Ashland Theological Seminary

Home , Christianity in Ethiopia, Eurocentrism, Faith in Christianity, Frumentius, Knowledge of Christ, Monasticism

ASHLAND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

AN IMPACT STUDY ON AFROCENTRIC CHRISTIANITY

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF ASHLAND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY IN CANDANCY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF MINISTRY

BY MICHAEL C. ROBINSON

ASHLAND, OHIO February 7, 2020

DEDICATION

To Erin, Alicia, Micah, Emiah, Phyllis, and Kendra Robinson and in loving memory of James Robinson and Anna Lee Fortson. You all have believed in me, encouraged me, and inspired me to accomplish this great task. My father and grandmother are not able to physically see this accomplishment, but I can feel your warm presence and approval. I could not even begin to express the love I have for each of you. Erin, my wife, you are incredible, without your love and support I would have fallen flat on my face. I owe you the world!

EPIGRAPH

My Ancestors voices echo throughout time,

Lost across oceans, I will scramble to find.

A sense of who I was, who I am, and who I will be,

From the shores of Africa, a son of Royalty.

A Faith that runs deep, its origin dark,

That guides my path on journeys I embark.

My savior, my color, my culture, my hue

My people, your people, in all we have been through

Reclaim your ancestry, its honor and pride,

Realize the warrior you are inside!

Michael C. Robinson

APPROVAL PAGE

Accepted by the faculty and the final demonstration examining committee of Ashland Theological Seminary, Ashland, Ohio, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Ministry degree.

______Academic Advisor Date

______Director of the Doctor of Ministry Program Date

ABSTRACT

The purpose of my project is to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders regarding Afrocentrism at Total Grace Church, Lexington

Kentucky through the participation of an eight-part workshop on Afrocentricity.

The design of the project included the administration of pre-test and post-test surveys utilizing a five-point Likert Scale.

The workshop results revealed that the participants knowledge, attitude, and actions were positively impacted. The greatest impact was seen regarding the participants knowledge of Dr. Asante’s teaching concerning Afrocentricity.

This is evidence that the workshop improved the participant’s knowledge regarding Dr. Asante’s teachings.

CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………….. viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………. ix

Chapter

1. INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT OVERVIEW …………………… 1

2. BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS …………………………………………………………. 10

3. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE …………………………...…………. 35

4. DESIGN, PROCEDURE, AND ASSESSMENT ……………………… 67

5. REPORTING THE RESULTS …………………………………………. 76

6. SUMMARY AND REFLECTIONS …………………………………….. 86

Appendix

1. PROPOSAL……………………….……………………………………… 99

2. ASSESSMENT TOOL ………………………………………………….. 119

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………… 124

VII

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1. Knowledge Questions 1-8 (Goal #2) ………………………..………… 78

2. Attitude Questions 9-16 (Goal #3) ……………………………………. 80

3. Action Questions 17-24 (Goal #4) .……………………………………. 82

4. Evaluation Questions 1-6 (Goal #5) ………………………………… 84

VIII

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This resource and dissertation have had critical contributions from many minds and hearts. I am extremely grateful to those mentioned below and more:

To Dr. William H Myers whose teaching and counsel formed specific foundations of this resource. Your encouragement and expectations of excellence inspired me to complete this academic endeavor and made me believe that I had something positive and valuable to offer.

To the faculty and staff at the McCreary Center, your due diligence and professionalism was instrumental in completing this resource. Thank you for being a place that is welcoming and inviting for students of color.

To Dr. Lewis Brogdon whose scholarship and work ethic inspired me to embark on this journey.

To Dr. R.A Vernon for being a spiritual guide in my life and for his own personal accomplishments of scholarship that modeled for me that it was possible.

To Dr. Kristie Searcy whose editing expertise shaped the final product.

To my church family who were patient with me as long days and night became a common theme. They supported me as this process at times consumed my life.

To my amazing sister and mother who have always been over achievers and motivated me not to settle for less when the world has more to offer.

To my three beautiful daughters who looks at me with a sense of pride to see their father pressing towards this academic accomplishment.

To my amazing wife, some will never know the feeling of having someone love you unconditionally and supports you unwaveringly. As we pursue higher education together, lead a church congregation, run businesses, and raise our children I am more grateful for you with each day that pass.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND PROJECT OVERVIEW

Throughout this project, I have periodically reference the animated movie,

The Lion King. Skipping over a few details I discussed later within my project, let me introduce you to an important scene in the movie. Simba has run away from his homeland, family, and culture and has found himself in the wilderness.

In the wilderness, Simba is learning how to survive in a place where he does not fit in. As a Lion, Simba is a carnivore, yet in the wilderness in order to be accepted in this foreign place, he is now eating bugs and worms. In his homeland, he was a prince, but in this strange place, he has no authority. As I observe and analyze this scene, I can’t help but imagine Simba's future if he stays in this foreign place. He would have children, and they would grow up also eating bugs and worms. What makes this scenario even worse is that Simba’s kids would believe that it was normal for them to eat bugs. They would have no knowledge of their ancestry; they would not know that their grandfather was a

King and that their lineage is one of royalty.

Although Simba's decision to leave his homeland was his own, I cannot help but see the similarities with the plight of the African American here in

America. We, unlike Simba, were forcibly removed from our homeland and shipped as cargo to a foreign place. In this place, our culture and history were stripped away. As those displaced Africans had children and their children had children, they became further removed from the rich culture and history of their homeland. That which was done in America for survival became normative. Even

1 to this very day in this country, African Americans are far removed from the Land of their ancestors and the rich legacy they are a part of. This is the reason my project is so important as it will reconnect Simba’s children with the royal legacy of which they belong.

The Statement of Purpose

The purpose of my project is to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total Grace Church, Lexington, Kentucky regarding

Afrocentrism.

The Research Question

How much of the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total

Grace Church changed regarding Afrocentrism as a result of this impact study?

The Overview

"Until lions start writing down their own stories, hunters will continue to be the heroes." ~ African Proverb

As a young Pastor in an urban area densely populated by African

Americans, I am often approached with questions concerning the authenticity of

Christianity and its relationship with Africa. After not only hearing statements like,

"Christianity is the white man's religion" and "Slavery is the only reason Black people are Christian," I have also witnessed people leave the faith because of them. I felt a true calling from God to become more equipped to deal with these questions and provide a sense of identity for African Americans in the Christian faith. I felt it necessary that these individuals seeking such answers should hear the Christian story told from the perspective of the lion instead of the hunter. As I have dedicated much time to reading and studying this topic, I have personally

2 been impacted by what I have learned, and I firmly believe that a greater understanding of Afrocentricity will impact others.

The purpose of my project was to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total Grace Church, Lexington, Kentucky regarding

Afrocentrism. The focus of this dissertation was to evaluate the secondary literature on the subject matter. First, I administered a pre-test using a five-point

Likert scale survey. After taking the participants through an eight-part workshop on Afrocentrism, I administered a post-test in order to assess the change in knowledge, attitudes, and actions regarding Afrocentrism. The participants consisted of 15 leaders of Total Grace Church. They were selected from a pool of thirty total leaders. The workshop focused on the biblical, theological, and historical aspects of Afrocentrism.

Foundations

Within this current climate of church, politics, and culture, I am seeing an increase in the number of questions I am receiving regarding Christianity and

Black people. With the huge polarization of political parties during the Trump Era, the presidency of Donald Trump, the same polarization is occurring in the church community as well. Large numbers of white evangelicals are standing in support of Donald Trump despite what many minorities see as clear expressions of racism. Black churches, for the most part, are in solidarity with opposing the

Trump presidency. This type of positioning continues to perpetuate the narrative that white evangelicals are not concerned with the plight of black people. If you couple this with the growing narrative that Christianity is a white man’s religion, it

3 is causing young black millennials and members of the conscious black community to grow increasingly skeptical of Christianity.

We recently had a nationally reported public encounter that placed one of the leading voices of black nationalism to the forefront. A group of high schoolers, many representing their political view by brandishing the Donald

Trump Make America Great Again, M.A.G.A hat was confronted by a group of black men who were members of the cultish religious sect, Black Hebrew

Israelites. This group is a black nationalist group that believes that black people here in America are the lost tribe of Israel. They believe that Christianity in

America has been Europeanized beyond repair and is not a religion for black people. Although they are a pretty obscure group for most of the country, this confrontation placed them at the center of a national twenty-four-hour news cycle. Along with the Black Hebrew Israelites, you can also hear similar sentiments from the Moors, Nation of Islam, and other black nationalist groups.

Many may not see the rising tide of anti-Christian sentiment in the black community, but it definitely exists.

A great organization that spends a lot of time with this issue is called the

Jude 3 project. Jude 3 is a Podcast consisting of several black scholars across the country that speak and lecture regarding topics specific to the black church.

Their platform served as a partial inspiration to the work of my project.

The foundations of my project are biblical, theological, and historical. One of the terms often used amongst Jude 3 scholars is "Urban Apologetics." Within the biblical foundation of my project, I focused on

1 Peter 3:15-16. I observed several commentaries, both traditional and nontraditional, regarding this pericope. This scripture deals with the role of the believer to defend their faith against those who question it. Utilizing several sources, I present the argument that we must be competent, courageous, and compassionate when defending our faith. Theologically the work of Dr. James

Cone, A Theology of Black liberation, formulates my argument in favor of an

Apologetic that was unique to the needs of the African American community. As with every community, there are experiences that are specific to that community; therefore, questions of and about theology are often born within that social location. This suggests that the most efficient way to address those questions should be developed from within that community. Specifically speaking of the black community, questions regarding God, the church, and Christianity have to have its origin within that community. Otherwise, Apologetics will be answering questions that are not being asked, thus rendering it irrelevant and out of touch.

Historically my project focuses on education within the black church.

There is an apparent void in church education as it relates to church history outside of the Eurocentric view most people possess. I believe that church history must be taught through an Afrocentric lens. In this project, I spend a lot of time highlighting the incredible African history of Christianity. From examples of

Christianity in ancient Africa, the African church fathers and the major Kingdoms of Africa that were Christian all demonstrate the presence of Christianity in Africa and among Africans long before docking on the shores of America. The way I present this information in my project can be used in workshops and short

5 classes to create competent, courageous, and compassionate apologists who are prepared to give a defense of their faith.

Context

The context of this project is the Total Grace Church in Lexington,

Kentucky. Total Grace is situated in one of the lowest economic zip codes in the city. The overall demographic of Lexington consists of only 14.5% black people.

However, that of our zip code is much higher. Although, our congregation consists of an amalgam of diverse people, ninety percent are African American.

The church demographic is multi-generational and spans several economic classes. However, it consists primarily of millennials and generation X’ers. This demographic is significant because they are products of what is often called the information age. Access to YouTube and social media puts information at the tips of their fingers. Having access to so much information is both positive and negative. Aside from the many positives, one of the largest negatives is the reliability of the information. If you were to type Christianity in the search bar of

YouTube, it would pull up an amalgam of anti-Christian videos, many of which are quite farfetched, yet presented and accepted as facts for many viewers.

Therefore, the context of our church requires a lot of teaching simply to combat the fallacies often spread through the internet. Many of the anti-Christian groups in our area espouse the type of false information you find online. My project is significant because it equips believers with the necessary information and perspective to address these anti-Christian positions.

Project Goals

1. To evaluate the secondary literature on the subject matter.

2. To impact the participants' knowledge of Afrocentrism.

3. To impact the participants' attitude of Afrocentrism

4. To impact the participants' actions of Afrocentrism.

5. To evaluate the study

As I sought to address how much of the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total Grace Church changed regarding Afrocentrism as a result of this impact study, I had to develop a process to access each goal. In order to do that, I developed a five-point Likert scale survey in the form of a pre-test and a post-test. These tests were designed to measure knowledge, attitudes, and actions regarding Afrocentrism.

Design, Procedure, and Assessment

My directive here was to assess how much of the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total Grace Church changed regarding Afrocentrism as a result of this impact study. First, I created an eight-part workshop detailing information concerning Afrocentrism. Then I designed a pre and post-test. I administered the pre-test at the beginning of the initial workshop as a means to measure the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total Grace Church regarding Afrocentrism. Next, I collected and reviewed the pre-test surveys.

Following the analysis of that data, I then taught the eight-part workshop to the class. Upon completion of the workshop, I then administered the post-test to measure the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total Grace Church

7 regarding Afrocentrism. Next, I collected and reviewed the post-tests. In order to measure how the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total Grace

Church were impacted regarding Afrocentrism by this impact study, I measured the changes between the pre and post-tests and documented the findings.

Personal Goals

I strongly believe that our God-ordained destiny is greatly impacted by our

God orchestrated history. Our history prepares and molds us for our destiny.

Therefore, it is my passion to engage African Americans with the knowledge of their African history in hopes of positively impacting their journey towards their destiny. My personal goals for this project are:

1. To become more confident sharing my faith with the conscious black community.

2. To expand my knowledge of Afrocentricity and how it relates to Christianity.

3. To embrace a more Afrocentric hermeneutic in my personal study.

4. To be more open and more available to whatever God has planned through this process

Plan of Paper

In order to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders regarding Afrocentrism at Total Grace Church, I developed and taught an eight- part workshop. This process was for the purpose of measuring the change based upon pre-test and post-test results. The following chapters will include biblical, historical, and theological foundations (Chapter Two), a review of contemporary literature (Chapter Three), a detailed description of the methods, procedures, and

8 designs of the project (Chapter Four), and results (Chapter Five). A final chapter will reflect on the findings as they apply to ministry.

CHAPTER TWO

BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS

Within the following chapter I will discuss the three foundations of my project. The Biblical foundation will deal primarily with 1 Peter 3:15-16 as it supports the focus of my project. Then, the Theological foundation is centered on

Black Liberation Theology. Finally, the Historical foundation will be discussed from the perspective of Christian education in the black church. Together these three foundations will demonstrate the necessity of this project.

Foundations

In the classic Disney movie, The Lion King, the film's star, Simba, experienced a tragedy that leads him on a journey through the wilderness. On this wilderness journey, he meets two friends that teach him a song that helps him get acclimated to wilderness living. The song is called Hakuna Matata, which means no worries. The song emphasized adopting a problem-free philosophy when it comes to getting through life, forgetting about the past, and focusing on what is ahead. Simba was running from his destiny while trying to avoid unresolved pain from his past. The avoidance of his past worked in surviving his current wilderness plight but was quite ineffective at leading him into his destiny.

It was not until Simba met another character that made him confront his past, literally by bringing him face to face with what he was trying to leave behind, that

Simba became inspired to walk into his destiny. The lesson I grasped from this is that even though your destiny is not determined by your history, your history does play a major part in the person you become. That is why Afrocentricity plays

10 such an important role in African American culture. In America, our history was systematically stripped from us, leaving us with no real connection to our past, and the history that was taught to us was done so through a lens that intentionally left out any meaningful contributions to the world. Much like Simba surviving in the wilderness, our lack of history has not prevented us from surviving, but it could be preventing us from becoming. We are like Simba facing a destiny void of any knowledge of our history. This chapter is critical to my project because, within it, I will lay out its foundations. The foundations of the project are biblical, theological, and historical.

Biblical Foundation

While standing face to face with a young adult African American male that

I had not seen at church in months, we started to have a conversation. The conversation began by him saying, "Pastor, I am sorry I haven't been at church, but I am no longer sure I believe." After simply letting him know I was glad to see him and that he was doing well, I probed him regarding his thoughts. He told me he came across some information that leads him to believe that Christianity was not a religion for black people. He also told me that many of his friends had similar thoughts. I immediately sensed that my ability to deal with these questions he and others like him had concerning Christianity could possibly draw him closer, or the lack thereof could drive him further away. This section of my project is important because it addresses the biblical foundation pertaining to why my conversation with this young man is so important, as well as why the premise of my project is so critical for the church to grasp.

My project is grounded in 1 Peter 3:15-16. But in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you: yet do it with gentleness and respect, having good conscience, so that, when you are slandered, those who revile your good behavior in Christ may be put to shame. The theme of this text discusses the necessity and methods of defending the faith. As black people are questioning the validity of Christianity in light of our plight here in America, we are encouraged by this text not to avoid the conversation but to be prepared to engage in it. Those of us who have encountered cultish black nationalist groups such as the Hebrew Israelites have discovered that the encounter can be quite contentious. In such a situation, there are a few ways to engage. You could take offense to their harsh extreme biblical rhetoric and simply choose not to engage.

Unfortunately, when believers take that route, it is often used as evidence that we don’t have the doctrinal fortitude to make our case for Christianity. Another option is to be sucked into their loud and boisterous debating tactics. Then the Christian is seen as hostile as well. My grandmother used to say to me all the time, "don't argue with a fool because onlookers won't be able to tell who is who." Because these types of encounters often occur on public corners, that can often be the case. Lastly, we can respond in the way our primary scripture encourages us to. I will spend the next few paragraphs detailing that instruction. As we defend our faith, the way we do so is important to the cause we are standing for. Before engaging 1 Peter 3:15-16, I will highlight several other scriptures that support it.

Like 1 Peter 3:15-16 the following listed scriptures in some way address the need for or a call to apologetics.

“Dear friends, although I was very eager to write to you about the salvation we share, I felt compelled to write and urge you to contend for the faith that was once for all entrusted to God’s holy people.” In the face of heretics, this scripture emphasizes the importance of defending the faith. (Jude 1:3 HCSB)

“He must hold firmly to the trustworthy message as it has been taught so that he can encourage others by sound doctrine and refute those who oppose it.”

Although this particular text seems to speak to church leadership, it still highlights the need to be able to competently dispute doctrines that contradict the message of Christ (Titus 1:9 NIV)

“And the Lord’s servant must not be quarrelsome but must be kind to everyone, able to teach, not resentful. Opponents must be gently instructed, in the hope that God will grant them repentance leading them to a knowledge of the truth, and that they will come to their senses and escape from the trap of the devil, who has taken them captive to do his will.” Here we also see a need to be able to defend the faith but also to do it in a manner that represents the love of

Christ. (2 Timothy 2:24-26 NIV)

These different scriptures all have an apologetic core. It is critical that we, as Christians and Christian leaders, are competent in our knowledge of Christ and are able to defend the faith in which we believe. These scriptures imply that there will be those who, when exposed to Christ, will receive him openly, some who will reject him completely and others who will need further convincing. We

13 have a responsibility to not only engage them with the truth but to do so without anger or aggression. Let’s explore 1 Peter 3:15-16 to better establish this truth.

From the traditional perspective of John Elliot’s commentary on 1 Peter, he entitles 3:13-4:6 “Doing what is right in the face of hostility” and then as a subheading he entitles3:33-17 “Doing what is right despite suffering” (Elliot 2001,

96). As a white male scholar, Elliot’s analysis of this text adds a broader view of what this text intimates. Based on his classification of these particular pericopes, he is stating that as Christians, we may face hostility towards the message that we carry. However, that hostility should not prevent us from being able to declare our faith. Likewise, he presents the possibility of suffering for the sake of our faith. In both instances, we are encouraged to continue doing what is right despite the situation that may rise up against us. Moving from simply the headings of the section into Elliot’s analysis of the text, he addresses the uncertainty of the syntactical relation of 3:15b-16a.

He addresses two possible constructs of information. First, he suggests the lack of a finite verb causes 3:15b-16a to be modifiers of the closest finite verb, which is in the phrase Honor Christ the Lord as holy. This structure would be challenging to accept because, as Elliot states, its formulation would create a rather inappropriate qualification of 3:15a. 3:15a denotes an inward condition of the heart, whereas 3:15b-16a speaks of outward communication. I believe that the connection Elliot points out here is essential because, as the text later indicates, the way we are to engage in the outward communication is guided and instructed by the condition of the heart. To effectively communicate our faith,

14 what is more important than eloquent words is the place from which those words originate. Within the gospel, according to Matthew, it tells us that the words that comes from our mouth flows from the abundance of our hearts.

Elliot presents a second possible structure where 3:15b and 16b are taken as a related but independent clause with imperatival forces. Therefore, although the two are independent, they continue the preceding thought. "Fearlessness toward outside detractors is to be manifested in a readiness to provide a public account of oneself, especially regarding the hope that arouses their curiosity”

(Elliot 2001, 97). With the second structure in mind, Elliot deals with 4 points concerning this pericope; (1) An ongoing state of preparedness; (2) The double accusative of the verb "Request"; (3) The curiosity about hope; (4) The manner in which believers should respond. Elliot engages the four words ready, reply, always, and everyone in order to present his first point. The adjective ready in this instance denotes a readiness for something. The something in which the readiness is focused is seen in the word reply (apologia gk). This word is often referencing a personal defense in judicial typesettings. However, in this instance, it is more of a general accusation instead of a legal one. Next, the words always and everyone are so nonspecific that they suggest an ongoing state of preparedness, always being ready to reply to anyone who asks. The picture being projected demonstrates the constant inquiries regarding our hope in Christ made by those with different ideologies and beliefs. Next, Elliot addresses the double accusative element of the word request. This speaks to the request of the person being asked and the thing that is being requested. The focus of this point

15 supports his earlier claims concerning the word apologia. He stated that in this case, apologia is not being stated judicially but generally. It is a general request and not a judicial demand as in an official hearing. Therefore, this request initiates a voluntary response and not one that is coerced.

Then Elliot makes an observation regarding the curiosity of hope. Hope is subjective and personal, making it a challenge to define. Elliot contrasts this with a request of a legal response which would require evidence to substantiate the claim. Since this is not requiring a formal defense, the reply to the question of hope is given from a place of personal experience and understanding.

Finally, Elliot addresses the way believers should offer their responses.

The scripture states that it should be done with gentleness and reverence. This again demonstrates the nature of the request as not being judicial but general. In a judicial sense, the expectation would be to respond with courage and fortitude almost to the extent of arguing your view. However, in these more casual inquiries, modesty and commitment to God are more appropriate. This type of response would not only substantiate the nature of Christian hope but also attract a positive response. Elliot also makes another fascinating point by comparing the word/account in both 3:15 and 4:5. In the latter scripture, it speaks of those who defame believers having to give an account before God of their deeds, which is different from this verse where believers are giving an account to those who question their hope. Elliot calls this a turning of the tables.

To summarize, Elliot emphasizes these requests as ongoing inquiries from curious outsiders who are intrigued by a distinguishing hope within believers that

16 sparks their curiosity. It is then our responsibility to be ready to respond in a manner that reflects the hope that resides within us. In relation to my project,

Elliot's breakdown of this scripture solidifies the importance of being able to address questions regarding our faith. Our hope should be so present in our lives that it generates questions from those around us. We must be prepared to address those questions in a way that provides the needed information and project the type of persona that represents the one we are talking about.

Another interesting position on this text is found in a traditional resource, the Word Bible Commentary. J.R. Michaels focuses on the tight connection between 1 Peter 3:13-14 and 3:15-17. "1 Peter 3:13-14a fit closely together, and their combined emphasis is more on the certainty of blessedness than the possibility of suffering” (Michaels 2015, 184). His particular view of the text emphasize that when we stand for Christ, we can fear that there may be suffering for the sake of our faith, or we can stand on the certainty that even if suffering does occur, what is assured is a guaranteed blessing.

Michaels also connected the language here with that of Isa. 8:12-13. Both express a fearlessness that we, as believers, should not be afraid of our adversaries. “The writer of 1 Peter has used the terminology of Isaiah to introduce his own adaptation of this apocalyptic material. The readers are safe from harm and blessed even in suffering because their God rules the future, and their vindication is near. The day of reckoning will show their lot to be infinitely better than that of their oppressors. It is this eschatological factor which binds the assurances and the admonitions of the passage into a unified whole" (Michaels

2015, 184). This entire view suggests that no one can harm those who stand for

Christ and that eventually, the situation will ultimately work for the glory of God and the good of those who stand up for Christ. The theme of what is being expressed here can be found in several places throughout the Bible: Ps 56:4,

91:7-10, 118:6, Isa 50:9, Matt 10:28-31, Lk 12:4-7, 21:18 and Romans 8:31. "If

God is on the side of the righteous and against those who do evil, then what possible harm can come to those who do good" (Michaels 2015, 184). This should basically give us the courage to stand for Christ and refute those who do not.

To summarize, Michael’s traditional view substantiates my beliefs that we are to walk in boldness as we attempt to defend our faith. If we allow fear to be our guide, we become paralyzed and unable to articulate our faith to others.

In a non-traditional resource, the Global Bible Commentary, Ringe connects 1 Pet 3:8-4:6 under the overarching heading, Suffering and Righteous

Conduct. Ringe’s perspective as a white female observing this text adds yet another element of interpretation. Viewing this as one entire pericope brings into the discussion the oppressive tone of the household codes. "The advice to the slaves is applied to the entire community in this section. All are to answer evil or abuse with blessings and doing well even if one suffers more for doing so” (Patte

2004, 548). The idea is that Christ exemplifies this in the way he handled suffering.

This position can be somewhat challenging to accept when applied as social standards. “In a context of social oppression or abuse by people who are

18 more powerful, the equation of faithfulness with accepting unjust suffering becomes a distortion of Jesus’ message of life and hope” (Patte 2004, 548).

From a position of power, these words somewhat justify an unfounded hierarchy.

It puts those without power in a condition of perpetual powerlessness. Ringe has a sound point concerning the way these ideas prop up an unfair power dynamic however I disagree with making the connection after 1 Peter 3:14 because at this point the text move towards responding to verbal questioning or accusations that according to 1 Peter 3:15 is initiated by a distinguishing hope that is seen in the life of a believer. Now, it is possible that the connection made by Ringe is in the fact that the distinguishing hope that others see in us is seen through the way we handle suffering. However, I believe that our hope is seen through all the aspects of our lives and that even standing against injustice and oppression displays a hope in Christ that distinguishes us from the world. So overall, as we respond to suffering as Christ did, which I conclude is not with extreme passivity but with courage and honor challenging oppressive paradigms, that behavior highlights the hope we have in Christ. To summarize, Ringe addresses paradigms that can become oppressive and problematic if there in not emphasis regarding the crucial need of justice, even as it relates to biblical topics. Therefore, intentionally engaging in opportunities to share our faith regardless of persecution of suffering is an act of courage that each believer should possess.

In the nontraditional commentary, True to our Native Land, contributor

Larry George, who is a black male presents a different approach of application regarding 1 Peter 3. In this work, there is a broader view of the passage, starting

19 first with Peter's instructions for new converts to possess an affinity for one another that demonstrated God's love between them, especially before the backdrop of persecution and suffering. Previously, Peter used the example of husbands mistreating their wives as having the consequence of God not responding to their prayers. In 3:10-12, Peter quotes an Old Testament passage,

Psalm 34:12-16, which supports the idea of our prayers being hindered due to our response and treatment of enemies. In this same vein, the expectation is to respond passively to persecution by suffering righteously but at the same time answering the request regarding your hope in Christ with gentleness and reverence. This will then demonstrate a sense of being spiritually grounded. This view places the believer in a position to avoid arguing angrily, but instead engage the debate with gentleness, demonstrating the love of God. In summary, there is a slightly different emphasis as to the way you handle suffering between George, a nontraditional scholar, juxtaposed with the traditional scholars. There must be a distinction between suffering righteously and enduring oppression.

From the non-traditional, Africa Bible Commentary, contributor Sicily

Mbura Muriithi, from the perspective of a black female focuses on the passage's encouragement to have no fear when defending your faith. She suggests that if we are doing so with the gentleness and love of Christ that is expected of us, this will disarm most opposers. However, history has shown that even in the face of the innocent, some adversaries will repay kindness with evil. Even still, we should stand strong because to endure suffering for the sake of Christ is a

20 blessing. Muriithi, also intimates that we as Christians should be able to competently refute false claims against our faith.

The purpose of my project is to impact the leaders of Total Grace Church in Lexington Kentucky to be more Afrocentric in their knowledge, attitudes and actions. In doing this, it will increase their ability to respond to inquiries regarding the hope they have in Christ. They will remain in an ongoing state of preparedness and possess the knowledge necessary to maintain composure and answer gently, with reverence, exemplifying their very hope in Christ as well as demonstrating a sense of being spiritually grounded in the face of challenges and persecution. Now that I have established my biblical foundation, I will now address my theological foundation.

Theological Foundation

The same African American young man I was speaking with regarding his waning faith in Christianity also pointed out that most of the work he attempted to research was authored by white males who didn’t answer the particular questions he had. He also stated that the black church sounds just like those authors and didn’t truly express an authentic theological voice. My response to him is that there are Black scholars out there with a theological construct positioned from the perspective of black people.

My project is grounded in black liberation theology. The leading voice in this theological perspective is the late Dr. James Cone. (Cone 2010) believes that a theology that does not lean in the direction of the oppressed is not a theology of the gospel at all. In his work, A Black Theology of Liberation, he

21 makes an intriguing distinction between Karl Barth and Paul Tillich's theological approaches as an example of how sources and norms shape the character of theology. Both theologians consider the necessity for the Bible and culture when engaging theology. However, it is obviously seen that culture plays a much more significant role in Tillich's theology as opposed to Barth, whose theological emphasis is on the Bible. Cone states that "for Barth scripture is the witness to the word of God and is thus indispensable to doing theology. Tillich, on the other hand, agrees that the Bible is important but holds that the task of making the gospel relevant to the contemporary mind is equally important" (Cone 2010, 22).

This dichotomy is the foundation of the young man’s experience. He was expressing that the type of Barth theology he was receiving didn’t tackle specific cultural questions. Cone asserts that kerygmatic theologians such as Barth are answering questions that the modern world is not asking, and that culture must be the point of relevant theology. For Barth and other theologians like him, questions regarding humanity are birthed from an understanding of Christology.

On the other hand, Tillich's questions of humanity evolve from the influence of culture, and he answers them based on that position. These approaches are shaped by their theological perspectives. Cone suggests that "because a perspective refers to the whole of a person's being in the context of a community, the sources and norms of black theology must be consistent with the perspective of the black community” (Cone 2010, 24). As an addition to Cone’s analysis of the Barth and Tillich theological perspectives, not only should the theological perspective come from the community but should also be embraced by the

22 community and accepted with the same credence as the more traditional perspectives. The Eurocentric nature of popular and common apologetics tends to not effectively address questions that are asked from the African American community. The culture of that community informs their understanding of and questions about Christianity. Therefore, an Afrocentric approach to engaging an

African American community makes sense.

As (Cone 2010) attempts to identify the sources in black theology, he acknowledges that they are still evolving. However, he definitively expresses six that currently exist. These six are black experience, black history, black culture, revelation, scripture, and tradition. As my project deals with impacting the knowledge of Afrocentrism among the leaders at Total Grace Church, the sources of black theology that most intently engage the subject are black experience, black history, and tradition.

Beginning with the black experience, Cone states, "there can be no black theology which does not take serious the black experience – a life of humiliation and suffering."(Cone 2010, 26) This initial source intersects my project’s focus.

The absence or even omission of the black experience creates a theological void. The inability to proclaim Christ from a place of our own existential plight forces unwanted assimilation into a Christianity with which we cannot relate. For this reason, Black theology must be rooted in the black experience. Cone concludes his thoughts on the black experience by saying, "black theology cannot speak of God and God's involvement in contemporary America without identifying God's presence with the events of liberation in the black community”

(Cone 2010, 27). The questions that arise within a particular community are often unique to that community. Therefore, the theology that engages those questions should also be developed from within that community. For example, the relationship between the black community and the Police is quite atypical. Others from outside of the community can write about this dynamic from an outside perspective. But, to truly capture the heart of this situation, the analysis should come from someone who has lived it. Black theology can only be authentic to the black community if it is constructed from the authentic experience from within that community.

As important as the black experience is, the role of black history in black theology must not be minimized. From the shores of Africa to the land of

America, black history details the atrocious injustices that have been inflicted upon African American people. Black history in North America, unlike other places, was the epitome of human depravity. It is a history that exposes an intentional and systematic attempt to dehumanize blacks and justify it with

Christianity. Cone writes, “If black theology is going to speak to the condition of black persons, it cannot ignore the history of white inhumanity committed against them” (Cone 2010, 27).

As I agree with Cone’s assertion that black history is a source of black theology, I would also emphasize the fact that our history did not begin with the middle passage and that the richness of our African history must be explored in conjunction with the atrocities that followed our American encounter. Black theology from Cone's perspective is developed within the confines of our

American experience. It is truly impossible to discuss theology from the perspective of the African American without addressing the very dark history of the American enslavement of Africans. This idea is true, however just as the reality of slavery impacts black theology, the reality of our history before slavery on the continent of Africa should also impact our theology, especially since the history of Christianity itself is so rooted in the African experience.

The final source of black theology I would like to address is tradition. An observation of tradition must be made in order to adequately engage theology.

Cone says, "though tradition is essential for any theological evaluation of

Christianity, black theology is not uncritical of it, particularly the history of

Western Christianity since the fourth century" (Cone 2010, 34). In agreement with

Cone, I feel that not only was this era the mark of the decline of the church, but it was also the rise of some mutated semblance of her. As Christianity was established as the official religion of the Roman empire, a critical conflict was created. If Christianity in its earliest form was a champion for the poor and oppressed, it is no longer credible once it becomes the official religion of the oppressor. Even with the Protestant Reformation, you see the positioning of

Christianity on behalf of the state. These traditions are not beneficial to the black community. Therefore, Cone states, "Black theology is concerned only with the tradition of Christianity that is usable in the black liberation struggle” (Cone 2010,

24). There is currently a large debate within the white evangelical community that suggests that theology and social justice should not be intertwined. Their thought is that our theology should focus on Jesus and the gospel. From a black

25 theological point of view, this appears to be an impossible bifurcation. How is it that one can view the gospels and life of Jesus void of any social justice context?

However, their tradition is different from that of black theology. That is why it is important to avoid adopting traditions that are not birthed from within our community and are beneficial for our community.

Each of these sources written by Cone, Tradition, Black Experience, and

Black History, all connect black people to a common culture that had been suppressed if not lost on American soil. Being a people existing in a land that never had us in mind in the development of its infrastructure or processes, the need to understand the depths of our past benefits us as a people moving forward into the future. In many cases, the extreme stances of Afrocentrism come from those needs, even to the extent of departing Christianity when there are no elements of it to which one can relate. Therefore, by increasing the knowledge concerning Afrocentrism, one may be able to see the true relationship it has with Africa and African Americans and that it supports Christianity instead of opposing it.

James Cone goes further in his book, God of the Oppressed by addressing the theological dilemma of personal desires interfering with theology.

How is it that we separate our own social and cultural location from our theological understanding of scripture? Due to this possible dilemma, black theology is often dismissed as just that, suggesting that the black experience is being used to contort theology to fit within a black cultural paradigm. Cone states,

"I maintain that the authenticity of black theological discourse is dependent upon

26 its pointing to the divine One whose presence is not restricted to any historical manifestation" (Cone 1975, 77).

Black theology has to be careful to make sure that its focus is on Christ and not on blackness, for this creates a distortion that is not beneficial to

Christianity. Keeping separate what we say about God versus what God says at times can be a difficult thing. To highlight this problem, Cone uses the analysis of

H. Richard Niebuhr. "Niebuhr affirms that universal claims of divine revelation of

Jesus Christ which transcend the limitations of history. On the other hand, he also recognizes that human speech about divine revelation is conditioned by cultural and historical relativity” (Cone 1975, 78).

Niebuhr basically concludes that Christians cannot obviate the conflict between Christ and culture and that there are essentially five attitudes Christians have towards culture. First, there are the Radical Christians who set Christ in opposition to culture. The thought is that everything in culture is anti-Christ; therefore, all Christians should be Holy or removed from the culture. Another view is that Christ is a part of the culture and a moral teacher and leader of the dominant values in the culture. Next, you have the idea that Christ is above the culture. This puts the relationship between Christ and culture in a hierarchal position. The fourth attitude is dualistic Christianity. This theory suggests that the dilemma of culture versus Christ is between God and Humanity. Finally, there is the attitude of Conversionist Christianity. Here we see Christ as the transformer of culture. (Cone 1975, 80)

Niebuhr's ideas concerning these five attitudes help provide some clarity to the Culture-Christ problem. However, it falls short in the area of addressing black theology. I agree with James Cone's critique of Niebuhr's. "Although

Niebuhr's five types provide important insight into the Christ-culture problem, his presentation nevertheless is seriously weakened by his failure to make the necessary distinction between the oppressors and the oppressed as their historical strivings are related to Christ proclamation of freedom for the captives.

For example, if the biblical Christ is the liberator of the oppressed from the sociopolitical bondage inflicted by the oppressor, then can it be said that Jesus

Christ relates to both cultural expressions in the same way? Of course not, the biblical Christ stands in opposition to all cultural expressions that have their point of departure in human slavery" (Cone 1975, 83). As Cone makes clear, Niebuhr's assessment of attitudes is not nearly comprehensive enough to fully categorize the nuances of Christ and culture.

Continuing with this train of thought regarding the Christ Culture dynamic,

Sanders, in her book Living the Intersection, discussed this from the perspective of the intersectionality of Womanism, Afrocentrism, and theology. She tells a story about being in a class where the professor was making several claims about broken families, and she thought to herself, who is she talking about.

Apparently, whatever issues the professor was addressing did not resonate with the experiences that Sanders had. She questioned whether this applied to all black families because it did not match with her own experience within her family.

Because she felt there was a disconnect between the theoretical and the

28 practical in this instance, it could also cause a problem when attempting to engage that community. Sanders says, "I also saw the damage that could be done when people are turned loose in social work practicums in black housing projects with presumptions about black people that do real damage to people's lives. There is something wrong here. Why is it that I have a different view of black women than all these other people do" (Sander 1995, 23).

Sanders highlights the fact that when communities of color and their issues, needs, and concerns are defined by people outside of that community, it can lead to presumptions that cause more harm than good. Essentially there is a need in the discipline of social work for the needs of particular communities to be addressed from within that community. As this applies across all disciplines, theology is no exception. Whether it is Cone or Saunders, the need for

Afrocentrism is critical for the successful analysis of community needs. Our culture is larger than the Eurocentric box that is placed around us, and our issues are more nuanced than the simplistic way they are categorized by onlookers viewing from the peripheral. Now that I have establish my theological foundation,

I will now present my historical foundation.

Historical Foundation

As I recount the conversation I had with the young man wavering in his faith, I recall his desire that the black church taught more about the contributions black people have made in the Bible and the impact we've had within the history of Christianity. My project is set in the history of education in the Black church.

Before delving too deep into the history of Christian education in the black church let me establish Afrocentricity as pivotal to this discussion.

Dr. Asante’s purpose of writing Afrocentricity was to establish the necessity of the presence of an African ideology apart from a Eurocentric ideology. Asante writes, “An African renaissance in only possible if there is an

African ideology, distinct from a Eurocentric ideology, that allows African agency, that is, a sense of self-actualizing based upon the best interest of African people”

(Asante 2003, 1). Asante articulates the importance of our own historical location.

For the African American it is important to realize that our history is not confined to the post transatlantic slave trade era but that our history is richly layered on the continent of Africa and in its people. “Afrocentricity is a mode of thought and action in which the centrality of African interest, values, and perspectives predominate. Regarding the theory, it is the placing of African people in the center of any analysis of African phenomenon. Thus, it is possible for anyone to master the discipline of seeking the location of Africans in a given phenomenon.

In terms of action and behavior, it is a devotion to the idea that what is in the best interest of African consciousness is at the heart of ethical behavior. Finally,

Afrocentricity seeks to enshrine the idea that blackness itself as a trope of ethics.

Thus, to be black is to be against all forms of oppression, racism, classism, homophobia, patriarchy, child abuse, pedophilia, and white racial domination”

(Asante 2003, 2).

Therefore, as we discuss the history of Christian education in the black church it is imperative that the historical location of the African American is not

30 restricted to that which is determined by Eurocentric History. It should in no way be assumed that Africans in America had no sense of history or religion prior to the slave trade. Christian education in the black church is an African phenomenon and should be seen as such. The historical context of Christian education in the Black church has evolved over time. In its earliest stages, one of its most prevalent purposes was to inject literacy into the community of Black people.

In Floyd-Thomas' work, Black Church Studies: An Introduction, she says,

"The origins of Christian education in the Black Church are rooted at the intersection of Christianity, North American slavery, and the struggle for survival and liberation" (Floyd-Thomas 2007, 156). These three areas of focus truly shaped the agenda of education as it related to the Black church. According to

Floyd-Thomas, this agenda included three things: healing the generational scars of slavery, teaching life lessons for survival, and personal salvation through

Jesus Christ for all people.

Christianity was at the center of the African American experience through this entire timeline. From the middle passage to the shores of America and to the laborious fields of oppression, each was steeped in the presence of a Eurocentric

Christianity. Africans brought to this country were subjected to unfathomable acts of oppression. W.E.B. Du Bois is quoted attempting to describe these atrocities this way, "Oppression was beyond all concept: cruelty, degradation, whipping and starvation, the absolute negation of human rights. It was helplessness. It was the defenselessness of family life" (Floyd-Thomas 2007, 159). The intensity of

31 slavery created an impact that lasted even until today. Psychologic, social, economic, and spiritual trauma has had a genealogical effect upon Black people.

Therefore, healing these remaining scars is a must in Christian education. It was

Carter G Woodson who coined the phrase miseducation, in which he encompasses the intentional and systematic process that prevented African

Americans from having the right to formally learn reading and writing skills.(Woodson 1985) Floyd-Thomas states, "By example, enslaved Africans were not allowed to speak to one another in their own African languages, nor were they allowed to practice the African religions of their faith. Consequently, this prohibition meant that the enslaved were not permitted to read and interpret the Bible for themselves. Compulsory miseducation, as a form of oppression, stripped enslaved people of their dignity" (Floyd-Thomas 2007, 157).

In such an atmosphere, not only must Christian education seek to heal the generational scars of slavery but also teach life lessons of survival. Woodson suggested in his book, The Miseducation of the Negro, that a person would seek out the existence they thought they deserved. Therefore, as a means of survival, education in the Black church had to reeducate or, in other words, change the thinking that had been impressed upon us by our oppressors. The need for those life lessons of survival extended beyond slavery into the subsequent oppressive era of Jim Crow and Segregation. Education, in a sense, was like a kind of resistance, much like protest and boycotts, and helped propel us forward into our future of freedom.

Afrocentrism arose in the early 1980s in the academic context of African

American studies. Most popularly articulated by Molfi Kete Asante, a professor of

African-American studies at Temple University, its concern is with African epistemological relevance. (Asante 2003) Relating to the history of education, Dr.

Asante paints a descriptive picture in his book, Afrocentricity, of the way education has been Europeanized. Any information regarding African influence within education has been systemically omitted from history. In a Lecture at

Howard University in 1993, Dr. Asante articulated how almost every major academic discipline's origin is traced back to a Greek. Education has been boxed into a package that is wrapped in Greek Philosophy. However, those Greeks themselves often make mention of the Africans who inspired their work. That is why Afrocentrism is so important. It allows a perspective that is seen based on

Africa being the center vantage point. This frees Africans from the intellectual and psychological bondage of history that has been Europeanized. Therefore, the Christian education disseminated through the church, especially in its earliest establishment, had the ability to focus on the truth of who black people were both biblically and modernly. However, limited education and access to information made it almost impossible to develop a black theology. Yet, as the literacy of blacks improved, partly due to Christian education, the biblical text began to inspire the desire of liberation into the enslaved African people; so much so that it is thought that most slave revolts were done in response to the revelation that

God was a liberating God, and they deserved liberation. In summation of my historical foundation I would just like to reiterate the idea of education as a tool of

33 resistance and protest against the oppressive existence of racism. An Afrocentric education likewise is an act of resistance against the Eurocentric reality all

African Americans are immersed in.

To summarize the entire chapter, I address the main conclusions drawn from each foundation. In the biblical foundation the conclusion is that we as believer must be prepared to articulate our faith to those who question it and we must do so in a way that demonstrates the love of Christ. In the face of persecution and suffering we are to always sustain our demonstration of Godly love; however, this does not equate to an acceptance of injustice or oppression.

We are to competently know what we believe and be able to compassionate communicate it. In the theological foundation of my project I concluded the importance of an Afrocentric theology. This type of theology takes into consideration the experiences, history and traditions of African Americans and how those unique experiences, tradition and history informs their theology. In the historical foundation of my project I concluded that. The history of Christian education in the black church would benefit from an Afrocentric perspective as it will include more than a post slave trade perspective and portray the vast impact

Africa and Africans played in the history of Christianity. Together these foundations demonstrate the criticality of an Afrocentric Christianity for those of

African descent.

CHAPTER THREE

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

I heard Trevor Noah say, "Nelson Mandela once said, 'If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart.' He was so right. When you make an effort to speak someone else's language, even if it's just basic phrases here and there, you are saying to them, 'I understand that you have a culture and identity that exists beyond me. I see you as a human being.”

The nature of this quote is significant to my project. Afrocentricity is merely an attempt to say to African Americans, I know you have a culture and an identity beyond American Eurocentric boundaries, and we see you as a human being.

The previous chapter focused on the biblical foundation of the project, which communicates an expectation upon believers to possess the ability to share their faith in a meaningful way to those who have questions, and to do so while showing compassion. The information in this chapter will address the wide scope of Christian history that intersects with Africa and what that means to African

Americans. It adds to the conventional teaching concerning Christianity from the framework of Roman and Greek vantage points. Centering Africa in the discussion of Christianity identifies how overlooked the continent is and how vital of a role Africans played in the genesis of Christianity. This Afrocentric positioning of Christian history allows African Americans to see themselves, as

Dr. Asante suggests, “as subjects in history and not simply objects.” (Asante

2003) In this chapter, I will emphasize four major themes that together

35 substantiate the purpose of my project, Afrocentricity as a culturally relevant

Apologetic, Ancient African Christianity, Early African Church Fathers, and the significant Early Christian African kingdoms.

Afrocentricity as a Culturally Relevant Apologetic

Afrocentricity is a framework of thought and behaviors which centers

Africa, Africans, their interest, values, and perspectives as being crucial to the story of world history. At this point in time the story of world history has been shaped by Eurocentricity. Conversely to Afrocentricity, Eurocentricity centers

Europeans in the story of world history and in doing so, ignores the significant contributions of African people throughout history. This particular vantage point marginalizes, and even omits Africans from history, which in turn impacts and has impacted the psychology of an entire culture. Dr. Asante suggests that without an Afrocentric viewpoint, the African is forced to see the world and interpret the lack of his own significant contributions as a negative thing. The internalization of that negativity comes out and is acted upon in ways that reflect that negative self-image. "Unable to call upon the power of the ancestors, because one does not know them: without an ideology of heritage because one does not respect one's own prophets: the person is only like an ant trying to move a large piece of garbage only to find that it won’t move”(Asante 2003,3).

Being forced to view the world through white eyes limits our ability to grow and develop from all that history has taught us throughout the years.

The empowerment of an African centered vantage point is seen in the attitudes, actions, and behaviors of people like Marcus Garvey, Du Boise, Fanon,

Bethune, Malcolm, and Martin. They all saw beyond the European boundaries of history and embraced all that history has instilled in black people. This then creates a positive self-image, a self-image that encourages thoughts, actions, and attitudes that seek to uplift and build one’s own community. This perspective is in opposition to Eurocentric nationalism and empiricism, therefore making it an intellectual act of freedom or resistance. Although Dr. Asante is not an advocate of Christianity as the religion for Africans and those of African descent, he does speak of the satisfaction of seeing preachers and churches beginning to embrace and teach Christian history in a way that highlights its African roots. Karenga substantiates Afrocentricity by emphasizing the term ethos. Ethos is the collective personality of a people. Asante adds to the thoughts of Karenga, “The

Afrocentric response to ethos determines what is in the best interest of African people at a given time, and then creates, nationalizes, and justifies those symbols which validate our interest”(Asante 2003,29).

Although Christianity was not the focus of Asante's work, other scholars, biblical scholars in particular such as Cain Hope Felder, have expanded the scope of Afrocentricity and aligned it with Christianity within a black church context. The story of Christianity has been drastically whitewashed. It wasn’t until my black church studies program at Ashland Theological Seminary that I was aware that many of the characters I’ve read and history I had been taught were steeped in African culture. As I will detail later in the chapter, the African church fathers, as well as some of the most powerful and influential African Kingdoms,

37 are all a part of the Christian story that has been altered to fit a Eurocentric narrative.

In Cain Hope Felder's article, “Afrocentrism: The Bible and the politics of difference”, Cain Hope Felder opens by identifying a cultural shift that has been taking place during the post-cold war era. This change is being driven by the increase of multiculturalism. As the perspectives of the country widen, things that were once considered the norm are being challenged. In the article, Felder uses the celebration of Columbus as a hero as an example. “There was an intentional attempt to evaluate the traditional study of past events from the prominence of white males only to an emerging our-story as a collective narrative about the multifarious contributions of all races to the adventure of human achievement and civilization”(Felder 1993).

Afrocentrism presents a different vantage point from which we observe history. It allows us to see from the perspective of those who are on the margins in this country and give credence to the contribution of those other than

European males. “In an uncanny and even paradoxical way, the widening public discourse in America on multiculturalism has been substantially damaged and/or confused by those who have only wanted to exploit the politics of difference in order to maintain their own firm control over wealth, political power, and concomitant institutions such as those of higher education” (Felder 1993).

Essentially, the white supremacist power structure of this country presents huge obstacles when attempting to challenge or question the biased way history has been shaped and presented to the people.

The Bible, Christianity, and biblical interpretation have all been impacted by Eurocentrism. Felder also comments on the alarming Eurocentric translation, reading, and interpretation of the Bible. “ By Eurocentric we mean the recasting of the entire biblical tradition into an ancient religious drama of Euro-Asian

Hebrews who once sojourned in Egypt, which was somehow removed from black

Africa, then evolved into an ancient Canaan that had little or no relation to Africa, and eventually gave rise to the birth of a European Jesus and Christianity as a

Hellenistic religion of the Greco-Roman world”(Felder 1993). Felder uses the idea of Yale University professor Jaroslav who also substantiates my position that Christianity has spread across the world, bearing the face of a white Jesus.

Although this image of Jesus has been engrained in the mind of most all who encounter Christianity, the white Jesus that we have all come to tolerate was not created by the biblical authors but was created within a postbiblical western culture and exacerbated by the complicity of its religious institution. Felder has no problem making the assertion that throughout the years, the Bible has been taken hostage by Euro-American thought. But because many scholars recognize the need to rescue biblical interpretation from the captivity of European thought, the idea of Afrocentric biblical interpretation is gaining ground. The Bible itself is full of an array of multicultural paradigms, yet these have been minimized and trivialized in an effort to present biblical history in a way that is palatable to a

Euro-American audience. Afrocentric biblical interpretation sees Africans and those of African descent as proactive subjects in history and not simply as passive objects of western history.

Professor Asante has always intended Afrocentrism to center Africans in the narratives of history without diminishing the accomplishments of others.

Although Dr. Asante's vision was for his Afrocentricity concept to not be seen in a negative light, Felder highlights a few unfounded criticisms that I would like to mention. These criticisms are unfounded because they are based on inaccurate definitions of Afrocentrism. The first criticism is that the concept demonizes all white people. Another is Afrocentrism simply replaces Eurocentrism and shares its hierarchy, patriarchy, and racially exclusive centrism. A final thought is that

Afrocentrism marginalizes and vilifies European heritage. There could possibly be an extreme adaptation of Afrocentrism that could fall under those critics, but for the most part, its pro-African element is not synonymous with Anti-European.

With a reemergence of what is called "Black Consciousness," an intellectual awakening to the fact that much of what has been taught and accepted is tailored to highlight and glorify the accomplishments of white people. Often, the questions that are sparked from this awakening concerning Christianity point out the White

Supremacist nature in which Christianity has been taught and used throughout history. The white image of Christ and the idea that Christianity was forced upon

African Americans during slavery are a few of the observations made concerning our faith.

Traditional apologetics tends not to be able to answer such questions because it was not developed with African Americans in mind. Valentina

Alexander’s article, “Afrocentricity and Black Christian Consciousness: Towards an Honest Intersection”, discusses the need for a merger between Afrocentricity

40 and black Christian consciousness. Defining both these terms for the discussion is key. Afrocentricity is simply African centeredness, viewing history and the present from an African vantage point, emphasizing the contribution to the world by people of African descent. Black Christian consciousness denotes the development of African-influenced spiritual and theological heritage. "When I first became aware of philosophies of resistance represented within Afrocentric and black theological ideas, it was like looking into a mirror and seeing my own image reflected. Now, this may not appear a particularly extraordinary reaction; after all, one expects to see one’s own reflection when looking in the mirror. However, it is only when you began to realize that for all of your life you have been looking into that mirror and not seeing yourself at all, but rather seeing everything and everyone else apart from who you are, that you begin to realize the real significance, the real impact of the discovery” (Alexander 1998). For many Black

Christians, our experience of looking into the mirror to measure our existence through the lens of scripture has been unconsciously affirming the absence of our very own identity within the biblical text.

Finding and embracing our own identity within the story of our faith is critical. “In a world in which Blackness is either a commodity, a danger, or simply an irrelevance, I discovered, in the black church gathering as well as in the

Kwanzaa celebration, an opportunity to center myself and to become both visible and valuable” (Alexander 1998). The black church must be a safe haven for its people and a center that encourages not only the acceptance of a new identity in

Christ but also a confirmation that their black identity has value. Even though

41 these two forms of thought work in tandem, there is often mistrust between the two. Both philosophies encourage blackness and decenter white hegemony.

Huge criticisms of Afrocentricity and black Christian consciousness are their limited concerns within the broader context of oppression; most notably, the limited room for the black woman in this ideological concept. Both ideologies need to revisit their space and opportunities for the contribution of women. It is essential that these two ideologies move forward together as we engage this information generation. These young minds are asking questions that many of their predecessors didn't ask. We should be able to tell them how they fit within the biblical narrative and, ultimately, in world history.

In the article “Honoring the Ancestors: Towards an Afrocentric Theology of

Liberation”, Adam Clark explores Afrocentricity as a moral resource for a new generation of Black Pastors and theological scholars in carving out a theology of liberation from their own history and culture." Some black churches and church leaders see Afrocentrism as being hostile, hyper-nationalistic, and anti-white, which, if so, is in opposition to a life that should resemble the love of Christ.

Because of this perspective, many resist embracing it. On the other hand, some in the Afrocentric community see Christianity as having been so dramatically altered by Eurocentric thought that it is not beneficial for those of African descent” (Clark 2013). As I examine the work of Molefi Asante and James Cone,

I think that it is critical not to gravitate towards either of these extremes, but I argue that for the positive building of African American Christians, there must be a merging of Afrocentricity and Christianity.

The most notable collision that Afrocentric Christianity has with mainstream America was during the campaign cycle of President Barak Obama.

During this time, Obama's Pastor, Jeremiah Wright, was scrutinized because of his Afrocentric approach to ministry. Out of a long line of black prophetic preachers, Jeremiah Wright used his pulpit to focus on the empowerment and improvement of the lives of African Americans. In no way was his ministry anti- white or anti-America, but it was anti-injustice. Much like the great Afrocentric thinkers such as Edward Blyden, Henry McNeal Turner, and Marcus Garvey,

Wright, as well as other Afrocentric Pastors and Christian scholars, saw a

Eurocentric Christianity as detrimental to black people and that a more African- centered view of Christianity would be an intricate piece in uplifting the culture.

(Clarke 2013) Cone emphasizes the importance of a theology of liberation. From his and other perspectives, Christianity cannot be properly understood void of its history of Liberation. What some call the Second Reformation, is the impact and influence Liberation movements have had on Christianity. This type of Christian expression allows those in marginal communities to have valued conversations regarding their Christian faith. What makes the Afrocentric perspective interesting as it relates to black theology is that Afrocentricity is not a religious perspective.

However, it does speak to important Christian concerns such as social justice and self-realization. Afrocentricity’s relationship with Christianity doesn’t impose an unhealthy nationalist position but instead is more of a hermeneutical framework in which a theology of liberation construct can be developed. Often compared with the radical nature of the Black Power movement, Afrocentricity is

43 also birthed from a sense of urgency. Cone states, “Is it not time for theologians to get upset?” (Clark 2013). Churches and Christians must gain an understanding of systemic oppression and raise a standard of morality against it.

“Christianity in its current form and practice was racist and essentially a white cultural expression and that there was a need for reshaping it in black image and interest. Religion has an emancipatory and social role in making a better life on earth and it has to be earth-focused and consciously concerned with the social and material as well as the spiritual” (Clark 2013). Karenga declares, “that God should look like the people, have a history with them and be to their advantage, in a word, their God must be partisan, and thy must be his chosen people” (Clark

2013). I find that this statement takes it too far. In combining Christianity with

Afrocentricity, the goal is not to make God black but to disprove the Eurocentric and mainstream acceptance that Jesus is white or that its history is a Eurocentric one instead of an African one.

The common rebuttal to this view is that faith has no color and that the gospel is for everyone. James Cone suggests that the foundation of biblical faith cannot ignore God's intentionality of liberation, setting the captives free. The early Afrocentric scholars were very critical of Christianity and understood

Christianity to be a white man's religion. "The Christian church cannot deliver salvation for blacks! The Church has imprisoned us, it has placed a white Jesus in our imaginations and bound us to an ideological structure (Clark, 2013). For those who are “Conscious” this image of Jesus is the flag of the white supremacist Christianity and just like African Americans in this country honor and

44 pledge allegiance to the American flag we have also done so with the image of white Jesus. “For many Afrocentrist, Christianity is a Eurocentric imposition and a danger to the self-determination of black people” (Clark 2013). It is believed that

Christianity was introduced to black people through violence and coercion, especially through the transatlantic slave trade. This is an odd stance because

Afrocentrism encourages looking back through history, particularly through the eyes of Africa. If one does that, it becomes increasingly obvious that Christianity is an Africa originated religion whose history is inundated with African history.

With this first theme, I have attempted to show how Afrocentrism as a relevant apologetic is essential in the healing and restoration of black people who have been impacted by their immersion into a European culture that dismisses and diminishes their own. What Afrocentricity gives to Christian history is an opportunity to see the significance of Africa and African people. This leads to my next major theme, the study of Ancient African Christianity.

The Study of Ancient African Christianity

Within this section, although it would be impossible to detail everything, I will show much of the origination of Christianity in Ancient Africa. As was illustrated in the previous section, Christian history has been told from a

Eurocentric perspective. Therefore, much of what we know about the Bible is disconnected from its location and cultural setting, its people, and their cultural identity. As portrayed in graphic images and cinema, all things related to the

Bible are European. That is why it is important to discover the reality concerning the Bible, its land, and its people. That is what Afrocentricity provides.

Egypt is a major player in Christian history that is often overlooked. Ogbu

Kalu says in his work, African Christianity, “The story of Christianity in North

Africa is a part of a golden period of African cultural prominence in the world stage” (Kula 2007, 45). Egypt is often studied in a way that removes it from its geographical and cultural location within the continent of Africa. Many in the west find it hard to believe that the early church fathers were African, another theme I shall engage later in this chapter. In the biblical text, Acts 2:10 suggests the presence of those from Egypt, Libya, near Cyrene. Acts 18:24 tells of an African named Apollos who was from Alexandria. Outside of Acts, we find Matthew's record of Mary and Joseph fleeing to Egypt with baby Jesus. Christian tradition connects Mark with Egypt. "A late second-century fragment from Clement refers to Mark as the founder of the Egyptian church. The fourth-century historian

Eusebius reports the accepted traditions regarding Mark: and they say that this

Mark was the first that was sent to Egypt and that he proclaimed the gospel which he had written, and first established churches in Alexandria” ( Kula 2007,

45). Many scholars agree that Christianity may have appeared in Egypt as early as the middle decades of the first century. The Alexandrian Church, by the end of the 2nd century, had greatly extended southward along the Nile. During this time,

Egyptian bishops united with the community of bishops, suffered persecution along with other churches during times of persecution, and began to influence more of the church as other Alexandrians were appointed to the Bishopric in other areas. “Until the break of Catholic Christianity, following the 5th century

Council of Chalcedon of 415 AD, Alexandria was the complex but formidable

46 power of Catholic Christianity throughout the church” (Kula 2007, 49). Christianity continued to grow and spread within the larger Roman world. The purpose of sharing these details is to increase the knowledge concerning the activity of

Christianity on the continent of Africa. Although Egypt is mentioned frequently in the biblical text, it is not usually seen as a major contributor to the faith. However, when it is, it is portrayed only as a Roman province, and its African culture, customs, and traditions are ignored.

As African Christianity grew and developed within the larger Roman world, different positions and stances were taken across the region. In order to continue establishing the significant role of Ancient Africa in the story of Christianity, let us identify the significance of the land of Cush. Keith Burton, in his work, The

Blessing of Africa, has an entire section in which he identified the Africans in

Cush. Most people think of Ethiopia when the subject of Africa and the Bible comes up. Ethiopia has an association with dark skin, as seen in Jeremiah's writings, as he says, “Can an Ethiopian change his skin?” (Jeremiah 13:23).

History seems to present dark skin as a definitive identifier of Ethiopians. The many scattered Clans of Cush can be divided into three overarching categories.

There are the Ethiopians who reside on the west of the Red Sea, the Arabians who are on the east side of the Red Sea, and finally, the Mesopotamian Cushites who are primarily found in the people of Babylon (Burton 2007, 65).

There are also some important political figures I would like to engage in this section of the chapter. Within the Table of Nations list in Gen 10, the only individual afforded a brief biography is Cush's son Nimrod. Nimrod appeared to

47 be very popular and was known as a great hunter, warrior, and know for standing before God. Nimrod led in the organization of the first cities named in scripture, since Cain's city of Enoch. The notable city of Babel was established by Nimrod.

Nimrod was pivotal in establishing the great kingdoms of Babylon and Assyria.

“When Micah prophecies to Israel, Assyria is still known as the land of Nimrod.”

(Burton 2007, 62). King Nebuchadnezzar was a prominent Babylonian King. He is arguably one of the most feared Kings in scripture. He is responsible for the destruction of the Assyrians and spread his conquest through to the land of

Judah. His treatment of the Jews he captured can be seen in the book of Daniel.

"Although the captor of God's people, Nebuchadnezzar, was divinely chosen as the repository of a prophetic dream that unveiled the future of the universe. This leaves him to proclaim the sovereignty of the God of Israel, and it appears that he eventually submitted to the supreme God” (Burton 2007, 65).

The Queen of Sheba is another notable African biblical character, called the Queen of the South by Jesus in Matthew 12:42. We are introduced to her when she shows up to visit Solomon (1 Kings 10:1). Ethiopian theologians believed that Solomon and the Queen had a child together named Menelik. The legend of Menelik is found in an ancient document called Kebra Nagast.

Although the exact location of the queen of Sheba’s Kingdom is not definitive, it is believed to be in southwest Arabia also known as Saba and the home of the

Sabeans. Israel’s connections with the Sabeans are both biblical and historical.

Another notable Egyptian Queen referenced in the Bible is the unknown

Queen associated with the Ethiopian Eunuch (Acts 8:26-39). The Greek text

48 references her as Kankaes. This appears not to be a name but instead the title that is ascribed to a Queen. The presence of African Queens in the biblical text can also demonstrate how an Afrocentric approach to scripture can combat the narrative of sexism within this concept. The Eunuch himself is the focal point of this text. Luke emphasized him being a eunuch. However, this was not the extent of his identity. "However, the Ethiopian was much more than a eunuch: he functioned as a powerful politician who served as a chief financial officer for the entire Kingdom” (Burton 2007, 68). Because he had gone to Jerusalem to worship (Acts8:27), it is apparent that he had some connection with the religion of Israel. Cushites around the Red Sea had all been exposed to the Israelite religion for centuries.

Traditional Church history doesn’t detail these Africans and their meaningful contribution to early Christianity. However, an Afrocentric perspective allows one to read the text from the perspective of the land and region of which it is contextualized. “Although the majority of the Bible was penned on African soil and the bulk of its stories were set in the land of Ham, its main characters were the descendants of the Semitic immigrants who had been placed there by divine command” (Burton 2007, 112). Based on the geographical boundaries of Ham, one can say with certainty that Christianity was born in biblical Africa. All the way from the time of Abraham, God's covenant people have had roots in African soil.

Egypt is frequently mentioned. However, even prior to the Exodus, Israel's descendants returned to the land of the Nile. God's covenant people were successful in Egypt. They developed synagogues and schools. North Africa is

49 also another area rich with History concerning the early church. “Seeing the value of accessing the Bible in a native tongue, Egyptian scholars started translating the New Testament into the local Coptic languages from as early as the 3rd century” (Burton 2007, 123). It was quickly discovered that simply having a Bible produced in a native tongue did not end interpretive disagreements. The early church proved not to be unified on many fronts, neither in doctrinal orthodoxy nor practical execution. Egyptians and North Africans had to contend with the Greco-Roman influence in their interpretive efforts. In the 2nd century,

Egyptian Christianity was broad and had not yet taken on a definitive identity. In many cases, the different facets of Christianity in Egypt were labeled heresy. The term heresy was used frequently and often recklessly. A better term is

Heterodoxy. This allows there to be a differentiation between those who have different views versus those who are in rebellion against God. Both Gnosticism and Monasticism derive from Egyptian theology. A Coptic document by the name of Nag Hammadi placed this teaching within the first quarter of the second century. An individual by the name of Basilides felt as though Christianity needed to be liberated from its Jewish foundation. Basilides, influenced by Platonic dualism, believed that the spirit world was superior to the material world, and he also rejected the teaching of a crucified Christ. After Basilides was Valentinus, who had similar views as it relates to the spiritual and material world. The

Gnostic view was atypical of Hamitic Egyptian Christianity. (Burton 2007, 125)

The Bible was taken very seriously, evident in the rise of monasticism.

Egyptian monasticism was birthed through a Coptic speaking mystic named

Anthony. Anthony was impacted by Jesus’ conversation with the rich ruler when he encouraged him to sell all he had and give to the poor. Anthony followed the words of Jesus and ended up in the wilderness, where he had a supernatural encounter. He initiated several monastic communities in the deserts and mountains. Another African Influencer in the monastic movement was

Pachomius. As he was trying to get closer to God, he sought a more intimate encounter through solitude. He initiated several monastic communities. “Egyptian monasticism became a model for other parts of Christendom, and the life of

Anthony, written by Bishop Athanasius, became a manual for many” (Burton

2007, 126).

North Africa was the platform for another religious movement named

Donatism. This concept developed after the Diocletian persecutions. Many

Christians were killed and tortured before the Roman empire became less threatened and more tolerant of Christians. Many of the leaders who participated in the persecution maintained their ecclesiastical positions. It was considered appalling that they were not being held accountable for the part they played in the persecutions. The Donatists resisted and stressed reform. The movement grew and spread throughout the land until it was the predominant faith in Roman

North Africa. It eventually became a radical movement, and as it was with the

Israelites seeking to rid Canaan of all its pagan symbols, they too wanted to purify the faith. (Burton 2007, 126)

The most contentious heresy for orthodox Christianity is the belief that garnered the name Arianism. Arianism suggests that God the Son is younger in

51 time than God the father. Its founder Arius was educated in Antioch. The theologians in Antioch were more literalist and frowned upon the more allegorical interpretive nature of Alexandrian scholars. Arius’ views spread, eventually being the chief concern causing Constantine to gather the first ecumenical council to deal with this and other issues. Arius's opponent was Athanasius, Bishop of

Alexandria. Athanasius's writings and a few other political factors eventually lead to the excommunication of Arius. Athanasius' view regarding the Father and Son was heavily supported and was formulated into the Nicene Creed. Arius continued to espouse his views and garnered sympathy from Constantine, who invited him back into communion with the church, although he was later defeated again in the second ecumenical council held at Constantinople. The relationship between the Father and Son debate continued. Terms such as homoousios began to circulate. Homoousios refers to the Father and Jesus having the same nature and homoiousios refers to them having like natures. These debates led to another discussion which considered if the nature of Christ was only like that of

God or did the incarnation add another nature to his being. Egypt's spiritual history made them easily accepting to the idea of Jesus having only one nature.

The prevalent belief in the trinity of Isis-Horus-Osiris made the connection with

Christianity less of a departure from what was already believed. Monophysitism was the term for this belief, and it was championed by a fifth-century monk by the name of Shenoute, whose views were like that of Athanasius. In addition to these individuals that have impacted the early Church, I want to highlight the African

52 centers of theological learning established in Alexandria and Carthage. (Burton

2007. 128)

With the raging debates within the early church, the establishment of a learning center where biblical hermeneutics and doctrinal formulation could take place was critical. Some believed this need resulted in the formation of a catechetical school in Alexandria. Although many attributed its development to

Mark, it is more probable that Pantaenus founded the school. Following

Pantaenus was Clement, who is deemed to be Christianity's first Systematic theologian. (Burton 2007, 128)

Following the term of Clement was another brilliant thinker named Origen.

Origen is known to be the most influential theologian of his time. Origen was inspired by the faith of his Father Leonidas, who was martyred. Origen contributed a couple of thousand treatises to the discipline of Christian learning, by way of sermons and commentaries. Origen's most noted contribution is his concept of a tri-level interpretive concept, where he suggests that there are three levels of meaning for every biblical passage: literal, moral, and spiritual. This was the foundation for allegorical interpretation. Another great leader within

Alexandria is Didymus the blind, who, despite being blind, made huge contributions to the faith. Athanasius was not a teacher in Alexandria but was extremely influential. He is called the Father of the canon as he is credited with identifying the 27 books that comprise the New Testament. Due to the influence of the great thought leaders within Alexandria, another school emerged within

Carthage. (Burton 2007, 130)

The Carthaginian theological school was founded by a scholar by the name of Tertullian. “Tertullian was highly influential, and it was he who introduced the term Trinity into the Christian vocabulary. Tertullian was somewhat aligned with the Montanist movement, which emphasized speaking in tongues and the gifts of prophecy. They did not adhere to the trinitarian ideas of Tertullian, however, embraced his belief on the call of Christians to live Holy. (Burton 2007,

130)

Cyprian, who followed Tertullian, had less of an emphasis on holiness.

Cyprian eventually became the Bishop of Carthage. During Cyprian’s time as

Bishop, the Church was under persecution to the extent that he had to flee. Once he returned, he found out that the church had experienced much division. Those who remained faithful through the persecution were at odds with the ones who had turned from the faith due to the persecution. Tertullian was in favor of the idea that those who turned away from the faith would be permanently excommunicated. However, Cyprian believed that backsliders deserve the opportunity to be restored. (Burton 2007, 132)

After Cyprian was Martyred and the Diocletes persecution dissipated, the next theologian on the scene was Augustine. Augustine later became the bishop of Hippo, which is modern-day Algeria. As a child, Augustine embraced a mixture of Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Buddhism called Manichaeism. It was the ministry of a popular bishop named Ambrose that lead Augustine out of

Manichaeism. Augustine later established his own monastery. He greatly influenced the church's understanding of original sin. The many figures

54 mentioned within this overview of Church history are evidence of the substantial contribution made to early Christianity by Africans. Later in the chapter, we will more specifically engage the early African church Fathers and further demonstrate their impact on the church events to this very day. North Africa was not the only place of significance, but the wave of scholarship in areas such as

Carthage and Alexandria were not as prevalent in the area of Cush. The fact that the Ethiopian Eunuch traveled to Jerusalem to worship and possessed a Hebrew scroll of Isaiah the prophet is evidence that Christianity had influenced the region.

Other evidence of Christian influence South of Egypt can be seen in the writings of the prophets Isaiah, Zephaniah, and in the Psalms. Ethiopian tradition records

Christianity being introduced to Ethiopia by the supposed son of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, Menelik I. It is also thought that Christianity in the region of

Cush can be traced to the refugees that fled there during the time of civil unrest between Jeroboam and Rehoboam. None of these explanations can be totally verified, but it is undeniable that in the early centuries of Christianity, there were many in Ethiopia that followed the teachings of the Bible. During the fifth century,

Ethiopia was exposed to Christianity by way of the nine saints. These were a group of monks who were fleeing Syria and found refuge in Ethiopia. They learned the language and began to teach the scriptures. They were also very successful in establishing monasteries that gained tremendous participation.

However, an area where they were lacking was in doctrinal teaching. Because of this, many of their converts held on to their pagan beliefs as well. During the first seven centuries, millions on the continent of Africa had been exposed to

Christianity. All the different tribes that were divided in so many ways appeared to have a catalyst for unity. However, Christianity didn’t prove to be the unifier it was expected to be and often resulted in rifts and divisions as they sought orthodoxy. (Burton 2007, 130)

David Wilhite, in his work, Ancient African Christianity, says, “while most histories of Christianity include major African figures such as Cyprian and

Augustine, few treat these subjects as Africans. Too often, the fact that Africa was a western Roman province has meant that scholars can categorize African

Christian history into the history of western Christianity, without paying closer attention to the uniqueness of Christianity in this region” (Wilhite 2017, 3). Paul is a great example of this dynamic. He says that he can become all things to all people, yet he still identifies as a Hebrew of Hebrews. "With ancient Africans, however, such a clear statement of otherness is more difficult to define. After all, no one claimed to be an African of Africans. Or did they?” (Wilhite 2017, 4).

Ancient North African writers were intentional about maintaining their African identity amid Roman influence. Roman presence in North African did not negate the indigenous population, their languages, culture, religion, and customs. To serve as an example of this, Fronto rose to the highest ranks of the imperial society yet always stated that he is a Libyan of the Libyan nomads. His point was to demonstrate and emphasize how easily an African could claim a non-Roman identity. Another example is Apuleius of Madauros, who was very well involved in

Roman society, education, and politics. Apuleius often proclaimed that he was half Nubian and half Gaetulian. He was the epitome of fully belonging to the

Roman society yet maintaining an African identity. " This point will be evident in

Christian writers as well: Augustine, who studied in Madaurus, will need to invoke

Apuleius's memory in order to speak to his non-Roman context, saying, Apuleius of whom I choose rather to speak, because, as our own countryman, he is better known to us who classify themselves as Africans"(Wilhite 2017, 4).

Because most of the Christian writers from the region wrote in Latin, they are often included as a part of Latin Christianity. However, these writers are also

African, and their African culture should not be understated. “For most of the second century Africans were to dominate the intellectual life of the Empire, and by the 180’s nearly a third of the Roman senate was of African origin.” (Wilhite

2017, 15) One of those Africans that gained success in the empire was Victor, the African. It is said that his rise to Bishop was mostly due to a large number of

Africans that had migrated to Rome, suggesting that the African population held considerable influence within the Empire. The connection that African Christianity had with Rome has been used to delimit the African authenticity of early

Christianity. It is believed by some that African Christianity is simply parroting

Roman philosophies. However, the information shared previously confirms that not only was African Christianity authentically African but that it was intentionally

African as they fought to maintain their unique identities. Early Church history is steeped in African culture from doctrinal debates to the establishment of theological schools. The imprint of Africa is on Christianity. (Wilhite 2017, 17)

Study of the early African Church Fathers

As we have discussed Afrocentricity as a culturally relevant apologetic and looked at a brief overview of Ancient African Christianity, the next theme I would like to engage in is the early African Church Fathers. Although many of these leaders have already come up in the Ancient African Christianity section, here I will simply list some of them and their significant contributions to the faith.

Growing up in church, the early church fathers were not a topic I can say was ever discussed. However, once I began seminary and studied Church history, the fact that they were African was ignored or extremely downplayed. Them being

African was so downplayed that even in videos and graphic images, they were portrayed as European. So even though their context is in Africa, the imagery is so strong that it drowns out their cultural identity. It is quite significant that the theological minds that shaped most of what we believe to this very day were

African. That is a significant contribution that needs to be highlighted. An

Afrocentric perspective provides a platform to reveal those cultural truths about a group that had such an enormous impact.

First, let’s engage Carthage born, Tertullian. Tertullian is possibly the most influential thinker from the early church era. He is the first Christian theologian to write in Latin. As amazing as his contributions were, he is often mischaracterized.

David Wilhite classifies the misrepresentations of Tertullian in six categories:

Tertullian, the legalist, the fideist, the priest, the Montanist, the misogynist, and the Roman. Wilhite also suggests that the more appropriate characterization of

Tertullian is Tertullian the African. Everything else that he is, in order to be

58 properly understood must be examined from his African context. He was known in some ways to be more Roman than the Romans, and in other ways, he maintained his unique African identity. In the earliest references of Tertullian, he is remembered as “Tertullianus afer," which means Tertullian the African. (Wilhite

2017, 20) Tertullian’s works were expansive and difficult to place within a certain genre. Because of the intricacies of Tertullian’s work, Wilhite categorized them into four sections, Apologetics, Exhortation, Polemics, and Polemical exhortations. Tertullian was a strong proponent of the insufficiency of pagan philosophy as a means of understanding biblical truth. His famous line is “What indeed has Athens to do with Jerusalem?” Tertullian’s writing, On The Cloak, displays his self-awareness as an African. Another instance in which you can see

Tertullian's African Identity is his choice of quotation in a debate he was having.

Tertullian quotes a passage referencing the Queen of the South. However, he alters it by stating Queen of Carthage. Although later in life, Tertullian converted to the Montanist movement, his contributions to the faith are undeniable. (Wilhite

2017, 22)

One of the many people impacted by the work of Tertullian was another brilliant theologian by the name of Origen. Origen was born in Egypt and was the first theologian to engage theology systematically. Origen was inspired by the faith of his father, who, as we stated earlier, was martyred. Origen became a noted teacher in Alexandria. He was able to write a host of commentaries that helped to develop the allegorical interpretive style of the Alexandria theological learning center. His work was pivotal in the doctrinal understanding of the Trinity.

(Litfin 2007, 119) Like many of the church Fathers as they wrestled with orthodoxy, he eventually wandered off into teachings deemed heretical by the church. However, this Egyptian born scholar had a tremendous impact on the

Early Church. Next, we have Athanasius of Alexandria. He was often referred to as the black dwarf as he was short in stature and of very dark complexion.

Athanasius is known for his defense of the full divinity of Jesus Christ. His opposition to the heretical view of Arius, Arianism, was such an intense debate that it was one of the leading factors in Constantine’s convening the Nicene

Council. At the council, the bishops agreed with Athanasius and rejected the claims of Arius. Athanasius' position affirmed the orthodox position that only God could save humanity. (Litfin 2007, 120)

Arguably the most influential church father in history was Augustine of

Hippo. He was born in Thagste, now known as Algeria. He was a bishop, philosopher, and theologian. He is said to have written the first-ever biography in western literature, with his work, Confessions, his own biography. Augustine dabbles in a few other religious thoughts before he was converted to Christianity by the teaching of a bishop by the name of Ambrose of Milan. Western

Christianity was shaped by way of Augustine’s debates with the Donatist over the meaning of the church and original sin. Aside from the obvious African background of Augustine's family, his African identity can be seen in the way he is classified by others. (Litfin 2007, 209) Augustine also self identifies as an

African when he admits in his treatise providence that he spoke Latin with an accent. This is like Apuleius and the way he also identified as an African. The

60 importance of knowing these men is the awareness of their contributions to

Christianity centuries prior to the transatlantic slave trade. These church fathers were not without faults, and we don't have to agree with everything they said.

However, they each played a significant role in the development of Christianity.

Not only do we see the incredible influence made by individual Africans, but history also records the existence of entire Kingdoms that were, if not completely, at least majority Christian nations. (Litfin 2007, 210)

The study of Ancient African Kingdoms

The three major African Christian Kingdoms I will use as emphasis are

Nubia, Egypt, and Ethiopia. There has been an Afrocentric expression of

Christianity from its inception. Ps 68:31 states, "Ambassadors will come from

Egypt, Kush will soon stretch out her hand to God," and this declaration is of intricate importance as you discover the resilience of the descendants of Kush, the Nubians, and their embracing of the Christian faith.

History shows an absence of any significant Christian presence during the

Meroitic Kushite Kingdom era. However, as we have shared in previous chapters, the Ethiopian Eunuch mentioned in Acts 8, was most likely a Nubian.

This is probably his identity because of his connection to the Candace, which refers to the Nubian Queens. We find in the account of a Syrian Bishop by the name of John of Ephesus that Christianity was introduced to Nubia at least by the sixth century. Also, as discussed earlier in this chapter, the historical debate is between whether the introduction of Nubia to Christianity was during the time of the Byzantine missionaries or during the reign of King Silko roughly 300 A.D.

In conjunction with the other Christian Kingdoms of Egypt and Ethiopia, Nubia held fast to an anti-Chalcedonian nature, which means they believed in the unity of the human and divine natures of Christ. (Bantu 2016) A very significant fact about the Nubian Kingdom was its resilience against the Islamic conquest. As the

Islamic conquest overtook Egypt and other African areas, it is well documented that they were unsuccessful in conquering the Nubians. The Nubian warriors were extremely skilled and able to defend themselves against these Islamic invaders. Their weapon of choice is thought to be the bow and arrow. Their

Kingdom held so strong that eventually, the now Islamic ruled Egypt formulated a peace agreement with Nubia that declares that Nubia would remain a Christian nation and that Egypt would remain a Muslim nation. "This historical background also significantly complicates the assumption among some African descended people that Christianity is the white man's religion and that Islam is the black man's religion"(Bantu 2016). Not only do we see that this Christian nation stands its ground against Islamic conquest, but we also see that the spread of the

Islamic faith was by force, and at this time, the adoption of Christianity was a choice. This fact also negates a popular belief that Christianity was forced upon the African people. The Nubian church flourished several centuries before finally succumbing to the increased Islamic presence in the region. (Bantu 2016)

As another example of the inaccuracy of the fallacy that Christianity is a

European religion only introduced to black people through the oppressive nature of slavery, is the history of Christianity in Egypt. Although it is without question that the gospel was Europeanized and used as a tool to make docile and

62 obedient slaves as well as perpetuate a white supremacist power structure, that is not the complete story. It is also true that the earliest stages of Christianity were deeply rooted within the context of Africa and African people. "For the sake of the gospel, it must be understood that Christianity is not the cultural property of any single racial or ethnic group but has always existed as a chosen nation comprised of every nation, tribe, and tongue"(Bantu 2016).

Therefore, this is not an attempt to edit history to fit an African focused agenda. It is an attempt to accurately tell history from a place of African centeredness. The story of Christianity literally begins with Egypt as Joseph,

Mary, and Jesus journey to Egypt in order to escape the tirade of King Herod. It is believed in the Coptic Church that North Africa was evangelized by the Apostle

Mark. It was thought that Mark landed in Alexandria, and it is likely that this was the initial seedbed of the growth of Christianity throughout the region. Dr. Vince

Bantu asserts, "that countless early Christian artifacts, structures and documents including the earliest extant biblical fragment come from Egypt attesting to the immense importance of Egypt for Christian history.” (Bantu 2016) As we have discussed earlier in this chapter, the Catechetical School of Alexandria was extremely significant in the history of Christianity. Many of the doctrinal issues of the early church were defended there. Egyptian Christianity also has a history of martyrdom and suffering for the faith. Both Dr. Vince Bantu and Dr. Robert

Morgan write extensively about how the Coptic church uses the time of the great persecution under Emperor Diocletian as its genesis. The development of ascetic and monastic communities was another expression of Egyptian Christianity,

63 which also emphasized suffering. The Coptic Christians developed a unique identity as they resisted the theological assertion by Roman scholars concerning the nature of Christ. As Romans defined Christ as one person with two natures, the Egyptian Christians could not justify that belief considering their own belief in the complete unity of Christ's divinity and humanity. Even throughout Arab domination, Coptic Christianity has maintained its distinctiveness. (Bantu 2016)

As interesting as the history of the Coptic and the Nubian Christian

Kingdoms are, another huge piece to identify Christianity as an African originated faith is the Ethiopian Church. Ethiopia is the oldest independent African Nation and serves as a symbol of African Christianity. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tawahido

Church currently exhibits traditions that date all the way back to the Queen of

Sheba. Vince Bantu and Ephraim Isaac both speak to the Ethiopian tradition that maintains that Solomon and the Queen of Sheba had a child name Menelik who eventually became the first monotheistic king of Ethiopia. The same tradition also asserts that the Ethiopian Eunuch was the first to preach Christianity in Ethiopia.

(Budge 1976, 48) The first king to introduce Christianity as the state religion was

King Ezana. Ezana was evangelized by a slave named Frumentius. Frumentius was eventually ordained the first Bishop of Ethiopia by Athanasius. The Ethiopian

Church’s name, Tawahido, means being made one. The name is a nod to its staunch belief in the unified one nature of Christ. Egyptian Christianity is also the home of the Ge’ez manuscript of the Bible. It is a translation of the gospel which accounts in the ancient Egyptian language of Ge’ez. Because of their Tawahido beliefs, they were often persecuted by the Byzantine Roman Empire. Ephraim

Isaac and Vince Bantu both also speak of the alliance formed with Ethiopia,

Nubia, and Egypt to rescue those Christians being persecuted. Even though this is only a brief look into the rich history of the Ethiopian Church, it does give insight into the significant role Christianity played in the region. (Budge 1976, 53)

In summary of this chapter, I have engaged four major themes that together substantiate the purpose of my project, Afrocentricity as a culturally relevant Apologetic, Ancient African Christianity, African Church Fathers, and the significant Early Christian African kingdoms. Based on the literature, I have learned that Theology must be developed from within the culture it is going to impact. Therefore, Afrocentricity is necessary to establish a culturally relevant theological construct. Also, to effectively evangelize the black community, there must be a culturally relevant apologetic that discusses theology in the context of the black experience. The next major theme was Ancient African Christianity.

Although Christian history is steeped in African contexts, culture, and traditions, it is not often taught that way. Therefore, when an Afrocentric view of Christian history is applied, the many incredible contributions of Africa and Africans concerning Christianity are brought to the forefront. By the reality of Ancient

African Christianity being exposed, it also opposes the Eurocentric narrative that suppresses, minimizes, and often erases African involvement in the development and sustaining of Christianity throughout history. As I explore Ancient African

Christianity, the next theme is unavoidable, and that is the contributions of the

Early African Church Fathers. I only chose a few of them as references to show how substantial their contributions were to Christianity. There were many more

65 impactful Africans that helped shape Christianity through writings, teaching, and debates. However, my goal was not to develop an exhaustive list but instead present enough examples to concretely show that Early African thinkers, scholars, and theologians assisted in the development of Christianity as we know it today. The final theme was the early Christian African Kingdoms. I focused on the Christian Kingdoms of Egypt, Nubia, and Ethiopia. Each of these represents a significant Christian presence on the continent during the development of the early church. These Kingdoms were uniquely African in their culture and strictly

Christian in their theological beliefs. They represent the religious landscape in the formative years of Christianity. My project is to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions concerning Afrocentrism, and the pathway to doing so is by informing about the concept of Afrocentricity and the type of information it gathers concerning Christianity.

CHAPTER FOUR

DESIGN, PROCEDURE AND ASSESSMENT

The purpose of my project is to impact the leaders of Total Grace Church in Lexington Kentucky to be more Afrocentric in their knowledge, attitudes and actions.

As a young Pastor in an urban area densely populated by African

Americans, I am often approached with questions concerning the authenticity of

Christianity and its relationship with Africa. After not only hearing statements like,

As stated earlier, the purpose of my project is to impact the leaders of

Total Grace Church in Lexington Kentucky to be more Afrocentric in their knowledge, attitudes and actions. The specific focus of this project is to evaluate the secondary literature on the subject matter. First, I administered a pre-test using a five-point Likert scale survey. The participants demonstrated their knowledge, or lack thereof, concerning Afrocentricity. After taking the participants

67 through an eight-part workshop, over a span of 4 weeks, on Afrocentrism which met once a week for lectures on the material, I then administered a post-test in order to assess their change in knowledge, attitudes, and actions regarding

Afrocentrism. The workshop focused on the biblical, theological, and historical aspects of Afrocentrism. The participants consisted of 15 leaders of Total Grace

Church. They were selected from a pool of thirty total leaders.

Context

The context of this project was the Total Grace Church in Lexington,

Kentucky. Total Grace Church currently has four weekly services with a total membership of over 1500. Weekly, between all four services, we see roughly half of our total membership. Although the congregation consists of an amalgam of diverse people, ninety percent is African American. The church demographic is multi-generational and spans several economic classes. However, it consists primarily of millennials and generation X’ers. Due to the demographics of the congregation and the mission of our church, we are often on the front line of any racial injustices in our community. This often puts us in circles with people who don't believe the same as we do. In our community, the only other group as actively involved in social justice as we are is the Nation of Islam. Although we have no problem working together to solve issues, dialogue concerning faith arises frequently. The most common attack made against Christianity is the image of a white Jesus and its connection to slavery and oppression in this country. My leaders are often confronted with similar types of questions outside of the walls of the church. Inside of the Church, our intentions are to provide what

68 we call “The Total Grace Experience.” The Total Grace Experience entails extreme hospitality, energy, excitement, and an expectation of excellence. It is often said that people might not remember what you said to them, but they will always remember how you made them feel. It is our goal to overwhelm people with a feeling of love and hospitality so that, above all else, they will at least have a positive memory of their experience at Total Grace Church.

The foundational scripture of Total Grace Church is Matthew 25:35-45.

Center that focuses on meeting the needs of the community. Our Resource

Center is a non-profit that focuses on community empowerment and youth enrichment. Our church is in one of the most impoverished zip codes in our city, and it is our mission to engage our people and help lift them out of poverty into a place of financial literacy and opportunity. This involves grass-roots endeavors as well as advocacy and lobbying at the systemic level. The participants of the workshop were five men and ten women, who were all a part of the Total Grace leadership team. This topic was important to our ministry because we have been inundated with questions concerning the legitimacy of Christianity and its benefits for those of African descent. Because much like most things in America,

Christianity has also suffered from Europeanization. Being trained to answer these questions in a competent way is a frequent request from not only members of our leadership team but lay members within the congregation as well.

Participants

The demographics of the participants of the workshop are five men and ten women, who are all a part of the Total Grace leadership team. All five of the men have been members of Total Grace for at least five years. They are from different educational backgrounds and socioeconomic statuses. They each have various levels of leadership training prior to being in leadership at TG. The women are diverse in regard to the length of time they have attended Total

Grace Church. Three of the women have been members of the church for less than three years, five of them have been members for at least eight years, and the remaining two women have both been with Total Grace the entire ten years of its existence. All the women have at least a bachelor’s degree. They range from middle management to CEOs in their professional careers. These fifteen participants were selected out of an entire leadership team consisting of thirty people.

The process of selection simply involved informing the leadership team of what we would be doing. I sat everyone down in one of our meetings and gave them an overview of my project. I discussed with them the details of what I needed for them to do. I emphasized with them that if they started, I needed them to complete the workshop as well as the pre-test and post-test. I explained that we would meet once a week for four weeks for about two hours each session. Once they all heard what the expectations were, I then allowed them to volunteer to be a part of the class. The class consisted of the first fifteen to sign up and I said that I would do another class later in the year for those interested.

All fifteen of the participants completed the entire workshop, including the pre- test and post-test. Along the way, I noticed that several in the class were hesitant with conflating Afrocentricity with the way they read and interpret the bible. They were much more comfortable with discussing Afrocentricity in other areas of discipline. But, when it came to theology and church history, it was hard to accept that there were things in our faith that were directly connected to white supremacy or at least used to justify it. I was pleased with the sessions overall.

Participants were active and participatory in every class.

Procedure and Assessment

The first step in conducting my project was to search for as many resources pertaining to my subject matter as I could find. After gathering many different books and articles as well as listening to lectures online, I then used the information I gathered to design an eight-part workshop focusing on the biblical, theological, and historical attributes of my subject. My research discovered that there had been lots of work done on this subject by many different scholars. Most of what I found presented was church history from an Afrocentric perspective.

Based on the nature of the resources, there was so much information regarding things that are often minimized or erased in traditional aspects of the foundations of my project; biblical, historical, and theological. The workshop focused on the general concept of Afrocentricity, what it is, why is it important, and what benefits it can provide. Those three questions were essential to achieving my project goals.

Using the same resources, along with a few other scholarly works, we were also able to concretize what each student found most important about

Afrocentricity. By the end of the workshop, the participants were all capable of presenting the benefits of having an Afrocentric perspective. I made sure they knew what Afrocentricity was by highlighting Dr. Asante’s “Afrocentricity Theory of Social Change” and lectures. The four parts of the workshop were broken up into the foundations of the project, two regarding Theological, two regarding

Theological and Biblical, two regarding, two regarding Biblical and Historical and two regarding Historical. To open the sessions, we established a good understanding of what Afrocentricity is, its origin, and related scholars. We discussed the application of Afrocentrism in several areas of study, such as

Education, Medicine, and History. We also discussed the positive and negative attributes, using the position of different scholars.

The eight-part workshop consisted of a Theological, Biblical, and Historical section. The biblical section focused on 1 Peter 3:15-16 and what it is saying to us concerning my project. The biblical section focused on defending the faith. I emphasized how important it is to be able to share your faith and, based on the scripture used, the way in which you do it. Our focus was being able to tell our faith story in a way that is true to our cultural location as well as being able to do it competently and courageously despite the environment.

The theological sections focused on Liberation theology. James Cone, as well as other scholars, were used to present a clear understanding of the nature of Liberation theology. Utilizing Dr. Cone’s insight, I was able to establish and

72 present a theological construct of liberation by reviewing how throughout biblical history, God has shown over and over to be on the side of the oppressed, also discussing Jesus', what I like to call, mission statement found in Luk4:18. Jesus says he comes to proclaim the good news to the poor, proclaim freedom to the prisoner, and set the oppressed free.

Finally, the last section focused on the history of African culture in the early stages of Christianity. This section allowed me to go in-depth about the nature of church history and how it is generally told from the perspective of white males. Unfolding the history of the church in an Afrocentric way allowed us to discover the many elements of Church history that were set in Africa and greatly influenced by Africans. We focused on historical figures, the early church fathers as well as Christian African Kingdoms.

We meet weekly for one month, discussing two parts of the eight-part workshop each meeting. The participants were informed that there identity would remain private but their results would be utilized in my research. The workshop was conducted as a PowerPoint lead lecture followed by a group reflection of the material. In the first meeting, I administered a pre-test. The questionaire was designed to assess the current knowledge the class had concerning

Afrocentricity. This was compared with a post-test that would be administered at the end of the workshop. The assessment tools tht were used can be found on page 121. The meetings consistently started with prayer. We would take prayer requests and proceed to go around the room, each taking turns in prayer. This was excellent way to create a spiritual environment of learning. There was also a

73 prayer box available at each session for those who had more personal concerns.

Then we would review items from the previous class before answering any lingering questions from last week. Next, I would review last week's session.

Each session ends with about ten questions from the lesson, and those questions are used as the review during the next class.

After the review period, we would move into the next portion of the workshop, which is the teaching of two parts of the PowerPoint. My style of teaching is very engaging because I frequently ask questions along the way. My lectures were generally between sixty and ninety minutes. We would leave the last 30 minutes of class to break into groups of five, a different five each class, to discuss what was the most significant part of the presentation and how they felt it intersects with Afrocentricity. Afterward, one person from each group would stand up on behalf of that group and share with the class what they came up with within their group.

One week after the final workshop, we met again so that I could administer the post-test. Both the pre-test and post-test were based on a five- point Likert scale. The Likert scale was categorized in three different ways. Each category of the pre-test and post-test was based on what they knew, how they felt, and what they were willing to do with the information that was taught. They were asked to answer based on a scale from I strongly agree down to I strongly disagree. (please see attached appendix to see the actual test questions.) With the five-point Likert scale survey, I was able to assess how each participant was impacted. I was able to compare their pre-test answers with their post-test

74 answers. The tests also had an open-ended question regarding what they learned, felt, and were willing to do concerning the information they just learned in the workshop. In addition to what I gained through the tests, I also kept my own notes and journaled how I personally felt the classes were going and the changes in interest and excitement of the participants. I am very pleased with our results and confident that this will be beneficial to others.

CHAPTER FIVE

REPORTING THE RESULTS

The purpose of my project is to impact the leaders of Total Grace Church in Lexington Kentucky to be more Afrocentric in their knowledge, attitudes and actions.

In this chapter, I will report the results of this impact study by examining the five goals of the project. I utilized the same assessment tool, a five-point

Likert scale survey, as a pre and post-test to gauge the impact of the project on fifteen participants who attended and completed eight-part workshops over the course of four weeks.

I plotted the five-point Likert scale of the participants' responses to the questionnaire as 1) the average scores on the pre-test, 2) the average scores on the post-test, and 3) the resulting mathematical differences between pre-test scores and post-test scores. These scores revealed the degree of impact on the knowledge, attitude, and action regarding Afrocentricism due to matriculating through the eight-part workshop. I set out to accomplish five goals with this project. The results of each are as follows.

Goal #1: To Research the Secondary Literature

The purpose of this goal was to engage the secondary literature about

Afrocentrism. I consulted several books that helped me complete this project.

However, I will only discuss those that added the most value to the purpose of the project.

Researching the secondary literature allowed me to add depth to the project and execute it with a balanced approach. The following books and articles provided the critical information needed to build the foundation of this project, add insight regarding different perspectives, and provided context as to how it all relates to

Christianity: A Theology of Black Liberation by James Cone 2010, Multiethnic

Roots of Christianity by Vince Bantu 2016, Afrocentrism, the Bible, and the

Politics of Difference by Cain Hope Felder 1993, Honoring the Ancestors: Toward an Afrocentric Theology of Liberation, Ancient African Christianity by David

Wilhite 2017, The Blessing of Africa by Keith Burton 2007, and Afrocentricity: The

Theory of Social Change by Molefi Asante 2003.

The traditional and nontraditional commentaries by various scholars unveiled informative biblical insight regarding the challenge to competently and courageously defend the faith and how Afrocentric perspectives could be beneficial to the leaders at Total Grace Church. True to Our Native Land: An

African American New Testament Commentary, Global Bible Commentary; Africa

Bible Commentary: A One-Volume Commentary written by over 70 African

Scholars provide the theological and historical context needed to identify the need for Afrocentrism for the leaders at Total Grace Church.

Goal # 2: To impact the participants’ knowledge of Afrocentrism

The purpose of this goal was to impact the participants' knowledge of

Afrocentrism. The change for this goal can be broken down into three categories:

Major impact, moderate impact, and Minor impact (See Table 1).

Table 1: Knowledge Questions 1-8 (Goal #2) Average Average Question Change Post-Test Pre-Test (1) I know what Molefie Asante teaches 4.33 1.53 +2.80 about Afrocentrism. (7) I know that a Eurocentric world view 4.73 3.40 +1.33 impacts Christianity. (3) I know that our world view impacts 4.70 3.80 +0.90 theology. (2) I know the importance of Afrocentrism. 4.40 3.52 +0.88 (5) I know that blacks were Christians prior 4.60 3.73 +0.87 to the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. (4) I know believers should be prepared to 4.73 4.13 +0.60 defend their faith. (8) I know that cultural identity is an 4.80 4.13 +0.60 important part of your faith journey. (6) I know that Africans were involved in 4.67 4.07 +0.60 the establishment of the early church. Note: the scores are average scores based on 15 participants. They responded by using a Likert scale of 1-5 (5=Strongly Agree; 4=Agree; 3=Not Sure; 2=Disagree; and 1=Strongly Disagree)

The results for questions 1, 2, 3, 5, and 7 had noticeable differences that ranged from +0.87 to + 2.8, which suggests a noteworthy increase in knowledge.

Question number 1, "I know what Molefi Asante teaches about Afrocentricity,” had the largest difference with +2.8. This demonstrates that the participants knowledge concerning Dr. Asante’s teachings increased after completing the workshop. Question number 7, “I know that a Eurocentric world view impacts

Christianity,” had the next largest difference with +1.33. The increase here is evidence that the participants gained an understanding regarding the impact a

Eurocentric world view has on Christianity. Question number 3,” I know that our world view impacts our theology,” was next with a difference of +0.9. This increase shows the participants knowledge regarding theology and the way it is impacted by their world view increased as a result of the workshop. Question number 2, “I know the importance of Afrocentricity,” followed with the next highest difference of +0.88. This increase demonstrates that completing the workshop allowed the participant to gain knowledge regarding the importance of

Afrocentricity. Question number 5, "I know that blacks were Christians prior to the

Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade,” was slightly less with a difference of 0.87. Although this increase was less than the previous questions, it does show that the participants knowledge concerning the subject did increase. These results show that the participants learned something they had not previously known prior to this project, thus impacting their knowledge.

The results for questions 4, 6, and 8 showed a moderate change, which ranged from +0.67 to +0.6. Question number 8, "I know that cultural identity is an important part of your faith journey," showed a difference of +0.67. This change demonstrates a moderate improvement in the participants knowledge regarding cultural identity. Question number 6, "I know that Africans were involved in the establishment of the early church," and number 4, "I know believers should be prepared to defend their faith," both scored a +0.6 difference. Although there was not a major change, the moderate change also shows that the participants' knowledge was impacted to a slightly lesser degree than with the previous questions.

Goal #3 To impact the participants' attitudes about Afrocentrism.

The purpose of this goal was to impact the participants' attitudes regarding

Afrocentrism. The results of change pertaining to this goal are also broken down into categories. There are three, Major impact, Moderate impact, and Minor impact. (See Table 2)

Table 2: Attitude Questions 9-16 (Goal #3) Average Average Question Change Post-Test Pre-Test (9) I believe what Molefie Asante teaches 4.40 2.73 +1.67 about Afrocentrism. (11) I believe our world view impacts 4.73 3.53 +1.20 theology. (16) I believe that cultural identity is an 4.53 3.60 +0.93 important part of your faith journey. (12) I believe believers should be prepared 4.67 3.93 +0.74 to defend their faith. (13) I believe that blacks were Christians 4.73 4.07 +0.66 prior to the Trans-Atlantic slave trade. (10) I believe in the importance of 4.67 4.20 +0.47 Afrocentrism. (14) I believe that Africans were involved in 4.60 4.13 +0.47 the establishment of the early church. (15) I believe that a Eurocentric world view 4.60 4.13 +0.47 impacts Christianity. Note the scores are average scores based on 15 participants. They responded by using a Likert scale of 1-5 (5=Strongly Agree; 4=Agree; 3=Not Sure; 2=Disagree; and 1=Strongly Disagree)

The results for questions 9, 11, and 16 had the greatest change that ranged from +0.93 to +1.67, which signified there is a major impact on the attitude of the participants regarding Afrocentrism. Question 9, "I believe Molefi

Asante's teachings on Afrocentrism, "had the largest change of +1.67. This large increase demonstrates that the participants attitude regarding Dr. Asante’s teachings was positively impacted. Question 11, "I believe our world view impacts our theology," had the next highest change of +1.2. Here we see the

80 participants attuite regarding the impact world view has on theology was positively impacted. Question 16, "I believe that cultural identity is an important part of your faith journey," had a change of +.093. These results showed that there was a definite impact on the attitudes regarding.

The results for questions 12 and 13 had a change that ranged from +0.66 to +0.74. This demonstrates a moderate change in attitude. Question 12, "I believe that believers should be prepared to defend their faith," had a change of

+0.74. This change infers that the participants attitude regarding the necessity of being able to share your faith was positively impacted. Question 13, "I believe that blacks were Christian prior to the Trans-Atlantic Slave trade," had a difference of 0.66. This increase is evidence that the participants attitude regarding blacks being Christian prior to the slave trade was positively impacted.

These two questions, although not major, showed a moderate impact on the participants' attitude after completing the eight-part workshop.

The results for questions 10, 14, and 15 all had a difference of +0.47.

Question 10, "I believe Afrocentrism is important," (14), "I believe that Africans were involved in the establishment of the early church," and (15), "I believe that a

Eurocentric world view impacts Christianity," all had a change of +0.47 which indicated a minor change in the attitudes of those who participated in the eight- part workshop.

Goal #4 To impact the participants’ action about Afrocentrism

The purpose of this goal was to impact the participants' actions regarding

Afrocentrism. The results of change pertaining to this goal are also broken down

81 into three categories: Major impact, Moderate impact, and Minor impact. (See

Table 3)

Table 3: Action Questions 17-24 (Goal #4) Average Average Question Change Post-Test Pre-Test (23) I am willing to communicate that a Eurocentric world view impacts 4.67 3.53 +1.14 Christianity. (19) I am willing to communicate our 4.60 3.73 +0.87 world view impacts theology. (17) I am willing to communicate what Molefi Asante teaches about 4.33 3.47 +0.86 Afrocentrism. (18) I am willing to communicate the 4.53 3.67 +0.86 importance of Afrocentrism. (20) I am willing to communicate; believers should be prepared to defend 4.53 3.93 +0.60 their faith. (22) I am willing to communicate that Africans were involved in the 4.53 3.87 +0.60 establishment of the early church. (24) I am willing to communicate that cultural identity is an important part of 4.60 4.07 +0.53 your faith journey. (21) I am willing to communicate that blacks were Christians prior to the Trans- 4.40 4.13 +0.27 Atlantic slave trade. Note the scores are average scores based on 15 participants. They responded by using a Likert scale of 1-5 (5=Strongly Agree; 4=Agree; 3=Not Sure; 2=Disagree; and 1=Strongly Disagree)

The averages for questions 17, 18, 19, and 23 had a difference that ranged from +1.14 to +0.86. This showed a major impact on action. Question 23,

"I am willing to communicate that a Eurocentric world view impacts Christianity," had a difference of +1.14. This change is evidence that the participant willingness to take action was positively impacted. Question 19, "I am willing to communicate how our world view impacts theology," had a difference of +0.87. This change is evidence of the participant’s willingness to take action being positively impacted.

Question 17, "I am willing to communicate Molefi Asante's teaching on

Afrocentrism," and question 18, "I am willing to communicate the importance of

Afrocentrism," both showed a difference of +0.86. These results demonstrated a major impact on the participants' willingness to act concerning Afrocentrism.

The weighted average results for questions, 20 and 22, both showed a change of +0.60, which indicated a moderate change in attitude. Question 20, "I am willing to communicate that believers should be able to defend their faith," and question 22, "I am willing to communicate that Africans were involved in the establishment of the early church," both show a moderate change of +0.60. This moderate change demonstrated that the eight-part workshop impacted the participant's willingness to act regarding Afrocentrism.

The average results for questions 21 and 24 ranged from +0.27 to +0.53, which demonstrated a minor impact on action. Question 21, “I am willing to communicate that blacks were Christian prior to the Trans-Atlantic slave trade,” had a difference of +0.23. This change is evidence of the participant’s willingness to take action being positively impacted. Question 24, “I am willing to communicate that cultural identity is an important part of your faith Journey,” had a change of +0.53. The changes in both these questions demonstrated a minor impact on the actions of the participants of the eight-part workshop regarding

Afrocentrism.

In summation of all three areas of impact, knowledge, attitude, and action the results show that the greatest impact on both knowledge and attitude were regarding Dr. Asante’s teaching concerning Afrocentricity. This is evidence that

83 the workshop improved both the participant’s knowledge and attitude regarding

Dr. Asante’s teachings. The greatest change in action was different from the others. What the participants became increasingly willing to do upon completion of the workshop was to communicate how Eurocentricity impacts Christianity. As the participants knowledge regarding Afrocentricity increased it appears they gained a greater appreciation for the impact Eurocentricity has on Christianity thus increasing their willingness to address it.

Goal # 5: To evaluate the study

Table 4 below illustrates the average ratings and percentages of participants whose responses ranged from "Agree to Strongly Agree" (See Table

4).

Table 4: Evaluation Questions 1-6 (Goal #5) % of Participants Average Question (Agree to Strongly Rating Agree) (1) This study is helpful to me. 4.80 100% (2) This study has impacted my 4.80 100% knowledge of Afrocentrism. (3) This study has impacted my actions 4.80 100% on Afrocentrism. (4) This study has impacted my attitude 4.73 100% about Afrocentrism (5) This study allowed me to express all 4.67 100% my thoughts concerning Afrocentricity. (6 The results of this study should be 100% 4.53 made available to all parishioners. Note the scores are average scores based on 15 participants. They responded by using a Likert scale of 1-5 (5=Strongly Agree; 4=Agree; 3=Not Sure; 2=Disagree; and 1=Strongly Disagree)

On question 1, "This study was helpful to me," question 3, "This study has impacted my knowledge of Afrocentrism," and question 5, "this study has

84 impacted my actions on Afrocentrism," the average rating was 4.8 out of a possible 5 and 100% of the participants answered "Agree" to "Strongly Agree" for each question. These results showed that the participants feel this information was helpful to them; it impacted their knowledge and actions regarding

Afrocentrism. This suggest that the workshop was beneficial to the participants.

Question 4, “This study has impacted my attitude about Afrocentrism,” had a rating of 4.73. Question 2, "This study allowed me to express all my thoughts concerning Afrocentrism," had a rating of 4.67 out of a possible 5, and 100% of the participants answered "Agree" to "Strongly Agree" for each question. These results demonstrated that the participants' attitude regarding Afrocentrism changed positively and they felt they were able to express their thoughts on the subject. This suggest that the workshop not only effectively educated the participants buy also created space for their thoughts to be heard and addressed.

Question 6, "The results of this study should be made available to all parishioners," had a change of 4.53. This result indicated that the participants feel this information should be made available to others in the church.

In this chapter, I presented the results gained from the pre and post-test surveys given to fifteen participants at Total Grace Church in Lexington,

Kentucky. The purpose of the surveys was to measure the impact of the participants' knowledge, attitude, and actions regarding Afrocentrism. Based on the participants' responses to the surveys, the project made an impact in all three areas.

CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY AND REFLECTIONS

In the movie The Lion King, young Simba walked around overly confident in himself. He was willing to take risks and functioned like he owned the world.

The fact that Simba struggled to let out a lion-like roar, but instead sounded like a mere household pet cat, informs the viewers that Simba's confidence was not in his own abilities. Simba's confidence was the result of a strong heritage of great leaders, one of which was his father, who was the King of the Pride Lands.

Simba's story drastically changes when he witnesses the death of his father and is convinced by the antagonist of the movie, his uncle Scar, that his fathers' death was his fault. This caused Simba to leave his heritage behind, forgetting who he was and the lineage he was connected to. This is the same premise that is at the heart of this project; to increase knowledge, attitudes, and actions regarding Afrocentrism, which essentially emphasizes the importance of knowing the heritage and lineage from which African Americans have come.

As advanced and progressive as today's society is, as a country, we are still very exclusive in the way we tell history. We are very much boxed into a

Eurocentric world view that delimits and minimizes the accomplishments and contributions of those other than Europeans. This is especially true for African

Americans who were robbed of the opportunity to have an unbroken connection with their heritage. This project developed an eight-part workshop intended to

86 impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions regarding Afrocentrism, in a way that allows those of African descent to become aware of their contribution to the world throughout history. The results of this study demonstrate the workshop was successful in reaching the goals of the project. Participants who completed the workshop displayed a considerable positive impact on their knowledge, attitudes, and actions regarding Afrocentrism. The participants also overwhelmingly suggested that the workshop be made available to others.

Project Goals

The purpose of my project is to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders regarding Afrocentrism at Total Grace Church, Lexington,

Kentucky. In order to successfully evaluate the project, I established the following goals.

1. To evaluate the secondary literature on the subject matter.

2. To impact the participants' knowledge of Afrocentrism.

3. To impact the participants' attitude of Afrocentrism

4. To impact the participants' actions of Afrocentrism.

5. To evaluate the study

Goals 2-4 will be analyzed, beginning with the goal that had the most prominent findings, followed by the remainder of the goals in descending order of prominence.

Goal Number Two

To impact the participants' knowledge of Afrocentrism.

Goal number two produced the most prominent findings. After administering both the pre-test and post-test and analyzing the acquired data, there was a composite change of +1.07. This data helps substantiate my expectations that the participants' knowledge of Afrocentrism would improve after engaging in my eight-part workshop. First, I believe that a reason for this positive impact was because the overall knowledge of the subject matter was initially relatively low. Although most people had heard the term Afrocentrism, they did not possess any in-depth definition. Next, I also believe that considering the current social climate in our country, the increased racial animus, and the overtly blatant systemic oppression, the participants were eager to learn about this information. Finally, I think that because of the recent rise in Black consciousness and its challenges waged against the authenticity of the Church and Christianity, many were anxious to reinforce their ability to effectively communicate with those who feel as though Christianity is not a religion for black people. I observed that many of the participants had experienced some type of confrontation with a religious black nationalist group or had someone in their family that left

Christianity to connect with one of these groups. They were also intimidated by these groups because they felt unprepared and unequipped to engage in discussions regarding the subject. The implication here is that there is a need within the leadership at Total Grace, which I take as a microcosm of the general

88 society, to establish biblical, historical, and theological context through an

Afrocentric lens.

Goal Number Three

To impact the participants' attitudes toward Afrocentrism

Goal number two produced the second most prominent findings with a composite change of +0.83. After analyzing the collected data concerning the participants' attitudes towards Afrocentrism, there was a clear impact demonstrated. Once people became more aware of what Afrocentrism was their attitude regarding it changed. Upon asking and answering questions during the workshop, I discovered that most of the participants that had a negative attitude were also among those who had the least knowledge about the concept. I believe that the negative attitude is a result of being immersed in a Eurocentric

Christian context. For most of us, it is normative that black people are not represented in our faith stories. When the cultural and ethnic identity of black people is shown, the response is generally one of animosity. You will often hear,

"why does race, ethnicity, and culture matter?" Responses like this continue to minimize the contributions of those other than Europeans. This general position concerning Christianity has the potential to shame those who seek to find cultural identity in the Bible. As a result, there is a negative view of Afrocentricity or any social concept that highlights history other than that which we have been taught.

The questions that were asked of the participants directly related to the attitude they had regarding the subject matter, which allowed us to focus on the impact the workshop had on the participants' attitude regarding Afrocentricity.

Goal Number Four

To impact the participants' actions of Afrocentrism

Goal number four, although not as much as the other two, demonstrated positive change in the actions of the participants regarding Afrocentrism. The composite change presented by this goal was + 0.72. The question was specific to the participants' willingness to take action regarding what they have learned regarding Afrocentrism. This data, when observed with the other goals, demonstrated a connection between all three. The workshop impacted the knowledge of the participants, and as their knowledge increased, it impacted their attitude. Once their attitudes were positively impacted, it translated in a willingness to act. I believe that the impact was slightly smaller than the previous two because a person’s willingness to act is a difficult thing to motivate. The are many who completely understand something, have a positive attitude regarding it; however, it is not enough of an active part in their lives to truly engage in action regarding it. With that being said, I am completely satisfied with the impact that was made on the knowledge, attitudes, and actions concerning Afrocentrism with the leaders of Total Grace Church.

Applications

In this section, I will share how I am applying my findings in my particular ministry context. As the lead pastor of the Total Grace Church, one of my primary roles is teaching and preaching. One of our major focuses as a church is on discipleship. In order to accomplish the goal of discipleship with our members, we offer a series of discipleship classes. The different classes consist of classes

90 on prayer, spiritual gifts, fasting, Bible 101and a few others. I have added the information from my project's eight-part workshop and created an additional discipleship class to add to our list of classes. Our discipleship program is called

Discipleship University. In addition to becoming a part of our discipleship program, I have also been blessed with the opportunity to take a group of local pastors through our workshop as a way to equip them to handle the impact of black national groups on their individual congregations. Because of the need for the subject matter, I have also been asked to take place in several conferences across the country to discuss Afrocentricity in the church. My overall goal for application is to publish my project as a book and hopefully get the opportunity to continue to travel and share this information.

Further Study

In this section, I will suggest areas of my project that need additional research. If someone was looking for a way to continue my work, I would suggest compiling a comprehensive document of all the significant Africans throughout

Church history, detailing their beliefs and contributions to the faith. In addition to that, I would suggest engaging all the major ancient Kingdoms of Africa and documenting the intersectionality of their customs, values, and culture with

Christianity. My hope would be to identify possible elements of early Christianity particular to Africans that might serve as a guide to African Americans as they work to more closely relate to their African roots. I would also suggest creating a timeline of the evolution of the African churches that are still in existence today. I would juxtapose the experience within these churches with the black church

91 experience of African Americans. My attempt would be to identify differences that may be a direct result of Eurocentric influence. Finally, as an American scholar, I would recommend taking a trip to the areas of Africa that have the richest

Christian history. By doing this, you get an opportunity to experience the culture of the area and interview African Christians firsthand. Documenting the Christian experience from the perspective of Africa is the essence of my project.

Personal Goals

Several years ago, I was confronted in a very public way by a group of young black men who identified themselves as members of the Nation of Islam.

Knowing that I was a Christian pastor, they began to engage me regarding questions about Christianity. Amongst several onlookers, they began to explain to all those around how Christianity was a religion created for white oppressors and that it had been forced upon us as a means to create docile, obedient slaves. What I immediately noticed is the matter of fact way in which they spoke about the subject. Much of what they were saying, I didn't have a competent rebuttal. In this encounter, I could feel those around being enticed by the seemingly knowledgeable arguments being made by these gentlemen. It was during that encounter that I made up in my mind that I would seek the information to be able to adequately defend Christianity in those types of settings. That is why when I set out on this academic journey and engaged my project, I had the following goals.

1. To become more confident sharing my faith with the conscious black community.

2. To expand my knowledge of Afrocentricity and how it relates to Christianity.

3. To embrace an Afrocentric hermeneutic in my personal study.

4. To be open and available to whatever God has planned through this process.

Personal Goal Number One To become more confident sharing my faith with the conscious black community.

As in the story I just told regarding the encounter with the Nation of Islam,

I began to feel an overwhelming calling to explore Christianity from an Afrocentric perspective. The best way to establish an understanding of the relationship between Afrocentricity and Christianity was to pursue information based on biblical, theological, and historical foundations. As I started to study my subject matter from a biblical perspective, 1 Peter 3:15-16 became my text of focus. This particular scripture spoke to the need to be able to defend your faith against those who question it. As I observed this specific scripture, I was inspired to establish two fundamentals of sharing my faith. These were to do so competently and confidently. In the scenario I spoke of earlier, I was neither of those things. I could not have confidence because I was not competent in defending my faith against such attacks. This project has given me the opportunity to become competent in what I know about the history of Christianity from an Afrocentric perspective. One of the most challenging questions was, "would African

Americans be Christians if they were not introduced to Christianity through slavery. As I investigated the presence of Christianity in ancient Africa, I was amazed at the impact and contributions that were made to the faith by Africans.

This alone was enough to debunk the claim that slavery was our introduction to

Christianity. I can now more competently discuss the rich history of Christianity throughout history.

Theologically, Dr. James Cone taught me the need for African Americans to be able to look at theology through a lens created within and for our culture. In his work Theology of Black Liberation, I was able to see how if I was going to address the questions that were arising from within the black community, I must be able to communicate theology in a language that can be understood by that community. The historical evidence I discovered regarding Christianity in Nubia,

Ethiopia, and Egypt was simply amazing; the early impact of Christianity had on these nations and the impact they had on Christianity as a whole. All this information I gained during this project definitely allowed me to accomplish the goal of becoming more confident in sharing my faith in environments that aren't exactly opened to Christianity.

Personal Goal Number Two

My goal is to expand my knowledge of Afrocentricity and how it relates to

Christianity.

Although I was familiar with Dr. Molefi Asante's concept of Afrocentrism, I never considered its intersectionality with Christianity. Dr. Asante demonstrates his theory of social change from a myriad of different perspectives. What was most insightful to me was his presentation of the educational system. He states that our educational system is constructed within a Eurocentric box. Every discipline is presented with its genesis being connected to the Greeks. What Dr.

Asante's work did for me is expose the reality that many things could be traced

94 back much further than Greece and much had its origin in Africa. The realization that history was being told from a Eurocentric perspective caused me to consider the possibility of the same thing happening with church history. Dr. Cain Hope

Felder's article, Afrocentrism, the Bible, and the Politics of Difference really helped see the intersection of the two. Felder boldly states that the story of Christ and the history of Christianity and the church were whitewashed and removed from its cultural setting of Africa. It is common today for the entire biblical cast from Adam to Jesus to be thought of as typical Europeans, which blatantly exposes the influence Eurocentricity has had on the world. Utilizing the

Afrocentric concept when studying the Bible and considering biblical history is the essence of my project. I am grateful to have expanded my knowledge regarding this subject matter.

Personal Goal Number Three

My goal is to embrace an Afrocentric hermeneutic in my personal study

As I have made my way through seminary, I learned a very specific way to engage the Bible. Inductive bible study class was my favorite class. I was able to engage the biblical text with a depth I never had before. However, even when learning those techniques, I always had to avoid allowing my personal perspective to influence me at all. Combining the Afrocentric paradigm with biblical interpretation allowed my particular social context to be addressed.

Having the freedom to interpret the Bible in a way that speaks to my culture and my people specifically was a powerful discovery. Dr. Mitzi Smith's class on

Womanist theology opened my eyes to the importance of the reader's social

95 location as something to embrace. Much like womanist theology, Afrocentric theology is not only about black people, but it is about giving voice to those on the margins as it relates to biblical interpretation. This project has allowed me to embrace an Afrocentric hermeneutic, which in turn allows me to minister more directly into settings that are unique to the African American experience.

Therefore, as I continue to accept speaking engagements of debates regarding this subject matter I am now more able to articulate Christianity through the lens of Afrocentricity.

Personal Goal Number Four

My goal is to be more open and more available to whatever God has planned

through this process

After completing this project, I can truly say that God has been speaking into my life. I set out with a goal to attain as much knowledge as I could, not considering how the information could impact me. Through prayer and much time in devotion, God has been directing me regarding my studies. He has opened several opportunities to share my work, and the response and feedback have been phenomenal. At this point, I am anxiously awaiting whatever things God has in store for me. However, he chooses to use me and the work, I am completely opened to it, and I continue to pray for that assignment to be revealed to me.

Concluding Thoughts

In order to adequately provide a summation to this experience, I want to address a few things I realized throughout this process. First, I would like to

96 acknowledge that I was not aware of the number of resources that are available which discuss Ancient African Christianity. It was refreshing to read different

African American and other scholars of color who have put much time and effort into compiling historical facts regarding this subject matter. It truly demonstrated for me the power of having black representation in a particular field of study. This allows there to be a certain emphasis placed on a voice that would ordinarily be silenced, ignored, or drowned out.

Second, prior to this project, I was oblivious to the impact that Africa and

Africans had on the early development of Christianity. I earned two bachelor’s degrees and a master's degree in ministry without realizing that the early church fathers I had learned about were African. It was not until I started a black church studies degree program that the early church fathers were introduced as being black Africans.

Finally, I realized that many of the tough questions hurled at Christianity by Black Nationalist groups and the Black Conscious Community could be addressed and answered from a perspective that resonates with those groups.

As such groups are searching for a sense of cultural identity within Christianity being able to communicate the reality and history of African culture through the

Christian experience will be extremely impactful. All of these things influence my summary of my experience during this process. As I reflect upon this project and its findings, I am excited to discover the potential that exists within people to be impacted by an Afrocentric view of Christianity. Not only the measured change but also the visible and verbalized engagement and excitement of the

97 participants was inspiring and fulfilling. This experience was personally significant because it allowed me to engage a portion of my cultural history and ancestry I was unaware of. As I discovered the Ancient African impact on early Christianity and the different African Kingdoms that were Christian, it allowed me to connect some dots with recent DNA ancestry research I had done. It was amazing to connect my own African history with regions and cultures that were so impactful during the formative era of Church history. I believe that this project is significant for the people of God because it will present Christianity from a perspective that resonates with a demographic of people whose presence in traditional church history has been overlooked. This perspective has the potential to create a positive self-image by discovering the significant contributions made throughout history by people of color. Overall this experience has been enlightening and fulfilling at the core of who I am as a young African American male.

APPENDIX ONE

ASHLAND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

A PROJECT PROPOSAL SUBMITTED TO

THE FACULTY OF ASHLAND THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF MINISTRY

MICHAEL C ROBINSON

ASHLAND, OH

June 1, 2019

Purpose Statement

The purpose of my project is to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders regarding Afrocentrism at Total Grace Church, Lexington

Kentucky.

The Research Question

How much of the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders at Total

Grace Church changed regarding Afrocentrism as a result of this impact study?

The Overview

“Until lions start writing down their own stories hunters will continue to be the heroes.”

~ African Proverb

As a young Pastor in an urban area densely populated by African

Americans, I am often approached with questions concerning the authenticity of

Christianity and its relationship with Africa. After not only hearing statements like,

100

The purpose of my project is to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders regarding Afrocentrism at Total Grace Church, Lexington

Kentucky. The specific focus of this project is to evaluate the secondary literature on the subject matter. First there will be a pre-test administered using a five-point

Likert scale survey. After taking the participants through an eight-part workshop on Afrocentrism a post test will be administered in order to assess the change in knowledge, attitudes and actions regarding Afrocentrism. The workshop will focus on the biblical, theological, and historical aspects of Afrocentrism. The participants will consist of 15 leaders of Total Grace Church. They will be selected from a pool of thirty total leaders. The workshop will focus on the biblical, theological, and historical aspects of Afrocentrism.

Foundations

Biblical Foundation

15 but in your hearts honor Christ the Lord as holy, always being prepared to make a defense to anyone who asks you for a reason for the hope that is in you; yet do it with gentleness and respect, 16 having a good conscience, so that, when you are slandered, those who revile your good behavior in Christ may be put to shame. (1 Peter 3:15-16)

From the traditional perspective of John Elliot’s commentary on 1 Peter, he entitles 3:13-4:6 Doing what is right in the face of hostility and 3:11-17 Doing what is right despite suffering. As Elliot engages this pericope, due to the uncertainty of the syntactical relation of 3:15b-16a, he addresses two possible constructions of information. First, he suggests the lack of a finite verb causes

101

3:15b-16a to be modifiers of the closest finite verb, which is in the phrase Honor

Christ the Lord as holy. This structure would be challenging to accept because, as Elliot states, its formulation would create a rather inappropriate qualification of

3:15a. 3:15a denotes an inward condition of the heart whereas 3:15b-16a speaks of outward communication. Due to these challenges, Elliot presents a second possible structure where 3:15b and 16b are taken as a related but independent clause with imperatival forces. Therefore, although the two are independent, they continue the preceding thought. "Fearlessness toward outside detractors is to be manifested in a readiness to provide a public account of oneself, especially regarding the hope that arouses their curiosity” (Elliot 2001, 97). With the second structure in mind, Elliot deals with 4 points concerning this pericope; (1) An ongoing state of preparedness; (2) The double accusative of the verb "Request";

(3) The curiosity about hope; (4) The manner in which believers should respond.

Elliot engages the four words ready, reply, always, and everyone in order to present his first point. The adjective ready in this instance denotes a readiness for something. The something in which the readiness is focused is seen in the word reply (apologia gk). This word is often referencing a personal defense in judicial typesetting. However, in this instance, it is more of a general accusation instead of a legal one. Next, the words always and everyone are so nonspecific that they suggest an ongoing state of preparedness, always being ready to reply to anyone who asks. The picture being projected demonstrates the constant inquiries regarding our hope in Christ made by those with different ideologies and beliefs.

102

Next, Elliot addresses the double accusative element of the word request.

This speaks to the request of the person being asked and the thing that is being requested. The focus of this point supports his earlier claims concerning the word

Apologia. He stated that in this case, apologia is not being stated judicially but generally. It is a general request and not a judicial demand as in an official hearing. Therefore, this request initiates a voluntary response and not one that is coerced.

Then Elliot makes an observation regarding the curiosity of hope. Hope is subjective and personal making it challenging to define. Elliot contrasts this with a request of a legal response which would require evidence to substantiate the claim. Since this is not requiring a formal defense, the reply to the question of hope is given from a place of personal experience and understanding.

Finally, Elliot addresses the way believers should offer their response. The scripture states that it should be done with gentleness and reverence. This again demonstrates the nature of the request as not being judicial but general. In a judicial sense, the expectation would be to respond with courage and fortitude almost to the extent of arguing your view. However, in these more casual inquiries, modesty and commitment to God are more appropriate. This type of response would not only substantiate the nature of Christian hope but also attract a positive response. Elliot also makes another fascinating point by comparing the word/account in both 3:15 and 4:5. In the latter scripture, it speaks of those who defame believers having to give an account before God of their deeds which is

103 different from this verse where believers are giving an account to those who question their hope. Elliot calls this a turning of the tables.

To summarize, Elliot emphasizes these requests as ongoing inquirers from curious outsiders who are intrigued by a distinguishing hope within themselves that sparks their curiosity. It is then our responsibility to be ready to respond in a manner that reflects the hope that resides within us. In relation to my project, Elliot's breakdown of this scripture solidifies the importance of being able to address questions regarding our faith. Questions concerning the authenticity of Christianity and its relationship with Africa requires a type of preparedness that is not adequately created from a Eurocentric view of scripture.

Therefore, it is critical that we explore Afrocentricity as a means to develop a level of preparedness to give a defense of the faith with a competent knowledge of its connections to Africa and Africans.

Observations from a more nontraditional commentary, True to our Native

Land, contributor Larry George denotes a different approach of application regarding 1 Peter 3. In this work, there is a broader view of the passage, starting first with Peter's instructions for new converts to possess a particular affinity for one another that demonstrated God's love between them, especially before the backdrop of persecution and suffering. Previously, Peter used the example of husbands mistreating their wives as having the consequence of God not responding to their prayers. In 3:10-12 Peter quotes an Old Testament passage,

Psalm 34:12-16, which supports the idea of our prayers being hindered due to our response and treatment of enemies. In this same vein, the expectation is to

104 respond passively to persecution by suffering righteously but at the same time answering the request regarding your hope in Christ with gentleness and reverence. This will then demonstrate a sense of being spiritually grounded. This places the believer in a position to avoid arguing angrily, but instead engage debate with gentleness, demonstrating the love of God.

The purpose of my project is to impact the knowledge, attitudes, and actions of leaders regarding Afrocentrism at Total Grace Church, Lexington

Kentucky. In doing this, it will increase their ability to respond to inquiries regarding the hope they have in Christ. They will remain in an ongoing state of preparedness and possess the knowledge necessary to maintain composure and answer gently, with reverence, exemplifying their very hope in Christ as well as demonstrating a sense of being spiritually grounded in the face of challenges and persecution.

Theological Foundations

My project is grounded in black liberation theology. James Cone believes that a theology that does not lean in the direction of the oppressed is not a theology of the gospel at all. In his work a black theology of liberation, he makes an intriguing distinction between Karl Barth and Paul Tillich’s theological approaches as an example of how sources and norms shape the character of theology. Both theologians consider the necessity for the Bible and culture when engaging theology. However, it is obviously seen that culture plays a much more significant role in Tillich's theology as opposed to Barth whose theological emphasis is on the Bible. Cone states that "for Barth scripture is the witness to

105 the word of God and is thus indispensable to doing theology. Tillich on the other hand agrees that the Bible is important but holds that the task of making the gospel relevant to the contemporary mind is equally important" (Cone 2010, 22).

Cone asserts that kerygmatic theologians such as Barth are answering questions that the modern world is not asking, and that culture must be the point of relevant theology. For Barth and other theologians like him, questions regarding humanity are birthed from an understanding of Christology. On the other hand, Tillich's questions of humanity evolve from the influence of culture, and he answers them based on that position. These approaches are shaped by their theological perspectives. Cone suggests that "because a perspective refers to the whole of a person's being in the context of a community, the sources and norm of black theology must be consistent with the perspective of the black community” (Cone

2010, 24). I agree with both Tillich and Cone’s view of culture and think their positions support my project. The Eurocentric nature of popular and common apologetics tends to not effectively address questions that are asked from the

African American community. The culture of that community informs their understanding of and questions about Christianity. Therefore, an Afrocentric approach to engaging an African American community makes sense.

As Cone attempts to identify the sources in black theology, he acknowledges that they are still evolving. However, he definitively expresses six that currently exist. These six are black experience, black history, black culture, revelation, scripture, and tradition. As my project deals with impacting the knowledge of Afrocentrism among the leaders at Total Grace Church, the

106 sources of black theology that most intently engage the subject are black experience, black history, and tradition.

Beginning with the black experience, Cone states “there can be no black theology which does not take serious the black experience – a life of humiliation and suffering.” This initial source intersects my project’s focus. The absence or even omission of the black experience creates a theological void. The inability to proclaim Christ from a place of our own existential plight forces unwanted assimilation into a Christianity upon which we cannot relate. For this reason,

Black theology must be rooted in the black experience. Cone concludes his thoughts on the black experience by saying, "black theology cannot speak of God and God's involvement in contemporary America without identifying God's presence with the events of liberation in the black community” (Cone 2010, 27).

As important as the black experience is, the role of black history in black theology must not be minimized. From the shores of Africa to the land of

Christianity. Cone writes, “If black theology is going to speak to the condition of black persons, it cannot ignore the history of white inhumanity committed against them” (Cone 2010, 27). As I agree with Cone’s assertion that black history is a source of black theology, I would also emphasize the fact that our history did not begin with the middle passage and that the richness of our African history must

107 be explored in conjunction with the atrocities that followed our American encounter.

The final source of black theology I would like to address is tradition. An observation of tradition must be made in order to adequately engage theology.

Cone says, "though tradition is essential for any theological evaluation of

Christianity, black theology is not uncritical of it, particularly the history of

Western Christianity since the fourth century" (Cone 2010, 34). In agreement with

Cone, I feel that not only was this era the mark of the decline of the Church, it was the rise of some mutated semblance of her. As Christianity was established as the official religion of the Roman empire, that in itself created a critical conflict.

If Christianity in its earliest form was a champion for the poor and oppressed, it is no longer credible once it becomes the official religion of the oppressor. Even with the Protestant Reformation, you see the positioning of Christianity on behalf of the state. These traditions are not beneficial to the black community.

Therefore, Cone states, "Black theology is concerned only with the tradition of

Christianity that is usable in the black liberation struggle” (Cone 2010, 24).

In each of these sources written by Cone, Tradition, Black experience and

Black history, all connect black people to a common culture that had been lost on

American soil. Being a people existing in a land that never had us in mind in the development of its infrastructure or processes, the need to understand the depths of our past benefits us as a people moving forward into the future. In many cases, the extreme stances of Afrocentrism come from those needs, even to the extent of departing Christianity when there are no elements of it to which

108 one can relate. Therefore, to increase the knowledge concerning Afrocentrism one may be able to see the true relationship it has with Africa and African

Americans and that it supports Christianity instead of opposing it.

Historical Foundation

My project is set in the history of education in the Black church. The historical context of Christian education in the Black church has evolved over time. In its earliest stages, one of its most prevalent purposes was to inject literacy into the community of Black people. In Floyd-Thomas' work, Black

Church Studies: An Introduction, she says, "The origins of Christian education in the Black Church are rooted at the intersection of Christianity, North American slavery, and the struggle for survival and liberation" (Floyd-Thomas 2007, 156).

These three areas of focus truly shaped the agenda of education as it relates to the Black church. According to Floyd-Thomas, this agenda included three things: healing the generational scars of slavery, teaching life lessons for survival, and personal salvation through Jesus Christ for all people.

Christianity was at the center of the African American experience through this entire timeline. From the middle passage to the shores of America, and to the laborious fields of oppression each was steeped in the presence of a

Eurocentric Christianity. Africans brought to this country were subjected to unfathomable acts of oppression. WEB Du Bois is quoted attempting to describe these atrocities this way, "Oppression was beyond all concept: cruelty, degradation, whipping and starvation, the absolute negation of human rights. It was helplessness. It was the defenselessness of family life." The intensity of

109 slavery created an impact that lasted well beyond its demise. Psychologic, social, economic, and spiritual trauma has had a genealogical effect upon Black people.

Therefore, healing these remaining scars is a must in Christian education. It was

Carter G Woodson who coined the phrase Mis-education, in which he encompasses the intentional and systematic process that prevented African

Americans from having the right to formally learn reading and writing skills.

Floyd-Thomas states, "By example, enslaved Africans were not allowed to speak to one another in their own African languages, nor were they allowed to practice the African religions of their faith. Consequently, this prohibition meant that the enslaved were not permitted to read and interpret the Bible for themselves.

Compulsory mis-education, as a form of oppression, stripped enslaved people of their dignity" (Floyd-Thomas 2007, 157).

In such an atmosphere not only must Christian education seek to heal the generational scars of slavery but also teach life lessons of survival. Woodson suggested in his book, The Mis-education of the Negro, that a person would seek out the existence they thought they deserved. Therefore, as a means of survival, education in the Black church had to reeducate or, in other words, change the thinking that had been impressed upon us by our oppressors. The need for those life lessons of survival extended beyond slavery into the subsequent oppressive era of Jim Crow and Segregation. Education in a sense was like a kind of resistance much like protest and boycotts and helped propel us forward into our future of freedom. Afrocentrism arose in the early 1980’s in the academic context of African American studies. Most popularly articulated by Molfi Kete Asante, a

110 professor of African-American studies at Temple University, it’s concern is with

African epistemological relevance. Relating to the history of education, Dr Asante paints a descriptive picture in his book, Afrocentricity, of the way education has been Europeanized. Any information regarding African influence within education has been systemically omitted from history. In a Lecture at Howard University in

1993, Dr. Asante articulated how almost every major academic discipline’s origin in traced back to a Greek. Education has been boxed into a package that is wrap in Greek Philosophy. However, those Greeks themselves often make mention of the Africans who inspired their work. That is why Afrocentrism is so important. It allows a perspective that is seen based on Africa being the center vantage point.

This frees African’s from the intellectual and psychological bondage of history that has been Europeanized.

Context

The context of this project will be the Total Grace Church in Lexington,

“The Total Grace Experience.” The Total Grace Experience entails extreme hospitality, energy, excitement, and an expectation of excellence. It is often said that people might not remember what you said to them, but they will always

111 remember how you made them feel. It is our goal to overwhelm people with a feeling of love and hospitality so that above all else they will at least have a positive memory of their experience at Total Grace Church.

The foundational scripture of Total Grace Church is Matthew 25:35-45.

With that as our guiding scripture, in addition to addressing the spiritual needs of both parishioners and the greater community, we are very intentional in addressing their existential needs as well. The church has a family resource center that focuses on meeting the needs of the community. The demographics of the participants of the workshop are five men and ten women, who are all a part of the Total Grace leadership team. This topic is important to our ministry because we have been inodiated with questions concerning the legitimacy of

Christianity and its benefits for those of African descent. Because much like most things in America, Christianity has also suffered from Europeanization. Being able to answer these questions in a competent way is a frequent request from not only members of our leadership team but lay member within the congregation as well.

Project Goals:

1. To evaluate the secondary literature on the subject matter.

2. To impact the participants' knowledge of Afrocentrism.

3. To impact the participants' attitude of Afrocentrism

4. To impact the participants' actions of Afrocentrism.

5. To evaluate the study

112

Design, Procedure, and Assessment

1. Design a pre-test and post-test five-point Likert survey

2. Administer the pretest survey

3. Collect and analyze the pre-test survey

4. Teach the eight-part Afrocentricity workshop

5. Administer the post-test survey

6. Document the findings

Assessment will consist of a section in the survey instrument that allows the participant to evaluate the study.

Personal Goals

1. To become more confident sharing my faith with the black conscious community.

2. To expand my knowledge of Afrocentricity and how it relates to Christianity.

3. To embrace an Afrocentric hermeneutic in my personal study.

4. To be open and available to whatever God has planned through this process

Calendar

1. Proposal April 2019

2. Collect material and Prepare lessons April 2019

3. Conduct Class May 2019

4. Analysis May 2019

5. First Draft May 2019

6. Final Draft June 2019

113

7. Oral Defense December 2019

8. Graduation May 2020

Core Team

Advisor William H Myers, Ph.D Professor of New Testament and Black Church Studies, Ashland Theological Seminary

Director of Doctor of Ministry in Black Church Studies, Ashland Theological Seminary

President and CEO, McCreary Center for African American Religious Studies

Academic and Field Consultants

Douglas Little, Ph.D Professor Emeritus

Lewis Brogdon, Ph.D

Dean of Institutional Effectiveness and Research, Bluefield College

Associate Professor of Christian Studies, Bluefield College

Support Team

Erin M. Robinson, Wife, Executive Pastor, Total Grace Church

Kendra N. Robinson, Esq, Sister

Phyllis A Robinson, Mother

Dr. R.A. Vernon, D.Min, Pastor, The Word Church

Shirrod LeDet, Owner, Kids Empowerment Learning Academy

Timothy Findley, Friend, Pastor, Kingdom Fellowship FLC

Damien Thompson, Friend, Pastor, Emmanuel Baptist Church

Kilen Gray, D.Min, Dean of Student Engagement, Louisville Seminary

114

Life Management Plan

The commitment and dedication required to successfully complete this doctoral journey will be very demanding. In order to position myself to accomplish this endeavor, I plan to execute the following plan to meet my projected calendar deadlines.

Spiritually, I will remain consistent in my designated time of prayer and devotion as this will allow me to be open to the guidance that God will provide me during this journey.

Professionally, I have made the appropriate adjustments to the staff and delegated nonessential pastoral duties in order to secure additional time to devote to my doctoral project.

Personally, I will work in conjunction with my support team to remain focused on the task at hand. Even with all the support in the world, success is still a matter of decisions. I must make decisions that positively push me toward the completion of this amazing academic journey.

115

REFERENCES

Asante, Molefi. 2003. Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change. Illinois: African American Images

Bediako, Kwame. 2004. Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience. New York: Orbis Press

Brown, Michael. 2004. Blackening of the Bible: The Aims of African American Biblical Scholarship. New York: Trinity Press

Burton, Keith. 2007. The Blessing of Africa: The Bible and African Christianity. Illinois: Intervarsity Press

Cone, James. 1997. God of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press

Cone, James. 2010. A Black Theology of Liberation. New York: Orbis Press

Elliot, John, 2001. The Anchor Bible Commentary Series: I Peter. Connecticut: Yale University Press

Floyd-Thomas, S., Floyd-Thomas, J., Duncan, C.B., Jr, S. G., and Westfield, N. L. 2007. Black Church Studies: An Introduction. Tennessee: Abington Press

George, Larry. 2007 “1 PETER 3” In True to Our Native Land: An African American Commentary, Minneapolis, MI: Fortress Press.

Hastings, Adrian. 1996. The Church in Africa. New York: Oxford Press

Isichei, Elizabeth. 1995. A History of Christianity in Africa: From Antiquity to the Present. New Jersey: African World Press

Kalu, Ogbu. 2007. African Christianity: An African Story. New Jersey: African World Press

Kamil, Jill. 2002. Christianity in the Land of the Pharaohs. New York: Routledge Publishing

Keener, Craig and Usry, Gless. 1997. Black Faith: Answers to tough questions about African American Christianity. Illinois: Intervarsity Press

Lincoln, Eric, and Mamiya, Lawrence.1990. The Black Church in the African American Experience. North Caroline: Duke University Press

116

Morgan, Robert. 2016. History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Egyptian Church. Canada: Friesen Press

Myers, Williams. 1994. God’s Yes Was Louder Than My No: Rethinking the African American Call to Ministry. Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers

Roberts, Deotis. 2013. Afrocentric Christianity: A Theological Appraisal for Ministry. Pennsylvania: Judson Press

Sanders, Cheryl. 1995. Living the Intersection: Womanism and Afrocentrism in Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press

Segovia, Fernando, and Sugirtharajah, R.S. A Postcolonial Commentary of the New Testament Writings. New York: T&T Clark Publishing

Smith, Mitzi. 2018. Womanist Sass and Talk Back: Social Injustice, Intersectionality and Biblical Interpretation. Oregon: Cascade Books

West, Cornel. 1993. Race Matters. Massachusetts: Beacon Press

Wilhite, David. 2017. Ancient African Christianity. New York: Routledge Publishing

Yamauchi, Edwin. 2004. Africa and the Bible. Michigan: Baker Academic Oden, Thomas. 2007. How Africa Shaped the Christian Mind: Rediscovering the African Seedbed of Western Christianity. Illinois: Intervarsity Press

117

APPENDIX TWO: ASSESSMENT TOOL

Pre-test Questionnaire

Section I: Demographics _M _F

Section II: Knowledge

1. I know what Molefi Kete Asante teaches about Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

2. I know what the importance of Afrocentricity is. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

3. I know that our world view impacts our theology. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

4. I know believers should be prepared to defend their faith. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

5. I know that Blacks were Christian prior to the North Atlantic slave trade. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

6. I know that Africans were involved in the establishment of the Early Church. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

7. I know that a Eurocentric World view impacts Christianity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

8. I know that cultural identity is an important part of our faith journey. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

118

Section III: Attitudes

1. I believe Molefi Kete Asante’s teachings on Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

2. I believe Afrocentricity is important. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

3. I believe our world view impacts our theology. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

4. I believe Believers should be prepared to defend their Faith. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

5. I believe that Blacks were Christian prior to the North Atlantic slave trade. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

6. I believe that Africans were involved in the establishment of the Early Church. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

7. I believe that a Eurocentric World view impacts Christianity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

8. I believe that cultural identity is an important part of our faith journey. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

119

Section VI: Actions

1. I am willing to communicate Molefi Kete Asante’s teachings on Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

2. I am willing to communicate the importance of Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

3. I am willing to communicate how our world view impacts our theology. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

4. I am willing to communicate that Believers should be prepared to defend their Faith. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

5. I am willing to communicate that Blacks were Christian prior to the North Atlantic slave trade. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

6. I am willing to communicate that Africans were involved in the establishment of the Early Church. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

7. I am willing to communicate that a Eurocentric World view impacts Christianity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

8. I am willing to communicate that cultural identity is an important part of our faith journey. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

120

Section V: Additional Comments

List 2-3 additional comments you would like to make about how your knowledge, attitude, and actions regarding Afrocentricity may have changed as a result of this workshop? ______

Section VI: Evaluation of the Study

1. This study is helpful to me. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

2. This study allowed me to express my thoughts concerning Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

3. This study has impacted my knowledge of Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

4. This study has impacted my attitude about Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

5. This study has impacted my actions on Afrocentricity. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

6. The results of this study should be made available to all parishioners. Strongly Agree Agree Not Sure Disagree Strongly Disagree 5 4 3 2 1

121

REFERENCES

Adeyemo, Tokunboh. 2006. African Bible Commentary. 1 Peter, ed. Sicily Mbura Muriithi, 1543-1550. Nairobi, Kenya: WordAlive Publishers

Alcock, Anthony. 1983. Isaac the Presbyter, Life of Samuel of Kalamun, Warminster: Aris& Phillips Ltd

Alexander, Valentina. 1998. “Afrocentric and Black Christian Consciousness: Towards an Honest Intersection.” Black Theology in Britain: A Journal of Contextual Praxis, no. 1 (October): .

Asante, Molefi. 2003. Afrocentricity: The Theory of Social Change. Chicago, Illinois: African American Images

Atiya, Aziz. 2010. History of Eastern Christianity. Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press.

Bantu, Vince L. 2013. “The Ministerial Significance of Early Syriac Theology.” Ex Auditu 29: 137–55.

Bantu, Vince L. 2016. “The Decline of Nubian Christianity under Islam (641-1517 CE).” Africanus Journal 8 (2): 13–24.

Bediako, Kwame. 2004. Jesus and the Gospel in Africa: History and Experience. New York: Orbis Press

Bell, D.N. 1988. Mena of Nikiu, The Life of Isaac of Alexandria. Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications.

Blount, Brian. 2007. True to our Native Land. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.

Brakke, David. 2015. Discourses, Selected Discourses of Shenoute the Great: Community, Theology, and Social Conflict in Late Antique Egypt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brown, Michael. 2004. Blackening of the Bible: The Aims of African American Biblical Scholarship. New York: Trinity Press

Budge, E.A. Wallis.1976. Ethiopian Synaxarion, In the Book of the Saints of the Ethiopian Church. New York, NY: G. Olms Press.

Burton, Keith. 2007. The Blessing of Africa: The Bible and African Christianity. Illinois: Intervarsity Press.

Charles, R.H. 2007. John of Nikiu, The Chronicle of John, Bishop of Nikiu. Merchantville, NJ: Evolution Publishing, 2007.

122

Cone, James. 1997. God of the Oppressed. New York: Seabury Press.

Cone, James. 2010. A Black Theology of Liberation. New York: Orbis Press.

Clark, Adam. 2013. “Towards an Afrocentric of Liberation Theology.” The Journal of Black Studies, Vol 44: 376-394

Elliot, John, 2001. I Peter. The Anchor Bible Commentary Series: Connecticut: Yale University Press.

Enis, Larry L. 2005. “Biblical Interpretation among African-American New Testament Scholars.” Currents in Biblical Research 4 (1): 57–82. doi:10.1177/1476993X05055640.

Evetts, B. 1904. History of the Patriarchs of the Coptic Church of Alexandria. Ghent, Belgium: Turnhout Brepols Press.

Felder, Cain Hope. 1993. Afrocentrism, the Bible, and the Politics of Difference. The Journal of Religious Thought 50 (1–2): 45–56.

Floyd-Thomas, S., Floyd-Thomas, J., Duncan, C.B., Jr, S. G., and Westfield, N. L. 2007. Black Church Studies: An Introduction. Nashville, Tennessee: Abington Press.

George, Larry. 2007 1 PETER 3. In True to Our Native Land: An African American Commentary, Minneapolis, MI: Fortress Press.

Gregg, Robert C. 1980. In Athanasius: The Life of Antony and The Letter to Marcellinus. New York, NY: Paulist Press.

Hastings, Adrian. 1996. The Church in Africa. New York: Oxford Press

Hoyland, Robert G. 1998. Seeing Islam as Others Saw It: A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam. Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press.

Jenkins, Philip. 2009. The Lost History of Christianity: The Thousand-Year Golden Age of the Church in the Middle East, Africa, and Asia- and How It Died. New York: HarperOne.

Johnson, Scott F. 2015. Languages and Cultures of Eastern Christianity: Greek. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing.

123

Luyaluka, Kiatezua Lubanzadio. 2017. The Elucidation of Africaness in Christianity Through Hierarchical Monotheism and Its Redefinition of Black Theology. Black Theology 15 (3): 257–78.

Isichei, Elizabeth. 1995. A History of Christianity in Africa: From Antiquity to the Present. Trenton, New Jersey: African World Press.

Kalu, Ogbu. 2007. African Christianity: An African Story. Trenton, New Jersey: African World Press.

Kamil, Jill. 2002. Christianity in the Land of the Pharaohs. New York: Routledge Publishing.

Keener, Craig s. and Glenn Usry,. 1997. Black Faith: Answers to tough questions about African American Christianity. Illinois: Intervarsity Press.

Layton, Bentley. 2014. Shenoute of Atripe, Canons,. In The Canons of Our Fathers: Monastic Rules of Shenoute. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Lincoln, Eric, and Mamiya, Lawrence.1990. The Black Church in the African American Experience. North Carolina: Duke University Press

Litfin, Bryan. 2007. Getting to know the Church Fathers. Grand Rapids, MI: Bakers Academy

Maged, Mikhail. 2002. Benjamin of Alexandria, On Cana of Galilee: A Sermon by the Coptic Patriarch Benjamin I. Anaheim, Ca: ACTS Press.

Matthews, Donald Henry. 1998. Honoring the Ancestors: An African Cultural Interpretation of Black Religion and Literature. Oxford University Press.

Mambo Ama Mazama. 2002. Afrocentricity and African Spirituality. Journal of Black Studies 33 (2): 218.

Michael, J. Ramsey. 2015. Word Biblical Commentary. Grand Rapids, MI:Zondervan Press

Miguel F. Brooks and Kebra Nagast. The Lost Bible of Rastafarian. Trenton, NJ: Red Sea Press.

Morgan, Robert. 2016. History of the Coptic Orthodox People and the Egyptian Church. Victoria, Canada: Friesen Press.

Myers, Williams. 1994. God’s Yes Was Louder Than My No: Rethinking the African American Call to Ministry. Eugene, Oregon: Wipf and Stock Publishers

124

Patte, Daniel. 2004. Global Bible Commentary. 1 and 2 Peter, Jude, ed. Sharon H. Ringe, 554-570. Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press

Oden, Thomas C. 2007. How Africa Shaped the Christian Mind: Rediscovering the African Seedbed of Western Christianity. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Roberts, Deotis. 2013. Afrocentric Christianity: A Theological Appraisal for Ministry. Pennsylvania: Judson Press

Rose Berard, Donna. 1964. Cyprian of Carthage, Letters, Washington, DC: The Catholic University of America Press.

Sanders, Cheryl. 1995. Living the Intersection: Womanism and Afrocentrism in Theology. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Segovia, Fernando, and Sugirtharajah, R.S. A Postcolonial Commentary of the New Testament Writings. New York: T&T Clark Publishing.

Smith, Mitzi. 2018. Womanist Sass and Talk Back: Social Injustice, Intersectionality and Biblical Interpretation. Oregon: Cascade Books

Usry, Glen and Craig S. Keener. 1996. Black Man’s Religion: Can Christianity Be Afrocentric? Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.

Veilleux, Armand. 1980. Life of Pachomius. Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications.

Vivian, Tim. 2008. Life of Daniel of Scetis, In Witness to Holiness: Abba Daniel of Scetis. Kalamazoo, MI: Cistercian Publications.

West, Cornel. 1993. Race Matters. Boston, Massachusetts: Beacon Press

Wilhite, David. 2017. Ancient African Christianity. New York: Routledge Publishing.

Woodson, Carter G. 1985. Mis-Education of the Negro. Pennsylvania: Oshun Publishing

Wortley, John. 2012. In the Book of the Elders: Sayings of the Desert Fathers: The Systematic Collection. Collegeville, MN: Cistercian Publications

Yamauchi, Edwin M. 1996. Afrocentric Biblical Interpretation. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 39 (3): 397–409.

125

Yamauchi, Edwin. 2004. Africa and the Bible. Michigan: Baker Academic.

Yorke, Gosnell L O R. 1995. Biblical Hermeneutics: An Afrocentric Perspective. The Journal of Religious Thought 52 (1): 1–13.

126