operating as narratives support conformity and an explanatory device in accounts and uniformity by offering dominant opinions, descriptions, to informing and instructing preferred ideologies, and agreed-upon in news and tales, etc. Narrative is also models. Understanding, agreement and viewed as an important identity marker common attitude is only possible within (Thornborrow and Coates, 2005, pp. 7-9). these narrative games. The critical tradition of narrative analysis Post-modernism and its pluralism are within media and communication studies also reflected in a variety of means of begins with Northrop Frye and his expression and of creative approaches and Anatomy of Criticism published in 1957 processes. Neither form nor genre and Wayne Booth’s text The Rhetoric of predetermines suitability of the Fiction published in 1961. The integration characteristics, selected approaches or of Russian and French theories of narrative elements used in the process of production. with an account of English and American Television is a typical example of a post- criticism is observed in works dealing with modern collage in which individual media written by Roland Barthes (1977), products, genres, forms create the Jean Baudrillard (1994), and Umberto Eco programme structure. (1966). From the 1960s onwards The theory of narrative used in research sociolinguistics involves oral narratives, into media discourses builds its their design, reception, function, content foundations on the above-discussed and organisation. Among those interested general narrative theories. Contemporary in aspects of media narrative relevant for narrative theory encompasses structuralist sociolinguistic research one finds Joanna and post-structuralist theories, methods of Thornborrow (2005a), Jennifer Coates, semiotics and approaches used in Ulrike H. Meinhof (1994), Nicolas functional grammar. The focus is on both Coupland (1999), Peter Garrett (1998), the creation of meaning in the process of Martin Montgomery (2005), Terry signification (semiosis) and on issues of Threadgold (2005) and others ideology. What Marie-Laure Ryan (2004) (Thornborrow and Coates, 2005, pp. 1-2). says about narrative in media summarizes American criticism of the 1970s with the factors involved in contemporary Jonathan Culler and Robert Scholes clearly approaches. She claims that narrative is not shows the interdisciplinary and an artefact based on language but a mental, international basis of narrative theory that cognitive construct that is created by signs. can be used in media discourse analysis It is constituted by pieces of reality, by (Martin, 1986, pp. 22-26). Especially setting and by agents/characters who strong is the more recent contribution of perform their roles in actions/events and conversation analysis to the study of make changes in the world of narrative. storytelling in media by Deborah Tannen, For her “narrative is a mental Deborah Schiffrin, Harvey Sacks, and representation of causally connected states Livia Polanyi. Contemporary theorist and events which captures a segment in the Monika Fludernik integrates the study of history of a world and of its members” literary and oral narratives in her work (Ryan, 2004, p. 47). Towards a “Natural” Narratology Study of narrative in media reveals its published in 1996 (Ryan, 2004, pp. 42-43). numerous functions, from being an Arthur Asa Berger (1997) writes that entertainer in various genres (not only in reader-response or reception theorists Tomaščíková, S.: Narrative Theories and Narrative Discourse 289 claim that readers are required to approach 8. Eco, U.: A Theory of Semiotics. 1st narrative with their own experience and Midland Book (ed.) Bloomington: knowledge and thus individual readers Indiana University Press, 1979. may read a media text in a different way. 9. Fiske, J. Television Culture. 1st ed. He places narrative into a context of media London; New York: Routledge, 1987. communication taking into account 10. Fry, K.. “Television News: Hero for elements of social context, author/creator, New Orleans, Hero for the Nation”. text, medium and audience. Space and Culture, 2006, vol. 9, no. 1. The individual disciplines mentioned 11. Fulton, H. at al. Narrative and Media. above use different narrative models and 1st ed. Melbourne; New York: individual researchers focus their analysis Cambridge University Press, 2005. on different aspects of narrative discourse. 12. Hardt, H.. Myths for the Masses: An Essay on Mass Communication. 1st References ed. Malden; Oxford; Victoria: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2004. 1. Aristotle. Poetics. Translated by S. H. 13. Huisman, R. “From Structuralism to Butcher; edited by R. Koss. 1st ed. Post-structuralism”. Narrative and Mineola. New York: Dover Media.Fulton, H. et al. (eds.) 1st ed. Publications, Inc., 1997. Melbourne; New York: Cambridge 2. Bal, M. Narratology. Introduction to the University Press, 2005. p. 28-44. Theory of Narrative. Translated by C. 14. Jakobson, R. “Closing Statement: van Boheemen. 1st ed. Toronto; London: Linguistics and Poetics.” Style in University of Toronto Press, 1985. Language. Sebook, T. A. (ed.). 1st ed. 3. Barthes, R. Image-Music-Text. Cambridge; Massachusetts: MIT Translated by S. Heath; selected by S. Press, 1960. p. 350-377. Heath. 1st ed. New York: Hill and 15. Johnson-Cartee, K. News Narratives and Wang, 1977. News Framing: Constructing Political 4. Barthes, R. Mytologie [Mythologies]. Reality. 1st ed. Lanham; Boulder; New Translated by J. Fulka. 1st ed. Praha: York; Toronto, Oxford: Rowman & Dokořán, 2004. Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2005. 5. Baudrillard, J. Simulacra and 16. Labov, W. “The Transformation of Simulation. Translated by S. F. Glaser. Experience in Narrative”. The Discourse 1st ed. Michigan: University of Reader. Jaworski, A., Coupland, N. Michigan, 1994. (eds.). 1st ed. London; New York: 6. Berger, A. A. Narratives in Popular Routledge, 1999. p. 221-235. Culture, Media and Everyday Life. 1st 17. Lacey, N. Narrative and Genre: Key ed. Thousand Oaks; London; New Concepts in Media Studies. 1st ed. Delhi: Sage Publications, 1997. Basingstoke; New York: Palgrave, 7. Chatman, S. “Story and Discourse” 2000. [introduction]. Approaches to Media: 18. Lyotard, J. F. “Postmoderná situácia.” A Reader. Boyd-Barrett, O., Kapitoly 8-10 [Post-modern situation. Newbold, C. (eds.). 1st ed. London; Chapters 8-10]. Translated by K. New York; Sydney; Auckland: Korená. Za zrkadlom moderny Arnold, 1995. [Behind the mirror of modern]. Gál, E., Marcelli, M. (eds.). 1st ed. Bratislava: Archa, 1991a. p. 70-91. 290 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
19. Lyotard, J. F. “Odpoveď na otázku : 23. Propp, V. Morphology of the Folktale. Čo je postmoderna? [Answer to the Approaches to Media: A Reader. question: What is post-modern?].” Za Boyd-Barrett, O., Newbold, C. (eds). zrkadlom moderny [Behind the mirror 1st ed. London; New York; Sydney; of modern]. Gál, E., Marcelli, M. Auckland : Arnold, 1995. p. 473-476 (eds). Translated by K. Korená. 1st ed. 24. Ryan, M. L. (editor).: Narrative Bratislava : Archa, 1991b. p. 92-105. across Media : The Languages of 20. Martin, W. Recent Theories of Storytelling. 1st ed. Lincoln; London: Narrative. 1st ed. Ithaca; London: University of Nebraska Press, 2004. Cornell University Press, 1986. 25. Thornborrow, J., J. Coates, (eds). The 21. Meinhof, U. H. “Double Talk in News Sociolinguistics of Narrative. 1st ed. Broadcasts: A Cross-Cultural Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Comparison of Pictures and Texts in Benjamins Publishing Company, Television News”. Media Texts: 2005. Authors and Readers. Graddol, D., 26. Threadgold, T. “Performing Theories of Boyd-Barrett, O. (eds.). 1st ed. Narrative: Theorising Narrative Clevedon; Philadelphia; Adelaide: Performance.” The Sociolinguistics of Multilingual Matters Ltd.; The Open Narrative. Thornborrow, J., Coates, J. University, 1994. p. 136-160. (eds). 1st ed. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: 22. Montgomery, M. “Television News John Benjamins Publishing Company, and Narrative: How Relevant are 2005. p. 261-278. Narrative Models for Explaining the 27. Todorov, T. The Poetics of Prose. 1st Coherence of Television News?” The ed. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Sociolinguistics of Narrative. 1977. Thornborrow, J., Coates, J. (editors). 28. Tolson, A. Media Talk: Spoken 1st ed. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Discourse on TV and Radio.1st ed. Benjamins Publishing Company, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University 2005. p. 239-260. Press Ltd., 2006.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE ROLE OF DIFFERENCE IN THE PRODUCTION OF IDENTITY. FEMINIST THEORIES AND GENDER DIFFERENCE
Ileana BOTESCU-SIRETEANU1
Abstract: This paper discusses the allotropies of difference in the complex process of identity production, focusing on the specific case of gender identity. The paper considers recent feminist theories as well as postmodern criticism in order to identify the various implications of difference in the construction of the self. A decisive evolution of the concept of difference from unproductively intrinsic to binary oppositions to its more productive acceptance as diversity is identified as crucial to the understanding of gender identity by contemporary theoretical discourse.
Key words: difference, identity, gender, postmodern, feminism.
As Mark Currie pertinently remarks in Since the present research focuses on the his opening chapter of Difference (2004), various modes of enunciation of difference difference contributes decisively to the in the discourse of contemporary British production of meaning and of identity: female writers, it is of crucial importance […] the meaning of words is produced at this point to investigate the mechanisms by their relation to each other and their through which difference participates in differences […] personal identity also the construction of identity. Although, as appears to have an undeniable relational previously mentioned, most dictionary component (Currie 2-3). definitions choose to oppose difference to identity, placing the two terms in a relation It is through difference that meaning is of antinomy, identity cannot be conceived created and identity is produced. There is outside the conceptual frame of difference. undoubtedly a marked interdependence Debates on the issue of identity have in between meaning and identity as both turns inflamed various areas of the heavily rely on language; irrespective of Western thought, including philosophy, the theory which one chooses to adopt on anthropology, psychology, generally reality as either prior to language or, on the oscillating between the pre-eminence of contrary, as an essentially discursive either the psychological or the social construct, one has to acknowledge the component of the concept, whilst more indissoluble bond which keeps together recent theories agree on identity as being meaning, identity and language in a the result of a complex combination of the conceptual triad. two.
1 Faculty of Letters, Transilvania University of Braşov. 292 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
There is, however, considerable recognition of a common pool of constancy in grasping the paradoxical characteristics that several individuals character of identity, its dynamic nature, as share, its essential discursive aspect a product of an ongoing process of renders it unavoidably tributary to the differentiation between sameness and manoeuvres of differentiation: otherness. Essentially, contemporary […] because identities are constructed thought has agreed that the mechanism of within, not outside discourse, we need to identity formation relies on dialectic understand them as produced in specific relations, which basically leads to the historical and institutional sites within understanding of identity as a process, one specific discursive formations and that is consequently under permanent practices…they emerge as the product of construction. This new vision does the marking of difference and exclusion certainly oppose the classical, essentialist, (Hall in Identities: A Reader ed. du Gay Cartesian conception which dominated the et. al. 17). classical age and according to which identity was a given. Descartes’s inflexible Feminist critics Sally Alexander and and all-knowing Self which by thinking Sally Robinson make similar observations benefits from an immediate, absolute and on the interdependence of difference and transparent experience of itself is replaced identity, contextualizing the discussion by a more problematic Self which is within the framework of sexual and gender constructed from a myriad of variables; identity: thus, history, sociology, psychology and […] subjectivity, and with it sexual anthropology all contribute to the identity, is constructed through a process emergence of the Self, whose essential of differentiation, division and splitting, traits become transformation and change. and is best understood as a process The Self can no longer conceive of itself which is always in the making, is never without conceiving of the Other first, finished or complete (Alexander in because only by knowing the Other can the British Feminist Thought ed. Lovell 34). Self know itself. Thus, difference becomes crucial to the process of identity formation Sally Robinson notes in discussing these as it allows the Self to permanently issues that subjectivity, like gender, is a recognize itself by contrasting its attributes "doing," rather than a being. Subjects are to those of others. constituted, differentially, across complex In Selves at Risk (1990), Ihab Hassan and mobile discursive practices in insists upon the constructed nature of historically specific ways that involve identity and refers to the process of relations of subjectivity to sociality, to identity formation as an ongoing process of power and to knowledge (Robinson 11): differentiation: […] categorization works through […] this process of differentiation processes of inclusion and exclusion, and creates the ‘I’, the self, which exists both "membership" in any category is secured in connection with other ‘Is’ and in a through the exclusion of "outsiders." In state of terrifying isolation (Hassan 9). this sense, any "identity" must necessarily exclude differences: the One Likewise, in an essay entitled Who is not, nor can it be, the Other. Yet, in needs identity?, Stuart Hall echoes another sense, identity is dependent on Hassan’s statement by claiming that even difference: the One is only the One in though identity originally stems from the opposition to the Other (Robinson 5). Botescu-Sireteanu, I.: The Role of Difference in the Production of Identity. 293
In a similar vein, in her Postmodern framework of postmodernism, it is Revaluations, Professor Mihaela Irimia increasingly difficult to confine identity to concludes that ‘difference is a guarantee of a definition, as the concept seems to have identity, it signals both the static and entered an era of shifting attributes. It has dynamic processes of identity formation’ become nearly impossible nowadays to (Irimia 8). . define identity, as definition presupposes a static frame, whereas, as a process, identity If in establishing generic identity, the is essentially dynamic and under role that difference plays is perhaps not so continuous transformation. Contemporary much exposed to observation, in tracing theories have therefore displaced their any type of specific identity such as racial, focus from defining identity to sexual or gender identity, difference exits investigating the complex mechanisms of the backstage and assumes the leading identity formation. And since these role. Moreover, the contemporary episteme mechanisms are practically inexhaustible, and its various theoretical expressions have identity has gained a central locus amongst witnessed an increasing centrality of the the preoccupations of the contemporary concept of identity as this has become episteme. Thus, philosophers and theorists more and more unstable and prone to have turned their attention to what they fluidity. have identified as the key-components of In this respect, the editors of the 2000 the fluid entity that is identity. Issues of anthology Identity: A Reader discuss the sex, gender, race, social status and immense popularity and centrality that historical background have started to gain identity has acquired within the past few primacy in the contemporary discourse, decades and establish that a major role in giving birth to new fields of research. this process has been held by the historical In a chapter of her analysis of the Poetics and socio-cultural changes that have of Postmodernism, meaningfully entitled profoundly affected the public and private Subject in/of/to history and his story, Linda spheres: Hutcheon speaks of the “trendiness” that […] identity has achieved its the issue of the subject has acquired in contemporary centrality both both contemporary criticism and literature theoretically and substantively because (Hutcheon 158). that to which it is held to refer-whether In addition, she claims that what the ‘it’ in question is, for example the postmodernism essentially does with category ‘man’, ‘black’, ‘work’, ‘nation’ respect to the subject is not to destroy it as or ‘community’-is regarded in some many theorists have loudly proclaimed but sense as being more contingent, fragile to situate it. And ‘to situate it, as and incomplete and thus more amenable postmodernism teaches, is to recognize to reconstitution than was previously differences—of race, gender, class, sexual thought possible (Du Gay, Evans, orientation, and so on’ (Hutcheon 159). Redman 2). Thus, gender identity and consequently gender difference have acquired a Nevertheless, despite its contemporary privileged status, especially as a result of centrality in the discourse of the the pre-eminence of this issue within the humanities, identity as a concept has radical discourse of feminism and the gradually liquefied in the sense that it has subsequent inauguration of Gender Studies lost its solidity and has therefore become Departments at leading universities in the problematic. Within the theoretical United States and Europe. It is also a major 294 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV concern of the present research to analyse contribute to gender identification. The the ways in which gender differences are difference between gender and sex only articulated in the fictional discourse of becomes visible to the others when there is contemporary British female writers. It a marked incongruence between the two, becomes therefore important to make a few which leads to the so-called queer identity, theoretical remarks on the concept of generally perceived as a transgression of gender and to dissociate it from the gender boundaries. concept of sex to which it is often Recent feminist theories abound in assimilated. analyses of gender and gender-related It is without a doubt the merit of the issues, although originally, feminism had French philosopher and revolutionary built its case on the importance of sexual feminist Simone de Beauvoir to have difference as the site of women’s operated the ground-breaking distinction discrimination. According to feminist critic between sex and gender in her most Rosi Braidotti for instance, feminism celebrated work The Second Sex (1949). borrows, through metaphorical proximity, Conceived as an apology of the female the defining attributes of a question that condition, The Second Sex has since has sexual difference as its answer: become the foundational tract of […] feminism is the movement that contemporary feminism. The chief brings into practice the dimension of statements that de Beauvoir formulates in sexual difference through the critique of her seminal work revolve around woman’s gender as a power institution. Feminism symptomatic marginality and her is the question; the affirmation of sexual subsequent invisibility in the public sphere difference is the answer (Braidotti in as well as around the constructed feature of Writing on the Body ed. Conboy, the gender category, explicitly articulated in Medina, Stanbury 61). the consecrated phrase ‘one is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’ (de Beauvoir Thus, contemporary feminist theories 301). The undisputable value of de perceive gender as the site of women’s Beauvoir’s theoretical efforts consist oppression as it entails power relations primarily in their capacity to have generated which always render the woman inferior, a moral revolution amongst other female weak, passive, negative. Feminists’ main writers and not only. Her existentialist creed goal is therefore to expose the artificiality according to which existence precedes of gender as a human construct meant to essence can be clearly discerned in her discipline and regulate human behaviour considerations about the nature of sex and and relations. In the masculine/feminine gender. Thus, she anticipates in many ways binary, the supporters of these theories the theoretical endeavours of writers such as claim that the feminine has always been Germaine Greer or Judith Butler whose represented as the negative. Investigations feminism relies upon the distinction into the history of Western thought have between sex and gender. thus revealed that from very ancient times, Subsequent feminist theories have the philosophical and historical discourses postulated that gender presents a defining which represented the main coordinates of historically constructed essence whereas the Western episteme have agreed to either sex is reduced to previously inscribed completely disregard the existence of biological information. Moreover, in the women or to refer to them as the under- light of these theories, gender is prone to evolved, inferior, under-developed obey certain social power relations which members of the human species. Botescu-Sireteanu, I.: The Role of Difference in the Production of Identity. 295
In this respect, the seminal study of making explicit reference to the role that Genevieve Lloyd, which looks at the philosophy has performed in the firm various accounts of women’s existence in establishment of gender as an apparently the history of Western philosophy, is fairly “natural” category whose function is illustrative as it exposes the utterly primarily to discriminate. Following a negative role which women were cast into similar logic, Hester Eisenstein insists on throughout centuries of philosophical making the distinction between sex and enquiry. Thus, starting from Plato and gender in her enquiry into Contemporary Aristotle, who configured Woman as an Feminist Thought (1983): embodiment of the irrational forces of […] conceptually, then, it was possible Nature that was to be overcome and to make a distinction between sex and eventually dominated by the superior gender. Sex meant the biological sex of a mechanisms of Reason, the ultimate child--was it born anatomically a male or human faculty, the history of Western a female member of the human species? philosophy abounds in examples which Gender was the culturally and socially support the idea of a constructed, weak and shaped cluster of expectations, attributes, inferior female gender. Lloyd’s historical and behaviours assigned to that category account of how gender was constructed of human being by the society into which throughout centuries of philosophical the child was born (Eisenstein 7). abuse is paralleled by Moira Gatens’s study on Feminism and Philosophy (1991) French feminism has witnessed the which seeks to investigate the emergence of quite revolutionary theories epistemological mechanisms through on the production of female sexuality and which women were underprivileged by the identity. The works of remarkable thinkers discourse of Western philosophy. Thus, far such as Luce Irigaray, Helene Cixous or more than agreeing with other feminists in Julia Kristeva have made an important considering the relation between feminism contribution to the overall evolution of and philosophy as essentially oppressive, feminist theories, being less concerned Gatens goes further and claims that with political doctrine and more interested dichotomies are in themselves oppressive to explore the philosophical and through their inherent capacity of metaphorical aspects of being a woman. generating hierarchies. Drawing on psychoanalysis and particularly on Freud and Lacan, Luce Feminists have described gender in many Irigaray elaborates an intriguing account of ways, but they all seem to agree on its female sexuality which, according to her, artificial nature which derives from its has always been subject to the uses and being a human construct. In this respect, abuses of phallogocentrism. As a Sally Robinson notes: consequence, in This Sex Which Is Not One […] the question of how one becomes a Irigaray suggests that ‘female sexuality has woman has been complicated by recent always been conceptualized on the basis of critiques of the "subject" and "identity" masculine parameters’ (Irigaray 23) and as ideological fictions necessary for the proposes a theory of difference which smooth workings of humanist systems of would conceptually liberate woman from thought and social regulation the tyranny of the male discourses about (Robinson 1), her. Just like Helene Cixous, Irigaray works for the creation of a language of women (ecriture feminine) which would 296 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV do justice to women’s experience. Irigaray re-inscription and reconfiguration of claims that what people have grown meaning onto a body whose sex does not accustomed to call today the female gender necessarily correspond to its gender: is nothing else but an extension of the male […] to understand gender as a historical gender, just as the biblical Eve is an category, however, is to accept that extension of the primordial Man, Adam. In gender, understood as one way of fact, the only universal referent remains culturally configuring a body, is open to the male. a continual remaking, and that As a consequence, she advocates the "anatomy" and "sex" are not without creation of two, autonomous and equally cultural framing (as the intersex important sexes which would entail the movement has clearly shown). The very creation of two autonomous genders, each attribution of femininity to female bodies with its own language and discourse. as if it were a natural or necessary To continue, postmodernist feminism property takes place within a normative heavily develops on the theory of framework in which the assignment of difference and proposes the abandonment femininity to femaleness is one of the phallogocentric categories and mechanism for the production of gender hierarchies altogether in order to give itself (Butler Undoing Gender 9-10). women the possibility to speak and be heard in a conceptual space liberated from However, there are some female voices the dominance of patriarchal thought. amongst the most recent feminist theories Judith Butler’s seminal studies on the which do not fully agree with the constructedness and oppressiveness of prevalence of the gender category. In 1996, gender as a socially created artifice are of Moira Gantens published an intriguing particular interest to the present research as study on what she called the imaginary they expose the unreliability of gender as a body, which, according to her, translates as concept for feminist theories as well as its the double that all humans will create on potential to give rise to hierarchies as a the basis of their biological bodies in order locus of power relations. Butler too speaks to create subjectivity and to consciously of the distinction between sex and gender, enter political and social relations. Gatens claiming that ‘sexuality does not follow writes in the preface to her study: from gender in the sense that what gender I am not concerned with physiological, you "are" determines what kind of anatomical, or biological understandings sexuality you will "have"(Butler Undoing of the human body but rather with what Gender16): will be called imaginary bodies. An […] the distinction between sex and imaginary body is not simply a product gender serves the argument that of subjective imagination, fantasy or whatever biological intractability sex folklore. The term “imaginary” will be appears to have, gender is culturally used in a loose but nevertheless technical constructed: hence, gender is neither sense to refer to those images, symbols, the causal result of sex nor as metaphors and representations which seemingly fixed as sex (Butler Gender help construct various forms of Trouble 9-10). subjectivity (Gatens VIII).
To Butler, the concept of gender is only Gatens launches thus a critique of the to reveal itself in performativity and is to sex/gender distinction relying on the be understood as an ongoing inscription, assumption that the body does not start its Botescu-Sireteanu, I.: The Role of Difference in the Production of Identity. 297 experience in the world as a tabula rasa; it systems of meaning, the effects of does contain the necessary germs for a gender are not always predictable, stable, subsequent development of a specific or unitary. The processes by which one sexuality and gender; therefore, according becomes a woman are multiple and to Gatens, it is sexual specificity which sometimes contradictory, and the should represent the starting point of all category of "women" itself is, thus, a gender theories: category marked by differences and If one accepts the notion of the sexually instabilities. With the fracturing of specific subject, that is, the male or identity and the deconstruction of the female subject, then one must dismiss "essence" of gender, feminist theorists the notion that patriarchy can be have questioned some of the founding characterized as a system of social principles of feminist study: the organization that valorizes the masculine authority of experience, the unity of gender over the feminine gender. Gender sisterhood, the cross-cultural is not the issue; sexual difference is. The oppression of all women by a very same behaviours (whether they be monolithic patriarchy. This questioning masculine or feminine) have quite has lead toward what Linda Alcoff calls different personal and social the "identity crisis in feminist theory," a significances when acted out by the male crisis both over the identity of feminist subject on the one hand and the female theory, and the identity in feminist subject on the other. Identical social theory (Robinson 1). 'training', attitudes or, if you will, conditioning acquire different References significances when applied to male or female subjects (Gatens 9). 1. Alexander, Sally. “Women, Class and Sexual Differences in the 1830s and Nevertheless, the vast majority of 1840s”. British Feminist Thought: A feminist theories choose to expose gender Reader. Lovell, Terry, (ed.). London: as an oppressive category, a deceit, one Blackwell, 1990. that has historically confined women to 2. de Beauvoir, Simone. The Second Sex. certain roles and patterns and that is London: Vintage Books, 1989. responsible for women’s historical 3. Braidotti, Rosi. “Mothers, Monsters silencing. Its marked artificial nature and Machines”. Writing on the Body, distinguishes it from sex and draws Katie Conboy, Nadia Medina, Sarah attention to the various mechanisms which Stanbury (eds.). New York: Columbia are at work in the construction of gender. University Press, 1997. In this sense, we believe that Sally 4. Butler, Judith. Gender Trouble. New Robinson’s considerations on gender are York: Routledge, 1999 illustrative for this gender-centred 5. Currie, Mark. Difference. New York: perspective, as they enclose the Routledge, 2004. quintessence of all the arguments they put 6. Du Gay, Paul, Jessica Evans, Peter forward. According to her, gender’s Redman, (eds.). Identity: A Reader. essential attributes are its mutability and London: Sage Publications Ltd., transience: 2000. Gender, thus, can be conceived as a 7. Eisenstein, Hester. Contemporary system of meaning, rather than a quality Feminist Thought. Boston: G.K. Hall, "owned" by individuals. And, as in all 1984. 298 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV
8. Gatens, Moira. Feminism and 12. Irigaray, Luce. This Sex Whixh is Not Philosophy. Polity Press, 1991. One. Transl. by Catherine Potter. 9. Hall, Stuart. “Who Needs Identity?” Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985. Identity: A Reader. Du Gay, Evans, 13. Irimia, Mihaela. Postmodern Redman, (eds.). London: Sage Revaluations. Bucureşti: Editura Publications Ltd., 2000. Universităţii, 1999. 10. Hassan, Ihab. Selves at Risk. The 14. Ronbinson, Sally. Engendering the University Press of Wisconsin, 1990 Subject. State University of New York 11. Hutcheon, Linda. The Poetics of Press, 1991. Postmodernism. London: Routledge, 15. Undoing Gender. New York: 1989. Routledge, 2004.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 Series IV: Philology and Cultural Studies
THE INTER-HUMAN AS ONE SOURCE OF IDEOLOGY
Alina Silvana FELEA1
Abstract: The critical discourse rarely approaches the problems of the idea and ideology in literature, even if their presence in art is obvious. A very good illustration of the importance of the idea in the literary work is Dostoievski’s work, which was studied carefully by Mikhail Bakhtin. One of the theorist’s conclusions was that the inter-human space is a generator of energies, most of the ideas forming in this area that belongs to everybody and to nobody in particular. Bakhtin’s theory has similarities with Witold Gombrowicz’s conception about the so- called Form.
Key words: Inter-human, ideology, literature, dialogical, form, novel.
1. Introduction the logical unity of the concepts about life and the world, the characters' word about In literary criticism and theory little has himself/herself, about his/her circle of been written about the ideas in literature. friends, but also the word that he/she utters Reserved to philosophers, politicians, about the world. moralists, theologians, to others, in general, the subject ideology remains 2. The Ideology in Literature rarely visited by criticism, not because of inability, but from lack of interest, The metaevaluation of the enunciation probably a momentary one. Paradoxically, itself, centred on the subject idea, is nevertheless, if we keep into account of the missing as well. To critics it may seem at status of the Idea which is, in fact, the least redundant to talk about their own ground stone of the Letters: „Everybody – reflections about ideology. Actually, the says Phillippe Hamon – agrees that a text idea is the foundation, but also the matter is a product anchored in the ideological, it criticism is built with, it is omnipresent, is not limited to being, it also is useful to taken for granted. The idea is taken for something, that it produces ideology and is granted generally, in literature as well, produced by ideology. But agreement does only that when it distributes the stresses by not inaugurate and does not found a literary research, the priorities are method. (..) and the theoretical models do different. Nobody has been astonished in a not seem to have been refined and have not while by the fact that important in the art become more sophisticated since, let us of the letters is not only what is said (the say, the works of Goldmann and content, the ideas belonging to the non- Macherey”. (Hamon 6) For Bakhtin, the literary), but also how it is said (stress on ideology of a fictional work is the the aesthetic). It is well-known that conceptual equivalent of the ideas understanding a work means understanding contained in the novel. It concerns its structure, its organization that it is – a
1 Dept. of Romanian Language and Literature, Transilvania University of Braşov. 300 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV definition among others – a „technique” by Poland, the Polish patriotism, the Polish which you come closer, or move further culture, the art, criticism, education, the away from reality or you create another university etc.). A lucid conscience for reality. The idea can be the starting point, whom „tact” was one of the hypocrisies. and more than that, - although, at first But to the same extent, a tormented, glance, it seems a contradiction in terms – problematic „ego”, who programmatically it can be the solid terrain that one can refused to „answer to the expectations”. attach on the fluid and a bit technical The wish to astonish was, as the writer structures, constructions and procedures. confesses, „attached” to his spirit! These are, some of them, degrees of In another way, not necessarily personal, abstraction on a scale in which the first Bakhtin came to the observations that drew indicator would be the so called simple, our attention. Studying carefully and basic idea. pertinently Dostoievski’s novels, the Considered by many legitimate and theorist noticed the sensuousness with legitimated in the epic, the idea is ignore which the writer dedicated himself to the by many others. The explanation, in this ideas, knowing to get closer to them, and last case, lies in the traces, still persistent, also to keep the necessary distance. This of the belief in the existence of a was possible also because Dostoievski categorical disjunction operated between „had the brilliant quality to hear the spirit, thinking, on the one hand, and dialogue of his époque”, „he heard the sensitivity, feeling, on the other hand. In strong, consecrated voices”, but also „the fact, the taming of the idea, its voices not fully expressed, ideas that humanization seems very difficult to smoulder in the sore” (Bakhtin 124). achieve in literature. When such Dostoievski’s genius proved to be also in performance is achieved, it is saluted with the way in which he gave „flesh” to the enthusiasm. It is the gesture Bakhtin does, ideas with the help of the characters that do one of the two thinkers I will refer, when not simply talk. But this was Dostoievski. he approaches the subject of the presence Many other writers do not know how of the idea in Dostoievski’s work. they should treat the idea, in what way to The ideological platform constructed by approach it in order to give it originality, the theoretician to value a brilliant work freshness. Not even Gombrowicz, the because of the artistic presence of the author of The Wedding, Cosmos etc., does ideological proves to have many common not seem to be totally relaxed in this points, of convergence, with the reflections confrontation, but his word is never shy. of Witold Gombrowicz from his Journal. The intellectual courage, almost limitless, The Polish writer, considered usually a and the sharp intelligence get him quickly difficult writer, fought a battle not only in the profound areas of Thinking or, to with his own limits (let us not forget that say it differently, get him to the heights of he went in exile in 1939 in Argentina, the Idea. Reflection was his favourite tool, taking life from the start), but with the but this did not stop him to declare: „We false, stupid and pretentious conventions, do not express ourselves in the sphere of with ready-made ideas, inherited and the notions, but in that of the characters” continued as such. He declared war to (Gombrowicz 118). With little respect for acceptable ideas as well, that for him had scientific truth, true to the value of his own to prove their validity in fearful truths, Gombrowicz was ironical toward confrontations, but to the so-called taboos, those who „distribute teachings, build, that few dared to touch (for example consolidate, form, launch, orientate” Felea, A.S.: The Inter-human as a Source of Ideology 301
(Gombrowicz 42). Although, through another. Bakhtin is, as is well-known, the thinking, he could not withdraw father of the intertextuality concept, but completely from these operations. accepting the fact that we do not fully The reaction of rejection of abstractions belong to ourselves and „we cannot trust is largely spread among the writers for ourselves completely” does not interdict whom literature is not supposed to be the the question that, probably, is futile in terrain for the subtleties of the intellect. front of intertextuality: What are the That it could not be subtle, but the much boundaries of my conscience? Any writer, elaborated idea is considered as lacking even with the acute consciousness of charm, and even non-artistic. One of the intertextuality, will ask himself or herself famous exceptions was Dostoievski. With this question. him, the character is „the man of the idea” But the follow-up of the process of (Bakhtin) and, more important than that, an formation of ideas in the area of inter- idea-character that is built through the human is connected with another aspect dialogue with other consciences. The idea that mass culture can explain. In this area is essentially dialogical, Bakhtin thought, everybody’s and nobody’s ideas appear, in creating thus one of the concepts that was fact impersonal truths that Bakhtin was so successful in theory and literary referring to, together with the false analysis: dialogism. ideologies, the conventions, the mundane The beauty of this theory does not aspects that repeat themselves like a coat annihilate its difficulty, because the worn by everybody. These are charges for assuming of the idea, the feeling or its a trial against automatisms. And corporeality give authenticity to the being everything starts from, as Gombrowicz that surpasses its material nature in this would say from the metaphor of the way. The human being gains self- orchestra: „among people Form takes consciousness, becoming unique. In spite shape, and it determines every human of this, „The idea cannot exist in the being. They are like a voice in the isolated individual conscience” (Bakhtin orchestra that has to be in harmony with its 121), it is formed, it is de-formed and re- sound, has to find its place in the melody; formed in connection with other ideas. In or like a dancer for whom more important the contact point of different consciences than what he dances is to unite with the truth emerges. Only there, and not intra others during the dance. muros. The consequence is that the inter- The consequence is that my thought and human is the generator of energies, and the my feeling are not really free and personal; individual, even if he/she produces them, I think and I feel „for” people, to match too little in isolation, very much in with them; and I deform myself as a result dialogue, consumes the ideas. Here we can of this supreme necessity: to harmonise invoke the subtle and true observation with others in the Form. (...) made by Gombrowicz: „My problem is not The consequence is that for me there are perfecting my conscience, but more no ideas or feelings that are really precisely finding out its boundaries” authentic and „proper”. The artificial even (Gombrowicz 70). in our most intimate reactions – this is the Bakhtin insured us using, obviously, element of the human being subjected to Dostoievski’s example, that „the full the „inter-human” (Gombrowicz 216). ideological significance”, therefore the And another quotation to explain better the transpersonal one, can meet and merge concept of Form, central notion with with individuality, without harming one Gombrowicz and personalized according 302 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series IV to his measures: „even in a small group of change Form? The question was asked, people, that talk freely, you can notice the why would we wait for the answer? „The necessity to have one form or another, duty of the writer – says Gombrowicz created by chance and independent of their clearly – is not to solve problems, but to will, because reciprocal conformation... as assert them, in order to draw the attention if all of them would indicate to each one towards them, to be among people, where his place his „voice” in the orchestra. they would be in a way tamed, civilized” People represent something that have to (Gombrowicz 191). be organized in every minute, but their organization, their collective form is 3. Conclusion created as a result of thousands of impulses, so it’s unpredictable and cannot We will not finish with this apparent be controlled by those who make it. We abdication of the writer, but with a are like tones that the melody springs from, „prophecy” that would open the path for a like words that are arranged in sentences – new type of discussions: „The most but we do not dominate what we utter, the modern current of ideas will be the one expression falls upon us like a lightning, that will rediscover the human being as an like the creative force, it springs from us, individual” (Gombrowicz 123). But this and is restless after all. But where Form is prophecy was not fulfilled yet and it may born, there should be Superiority and be hard to be fulfilled because, on the one Inferiority – that is why the process of hand, nobody believes any more in the rising of one at the expense of others beautiful unity of Descartes’s cogito. On appears with people – and this pressure up the other hand, and paradoxically, for that eliminates one by one, however absurd many the individuality is the same with and unfair, represents the indispensable one (because of a long-practiced reflex). necessity of Form, it is the creation of the The ego tries to be familiar with the idea of superior sphere among humans” its own multiplicity, but also with the (Gombrowicz 293). many connections, relations, influences Although apparently a necessary evil, that condition it. In order to find the more correctly, though, a reality beyond equilibrium again and to be at peace with good and evil, momentary structure with the new individuality, probably time is still the most diverse levels, organisation in necessary. But even when the necessary continuous change, Form was the great time has passed, there will be untold truths challenge for Gombrowicz. Because he too because, as very well said Philippe Hamon, could not be excused from the general law, „any production of sense is exclusion, he gives to the essential conflict that we selection, difference, opposition...” carry two tendencies: the first that aspires to form, to definition, and the second that References defends herself and refuses form. Gombrowicz finds a niche that would save 1. Bahtin, Mihail. Problemele poeticii lui from this mill where consciences (Form) Dostoievski. Bucureşti: Editura go, the ones that are really superior. Univers, 1970. Indeed, the differentiation is at work. But 2. Gombrowicz, Witold. Jurnal. how? How does individuality surpass the Bucureşti: Editura Univers, 1998. Form after it merged with it? How does it 3. Hamon, Philippe. Texte et idéologie. know its essence and depth and then to Paris: PUF, 1984.
AUTHORS INDEX
A K Alexe, R...... 213 Kalmár, Z...... 275 Antonaru, C...... 21 Kiefer, F...... 189 Apostol, N...... 93 Kopp, B...... 115 Armăsar, I. P...... 129 Kolos, L...... 41 Krysmanski, H.-J...... 223 B Barna A.P...... 195 L Botescu-Sireteanu, I...... 291 Lohmann, I...... 269 Bucur, R...... 25 Buja, E...... 135, 143 M Măda, S...... 201 C Maican, M.A...... 101 Câmpu, A...... 47 Matei, Al...... 227 Chefneux, G...... 209 Matei, M...... 155 Chiriacescu, S...... 149 Matei, S.A...... 219 Cliveţ, N...... 9 Codreanu, F...... 249 P Cristian, R.M...... 243 Parpalea, M...... 175 Cusen, G...... 143 Petre, A...... 89 Pintér, M...... 235 D Dimulescu, C...... 183 S Dobrescu, C...... 219 Schwerin, C...... 37 Scraba, C...... 29 F Sibişan, A...... 85 Fǎtu-Tutoveanu, A...... 59 Felea, A.S...... 299 Ş Frydrychová Klímová, B...... 123 Ştiucă-Lefcencu, D...... 69
H T Hamzea, L...... 79 Tatu, O...... 15 Hârşan, M...... 55 Tomaščíková, S...... 281 Hortobágyi, I...... 257 V I Vâlcea, C...... 73 Ion, M...... 65 Isar, N...... 263 W Witt, R...... 109 J Junghare, I...... 163