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राधाकृ�ण

https://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_vishhnu/krishna8k.html?lang=sa Radha-Krishna (IAST rādhā-kṛṣṇa, : ) are राधा कृ ण collectively known within as the combined forms of feminine as well as the masculine of . Radha and Krishna are the primeval forms of God and His pleasure potency respectively in the Gaudiya Vaishnava school of thought. In some schools of , Krishna is referred to as Svayam , and Radha is illustrated as the primeval potency of the three main potencies of God, Hladini (immense spiritual bliss), Sandhini (eternality) and Samvit (existential consciousness) of which Radha is an embodiment of the feeling of towards the almighty , Krishna (Hladini). With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the Supreme , for it is said that Krishna or God is only satiated by devotional service in loving servitude and Radha is the personification of devotional service to the supreme. She is also considered in Vaishnavism as the total feminine energy and also as the Supreme (Adi- Lakshmi). Various devotees her with the understanding of her merciful nature as the only way to attain Krishna. Radha is also depicted to be Krishna himself, split into two, for the purpose of His enjoyment.[1]

It is believed that Krishna enchants the world, but Radha "enchants even Him. Therefore She is the supreme goddess of all. RadhaKrishn".[2]

While there are much earlier references to the worship of this Radha Krishna form of God, it is since wrote a famous poem Gita in the twelfth century of the Common Era, that the topic of the spiritual love between the divine Krishna and his devotee Radha, became a theme celebrated throughout .[3] It is also believed that Radha is not just one cowherd maiden, but is the origin of all the , or divine personalities that participate in the dance.[4]

Contents Name and Shaktiman Traditions Bisnupriya Manipuri Vaishnavas Gaudiya Vaishnava Nimbarka Sampradaya sampradaya Outside Hinduism Temples Popular songs and See also Footnotes References Further reading

Name Vigneshwara cannot be broken into two – Krishna (: कृ ण), the eighth incarnation () of , and his shakti Radha (Devanagari: राधा) such was the love of Radha towards Krishna that they became one. Krishna in Vrindavana is depicted with Radha standing on his left.

Shakti and Shaktiman The common derivation of shakti and shaktiman, i.e. Female and male principle in a god implies that shakti and shaktiman are the same.[5] Each and every god has its partner, 14th-century fresco of Radha Krishna 'betterhalf' or Shakti and in , without this Shakti, is sometimes viewed without essential Shree Radha Krishna Ashta Shakthi Mandir at Parashakthi Temple, power.[6] It is a not uncommon feature of Hinduism when Pontiac, USA worship of a pair rather than one personality constitutes worship of God, such is worship of Radha Krishna. Traditions worshiping Krishna, as , who is male, include reference and veneration to his Radha, who is worshiped as supreme. A view that exists of orthodox Krishnaism, the of the worship of Krishna, is that Radha is shakti and Krishna is shaktiman and are always found without any tinge of materialistic attributes or cause.[7]

Philosophy From the Vaishnava point of view the divine feminine energy (shakti) implies a divine source of energy, God or shaktiman. " relates to ; Lakshmi belongs to ; Radha has Her Krishna." As Krishna is believed to be the source of all manifestations of God, "Radha, His consort, is the original source of all " or feminine manifestation of divine energy.[8]

A number of interpretations according to traditions possess a common root of personalism in the understanding of worship. Specifically Caitanyaite Gaudiya Vaishnava doctrine and mission is fiercely "personalistic," proclaiming the supremacy of Krishna, the identification of Caitanya as Radha-Krishna, the and eternality of individual selves, and a method for approaching the absolute reality and the as a person first and foremost.[9]

Jiva Goswami in his Priti Sandarbha states that each of the Gopis exhibits a different level of intensity of passion, among which Radha's is the greatest.[10]

In his famous dialogs Raya describes Radha to Radha and Krishna pastime on a Caitanya and quotes, among other texts, a verse from Chaitanya swing, while Krishna plays his flute. Charitamrta 2.8.100, before he goes on to describe her role in the Bronze, probably 20th century. pastimes of Vrindavana.[11]

The central pivot point of the is related to the word rasa. The theological use of the word can be found very early, about two thousand years before the Nimbarka or Caitanya school, in a phrase that the tradition frequently quotes: "Truly, the Lord is rasa" (raso vai sah) of . This statement expresses the view that God is the one who enjoys the ultimate rasa or spiritual rapture, emotions.[12]

Traditions Radha Krishna are worshiped in the following traditions of Hinduism:

Bisnupriya Manipuri Vaishnavas King Gareeb Nivaz ruled from 1710 to 1734 and was initiated into Vaishnavism of the Chaitanya tradition, which Krishna as the supreme deity, Svayam bhagavan. He practiced this for nearly twenty years. Preachers and pilgrims used to arrive in large numbers and cultural contact with was maintained.[13] Radha-Krishna, a depiction of The Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but Bhairava in Ragamala [14] Radha-Krishna. With the spread of Vaishnavism the worship paintings of Krishna and Radha became the dominant form in the region. Every village there has a Thakur-ghat and a temple.[15] Rasa and other dances are a feature of the regional folk and religious tradition and often, for example, a female dancer portray both Krishna and his consort, Radha, in the same piece.[16]

Bhagavata In Vedic and Puranic literature, Radhas and other forms of the root Radh have meaning of ‘perfection’, ‘success’ and even ‘wealth’. Lord of Success, was referred to as Radhaspati. In references to as the Lord of Fortune and freely used by Jayadeva as Jaya Jayadeva Hare – the victorious , and ‘Radhaspati’ all found in many places. The word Radha occurs in the Atharva Veda, Taittiriya and Taittiriya .[17]

Charlotte Vaudeville, in the article Evolution of Love Symbolism in Bhagavatism draws some parallel to Nappinnai, appearing in Godha's magnum opus and in Nammalwar’s references to Nappinnani, the daughter-in-law of Nandagopa. Nappinnai is believed to be the source of Radha’s conception in and Sanskrit literature although their characteristic relations with Krishna are different. In the dance called Kuravai, Krishna dances with his wife Nappinnai.

"It is a complex relationship, for the devotee is the ‘same as and yet different from’ the Lord, and so even in the joy of union there is the pain of separation. Indeed, the highest form of devotion, according to Yamunacarya, comes not in union but after the union, in the ‘fear of new separation’."[18]

Yasastilaka Champukavya (AD 959) all make references to Radha and Krishna well before Jayadeva's period. There are elaborate references to Radha in Brahma vaivarta and Padma .[19]

Gaudiya Vaishnava Gaudiya Vaishnava, as the name suggests, usually refers to the region of . Early gives a vivid description of the depiction and evolution of understanding of Radha and Krishna.[20] It is believed, however, that the source of Jayadeva heroine in his poem remains a puzzle of the Sanskrit Literature. At the same time there are well documented references to works earlier than Gita Govinda, which some count to be more than twenty. The figure of Radha is one of the most elusive in the literature of Sanskrit; she is described only in a few selected passages of Prakrit or Sanskrit poetry, a few inscriptions and a few works on grammar, poetry and drama. Jayadeva has referred to them and created an exquisite lyrical poem of passionate devotion in the twelfth century, and from this poetic beginning a huge movement specific to Bengal began.[21]

Baru is a poet notable for being a prominent Early Drawing of the image of Middle Bengal historical figure; the date of his poem Radharaman,1542 (http://www.salagr Srikrsnakirtana is still under question however the text remains am.net/sstp-RadhaRamanVrindavan. html) seen as not only Krishna but one of the most important evidences of early portrayal of the also as Radha-Krishna. popular story of "Lord Krishna's love for the cowherd girl Radha" in Bengali literature and religion. The 412 songs of Srikrsnakirtana are divided into thirteen sections that represent the core of the Radha-Krishna legendary cycle, with many variants providing excellent comparative material. The manuscript clearly suggests that the songs were meant to be song, and implies particular for the recitation. There is considerable debate as to the authenticity of the text that has significant religious meaning.[22] In this Bengali tradition of Caitanya Vaishnavism metaphysical status and Radha-worship is considered to be established by Krsnadasa in his Chaitanya Charitamrta where he represents the doctrine that prevailed among the Caitanyaites following Caitanya's demise in 1533. It is believed that Krishna, desiring to fully what it is like to love Krishna as Radha does, has appeared as Caitanya Mahaprabhu. And what Radha (appearing as Caitanya) does in her longing for Krishna is to chant his names.[23] One of the self manifested established by is called , it is not surprising that Radha Ramana is seen as not only Krishna but also as Radha-Krishna.[24] And worship in his temple, located in the centre of Vrindavana is a perpetual daily affair, involving several prescribed events throughout the day,[25] with the goal of being theoretical and remote, but with aspiration of the possibility to attend and associate directly with Radha and Krishna.[26]

Nimbarka sampradaya The worship of the youthful Krishna, alone or with his consort Radha, is one of the earliest dating at least to the 12th century, just as Sampradaya does.[27] According to Nimbarka, Radha was the eternal consort of Vishnu-Krishna and there is also a suggestion, though not a clear statement, that she became the wife of her beloved Krishna.[28] The -- Nimbarka rescues Radha from the presumed immoral implication emblems of the Sri Nimbarka of much of the literature, and gives to her a dignity unattained Sampradaya. elsewhere.[29]

The Nimbarka Sampradaya founded by Nimbarka is one of the four bona fide Vaishnava traditions. Lack of evidence due to the destruction of and Vrindavan in the 13th Century and 14th Century has meant that the true dates and origins of this tradition are shrouded in mystery and await investigation.

Nimbarka, who is widely held by scholars such as Satyanand Joseph, Prof. Rasik Bihari Joshi, Prof. M. M. Aggrawal etc., to be at least of the same time or before the appearance of , was the first to worship Radha along with Krishna in Sakhi Bhava method of worship. In his Dashashloki, it is clearly stated that:- ange tu vaame vrishabhaanujaam mudaa viraajamaanaam anuruupasaubhagaam. sakhiisahasraih parisevitaam sadaa smarema deviim sakalestakaamadaam. verse 6. The left portion of the body of the Supreme Lord is Shrimati Radha, seated blissfully, as beautiful as the Lord Himself; who is served by thousands of gopis: we meditate on the Supreme Goddess, the fulfiller of all desires.

This theme was taken up by Jayadeva Goswami and other poets of the time who saw the inherent beauty and bliss which constitute this philosophy.

In this sampradaya, the significance of Radha is not less than the significance of Sri Krsna. Both are conjointly the object to be worshiped in this school of Nimbarka,[30] who is also one of the first commentators on Brahma Sutras under the name Vedanta--Saurabha. The later of the Nimbarka Sampradaya in the 13th and 14th centuries in Vrindavana composed much literature on the Divine Couple. Sri Sribhatta, the elder god-brother of Jayadeva composed the Yugala Shataka for the Dhrupada style of musical presentation like Jayadeva, however unlike Jayadeva who composed his work in Sanskrit, Swami Shribhatta's compositions are in Vraja Bhasha, a vernacular which was understood by all inhabitants of Vraja. Indeed, the rest of the acharyas of this tradition wrote in Vraja Bhasha and due to the lack of prevalence of this language in modern times, very little research has been done, even though these Acharyas predate the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan by centuries. In any case, the sole object of worship in the Nimbarka Sampradaya is the unified Divine Couple of Radha Krishna. According to the 15th century Mahavani written by Swami Sri Harivyasa Devacharya radhaamkrsnasvaroopaam vai, krishnam raadhaasvarupinam; kalaatmaanam nikunjastham gururoopam sadaa bhaje I ceaselessly praise Radha who is none other than Krishna, and Sri Krishna who is none other than Radha, whose unity is represented by the Kaamabeeja and who are forever resident in Nikunja Vrndavana.

The contribution from the Nimbarka Sampradaya to the philosophy of Radha Krishna is undeniable, as the philosophy and theology originate in it.

Swaminarayan Sampradaya Radha-Krishna Dev has a special place in the Swaminarayan Sampraday as Swaminarayan himself referred to Radha Krishna in the he wrote.[31] Further, he himself ordered the construction of temples in which Radha Krishna have been installed as deities. Swaminarayan "explained that Krishna appears in many forms. When he is together with Radha, he is regarded as supreme lord under the name of Radha-Krishna; with he is known as Lakshmi-Narayana."[32] The first temple constructed in the sect, built in in AD 1822, houses of RadhaKrishna Dev (Center and Right) at the Swaminarayan the images of Nara Narayana, forms of and Krishna, in Temple in Cleveland. the central shrine. The shrine on the left of the hall has of Radha Krishna.[33] According to the philosophy of the tradition there were many female companions of Krishna, gopis, but out of all of them Radha was considered to be the perfect devotee. Those who wish to come close to Krishna must cultivate the devotional qualities of Radha.[34] According to theory the sect has set aside Goloka as the supreme heaven or abode (in fact, in some of their temples, such as the Temple, the murtis installed are those of Shri Gaulokvihari and Radhikaji), because there Krishna is supposed to be enjoying himself with his Gopis,[35] who according to the Swaminarayana sampradaya the milkmaids with whom Krishna danced; his relations with them symbolize the relation of God with the devotee in reciprocation.[36]

Vallabha sampradaya Vallabhacharya, founder of Pustimarga even before Chaitanya, worshipped Radha, where according to some , the devotees identify mainly with the female companion (sakhis) of Radha who are privileged to arrange intimate pastimes for RadhaKrishna.[37]

One of the prominent poets of this tradition, which also called Radhavallabhi, named Dhruvadasa was notable for being principally concerned with the private relationships of Radha and Krishna. In his poetry Caurasi Pad and in the commentaries of his followers, the concentration is in on the unique benefits of constant reflection on the eternal .

Radhavallabhis share with their Vaishnava co-religionists a great regard for , but some of the pastimes that are outside the scope of relationships with Radha and gopis do not feature in the concept of this school. Emphasis is placed on the sweetness of the relationship, or rasa.[38] Outside Hinduism In opinion of some Hindu scholars as well as scholars of Hinduism, a golden age existed when and created a common culture mainly because some Muslim rulers patronized Sanskrit and translations from Sanskrit into Persian, while there were poets with Muslim names who wrote about Krishna and Radha.[39]

Temples Krishna with Gopis - Painting from In India Smithsonian Institution

Temples of Sri Sri Radha Krsna are prevalent throughout India and the world though Braja Mandala including Vrindavan and Mathura are considered to be the centers of Radha-Krishna worship. The most important temples of Vrindavana are

Madan-mohan, Govinddev, Radha-Raman, Radha-Gokulananda, Radha-Damodar, Banki-behari, Jugal Kishor, Radha-, Radha Shyamasundar, Radha-vallabha and Iskcon temple.[40]

Shree RadhaVallabh Temple Vrindavan[41]

Shri Radhavallabh Temple is among the 7 most famous temples of Thakur of Vrindavan including Sri Radhavallabh ji, Shri Bankey Bihari Ji, Shri Govind Dev ji, Shri Madan Mohan Ji, Shri Gopinath Ji, Shri Radha Raman Ji and Shri Radha Damodar Ji.

Shree Radha Ras Bihari Ashta Sakhi Mandir[42] Banke Bihari temple, Vrindavan

Outside India There are number of traditions that spread the worship of Radha-Krishna in many countries, be it associated with migration or preaching activities of . One such prominent adept, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada opened a number of centers himself wherein he could train mleccha-turned- students to worship Radha-Krishna murtis and become "devoted to the service of Godhead".[43]

Popular songs and prayers The Shri Radhika Krishnastaka (also called the Radhashtak) is a hymn. It is said that the reciter can get to Krishna via Radha by chanting it.

See also

Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir Banke Bihari Temple Krishna and Radha in a Pavilion Radha Raman Temple Radha-vallabha

Footnotes 1. Rosen 2002, p. 50 2. Rosen 2002, p. 52 Chaitanya-charitamritaAdi-lila 4.95 (http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080824092217/http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en) 2008-08-24 at the Wayback Machine, 3. Schwartz 2004, p. 49 4. Schweig 2005, p. 43 5. Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of (1991) p. 31 6. Santilata Dei, Del Santilata, Vaisnavism in Orissa (1988) p. 167 7. Kakoli Basak, (1991) Rabindranath Tagore, a Humanist - p. 11 8. Rosen 2002, p. 54 9. Valpey 2006, p. 110 10. Schweig 2005, p. 125 11. Schweig 2005, p. 126 12. Schweig 2005, p. 79 13. chief ed. K. Ayyappa Paniker. (1997). Medieval : An Anthology. New : Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-0365-0.p.327 (https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpva KJIMEC&pg=RA1-PA327) 14. Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature - p. 4290 (https://books.google.com/books?id=g-wbAAA AIAAJ&q=Manipur+Radha&dq=Manipur+Radha&lr=&client=firefox-a), Amaresh Datta, Mohan Lal,1994 15. Shanti Swarup (1968). 5000 Years of Arts and Crafts in India and Pakistan. : D. B. Taraporevala (https://books.google.com/books?q=inpublisher:%22D.+B.+Taraporevala% 22&lr=&client=firefox-a&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0). p. 272. External link in |publisher= (help)p.183 (https://books.google.com/books?id=lnVQAAAAMAAJ&q=Manip ur+Radha&dq=Manipur+Radha&pgis=1) 16. Schwartz 2004, p. 35 17. "Lord Krishna and Rama in the Primary – ISKCON Desire Tree - Devotee Network" (http://www.iskcondesiretree.com/m/blogpost?id=2103886:BlogPost:2629710). www.iskcondesiretree.com. Retrieved 2017-06-09. 18. , "Evolution of Love Symbolism in Bhagavatism", Journal of the American Oriental Society LXXXII (1962), 39 19. "Musical Saints of India" (http://www.sankeertanam.com/saints%20texts/Jayadeva%20&%2 0Gita%20Govindam_2003_SK.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2013-12-27. 20. Chatterji, S.K. (1936). "Purana Legends and the Prakrit Tradition in New Indo-". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. 8 (2): 457–466. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141096 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00141096). JSTOR 608054 (https://www.jstor.org/st able/608054).literary study of their lyric literature of Bengal Vaishnavism, has given a useful conspectus of the "Historical Development of the Radha-Krishna Legend" 21. Miller, S.B.S. (1975). "Radha: Consort of Krsna's Vernal Passion". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 95 (4): 655–671. doi:10.2307/601022 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F601022). JSTOR 601022 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/601022). 22. Stewart, T.K.; Caṇḍīdāsa, Baṛu; Klaiman, M. H.; Candidasa, Baru (1986). "Singing the Glory of Lord Krishna: The" Srikrsnakirtana". Asian Folklore Studies. 4554 (1): 152–154. doi:10.2307/1177851 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1177851). JSTOR 1177851 (https://www.j stor.org/stable/1177851). 23. Valpey 2006, pp. 30–31 24. Valpey 2006, p. 52 25. Valpey 2006, p. 58 26. Valpey 2006, p. 75 27. The penny cyclopædia [ed. by G. Long]. 1843, p.390 [1] (https://books.google.com/books?id =_8cWRilIuE0C&pg=RA1-PA390&dq=rudra+sampradaya&as_brr=3#PRA1-PA390,M1) 28. Sharda Arya, Sudesh Narang, Religion and Philosophy of the Padma-purāṇa: Dharmaśāstra. Miranda House (University of Delhi). Dept. of Sanskrit, India University Grants Commission, 1988. 547, p.30 29. Melville T. Kennedy, The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal, 1925. 270, p.7 30. Ramesh M. Dave, K. K. A. Venkatachari, The Bhakta-bhagawan Relationship: Paramabhakta Parmeshwara . Sya. Go Mudgala, Bochasanvasi Shri Aksharpurushottama Sanstha, 1988. p.74 31. "Shikshapatri, verse 109 by Swaminarayan" (http://www.swaminarayan.nu/sampraday/shiks ha.shtml). 32. Williams 2001, p. 74 33. Williams 2001, p. 96 34. Williams 2001, p. 85 35. Williams 2001, p. 59 36. Williams 2001, back matter 37. White, C.S.J.; Redington, James D. (1990). "Vallabhacarya on the Love Games of Krsna". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 110 (2): 373–374. doi:10.2307/604565 (https://doi. org/10.2307%2F604565). JSTOR 604565 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/604565). 38. Snell, R. (1992). "Synoptic and sectarian in the poetry of Dhruvdas" (https://books.go ogle.com/books?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA247). Cambridge University Press (https://boo ks.google.com/books?q=inpublisher:%22Cambridge+University+Press%22&source=gbs_su mmary_r&cad=0). ISBN 0-521-41311-7. External link in |publisher= (help) 39. Gaeffke, P. (1992). "How a Muslim looks at Hindu bhakti" (https://books.google.com/books?i d=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA247&dq=%22Radha+Krsna+%22). Cambridge University Press (https://books.google.com/books?q=inpublisher:%22Cambridge+University+Press%22&sou rce=gbs_summary_r&cad=0). ISBN 0-521-41311-7. External link in |publisher= (help)p. 80 40. Rosen 2002, p. 117 41. radhavallabh.com (http://www.radhavallabh.com) 42. ashtasakhimandir.org (http://www.ashtasakhimandir.org) 43. Valpey 2006, p. 109

References Rosen, Steven (2002). The hidden glory of Schweig, G.M. (2005). Dance of divine India. : Bhaktivedanta Book love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Trust. ISBN 0-89213-351-1. Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred Schwartz, Susan (2004). Rasa: performing love story. Princeton University Press, the divine in India (https://archive.org/detail Princeton, NJ; Oxford. ISBN 0-691-11446- s/rasa00susa). New York: Columbia 3. University Press. ISBN 0-231-13145-3. Valpey, Kenneth Russell (2006). Attending Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti- sevā as devotional . New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-38394-3. Williams, Raymond (2001). Introduction to Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami. Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge Krsna: The Supreme Personality of University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65422- Godhead. [A Summary Study of Srila 7. Vyasadeva's Srimad-Bhagavatam, Tenth Canto.] Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Trust, 1970. 2 vols. Further reading Wilson, Frances, ed. The Love of Krishna: Kakar, Sudhir. "Erotic fantasy: the secret The Krsnakarnamarta of passion of Radha and Bilvamangala. Philadelphia: University of Krishna",Contributions to Indian Sociology Pennsylvania Press, 1975 (New Series) 19, no.1 (Jan-June 1985):75- Vaudeville, Ch (1962). "Evolution of Love- 94. Symbolism in Bhagavatism". Journal of the Miller, Barbara Stoller. "The divine duality American Oriental Society. 82 (1): 31–40. of Radha and Krishna", in The Divine doi:10.2307/595976 (https://doi.org/10.230 Consort: Radha and the of 7%2F595976). JSTOR 595976 (https://ww India, eds. J. S. Hawley and D. M. Wulff. w.jstor.org/stable/595976). Berkeley: University of California Press, Wulff, D. M. The Divine Consort: Radha 1982, pp. 13–26. and the Goddesses of India, Berkeley: Patnaik, Debi Prasanna (1955). "Concept University of California Press. 1982 of Radhakrishna in the Panchasakha Refer Wiki Article Radha Krishna Spiritual Literature". Proceedings of Indian Oriental Portal Conference. 18: 406–411. Frédéric Ligier, Annick Le Scoëzec Goswami, Sri Rupa. Bhakti-Rasamrta- Masson, Les Amours de Râdhâ, Musique Sindhuh. Vrindaban: Institute of Oriental et poésie inspirées de miniatures de Philosophy, 1965. l'École de Kangra,Paris, Garamond, 2016

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Radha (Sanskrit: , IAST: Rādhā), also called Radhika, राधा Srimati Radharani Radharani, Radhe, Shyama, and Priya, is a goddess popular in Hinduism, especially in the Vaishnavism tradition and is Goddess of Love, Beauty and worshipped as the goddess of love and devotion. She is the Devotion eternal consort of Lord Krishna and resides with him in their eternal abode Goloka dham. She is the internal potency or Hladini Shakti ( Blissful energy) of Krishna. According to scriptures, she was the chief of the brij gopis (milkmaids) who are known for their supreme devotion towards Krishna. She is the personification of para bhakti (complete devotion) unto Shri Krishna (Bhakti ) and is also considered by some as the feminine form of Lord Krishna himself. [6][7] Every year Radharani's birthday is celebrated as Radhashtami.

She is also considered by some as a metaphor for the human spirit (aatma), her love and longing for Lord Krishna is theologically viewed as symbolic of the human quest for spiritual growth and union with the divine.[8] She has inspired numerous literary works,[9] and her Rasa lila dance with Krishna has inspired many types of performance arts.[10]. Krishna and Radha at Mayapur She is also called Vrindavaneshwari (Queen of the Sri Vrindavan temple Dham) who appeared as the queen of milkmaids and queen of Affiliation Krishna, Hladini Shakti, Vrindavan-Barsana. She taught selfless love and surrender to Shri Vrindavaneshwari, Krishna. She is the supreme goddess in Vaishnavism. Rasik sants Vaishnavism, have mentioned her as a descension of the Supreme Goddess, Raseshwari form of source of the Infinite Lakshmi, the original form of Yogamaya Krishna's love and and Hladini Shakti (Power of Divine Love) which is the main Bhakti power of the Godhead Shri Krishna. Abode Goloka, Barsana, Radha is worshipped in India, particularly by Gaudiya Vrindavan, Dham, Vaishnavas, Vaishnavas in , Manipur, and . Elsewhere, she is revered in the Nimbarka Symbol Golden Lotus Sampradaya and movements linked to Shri Chaitanya Texts Brahmavaivarta Purāṇa, Mahaprabhu.[9][11] Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Padma Purana,[1] Bhagavata Purana,[2] Contents Brahmanda Purana,[3] Panchratra,[4] Etymology , Description Shree Krishna Radha & Sita Karnamrutam, Influence Vallabha Natakam, Nimbarka Tartam Sagar, Gita Temples Govinda purana,and many more See also Personal information References Born Barsana, Further reading (present-day Uttar External links Pradesh, India) Consort Krishna Etymology Parents Vrishbhanu (father) Kriti Devi / Kirtida [5] also The Sanskrit term Rādhā (Sanskrit: ) means "prosperity, राधा known as Kirtida or success".[12][13] It is a common word and name found in various Ratnagarbha devi contexts in the ancient and medieval texts of India. (mother) Radha is the name of the who is the beloved of Krishna. Both Radha and Krishna are the main characters of the Gita Govinda by Jayadeva Gosvami.[12]

Hit Harivansh's and ' books consider Radha the main deity. Here, Radha is not an avatar of Laxmi but a form of Bhagavan Shri Krishna Himself. In the Devi Bhagavat and , Radha is given as the source of infinite Laxmis, Gopis, and the mother of infinite .

The Narada-pancaratra states, "Radha is Gokulesvari, the full embodiment of spontaneous love and the personification of mahabhava [the highest spiritual state]. Bhagavan Sri Krsna, who is the supreme Isvara of all and the God among , is attained by Her mercy. Sri Radha is Krsna’s internal potency, and She performs worship of Her most beloved Sri Krsna with the entire wealth of Her devotion and service."

In Sammohana-, Devi says, "The name Durga, by which I am known, is Her name. The qualities for which I am famous are Her qualities. The majesty with which I am resplendent is Her majesty. That Maha-Laksmi, Sri Radha, is nondifferent from Sri Krsna. She is His dearmost sweetheart and the crest-jewel of His beloveds."

Jagadguru Shri Kripalu Ji Maharaj elaborately described the of Radha and has given a brief description of Shri Radha in his lectures and . He has said, "She is the Supreme Goddess and is worshipped by everyone including Godhead Shri Krishna himself and that's why she is called Radha, which means "one who is the form of worship."

The term is related to Rādha (Sanskrit: राध), which means "kindness, any gift but particularly the gift of affection, success, wealth".[12] The word appears in the Vedic literature as well as the Epics, but is elusive.[7]

Rādhikā refers to an endearing form of gopi Radha.[12]

Description Radha is an important goddess in the Vaishnavism traditions of Hinduism. Her traits, manifestations, descriptions, and roles vary by region. Since the earliest times, she has been associated with the cowherd Krishna, who is the speaker of the .[6] In the early Indian literature, mentions of her are elusive. The traditions that venerate her explain this is because she is the secret treasure hidden within the , Puranas, and Tantra. During the era she became more well known as her extraordinary love for Krsna was highlighted.[14]

According to Jaya Chemburkar, there are at least two significant and different aspects of Radha in the literature associated with her, such as Sriradhika namasahasram. One aspect is she is a milkmaid (gopi), another as a female deity similar to those found in the Hindu goddess traditions.[15] She also appears in Hindu arts as ardhanari Radha with Krishna, a 1915 with Krishna, that is an iconography where half of the image is painting. Radha and the other half is Krishna. This is found in sculpture such as those discovered in , and in texts such as Purana and Brahmavaivarta Purana.[16] In these texts, this ardhanari is sometimes referred to as Ardharadhavenudhara murti, and it symbolizes the complete union and inseparability of Radha and Krishna.[16]

Radha's depictions vary from being an already married woman who becomes a devotee of Krishna in a secondary role,[8] to being dual divinity equal to Krishna in Jayadeva's Gita Govinda, to being a supreme object of devotional love for both Krishna and devotees in 's tradition (i.e. the of Sri Caitanya Mahaprabhu).[6][14]

Radha is conceptualized by some (though not the adherents of the traditions that worship her) as a goddess who breaks social norms by leaving her marriage, and entering into a relationship with Krishna to pursue her love.[8] According to Heidi Pauwels, it is a "hotly debated issue" whether Radha was already married or had remembered Krishna while she remained married. Radha asked Krishna why he can't marry her, the reply came “Marriage is a union of two souls. You and I are one , how can I marry myself?” [17] Several allude to these circumstances.[8]

According to David Kinsley, a professor of known for his studies on Hindu goddesses, the Radha-Krishna love story is a metaphor for divine-human relationship, where Radha is the human devotee or soul who is frustrated with the past, obligations to social expectations and the ideas she inherited, who then longs for real meaning, the true love, the divine (Krishna). This metaphoric Radha (soul) finds new liberation in learning more about Krishna, bonding in devotion and with passion.[8][18]

Radha & Sita The Radha-Krishna and Sita-Rama pairs represent two different personality sets, two perspectives on and lifestyles, both cherished in the way of life called Hinduism.[19] Sita is traditionally wedded: the dedicated and virtuous wife of Rama, an introspective temperate paragon of a serious, virtuous man.[20][21][22] Radha is a power potency of Krishna, who is a playful adventurer.[20][19] Radha and Sita offer two templates within the Hindu tradition.[19] If "Sita is a queen, aware of her social responsibilities", states Pauwels, then "Radha is exclusively focused on her romantic relationship with her lover", giving two contrasting role models from two ends of the moral . Yet they share common elements as well. Both face life challenges and are committed to their true love. They are both influential, adored and beloved goddesses in the Hindu culture.

Influence In some devotional (bhakti) traditions of Vaishnavism that focus on Krishna, Radha

represents "the feeling of Radha's story has inspired many [9] love towards Krishna". paintings. Above: Radha waiting For some of the adherents of for Krishna by Raja Ravi Varma. these traditions, her importance approaches or even exceeds that of Krishna. Radha is worshipped along with Krishna in Bengal, Assam and Odisha by Vaishnava Hindus. Elsewhere, such as with Visnusvamins, she is a 14th-century fresco of Radha Krishna revered deity.[23] She is in Udaipur, Rajasthan considered to be Krishna's original shakti, the supreme goddess in both the Nimbarka Sampradaya and following the advent of also within the Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition.[9][11]

Radha Chalisa mentions that Krishna accompanies one who chants " A 16th-century Radha sculpture Radha" with pure heart. Other gopis are usually considered to be self in copper from Bengal. willing maidservants (Sevika) of Radha. Radharani's superiority is seen in Krishna's flute, which repeats the name Radha. Between Radha and Rukmini, Radha is superior.

Radha's connection to Krishna is of two types: svakiya-rasa (married relationship) and parakiya-rasa (a relationship signified with eternal mental "love"). The Gaudiya tradition focuses upon parakiya-rasa as the highest form of love, wherein Radha and Krishna share thoughts even through separation. The love the gopis feel for Krishna is also described in this esoteric manner as the highest platform of spontaneous love of God, and not of a sexual nature.

Nimbarka Nimbarka was the first well known Vaishnava scholar whose theology centered on goddess Radha.[24][25] Temples

Left:Radha- Mandir (Love Temple) in Vrindavan, ; Right: Krishna-Radha in Gokarneshwar temple, .

Radha and Krishna are the focus of temples in the Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Vallabhacharya, Chandidas and other traditions of Vaishnavism.[11] She is typically shown standing immediately next to Krishna.[11] Some important Radha temples are:

Radharani Mandir in Barsana is the main temple of Srimati Radharani. This is where Radharani's father Vrisbhanu's palace is located and it is considered as the residence of Radharani. or appearance of Srimati Radharani is celebrated with enthusiasm and fervour at Radharani temple in Barsana every year. About 500k+ devotees visit Radharani Mandir on Radhastami eve. Barsana and Vrindavan in , Northern India contain a large number of temples dedicated to both Radha and Krishna, including the Radhavallabh Temple.[26] Sri Sri Radha Parthasarathi Mandir in Delhi is also the .[27][28] The Shree Raseshwari at in Austin, , USA, established by Jagadguru Shree Kripaluji Maharaj, is one of the largest complexes in the Western Hemisphere,[29] and the largest in North America.[30][31][32]

See also

Krishna Janmashtami Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir – the tallest Radha-Krishna temple under construction

References 1. Viharamya Naya Nitya Masya Prema Vasi Krutha Imanthu Mathpriyam Vidhi Radhikam Paradevatham Captivated by Her Love I always roam with Her. Know Her as the Supreme Goddess Radha - the embodiment of Supreme Love. 2. Sri Shukadeva Goswami expresses- anayaradhyate - There is one Gopi whose service Krishna accepts withe highest relish, indicating Srimati Radharani. 3. Radha krishnatmika nityam krishno radhatmika dhruvam | The soul of Radha is Krishna and the soul of Krishna is Radha. This is a certain truth 4. Yah Krishna saapi Radha ya Radha Krishna eva saha | That transcendental form who is Krishna is certainly Radha. That who is Radha is certainly Krishna. Both are one and the same. 5. Jackie Menzies (2006). Goddess: divine energy (https://books.google.com/books?id=pzLqA AAAMAAJ). Art Gallery of New South Wales. p. 54. 6. John Stratton Hawley; Donna Marie Wulff (1982). The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=j3R1z0sE340C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 1–12. ISBN 978-0-89581-102-8. 7. Miller, Barbara Stoler (1975). "Rādhā: Consort of Kṛṣṇa's Vernal Passion". Journal of the American Oriental Society. American Oriental Society. 95 (4): 655–671. doi:10.2307/601022 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F601022). 8. David Kinsley (1988). Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition (https://books.google.com/books?id=HzldwMHeS6IC). University of California Press. pp. 81–86, 89–90. ISBN 978-0-520-90883-3. 9. John Stratton Hawley; Donna Marie Wulff (1982). The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=j3R1z0sE340C). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. xiii–xviii. ISBN 978-0-89581-102-8. 10. Guy L. Beck (2006). Alternative : Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity (https://books.google.com/books?id=8z-v1p2qrwsC&pg=PA46). State University of New York Press. pp. 46–47. ISBN 978-0-7914-6416-8. 11. Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id =DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA321). Penguin Books. pp. 321–322. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6. 12. Monier Monier-Williams, Rādhā (http://www.ibiblio.org/sripedia/ebooks/mw/0900/mw__090 9.html), Sanskrit-English Dictionary with Etymology, Oxford University Press, page 876 13. Sukumar Sen (1943), "Etymology of the name Radha-Krishana," Indian Linguistics, Vol. 8, pp. 434–435 14. Heidi R. M. Pauwels (1996), The Great Goddess and Fulfilment in Love: Rādhā Seen Through a Sixteenth-Century Lens (https://www.jstor.org/stable/619389), Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 59, No. 1 (1996), pp. 29–43 15. Jaya Chemburkar (1976), ŚRĪRĀDHIKĀNĀMASAHASRAM (https://www.jstor.org/stable/416 92239), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 57, No. 1/4 (1976), pp. 107–116 16. Shrikant Pradhan (2008), A UNIQUE IMAGE OF "ARDHARADHAVENUDHARAMURTI: OR "ARDHANARI KRISHNA" (https://www.jstor.org/stable/42931207), Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute, Vol. 68/69 (2008–2009), pp. 207–213 17. Heidi R.M. Pauwels (2008). The Goddess as Role Model: Sita and Radha in Scripture and on Screen (https://books.google.com/books?id=BSRXu4pcyCsC). Oxford University Press. pp. 13–14. ISBN 978-0-19-970857-4. 18. Roshen Dalal (2010). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide (https://books.google.com/books?id =DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA147). Penguin Books. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6. 19. Heidi R.M. Pauwels (2008). The Goddess as Role Model: Sita and Radha in Scripture and on Screen (https://books.google.com/books?id=BSRXu4pcyCsC). Oxford University Press. pp. 12–15, 497–517. ISBN 978-0-19-970857-4. 20. Vālmīki; Robert P Goldman (Translator) (1990). The of : (http s://books.google.com/books?id=DWX43jnbOngC). Princeton University Press. p. 3. ISBN 9781400884551. 21. Dimock Jr, E.C. (1963). "Doctrine and Practice among the Vaisnavas of Bengal". History of . 3 (1): 106–127. doi:10.1086/462474 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F462474). JSTOR 1062079 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062079). 22. Marijke J. Klokke (2000). Narrative Sculpture and Literary Traditions in South and Southeast (https://books.google.com/books?id=fx3mpR4uKmkC&pg=PA51). BRILL. pp. 51–57. ISBN 90-04-11865-9. 23. Asoke Kumar Majumdar (1955), A Note on the Development of Radha Cult (https://www.jsto r.org/stable/44082959), Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 36, No. 3/4 (July – October 1955), pp. 231–257 24. Singh, K.B. (2004). "Manipur Vaishnavism: A Sociological Interpretat1on" (https://books.goo gle.com/books?id=2cIOqGcvHqoC&pg=PA125). in India. ISBN 978-0- 7619-9781-8. Retrieved 3 May 2008. 25. Kinsley, D. (2010). "Without Krsna There Is No Song" (https://books.google.com/books?hl=e n&lr=&ie=UTF-8&sa=G&oi=qs&q=nimbarka+radha+first+author:d-sarma). History of Religions. 12 (2): 149. doi:10.1086/462672 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F462672). Retrieved 3 May 2008. "Nimbarka seems to have been the first well-known religious leader to regard Radha as central to his worship (thirteenth century)" 26. Radhavallabh Temple (http://www.radhavallabh.com) 27. "Asia and India ISKCON temples" (http://www.radha.name/images-gallery/temples-worldwid e-without-india/asia-without-India). Radha. 28. "Archived copy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150626112447/http://m.dandavats.com/?p= 6770). Dandavats. Archived from the original (http://m.dandavats.com/?p=6770) on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015. 29. Vedic Foundation Inaugurated at Barsana Dham, Austin (http://hua.edu/media/mediasuppor tfiles/newsletters_brochures/HU-Newsletter-7-03.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/we b/20110818030758/http://hua.edu/media/mediasupportfiles/newsletters_brochures/HU-New sletter-7-03.pdf) 18 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved Dec 15th, 2011. 30. Ciment, J. 2001. Encyclopedia of American Immigration. Michigan: M.E. Sharpe 31. Hylton, H. & Rosie, C. 2006. Insiders' Guide to Austin. Globe Pequot Press. 32. Mugno, M. & Rafferty, R.R. 1998. Texas Monthly Guidebook to Texas. Gulf Pub. Co.

Further reading

Krsna: The Supreme Personality of Godhead (ISBN 0-89213-354-6) by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions (ISBN 81- 208-0379-5) by David Kinsley Hawley J.S. & D.M. Wulff (ed.) (1986) The Divine Consort: Radha and the Goddesses of India, Beacon Press, Boston, ISBN 0-8070-1303-X.

External links

Radha (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Radha-Hindu-mythology) at Encyclopædia Britannica Radha (https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/eastern-religions/hinduism/ra dha) at Encyclopedia.com Devi in Hinduism (with Radha) (https://web.archive.org/web/20001205155300/http://www.as ia.si.edu/devi/index.htm), Arthur M. Sackler Gallery and Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC Radha (http://btg.krishna.com/sri-radha-feminine-divine) on Krishna.com Radha in the Erotic Play of the Universe (https://web.archive.org/web/20170414081614/htt p://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=146&$NMW_TRANS$=ext), David C. Scott, United Theological College, Bangalore

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Krishna (/ˈkrɪʃnə/,[6] Sanskrit pronunciation: [ˈkɽɪʂɳɐ]; Krishna Sanskrit: कृ ण, IAST: Kṛṣṇa) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of the god Vishnu and also as the supreme God in his own right.[7] He is the god of , tenderness, and love in Hinduism,[8][9][10] and is one of the most popular and widely revered among Indian divinities.[11] Krishna's birthday is celebrated every year by Hindus on according to the lunisolar , which falls in late August or early September of the Gregorian calendar.[12] Krishna is usually depicted with a flute in his hand. The current tradition of the monotheistic cult of Krishna, is the result of the amalgamation of several ancient traditions, particularly the originally independent cults of -Krishna, Gopala-Krishna and Bala-Krishna, as well as Bhagavatism.[13][14] Affiliation Svayam Bhagavan, The anecdotes and narratives of Krishna's life are generally , , titled as Krishna Leela. He is a central character in the Narayana Vishnu, , the Bhagavata Purana and the Bhagavad Gita, , Radha and is mentioned in many Hindu philosophical, theological, Krishna[1][2] [15] and mythological texts. They portray him in various Abode Goloka, Vaikuntha, perspectives: a god-child, a prankster, a model lover, a divine Vrindavan, Gokula, hero, and as the universal supreme being.[16] His iconography Weapon reflects these legends, and shows him in different stages of his life, such as an infant eating butter, a young boy playing a flute, a young boy with Radha or surrounded by women Battles War devotees, or a friendly charioteer giving counsel to Arjuna.[17] Texts Bhagavata Purana, , , The synonyms of Krishna have been traced to Mahabharata (Bhagavad [18] 1st millennium BCE literature. In some sub-traditions, Gita), Gita Govinda Krishna is worshipped as Svayam Bhagavan, and this is Krishna Janmashtami, , sometimes referred to as Krishnaism. These sub-traditions Gopastami, arose in the context of the medieval era Bhakti movement.[19] ( ) Krishna-related literature has inspired numerous performance arts such as , , , , and Personal information Manipuri dance.[20][21] He is a pan-Hindu god, but is Born Mathura, Surasena particularly revered in some locations such as Vrindavan in (present-day Uttar Uttar Pradesh, the Jagannatha aspect in Odisha, Mayapur in Pradesh, India)[3] [22] West Bengal, Dwarka and in , in the form Consorts Radha; Rukmini, of in Pandharpur, Maharashtra, in and other [23] [24] Rajasthan, Krishna in and Ashtabharyas, and in .[25] Since the 1960s, the worship of Krishna has also spread to the Western world and to Africa, largely due to the 16,000–16,100 other junior work of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness queens[4][note 1] [26] (ISKCON). Parents (mother) (father) Devi (step-mother) Contents (foster mother) Baba (foster father) Names and epithets Siblings (brother) Iconography (sister) Historical and literary sources Dynasty Yaduvanshi-Chandravanshi Mahabharata Coins Inscriptions Life and Legends Birth Childhood and youth Adulthood and Bhagavad Gita Death and ascension Versions and interpretations Proposed datings Philosophy and theology Influence Vaishnavism Early traditions Bhakti tradition Indian subcontinent Outside Asia Southeast Asia Performance arts Krishna outside of Hinduism Other See also Notes References Bibliography External links

Names and epithets The name "Krishna" originates from the Sanskrit word Kṛṣṇa, which is primarily an adjective meaning "black", "dark", or "dark blue".[27] The waning moon is called Krishna , relating to the adjective meaning "darkening".[27] The name is also interpreted sometimes as "all-attractive".[28]

As a name of Vishnu, Krishna is listed as the 57th name in the Vishnu . Based on his name, Krishna is often depicted in idols as black- or blue-skinned. Krishna is also known by various other names, epithets, and titles that reflect his many associations and attributes. Among the most common names are Mohan "enchanter"; Govinda "chief herdsman",[29] Keev "prankster", and Gopala "Protector of the 'Go'", which means "Soul" or "the cows".[30][31] Some names for Krishna hold regional importance; Jagannatha, found in Hindu temple, is a popular incarnation in Odisha state and nearby regions of eastern India.[32][33][34]

Iconography Krishna is represented in the Indian traditions in many ways, but with some common features. His iconography typically depicts him with black, dark, or blue skin, like Vishnu.[35] However, ancient and medieval reliefs and stone-based arts depict him in the natural color of the material out of which he is formed, both in India and in southeast Asia.[36][37] In some texts, his skin is poetically described as the color of Jambul (Jamun, a purple- colored fruit).[38]

Krishna is often depicted wearing a peacock-feather wreath or [39][40] Krishna with cows, herdsmen, and crown, and playing the bansuri (Indian flute). In this form, Gopis he is usually shown standing with one leg bent in front of the other in the Tribhanga posture. He is sometimes accompanied by cows or a calf, which symbolise the divine herdsman Govinda. Alternatively, he is shown as a romantic young boy with the gopis (milkmaids), often making music or playing pranks.[41]

In other icons, he is a part of battlefield scenes of the epic Mahabharata. He is shown as a charioteer, notably when he is addressing the prince Arjuna character, symbolically reflecting the events that led to the Bhagavad Gita – a scripture of Hinduism. In these popular depictions, Krishna appears in the front as the charioteer, either as a counsel listening to Arjuna, or as the driver of the while Arjuna aims his arrows in the battlefield of Kurukshetra.[43][44]

Alternate icons of Krishna show him as a baby (, the child Krishna), a toddler crawling on his hands and knees, a dancing child, or an innocent-looking child playfully stealing or consuming butter (Makkan Chor),[45] holding Laddu in his hand (Laddu )[46][47] or as a cosmic infant sucking his toe while floating on a banyan leaf during the Pralaya (the cosmic dissolution) observed by .[48] Regional variations in the iconography of Krishna are seen in his different forms, such as Jaganatha in Odisha, Vithoba in Maharashtra,[49] in Rajasthan[50] and Guruvayoorappan in Kerala.[51]

Guidelines for the preparation of Krishna icons in design and architecture are described in medieval-era Sanskrit texts on Hindu temple arts such as Vaikhanasa agama, Vishnu dharmottara, Brihat samhita, and Purana.[52] Similarly, early medieval-era Tamil texts also contain guidelines for sculpting Krishna and Rukmini. Several statues made according to these guidelines are in the collections of the Government Museum, Chennai.[53]

Historical and literary sources

Mahabharata The earliest text containing detailed descriptions of Krishna as a personality is the epic Mahabharata, which depicts Krishna as an incarnation of Vishnu.[54] Krishna is central to Krishna lifting Govardhana many of the main stories of the at Bharat Kala Bhavan, Krishna is celebrated in the recovered from a Muslim Vaishnava tradition in various stages epic. The eighteen chapters of the graveyard in . It is of his life, such as Maakhan chor sixth book ( Parva) of dated to the (butter thief).[45] the epic that constitute the era (4th/6th-century CE).[42] Bhagavad Gita contain the advice of Krishna to Arjuna on the battlefield. The Harivamsa, a later appendix to the Mahabharata contains a detailed version of Krishna's childhood and youth.[55]

The , estimated to have been composed sometime between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE, has been another source of speculation regarding Krishna in ancient India. The verse (III.xvii.6) mentions Krishna in "Krishnaya Devakiputraya" (Sanskrit: कृ णाय दे वकपुाय) as a student of the sage Ghora of the Angirasa family. This phrase, which means "To Krishna the son of Devaki", has been mentioned by scholars such as [56] as a potential source of fables and Vedic lore about Krishna in the Mahabharata and other ancient literature – only potential, because this verse could have been interpolated into the text,[56] or the Krishna Devakiputra, could be different from the deity Krishna.[57] These doubts are supported by the fact that the much later age Sandilya Bhakti Sutras, a treatise on Krishna,[58] cites later age compilations such as the Narayana Upanishad but never cites this verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. Other scholars disagree that the Krishna mentioned along with Devaki in the ancient Upanishad is unrelated to the later Hindu god of the Bhagavad Gita fame. For example, Archer states that the coincidence of the two names appearing together in the same Upanishad verse cannot be dismissed easily.[59]

Yāska's , an etymological dictionary published around the 6th century BCE, contains a reference to the Shyamantaka jewel in the possession of , a motif from the well-known Puranic story about Krishna.[60] and Aitareya- associate Krishna with his origins.[61]

In Ashṭādhyāyī, authored by the ancient grammarian Pāṇini (probably belonged to the 5th or 6th century BCE), Vāsudeva, son of Vasudeva, and Arjuna, as recipients of worship, are referred to together in the same .[62][63][64]

Megasthenes, a Greek ethnographer and an ambassador of Seleucus I to the court of Chandragupta Maurya towards the end of 4th century BCE, made reference to Herakles in his famous work Indica. This text is now lost to history, but was quoted in secondary literature by later Greeks such as Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo.[65] According to these texts, Megasthenes mentioned that the Sourasenoi tribe of India, who worshipped Herakles, had two major cities named Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river named the Jobares. According to , a professor of known for his publications on Krishna, "there is little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the , a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged".[65] The word Herakles, states Bryant, is likely a Greek phonetic equivalent of Hari-Krishna, as is Methora of Mathura, Kleisobora of Krishnapura, and the Jobares of Jamuna. Later, when Alexander the Great launched his campaign in the northwest Indian subcontinent, his associates recalled that the soldiers of Porus were carrying an image of Herakles.[65]

The Buddhist Pali canon and the Ghata-Jâtaka (No. 454) polemically mention the devotees of Vâsudeva and Baladeva. These texts have many peculiarities and may be a garbled and confused version of the Krishna legends.[66] The texts of Jainism mention these tales as well, also with Bala Krishna dancing, many peculiarities and different versions, in their legends about 14th century CE Chola Tirthankaras. This inclusion of Krishna-related legends in ancient sculpture, , in the Buddhist and Jaina literature suggests that Krishna theology was existent Honolulu Academy of Arts and important in the religious landscape observed by non-Hindu traditions of ancient India.[67][68]

The ancient Sanskrit grammarian in his Mahabhashya makes several references to Krishna and his associates found in later Indian texts. In his commentary on Pāṇini's verse 3.1.26, he also uses the word Kamsavadha or the "killing of ", an important part of the legends surrounding Krishna.[69][70]

Coins Around 180 BCE the Indo-Greek king Agathocles issued some coinage bearing images of deities that are now interpreted as being related to Vaisnava imagery in India.[74][75] The deities displayed on the coins appear to be Vishnu's Balarama-Sankarshana with attributes consisting of the mace and the plow, and Vasudeva-Krishna with attributes of the Shankha (conch) and the Sudarshana Chakra wheel.[74][76] According to Bopearachchi, the headdress on top of the deity is actually a misrepresentation of a shaft with a half-moon parasol [74] Krishna as Vāsudeva- on top (chattra). Krishna, on a coin of Agathocles of Bactria, c. 180 BCE.[71][72] This is Inscriptions "the earliest unambiguous A stone pillar with a inscription was discovered by colonial image" of the deity.[73] era archaeologists in Besnagar (, central Indian state of ). Using modern techniques, it has been dated to between 125 and 100 BCE, and now known after – an Indo-Greek who served as an ambassador of the Greek king Antialcidas to a regional Indian king Kasiputra .[74][77] The inscription is a private religious dedication of Heliodorus to "Vasudeva", another name for Krishna in the Indian tradition. It states that the column was constructed by "the Bhagavata Heliodorus" and that it is a " pillar" (both are Vishnu-Krishna-related terms). Additionally, the inscription includes a Krishna-related verse from chapter 11.7 of the Mahabharata stating that the path to immortality and heaven is to correctly live a life of three : self- (damah), generosity (cagah or tyaga), and vigilance (apramadah).[77][79][80] The Heliodorus pillar site was fully excavated by archaeologists in the 1960s. The effort revealed the brick foundations of a much larger ancient elliptical temple complex with a sanctum, mandapas, and seven additional pillars.[81][82] The Heliodorus pillar inscriptions and the temple are among the earliest known evidence of Krishna-Vasudeva devotion and Vaishnavism in ancient India.[83][74][84]

The Heliodorus inscription is not an isolated evidence. Three Hathibada Heliodorus Pillar in the Indian state of Madhya inscriptions and one Ghosundi inscription, all located in the state of Pradesh, erected about Rajasthan and dated by modern methodology to the 1st century BCE, 120 BCE. The inscription mention Samkarsana and Vasudeva, also mention that the structure was states that Heliodorus is a built for their worship. These four inscriptions are notable for being some Bhagvatena, and a couplet of the oldest-known Sanskrit inscriptions.[85] in the inscription closely paraphrases a Sanskrit A Mora stone slab found at the Mathura-Vrindavan archaeological site in verse from the [77][78] Uttar Pradesh, held now in the Mathura Museum, has a Brahmi Mahabharata. inscription. It is dated to the 1st century CE and mentions the five Vrishni heroes, otherwise known as Balarama, Krishna, , , and .[86][87][88] Another terracotta plaque from the same site shows an infant being carried by an adult over his head, similar to the legend about Krishna's birth.[86]

Many Puranas tell Krishna's life story or some highlights from it. Two Puranas, the Bhagavata Purana and the Vishnu Purana, contain the most elaborate telling of Krishna's story,[89] but the life stories of Krishna in these and other texts vary, and contain significant inconsistencies.[90][91] The Bhagavata Purana consists of twelve books subdivided into 332 chapters, with a cumulative total of between 16,000 and 18,000 verses depending on the version.[92][93] The tenth book of the text, which contains about 4,000 verses (~25%) and is dedicated to legends about Krishna, has been the most popular and widely studied part of this text.[94][95]

Life and Legends This summary is a mythological account, based on literary details from the Mahābhārata, the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana. The scenes from the narrative are set in ancient India, mostly in the present states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, , Delhi, and Gujarat. The legends about Krishna's life are called Krishna charitas (IAST: Kṛṣṇacaritas).[96]

Birth In Krishna Charitas, Krishna is born to Devaki and her husband, Vasudeva of the clan in Mathura.[97] Devaki's brother is a tyrant named Kamsa. When Mother Earth was burdened by heinous activities of Kamsa and other Kings she went to Lord Brahma in form of a cow who along with other gods took her to the shore of the milky ocean. There they chanted the Sukta to summon Lord Vishnu. Lord Vishnu assured her and other gods that he would himself take birth along with his part in Yadu's clan to end the tyranny. At Devaki's wedding, according to Puranic legends, Kamsa is told by fortune tellers that a child of Devaki would kill him. Kamsa arranges to kill all of Devaki's children. When Krishna is born, Vasudeva secretly carries the infant Krishna away across the and exchanges him. When Kamsa tries to kill the newborn, the exchanged baby appears as the Hindu goddess Vasudeva carrying the newborn Krishna to Nand's Durga, warning him that his house in via the river death has arrived in his kingdom, Nanda and Yashoda pushing baby Yamuna and then disappears, according to Krishna on a swing the legends in the Puranas. Krishna grows up with Nanda Baba and his wife Yasoda near modern-day Mathura.[98][99][100] Two of Krishna's siblings also survive, namely Balarama and Subhadra, according to these legends.[101] The day of birth of Krishna is celebrated as Krishna Janmashtami.

Childhood and youth The legends of Krishna's childhood and youth describe him as a cow herder, a mischievous boy whose pranks earns him the nickname Makhan Chor (butter thief) and a protector who steals the hearts of the people in both Gokul and Vrindavana. The texts state, for example, that Krishna lifts the Govardhana hill to protect the inhabitants of Vrindavana from devastating rains and floods.[102]

Other legends describe him as an enchanter and playful lover of the gopis (milkmaids) of Vrindavana, especially Radha. These metaphor- filled love stories are known as the Rasa lila and were romanticised in the poetry of Jayadeva, author of the Gita Govinda. They are also central to the development of the Krishna bhakti traditions worshiping Radha Krishna.[103]

Krishna's childhood illustrates the Hindu concept of lila, playing for fun Krishna playing flute (15th century artwork). and enjoyment and not for sport or gain. His interaction with the gopis at the rasa dance or Rasa-lila is an example. Krishna plays his flute and the gopis come immediately, from whatever they were doing, to the banks of the Yamuna River and join him in singing and dancing. Even those who could not physically be there join him through meditation. He is the spiritual essence and the love-eternal in existence, the gopis metaphorically represent the prakṛti matter and the impermanent body.[104]:256 This lila is a constant theme in the legends of Krishna's childhood and youth. Even when he is battling with a serpent to protect others, he is described in Hindu texts as if he were playing a game.[104]:255 This quality of playfulness in Krishna is celebrated during festivals as Rasa-lila and Janmashtami, where Hindus in some regions such as Maharashtra playfully mimic his legends, such as by making human gymnastic pyramids to break open (clay pots) hung high in the air to "steal" butter or buttermilk, spilling it all over the group.[104]:253–261

Adulthood Krishna legends then describe his return to Mathura. He overthrows and kills the tyrant king, his uncle Kamsa/Kansa after quelling several assassination attempts by Kamsa. He reinstates Kamsa's father, as the king of the and becomes a leading prince at the court.[106] In one version of the Krishna story, as narrated by Rao, Krishna after Kamsa's death leads the Yadavas to the newly built city of Dwaraka. Thereafter rise. Krishna befriends Arjuna and the other Pandava princes of the . Krishna plays a Krishna with his consorts Rukmini and Satyabhama and key role in the Mahabharata.[107] his mount Garuda, Tamil Nadu, India, late 12th– The Bhagavata Purana describes eight wives of Krishna that appear in 13th century[105] sequence as (Rukmini, Satyabhama, , Kalindi, , (also called ), and (also called Madra).[108] According to Dennis Hudson, this is a metaphor where each of the eight wives signifies a different aspect of him.[109] According to George Williams, Vaishnava texts mention all Gopis as wives of Krishna, but this is spiritual symbolism of devotional relationship and Krishna's complete loving devotion to each and everyone devoted to him.[110] His wife is sometimes called Rohini, Radha, Rukmini, Svaminiji or others.[111] In Krishna-related Hindu traditions, he is most commonly seen with Radha. All of his wives and his lover Radha are considered in the Hindu tradition to be the avatars of the goddess Lakshmi, the consort of Vishnu.[112][5] Gopis are considered as Radha's many forms and manifestations.[5]

Kurukshetra War and Bhagavad Gita According to the epic poem Mahabharata, Krishna becomes Arjuna's charioteer for the Kurukshetra War, but on the condition that he personally will not raise any weapon. Upon arrival at the battlefield and seeing that the enemies are his family, his grandfather and his cousins and loved ones, Arjuna is moved and says his heart will not allow him to fight and kill others. He would rather renounce the kingdom and put down his Gandiv (Arjuna's bow). Krishna then advises him about the nature of life, and when one is faced with a war between good An iconographic symbol of Krishna and evil, the impermanence of matter, the permanence of the soul with Arjuna during the Kurukshetra and the good, duties and responsibilities, the nature of true peace war – the context for the Bhagavad and bliss and the different types of to reach this state of bliss Gita. and inner liberation. This conversation between Krishna and Arjuna is presented as a discourse called the Bhagavad Gita.[113][114][115] Death and ascension It is stated in the Indian texts that the legendary Kurukshetra War leads to the death of all the hundred sons of . After 's death, Krishna visits Gandhari to offer his condolences when Gandhari and visited Kurukshtra, as stated in Stree Parva. Feeling that Krishna deliberately did not put an end to the war, in a fit of rage and sorrow Gandhari said, 'Thou were indifferent to the Kurus and the Pandavas whilst they slew each other, therefore, O Govinda, thou The hunter Jara about to shoot arrow shalt be the slayer of thy own kinsmen !' According to the towards Krishna Mahabharata, a fight breaks out at a among the Yadavas, who end up killing each other. Mistaking the sleeping Krishna for a deer, a hunter named Jara shoots an arrow that fatally injures him. Krishna forgives Jara and dies.[116][117][118] The pilgrimage () site of Bhalka in Gujarat marks the location where Krishna is believed to have died. It is also known as Dehotsarga, states Diana L. Eck, a term that literally means the place where Krishna "gave up his body".[117] The Bhagavata Purana in Book 11, chapter 31 states that after his death, Krishna returned to his transcendent abode directly because of his yogic concentration. Waiting gods such as Brahma and Indra were unable to trace the path Krishna took to leave his human incarnation and return to his abode.[119][120]

Versions and interpretations

Krishna iconography appears in many versions across India. For example (left to right): Srinath, Jagannath, Vithoba.

There are numerous versions of Krishna's life story, of which three are most studied: the Harivamsa, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.[121] They share the basic storyline but vary significantly in their specifics, details, and styles.[122] The most original composition, the Harivamsa is told in a realistic style that describes Krishna's life as a poor herder but weaves in poetic and allusive fantasy. It ends on a triumphal note, not with the death of Krishna.[123] Differing in some details, the fifth book of the Vishnu Purana moves away from Harivamsa realism and embeds Krishna in mystical terms and eulogies.[124] The Vishnu Purana manuscripts exist in many versions.[125]

The tenth and eleventh books of the Bhagavata Purana are widely considered to be a poetic masterpiece, full of imagination and metaphors, with no relation to the realism of pastoral life found in the Harivamsa. Krishna's life is presented as a cosmic play (lila), where his youth is set as a princely life with his foster father Nanda portrayed as a king.[126] Krishna's life is closer to that of a human being in Harivamsa, but is a symbolic universe in the Bhagavata Purana, where Krishna is within the universe and beyond it, as well as the universe itself, always.[127] The Bhagavata Purana manuscripts also exist in many versions, in numerous Indian languages.[128][94]

Proposed datings The date of Krishna's birth is celebrated every year as Janmashtami.[129]

According to Guy Beck, "most scholars of Hinduism and Indian history accept the historicity of Krishna—that he was a real male person, whether human or divine, who lived on Indian soil by at least 1000 BCE and interacted with many other historical persons within the cycles of the epic and puranic histories." Yet, Beck also notes that there is an "enormous number of contradictions and discrepancies surrounding the chronology of Krishna's life as depicted in the Sanskrit canon."[130]

Lanvanya Vemsani states that Krishna can be inferred to have lived between 3227 BCE – 3102 BCE from the Puranas.[131] A number of scholars, such as A. K. Bansal, B. V. Raman places Krishna's birth year 14th-century fresco of [132][133] as 3228 BCE. A paper presented in a conference in 2004 by a Krishna in Udaipur, group of archaeologists, religious scholars and astronomers from Rajasthan Somnath Trust of Gujarat, which was organised at Prabhas Patan, the supposed location of the where Krishna spent his last moments, fixes the death of Sri Krishna on 18 February 3102 BC at the age of 125 years and 7 months.[note 2]

In contrast, according to mythologies in the Jain tradition, Krishna was a cousin of Neminatha, the 22nd Tirthankara of the Jains.[140] Neminatha is believed in the Jain tradition to have been born 84,000 years before the 9th-century BCE Parshvanatha.[141]

Philosophy and theology A wide range of theological and philosophical ideas are presented through Krishna in Hindu texts. , a Hindu theologian whose works were influential in Bhakti movement,[142] presented him in terms of qualified ().[143] , a Hindu philosopher whose works led to the founding of sect of Vaishnavism,[144] presented Krishna in the framework of dualism (Dvaita).[145] Goswami, a saint from Gaudiya Vaishnava school,[146] described Krishna theology in terms of and Achintya Bheda Abheda.[147] Krishna theology is presented in a pure monism (advaita, called ) framework by Vallabha Acharya, who was the founder of Pushti sect of vaishnavism.[148][149] Madhusudana Sarasvati, an India philosopher,[150] presented Krishna theology in -monism framework (), while , who is credited for unifying and establishing the main currents of thought in Hinduism,[151][152][153] mentioned Krishna in his early eighth-century discussions on Panchayatana puja.[154]

The Bhagavata Purana, a popular text on Krishna considered to be like a scripture in Assam, synthesizes an Advaita, , and Yoga framework for Krishna but one that proceeds through loving devotion to Krishna.[155][156][157] Bryant describes the synthesis of ideas in Bhagavata Purana as, The philosophy of the Bhagavata is a mixture of Vedanta terminology, Samkhyan and devotionalized Yoga praxis. (...) The tenth book promotes Krishna as the highest absolute personal aspect of godhead – the personality behind the term and the ultimate aspect of Brahman.

— Edwin Bryant, Krishna: A Sourcebook[1]

While Sheridan and Pintchman both affirm Bryant's view, the latter adds that the Vedantic view emphasized in the Bhagavata is non-dualist with a . In conventional nondual Vedanta all reality is an interconnected and one, the Bhagavata posits that the reality is interconnected and plural.[158][159]

Across the various and , the common theme presents Krishna as the essence and symbol of divine love, with human life and love as a reflection of the divine. The longing and love-filled legends of Krishna and the gopis, his playful pranks as a baby,[160] as well as his later dialogues with other characters, are philosophically treated as metaphors for the human longing for the divine and for meaning, and the play between the universals and the human soul.[161][162][163] Krishna's lila is a theology of love-play. According to John Koller, "love is presented not simply as a means to salvation, it is the highest life". Human love is God's love.[164]

Other texts that include Krishna such as the Bhagavad Gita have attracted numerous bhasya (commentaries) in the Hindu traditions.[165] Though only a part of the Hindu epic Mahabharata, it has functioned as an independent spiritual guide. It allegorically raises through Krishna and Arjuna the ethical and moral dilemmas of human life, then presents a spectrum of answers, weighing in on the ideological questions on human freedoms, choices, and responsibilities towards self and towards others.[165][166] This Krishna dialogue has attracted numerous interpretations, from being a metaphor of inner human struggle teaching non-violence, to being a metaphor of outer human struggle teaching a rejection of to persecution.[165][166][167]

Influence

Vaishnavism The worship of Krishna is part of Vaishnavism, a major tradition within Hinduism. Krishna is considered a full avatar of Vishnu, or one with Vishnu himself.[168] However, the exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu is complex and diverse,[169] with Krishna sometimes considered an independent deity and supreme.[170] Vaishnavas accept many incarnations of Vishnu, but Krishna is particularly important. Their theologies are generally centered either on Vishnu or an avatar such as Krishna as supreme. The terms Krishnaism and Vishnuism have sometimes been used to distinguish the two, the former implying that Krishna is the transcendent Supreme Being.[171]

All Vaishnava traditions recognise Krishna as the eighth avatar of Vishnu; others identify Krishna with Vishnu, while traditions such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[172][173] Vallabha Sampradaya and the Nimbarka Sampradaya regard Krishna as the Svayam Bhagavan, the original form of Lord or the same as the concept of Brahman in Hinduism.[2][174][175][176][177] Gitagovinda of Jayadeva considers Krishna to be the supreme lord while the ten incarnations are his forms. Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday, also worshipped Krishna as God himself. "Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism, revolving around the cults of the Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala of the late .[178] Today the has a significant following outside of India as well.[179]

Early traditions The deity Krishna-Vasudeva (kṛṣṇa vāsudeva "Krishna, the son of Vasudeva") is historically one of the earliest forms of worship in Krishnaism and Vaishnavism.[18][60] It is believed to be a significant tradition of the early history of Krishna religion in antiquity.[180] Thereafter, there was an amalgamation of various similar traditions. These include ancient Bhagavatism, the cult of Gopala, of "Krishna Govinda" (cow-finding Krishna), of Balakrishna (baby Krishna) and of "Krishna Gopivallabha" (Krishna the lover).[181][182] According to Andre Couture, the Harivamsa contributed to the synthesis of various characters as aspects of Krishna.[183]

Bhakti tradition The use of the term bhakti, meaning devotion, is not confined to any one deity. However, Krishna is an important and popular focus of the devotionalism tradition within Hinduism, particularly among the Vaishnava sects.[172][184] Devotees of Krishna subscribe to the concept of lila, meaning 'divine play', as the central principle of the universe. It is a form of bhakti yoga, one of three types of yoga discussed by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita.[173][185][186]

Indian subcontinent The bhakti movements devoted to Krishna became prominent in southern India in the 7th to 9th centuries CE. The earliest works included those of [187] Krishna has been a major the Alvar saints of the Tamil Nadu. A major collection of their works part of the Bhakti is the Divya Prabandham. The Alvar 's popular collection of songs movement. Tiruppavai, in which she conceives of herself as a gopi, is the most famous of the oldest works in this genre.[188][189][190]

The movement originated in during the 7th CE, spreading northwards from Tamil Nadu through Karnataka and Maharashtra; by the 15th century, it was established in Bengal and northern India.[191] Early Bhakti pioneers include Nimbarka (12th or 13th century CE),[192] but most emerged later, including Vallabhacharya (15th century CE) and (Lord Sri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu. They started their own schools, namely Nimbarka Sampradaya, Vallabha Sampradaya, and Gaudiya Vaishnavism, with Krishna as the supreme god.

In the Deccan, particularly in Maharashtra, saint poets of the Varkari sect such as , , Janabai, Eknath, and promoted the worship of Vithoba,[49] a local form of Krishna, from the beginning of the 13th century until the late 18th century.[16] In southern India, Krishna (left) with Radha at , Watford, England and Kanakadasa of Karnataka composed songs devoted to the Krishna image of Udupi. Rupa Goswami of Gaudiya Vaishnavism has compiled a comprehensive summary of bhakti called Bhakti-rasamrita-sindhu.[184]

In South India, the acharyas of the Sri Sampradaya have written reverentially about Krishna in most of their works, including the Thiruppavai by Andal[193] and Gopala Vimshati by .[194]

Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, , and Kerala states have many major Krishna temples, and Janmashtami is one of the widely celebrated festivals in South India.[195]

Outside Asia By 1965 the Krishna-bhakti movement had spread outside India after Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada (as instructed by his , Bhaktisiddhanta Sarasvati Thakura) traveled from his homeland in West Bengal to New York City. A year later in 1966, after gaining many followers, he was able to form the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), popularly known as the movement. The purpose of this movement was to write about Krishna in English and to share the Gaudiya Vaishnava philosophy with people in the Western An ISKCON temple in Luçay-le-Mâle, world by spreading the teachings of the saint Chaitanya France Mahaprabhu. In the biographies of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, the he received when he was given diksha or initiation in Gaya was the six-word verse of the -Santarana Upanishad, namely "Hare Krishna Hare Krishna, Krishna Krishna Hare Hare; Hare Rama Hare Rama, Rama Rama Hare Hare". In Gaudiya tradition, it is the maha-mantra, or great mantra, about Krishna bhakti.[196][197] Its chanting was known as hari-nama sankirtana.[198]

The maha-mantra gained the attention of and John Lennon of The Beatles fame,[199] and Harrison produced a 1969 recording of the mantra by devotees from the London Radha Krishna Temple.[200] Titled "Hare Krishna Mantra", the song reached the top twenty on the UK music charts and was also successful in West Germany and Czechoslovakia.[199][201] The mantra of the Upanishad thus helped bring Bhaktivedanta and ISKCON ideas about Krishna into the West.[199] ISCKON has built many Krishna temples in the West, as well as other locations such as South Africa.[202]

Southeast Asia Krishna is found in southeast Asian history and art, but to a far less extent than Shiva, Durga, Nandi, , and Buddha. In temples (candi) of the archaeological sites in hilly volcanic Java, Indonesia, temple reliefs do not portray his pastoral life or his role as the erotic lover, nor do the historic Javanese Hindu texts.[205] Rather, either his childhood or the life as a king and Arjuna's companion have been more favored. The most elaborate temple arts of Krishna are found in a series of Krsnayana reliefs in the Hindu temple complex near Yogyakarta. These are dated to the 9th century CE.[205][206][207] Krishna remained a part of the Javanese cultural and theological fabric through the 14th century, as evidenced by the 14th-century reliefs along with those of the Hindu god Rama in east Java, before replaced on the island.[208] The medieval era arts of Vietnam and Cambodia feature Krishna. The earliest surviving sculptures and reliefs are from the 6th and 7th century, and these include Vaishnavism iconography.[203] According to John Guy, the curator and director of southeast Asian arts at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Krishna Govardhana art from 6th/7th-century Vietnam at Danang, and 7th-century Cambodia at Phnom Da cave in Angkor Borei, are some of the most sophisticated of this era.[203] Krishna lifts "Govardhan" mountain, a 7th-century artwork from a Da Nang, Krishna iconography has also been found in Thailand, along with [203][204] Vietnam, archaeological site those of and Vishnu. For example, a large number of sculptures and icons have been found in the Si Thep and Klangnai sites in the Phetchabun region of northern Thailand. These are dated to about the 7th and 8th century, from both the Funan and Zhenla periods archaeological sites.[209]

Performance arts

The Krishna legends in the Bhagavata Purana have inspired many performance arts repertoire, such as , Kuchipudi (left) and Odissi.[19][21] The Rasa Lila where Krishna plays with the gopis in Manipuri dance style (right).

Indian dance and music theatre traces its origins and techniques to the ancient Sama Veda and Natyasastra texts.[210][211] The stories enacted and the numerous choreographic themes are inspired by the mythologies and legends in Hindu texts, including Krishna-related literature such as Harivamsa and Bhagavata Purana.[212]

The Krishna stories have played a key role in the history of Indian theatre, music, and dance, particularly through the tradition of Rasaleela. These are dramatic enactments of Krishna's childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. One common scene involves Krishna playing flute in rasa leela, only to be heard by certain gopis (cowheard maidens), which is theologically supposed to represent divine call only heard by certain enlightened .[213] Some of the text's legends have inspired secondary theatre literature such as the eroticism in Gita Govinda.[214]

Krishna-related literature such as the Bhagavata Purana accords a metaphysical significance to the performances and treats them as religious ritual, infusing daily life with spiritual meaning, thus representing a good, honest, happy life. Similarly, Krishna-inspired performances aim to cleanse the hearts of faithful actors and listeners. Singing, dancing, and performance of any part of Krishna Lila is an act of remembering the dharma in the text, as a form of para bhakti (supreme devotion). To remember Krishna at any time and in any art, asserts the text, is to worship the good and the divine.[215] Classical dance styles such as Kathak, Odissi, Manipuri, Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam in particular are known for their Krishna-related performances.[216] Krisnattam (Krishnattam) traces its origins to Krishna legends, and is linked to another major classical Indian dance form called Kathakali.[217] Bryant summarizes the influence of Krishna stories in the Bhagavata Purana as, "[it] has inspired more derivative literature, poetry, drama, dance, theatre and art than any other text in the history of Sanskrit literature, with the possible exception of the Ramayana.[20]

Krishna outside of Hinduism

Jainism The Jainism tradition lists 63 Śalākāpuruṣa or notable figures which, amongst others, includes the twenty-four Tirthankaras (spiritual teachers) and nine sets of triads. One of these triads is Krishna as the Vasudeva, Balarama as the Baladeva, and as the Prati-Vasudeva. In each age of the Jain cyclic time is born a Vasudeva with an elder brother termed the Radha-Krishna Baladeva. Between the triads, Baladeva upholds the principle of non-violence, a central idea of Jainism. The villain is the Prati- vasudeva, who attempts to destroy the world. To save the world, Vasudeva-Krishna has to forsake the non-violence principle and kill the Prati-Vasudeva.[218] The stories of these triads can be found in the Harivamsa Purana (8th century CE) of Jinasena (not be confused with its namesake, the addendum to Mahābhārata) and the Trishashti-shalakapurusha-charita of Hemachandra.[219][220]

The story of Krishna's life in the Puranas of Jainism follows the same general outline as those in the Hindu texts, but in details they are very different: they include Jain Tirthankaras as characters in the story, and generally are polemically critical of Krishna, unlike the versions found in the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Vishnu Purana.[221] For example, Krishna loses battles in the Jain versions, and his gopis and his clan of Yadavas die in a fire created by an ascetic named Dvaipayana. Similarly, after dying from the hunter Jara's arrow, the Jaina texts state Krishna goes to the third hell in Jain , while his brother is said to go to the sixth heaven.[222]

Vimalasuri is attributed to be the author of the Jain version of the Harivamsa Purana, but no manuscripts have been found that confirm this. It is likely that later Jain scholars, probably Jinasena of the 8th century, wrote a complete version of Krishna legends in the Jain tradition and credited it to the ancient Vimalasuri.[223] Partial and older versions of the Krishna story are available in Jain literature, such as in the Antagata Dasao of the Svetambara Agama tradition.[223]

In other Jain texts, Krishna is stated to be a cousin of the twenty-second Tirthankara, Neminatha. The Jain texts state that Naminatha taught Krishna all the wisdom that he later gave to Arjuna in the Bhagavad Gita. According to Jeffery D. Long, a professor of religion known for his publications on Jainism, this connection between Krishna and Neminatha has been a historic reason for Jains to accept, read, and cite the Bhagavad Gita as a spiritually important text, celebrate Krishna-related festivals, and intermingle with Hindus as spiritual cousins.[224]

Buddhism The story of Krishna occurs in the Jataka tales in Buddhism.[225] The Vidhurapandita Jataka mentions Madhura (Sanskrit: Mathura), the Ghata Jataka mentions Kamsa, Devagabbha (Sk: Devaki), Upasagara or Vasudeva, Govaddhana (Sk: Govardhana), Baladeva (Balarama), and Kanha or Kesava (Sk: Krishna, ).[226][227]

Like the Jaina versions of the Krishna legends, the Buddhist versions such as one in Ghata Jataka follow the general outline of the story,[228] but are different from the Hindu versions as well.[226][67] For example, the Buddhist legend describes Devagabbha (Devaki) to have been isolated in a palace built upon a pole, after she is born, so no future husband could reach her. Krishna's father similarly is described as a powerful king, but who meets up with Devagabbha anyway, and to whom Kamsa gives away his sister Devagabbha in marriage. The siblings of Depiction of Krishna playing Krishna are not killed by Kamsa, though he tries. In the Buddhist version the flute in a temple constructed in 752 CE on of the legend, all of Krishna's siblings grow to maturity.[229] the order of Emperor Shomu, Todai-ji Temple, Krishna and his siblings' capital becomes Dvaravati. The Arjuna and Great Buddha Hall in Nara, Krishna interaction is missing in the Jataka version. A new legend is Japan included, wherein Krishna laments in uncontrollable sorrow when his son dies, and a Ghatapandita feigns madness to teach Krishna a lesson.[230] The Jataka tale also includes an internecine destruction among his siblings after they all get drunk. Krishna also dies in the Buddhist legend by the hand of a hunter named Jara, but while he is traveling to a frontier city. Mistaking Krishna for a pig, Jara throws a spear that fatally pierces his feet, causing Krishna great pain and then his death.[229]

At the end of this Ghata-Jataka discourse, the Buddhist text declares that Sariputta, one of the revered disciples of the Buddha in the Buddhist tradition, was incarnated as Krishna in his previous life to learn lessons on grief from the Buddha in his prior rebirth:

Then he [Master] declared the , and identified the Birth: 'At that time, Ananda was Rohineyya, Sariputta was Vasudeva [Krishna], the followers of the Buddha were the other persons, and I myself was Ghatapandita."

— Jataka Tale No. 454, Translator: W. H. D. Rouse[231]

While the Buddhist Jataka texts co-opt Krishna-Vasudeva and make him a student of the Buddha in his previous life,[231] the Hindu texts co-opt the Buddha and make him an avatar of Vishnu.[232][233] The 'divine boy' Krishna as an embodiment of wisdom and endearing prankster forms a part of the of gods in Japanese Buddhism.[234]

Other Krishna is mentioned as Krishna Avtar in the Chaubis Avtar, a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to Guru Gobind Singh.[235]

Bahá'ís believe that Krishna was a "Manifestation of God", or one in a line of prophets who have revealed the Word of God progressively for a gradually maturing humanity. In this way, Krishna shares an exalted station with Abraham, Moses, Zoroaster, Buddha, Muhammad, , the Báb, and the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, Bahá'u'lláh.[236][237]

Ahmadiyya, a 20th-century Islamic movement, consider Krishna as one of their ancient prophets.[238][239][240] Ghulam Ahmad stated that he was himself a prophet in the likeness of prophets such as Krishna, Jesus, and Muhammad,[241] who had come to earth as a latter-day reviver of religion and morality.

Krishna worship or reverence has been adopted by several new religious movements since the 19th century, and he is sometimes a member of an eclectic pantheon in occult texts, along with Greek, Buddhist, biblical, and even historical figures.[242] For instance, Édouard Schuré, an influential figure in perennial philosophy and occult movements, considered Krishna a Great Initiate, while Theosophists regard Krishna as an incarnation of Maitreya (one of the Masters of the Ancient Wisdom), the most important spiritual teacher for humanity along with Infant Krishna with Mother Yashoda Buddha.[243][244]

Krishna was canonised by and is recognised as a saint of Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica in the Gnostic Mass of Ordo Templi Orientis.[245][246]

See also

Parthasarathy Temple, Triplicane Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Radha Krishna Bhagavan Dashavatara Vrindavan ISKCON Temple Bangalore Radha Vithoba Shrinathji

Notes

1. The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, some as Svaminiji, some adding all gopis, and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of Devi Lakshmi.[4][5] 2. Scholars such as Ludo Rocher and Hazra state that the Puranas are not a reliable source for Indian history, because the content therein about kings, various peoples, sages, and kingdoms is highly inconsistent across the manuscripts. They state that these stories are probably based in part on real events, in part on hagiography, and in part embellished by expansive imagination.[134][135] Dimmitt and van Buitenen state that it is difficult to ascertain when, where, why and by whom the Puranas were written, and they grew by "numerous accretions in successive historical eras" where people added or changed the text at random.[136] Their reliability has also suffered from the way surviving manuscripts were copied over the centuries.[137][138] The liberties in the transmission of Puranas were normal and those who copied older manuscripts replaced words or added new content.[138][139]

References 1. Bryant 2007, p. 114. 2. K. Klostermaier (1997). The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972–1984 (https://books.googl e.com/?id=F_0UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109&dq=Svayam+bhagavan). Crotty, Robert B. Brill Academic Pub. p. 109. ISBN 978-90-04-07863-5. ""(...) After attaining to fame eternal, he again took up his real nature as Brahman. The most important among Visnu's avataras is undoubtedly Krsna, the black one, also called Syama. For his worshippers he is not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself." 3. Raychaudhuri 1972, p. 124 4. John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff (1982). The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-89581-102-8. 5. Bryant 2007, p. 443. 6. "Krishna" (http://www.dictionary.com/browse/krishna). Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 7. "Krishna" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/323556/Krishna). Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8. Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1993). Ineffability: The Failure of Words in Philosophy and Religion (h ttps://books.google.com/books?id=tN0KfFitDncC&pg=PA166). State University of New York Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-7914-1347-0. 9. Edwin Bryant & Maria Ekstrand 2004, pp. 21–24. 10. Edwin Bryant & Maria Ekstrand 2004, pp. 20–25, quote: "Three Dimensions of Krishna's Divinity (...) divine majesty and supremacy; (...) divine tenderness and intimacy; (...) compassion and protection.; (..., p.24) Krishna as the God of Love". 11. Freda Matchett (2001). Krishna, Lord Or Avatara?. Psychology Press. p. 199. ISBN 978-0- 7007-1281-6. 12. James G. Lochtefeld (2002). The Illustrated : A-M (https://archive. org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/314). The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 314–315 (https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch/page/314). ISBN 978-0-8239-3179-8. 13. KLOSTERMAIER, Klaus K. (2005). A Survey of Hinduism. State University of New York Press; 3 edition. p. 206. ISBN 0-7914-7081-4. "Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Divine Child Krishna - a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion." 14. BASHAM, A. L. "Review:Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes. by Milton Singer; Daniel H. H. Ingalls, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 27, No. 3 (May, 1968), pp. 667-670". JSTOR 2051211 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2051211). 15. Richard Thompson, Ph.D. (December 1994). 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Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), The Bhagavata Purana, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149990, pages 185–200 20. Bryant 2007, pp. 118. 21. ML Varadpande (1987), History of Indian Theatre, Vol 1, Abhinav, ISBN 978-8170172215, pages 98–99 22. J. Gordon Melton (2011). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations (https://books.google.com/books?id= KDU30Ae4S4cC&pg=PA330). ABC-CLIO. pp. 330–331. ISBN 978-1-59884-205-0. 23. Cynthia Packert (2010). The Art of Loving Krishna: Ornamentation and Devotion (https://boo ks.google.com/books?id=SyTgMt4AQl4C&pg=PA181). Indiana University Press. pp. 5, 70– 71, 181–187. ISBN 978-0-253-22198-8. 24. Bryant 2007, p. 3. 25. Lavanya Vemsani (2016). Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture (https://books.google.co m/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA112). ABC-CLIO. pp. 112–113. ISBN 978-1-61069- 211-3. 26. Selengut, Charles (1996). 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Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 251–53, 256, 259. ISBN 978-0-226- 34054-8. 32. B. M. Misra. Orissa: Shri Krishna Jagannatha: the Mushali parva from Sarala's Mahabharata. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6. 33. Bryant 2007, p. 139. 34. For the historic Jagannath temple in Ranchi, Jharkhand see: Francis Bradley Bradley-Birt (1989). Chota , a Little-known Province of the Empire (https://books.google.com/boo ks?id=W0x74TZB3eoC&pg=PA61). Asian Educational Services (Orig: 1903). pp. 61–64. ISBN 978-81-206-1287-7. 35. T. Richard Blurton (1993). (https://books.google.com/books?id=xJ-lzU_nj_MC&pg =PA134). Harvard University Press. pp. 133–134. ISBN 978-0-674-39189-5. 36. Guy, John (7 April 2014). Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA222). Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 222–223. ISBN 978-1-58839-524-5. 37. [a] Cooler, Richard M. (1978). "Sculpture, Kingship, and the Triad of Phnom Da". Artibus Asiae. 40 (1): 29–40. doi:10.2307/3249812 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3249812). JSTOR 3249812 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/3249812).; [b] Bertrand Porte (2006), "La statue de Kṛṣṇa Govardhana du Phnom Da du Musée National de Phnom Penh." UDAYA, Journal of Khmer Studies, Volume 7, pages 199-205 38. Vishvanatha, Cakravarti Thakura (2011). Sarartha-darsini (Bhanu Swami ed.). Sri Vaikunta Enterprises. p. 790. ISBN 978-81-89564-13-1. 39. The Encyclopedia Americana (https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589). [s.l.]: Grolier. 1988. p. 589 (h ttps://archive.org/details/encyclopediaamer30grol/page/589). ISBN 978-0-7172-0119-8. 40. Benton, William (1974). The New Encyclopædia Britannica (https://books.google.com/?id=G 8YqAAAAMAAJ&q=Krsna+blue+skin+deity&dq=Krsna+blue+skin+deity). Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 885. ISBN 978-0-85229-290-7. 41. Harle, J. C. (1994). The art and architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (https://archive.org/d etails/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410). New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press. p. 410 (ht tps://archive.org/details/artarchitectureo00harl/page/410). ISBN 978-0-300-06217-5. "figure 327. Manaku, Radha's messenger describing Krishna standing with the cow-girls, gopi from Basohli." 42. Diana L. Eck (1982). Banaras, City of Light (https://books.google.com/books?id=J57C4d8B v6UC). Columbia University Press. pp. 66–67. ISBN 978-0-231-11447-9. 43. Ariel Glucklich (2008). The Strides of Vishnu: Hindu Culture in Historical Perspective (http s://books.google.com/books?id=KtLScrjrWiAC&pg=PA106). Oxford University Press. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-19-971825-2. 44. T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of (https://books.google.com/boo ks?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA210). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 210–212. ISBN 978-81-208- 0878-2. 45. John Stratton Hawley (2014). Krishna, The Butter Thief (https://books.google.com/books?id =ncb_AwAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press. pp. 3–8. ISBN 978-1-4008-5540-7. 46. Hoiberg, Dale; Ramchandani, Indu (2000). Students' Britannica India (https://books.google. com/?id=kEj-2a7pmVMC&pg=PA251&dq=Bala+Krishna). Popular Prakashan. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5. 47. (1998). The Qualities of Sri Krsna. GNPress. pp. 152 pages. ISBN 978-0-911233-64-3. 48. Stuart Cary Welch (1985). India: Art and Culture, 1300–1900. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-03-006114-1. 49. Vithoba is not only viewed as a form of Krishna. He is also by some considered that of Vishnu, Shiva and according to various traditions. See: Kelkar, Ashok R. (2001) [1992]. "Sri-Vitthal: Ek Mahasamanvay (Marathi) by R. C. Dhere" (https://books.goog le.com/?id=KnPoYxrRfc0C&pg=PA4179&dq=vithoba#PPA4180,M1). Encyclopaedia of Indian literature. 5. Sahitya Akademi. p. 4179. ISBN 9788126012213. Retrieved 20 September 2008. and Mokashi, Digambar Balkrishna; Engblom, Philip C. (1987). Palkhi: a pilgrimage to Pandharpur — translated from the Marathi book Pālakhī by Philip C. Engblom (https://books.google.com/?id=vgLZGFH1ZTIC&pg=PA14&dq=Palkhi:+a+pilgrima ge+to+Pandharpur). Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-88706- 461-6. 50. Tryna Lyons (2004). The Artists of Nathadwara: The Practice of Painting in Rajasthan (http s://books.google.com/books?id=cKnGJGOEQukC). Indiana University Press. pp. 16–22. ISBN 978-0-253-34417-5. 51. Kunissery Ramakrishnier Vaidyanathan (1992). Sri Krishna, the Lord of Guruvayur (https://b ooks.google.com/?id=1XLXAAAAMAAJ&dq). Bharatiya Bhavan. pp. 2–5. 52. T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu iconography (https://books.google.com/boo ks?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA200). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 201–204. ISBN 978-81-208- 0878-2. 53. T. A. Gopinatha Rao (1993). Elements of Hindu iconography (https://books.google.com/boo ks?id=MJD-KresBwIC&pg=PA204). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 204–208. ISBN 978-81-208- 0878-2. 54. 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Sanghi, Ashwin (2012). The Krishna key (https://books.google.com/books?id=-UiwMRwcT-k C). Chennai: Westland. p. Key7. ISBN 9789381626689. Retrieved 9 June 2016. 100. Lok Soni (2000). The Cattle and the Stick: An Ethnographic Profile of the Raut of Chhattisgarh (https://books.google.com/books?id=wT-BAAAAMAAJ). Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, Delhi: Anthropological Survey of India, Government of India, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Department of Culture, 2000 Original from the University of Michigan. p. 16. ISBN 978-8185579573. 101. Bryant 2007, pp. 124–130,224 102. Lynne Gibson (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of . Merriam- Webster. p. 503. 103. Schweig, G. M. (2005). Dance of divine love: The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred love story. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ; Oxford. ISBN 978-0-691-11446-0. 104. Largen, Kristin Johnston (September 2011). God at Play: Seeing God Through the Lens of the Young Krishna. Wiley-Blackwell. 105. "Krishna Rajamannar with His Wives, Rukmini and Satyabhama, and His Mount, Garuda | LACMA Collections" (http://collections.lacma.org/node/203163). collections.lacma.org. Retrieved 23 September 2014. 106. Bryant 2007, p. 290 107. Rao, Shanta Rameshwar (2005). Krishna (https://books.google.com/?id=NJ747fOWTRMC& pg=PA1). New Delhi: Orient Longman. p. 108. ISBN 9788125026969. 108. D Dennis Hudson (27 August 2008). The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram (https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264). Oxford University Press. pp. 263–4. ISBN 978-0-19-970902-1. Retrieved 28 March 2013. 109. D Dennis Hudson (27 August 2008). The Body of God : An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram: An Emperor's Palace for Krishna in Eighth-Century Kanchipuram (https://books.google.com/books?id=IMCxbOezDi4C&pg=PA264). Oxford University Press. pp. 102–103, 263–273. ISBN 978-0-19-970902-1. Retrieved 28 March 2013. 110. George Mason Williams (18 June 2008). Handbook of (https://books.googl e.com/books?id=N7LOZfwCDpEC&pg=PA188). Oxford University Press. pp. 188, 222. ISBN 978-0-19-533261-2. Retrieved 10 March 2013. 111. John Stratton Hawley, Donna Marie Wulff (1982). The Divine Consort: Rādhā and the Goddesses of India. Motilal Banarsidass Publisher. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-89581-102-8., Quote: "The regional texts vary in the identity of Krishna's wife (consort), some presenting it as Rukmini, some as Radha, some as Svaminiji, some adding all gopis, and some identifying all to be different aspects or manifestation of one Devi Lakshmi." 112. Rosen 2006, p. 136 113. Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita, by Robert N. Minor in Bryant 2007, pp. 77–79 114. Jeaneane D. Fowler (2012). The Bhagavad Gita: A Text and Commentary for Students (http s://books.google.com/books?id=dHX5XwAACAAJ). Sussex Academic Press. pp. 1–7. ISBN 978-1-84519-520-5. 115. (2007). The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian ) (https://books. google.com/books?id=bcnJAAAAQBAJ). Nilgiri Press. pp. 21–59. ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9. 116. Bryant 2007, pp. 148 117. Diana L. Eck (2012). India: A Sacred Geography (https://books.google.com/books?id=uD_0 P6gS-vMC&pg=PA380). Harmony. pp. 380–381. ISBN 978-0-385-53190-0., Quote: "Krishna was shot through the foot, hand, and heart by the single arrow of a hunter named Jara. Krishna was reclining there, so they say, and Jara mistook his reddish foot for a deer and released his arrow. There Krishna died." 118. Mani, Vettam (1975). Puranic Encyclopaedia: A Comprehensive Dictionary With Special Reference to the Epic and Puranic Literature (https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00 maniuoft). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. p. 429 (https://archive.org/details/puranicencyclopa00 maniuoft/page/429). ISBN 978-0-8426-0822-0. 119. Edwin Bryant (2003). Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana (htt ps://books.google.com/books?id=y8Bb0tRW7W4C). Penguin. pp. 417–418. ISBN 978-0-14- 191337-7. 120. Largen, Kristin Johnston (2011). Baby Krishna, Infant Christ: A Comparative Theology of Salvation. Orbis Books. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-60833-018-8. 121. Matchett 2001, pp. 9–14, 145–149. 122. Benjamín Preciado-Solís (1984). The Kṛṣṇa Cycle in the Purāṇas: Themes and Motifs in a Heroic Saga (https://books.google.com/books?id=JvCaWvjGDVEC&pg=PA40). Motilal Banarsidass. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-89581-226-1., Quote: "Within a period of four or five centuries [around the start of the common era], we encounter our major sources of information, all in different versions. The Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, the Visnu Purana, the Ghata Jataka, and the Bala Carita all appear between the first and the fifth century AD, and each of them represents a tradition of a Krsna cycle different from the others". 123. Matchett 2001, pp. 145, 44–49, 63–64. 124. Matchett 2001, pp. 146, 89–104. 125. Rocher 1986, pp. 18, 245–249. 126. Matchett 2001, pp. 146–147, 108–115. 127. Matchett 2001, pp. 145–149. 128. Rocher 1986, pp. 138–149. 129. Knott, Kim (2000). Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id =Wv8XK_GU9icC). Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-285387-5. 130. Beck, Guy (2012). Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity (https://books.google.com/books?id=K0XqbG0LKBUC&pg=PA4). Suny Press. pp. 4– 5. ISBN 978-0-7914-8341-1. 131. Vemsani, Lavanya (2016). Krishna in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names: An Encyclopedia of the Hindu Lord of Many Names (https://boo ks.google.com/books?id=4fw2DAAAQBAJ&pg=PR21). ABC-CLIO. p. 212. ISBN 978-1- 61069-211-3. 132. Bhatt, Saligram (2008). Kashmiri Scholars Contribution to and World Peace (htt ps://books.google.com/books?id=It1LePnN2LsC&pg=PA276). APH Publishing. ISBN 9788131304020. 133. Raman, B. V. (1991). Notable Horoscopes Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1991, ISBN 8120809009,9788120809000 (https://books.google.com/?id=sXJ02csFd5kC). ISBN 9788120809000. Retrieved 30 December 2015. 134. RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 6–9 with footnotes. 135. Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 115–121 with footnotes. 136. Dimmitt & van Buitenen 2012, p. 5. 137. Rocher 1986, pp. 49–53. 138. Avril Ann Powell (2010). Scottish Orientalists and India: The Muir Brothers, Religion, Education and Empire (https://books.google.com/books?id=KOnS1X8a528C). Boydell & Brewer. pp. 130, 128–134, 87–90. ISBN 978-1-84383-579-0. 139. Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pp=49–53 140. Sangave 2001, p. 104. 141. Zimmer 1953, p. 226. 142. Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A (https://books.google.com/b ooks?id=RoW9GuFJ9GIC&pg=PA149). Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0. 143. Bryant 2007, pp. 329–334 (Francis X Clooney). 144. Sharma; B. N. Krishnamurti (2000). A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 514–516. ISBN 978-8120815759. 145. Bryant 2007, pp. 358–365 (Deepak Sarma). 146. Tripurari, Swami. "The Life of Sri " (https://web.archive.org/web/20130324101 939/http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/). Harmonist. Archived from the original (http://harmonist.us/2009/12/the-life-of-sri-jiva-goswami/) on 24 March 2013. 147. Bryant 2007, pp. 373–378 (Satyanarayana Dasa). 148. Jindel, Rajendra (1976). Culture of a Sacred Town: A Sociological Study of Nathdwara (http s://books.google.com/?id=175zjT9bStcC&dq=nathdwara). Popular Prakashan. pp. 34, 37. ISBN 9788171540402. 149. Bryant 2007, pp. 479–480 (Richard Barz). 150. William R. Pinch (1996). "Soldier and Militant Sadhus" (https://books.google.com/bo oks?id=jEUdPqYQjhoC&pg=PA156). In David Ludden (ed.). Contesting the Nation. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 148–150. ISBN 978-0-8122-1585-4. 151. Johannes de Kruijf and Ajaya Sahoo (2014), Indian Transnationalism Online: New Perspectives on Diaspora, ISBN 978-1-4724-1913-2, page 105, Quote: "In other words, according to Adi Shankara's argument, the philosophy of Advaita Vedanta stood over and above all other forms of Hinduism and encapsulated them. This then united Hinduism; (...) Another of Adi Shankara's important undertakings which contributed to the unification of Hinduism was his founding of a number of monastic centers." 152. Shankara, Student's Encyclopedia Britannia – India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopaedia Britannica (UK) Publishing, ISBN 978-0-85229-760-5, page 379, Quote: "Shankaracharya, philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy, from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived."; David Crystal (2004), The Penguin Encyclopedia, Penguin Books, page 1353, Quote: " [Shankara] is the most famous exponent of Advaita Vedanta school of and the source of the main currents of modern Hindu thought." 153. Christophe Jaffrelot (1998), The Hindu Nationalist Movement in India, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0-231-10335-0, page 2, Quote: "The main current of Hinduism – if not the only one – which became formalized in a way that approximates to an ecclesiastical structure was that of Shankara". 154. Bryant 2007, pp. 313–318 (Lance Nelson). 155. Sheridan 1986, pp. 1–2, 17–25. 156. Kumar Das 2006, pp. 172–173. 157. Brown 1983, pp. 553–557. 158. Tracy Pintchman (1994), The rise of the Goddess in the Hindu Tradition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791421123, pages 132–134 159. Sheridan 1986, pp. 17–21. 160. John Stratton Hawley (2014). Krishna, The Butter Thief (https://books.google.com/books?id =ncb_AwAAQBAJ). Princeton University Press. pp. 10, 170. ISBN 978-1-4008-5540-7. 161. Krishna: Hindu Deity (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity), Encyclopaedia Britannica (2015) 162. John M Koller (2016). The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210). Routledge. pp. 210–215. ISBN 978-1-315-50740-8. 163. Vaudeville, Ch. (1962). "Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 82 (1): 31–40. doi:10.2307/595976 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F5 95976). JSTOR 595976 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/595976). 164. John M Koller (2016). The Indian Way: An Introduction to the Philosophies & Religions of India (https://books.google.com/books?id=lgg3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA210). Routledge. p. 210. ISBN 978-1-315-50740-8. 165. Juan Mascaró (1962). The Bhagavad Gita (https://books.google.com/books?id=UZEKghCN bVIC). Penguin. pp. xxvi–xxviii. ISBN 978-0-14-044918-1. 166. ; Brenda Feuerstein (2011). The Bhagavad-Gita: A New Translation (http s://books.google.com/books?id=V0exkVFiyvcC). Shambhala Publications. pp. ix–xi. ISBN 978-1-59030-893-6. 167. Nicholas F. Gier (2004). The Virtue of Nonviolence: From Gautama to Gandhi (https://book s.google.com/books?id=tVLt99uleLwC&pg=PA36). State University of New York Press. pp. 36–40. ISBN 978-0-7914-5949-2. 168. John Dowson (2003). Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature (https://books.google.com/?id=6JB-KOXy5k8C&pg=PA361&dq=Vishn u+Sahasranama+Krishna). Kessinger Publishing. p. 361. ISBN 978-0-7661-7589-1. 169. See Beck, Guy, "Introduction" in Beck 2005, pp. 1–18 170. Knott 2000, p. 55 171. Flood 1996, p. 117. 172. See McDaniel, June, "Folk Vaishnavism and Ṭhākur Pañcāyat: Life and status among village Krishna statues" in Beck 2005, p. 39 173. Kennedy, M. T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal (ht tps://archive.org/details/pli.kerala.rare.24847). H. Milford, Oxford university press. 174. Indian Philosophy & Culture, Volume 20 (https://books.google.com/?id=yEMB3RBwjTsC). Institute of Oriental Philosophy (Vrindāvan, India), Institute of Oriental Philosophy, Vaishnava Research Institute, contributors. The Institute. 1975. p. 148. "On the touch-stone of this definition of the final and positive characteristic of Sri Krsna as the Highest Divinity as Svayam-rupa Bhagavan" 175. Delmonico, N., The History Of Indic And Modern Chaitanya Vaishnavism in Edwin Bryant & Maria Ekstrand 2004 176. De, S. K. (1960). Bengal's contribution to Sanskrit literature & studies in Bengal Vaisnavism. KL Mukhopadhyaya.p. 113: "The Bengal School identifies the Bhagavat with Krishna depicted in the Shrimad-Bhagavata and presents him as its highest ." 177. Bryant 2007, p. 381 178. "Vaishnava" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120212183626/http://www.philtar.ac.uk/encyclo pedia/hindu/devot/vaish.html). encyclopedia. Division of Religion and Philosophy University of Cumbria. Archived from the original (http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk/encyclopedia/hindu/devot/v aish.html) on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2008., University of Cumbria website Retrieved 21 May 2008 a of Krishna from theڄilڄasa LڄGraham M. Schweig (2005). Dance of Divine Love: The R .179 a. na, India's classic sacred love story. Princeton, N.J.: Princetonڄagavata PurڄBh University Press. Front Matter. ISBN 978-0-691-11446-0. 180. Bhattacharya, Gouriswar: Vanamala of Vasudeva-Krsna-Visnu and Sankarsana-Balarama. In: Vanamala. Festschrift A. J. Gail. Serta Adalberto Joanni Gail LXV. diem natalem celebranti ab amicis collegis discipulis dedicata. 181. Klostermaier, Klaus K. (2005). A Survey of Hinduism. State University of New York Press; 3 edition. pp. 203–204. ISBN 978-0-7914-7081-7. "Present day Krishna worship is an amalgam of various elements. According to historical testimonies Krishna-Vasudeva worship already flourished in and around Mathura several centuries before Christ. A second important element is the cult of Krishna Govinda. Still later is the worship of Bala-Krishna, the Child Krishna—a quite prominent feature of modern Krishnaism. The last element seems to have been Krishna Gopijanavallabha, Krishna the lover of the Gopis, among whom Radha occupies a special position. In some books Krishna is presented as the founder and first teacher of the Bhagavata religion." 182. Basham, A. L. (May 1968). "Review: Krishna: Myths, Rites, and Attitudes. by Milton Singer; Daniel H. H. Ingalls". The Journal of Asian Studies. 27 (3): 667–670. doi:10.2307/2051211 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2051211). JSTOR 2051211 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/205121 1). 183. Couture, André (2006). "The emergence of a group of four characters (Vasudeva, Samkarsana, Pradyumna, and Aniruddha) in the Harivamsa: points for consideration". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 34 (6): 571–585. doi:10.1007/s10781-006-9009-x (https://doi.o rg/10.1007%2Fs10781-006-9009-x). 184. Klostermaier, K. (1974). "The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha Cakravartin". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 94 (1): 96–107. doi:10.2307/599733 (https://doi.or g/10.2307%2F599733). JSTOR 599733 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/599733). 185. Jacobsen, Knut A., ed. (2005). Theory And Practice of Yoga: Essays in Honour of . Brill Academic Publishers. p. 351. ISBN 978-90-04-14757-7. 186. Christopher Key Chapple (Editor) and Winthrop Sargeant (Translator), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978- 1438428420, pages 302–303, 318 187. Vaudeville, C. (1962). "Evolution of Love-Symbolism in Bhagavatism". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 82 (1): 31–40. doi:10.2307/595976 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F5 95976). JSTOR 595976 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/595976). 188. Bowen, Paul (1998). Themes and issues in Hinduism. London: Cassell. pp. 64–65. ISBN 978-0-304-33851-1. 189. Radhakrisnasarma, C. (1975). 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Alanna Kaivalya (2014), Sacred Sound: Discovering the Myth and Meaning of Mantra and , New World, ISBN 978-1608682430, pages 153–154 198. Srila Prabhupada — He Built a House in which the whole world can live in peace, Satsvarupa dasa Goswami, , 1984, ISBN 0-89213-133-0 page xv 199. Charles Brooks (1989), The Hare Krishnas in India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978- 8120809390, pages 83–85 200. Peter Lavezzoli (2006), The Dawn of Indian Music in the West, Continuum, ISBN 0-8264- 2819-3, page 195 201. Peter Clarke (2005), Encyclopedia of New Religious Movements, Routledge, ISBN 978- 0415267076, page 308 Quote: "There they captured the imagination of The Beatles, particularly George Harrison who helped them produce a chart topping record of the Hare Krishna mantra (1969) and ...". 202. Brian A. Hatcher (5 October 2015). Hinduism in the Modern World (https://books.google.co m/books?id=IdeoCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA118). Routledge. pp. 118–119. ISBN 978-1-135- 04631-6. 203. John Guy (2014). Lost Kingdoms: Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Early Southeast Asia (http s://books.google.com/books?id=vO_-AgAAQBAJ). Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 17, 146–148. ISBN 978-1-58839-524-5. 204. Anne-Valérie Schweyer; Paisarn Piemmettawat (2011). Viêt Nam ancien: histoire arts archéologie (https://books.google.com/books?id=mSrsUuIxZXkC&pg=PA388). Editions Olizane. p. 388. ISBN 978-2-88086-396-8. 205. Marijke J. Klokke 2000, pp. 19–23. 206. Subhadradis Diskul (M.C.); Jean Boisselier (1997). Natasha Eilenberg; Robert L. Brown (eds.). Living a life in accord with Dhamma: papers in honor of professor Jean Boisselier on his eightieth birthday (https://books.google.com/books?id=--m5oQEACAAJ). Silpakorn University. pp. 191–204. 207. Triguṇa (Mpu.); Suwito Santoso (1986). Krĕṣṇāyana: The Krĕṣṇa Legend in Indonesia (http s://books.google.com/books?id=341kAAAAMAAJ). IAIC. OCLC 15488486 (https://www.worl dcat.org/oclc/15488486). 208. Marijke J. 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Routledge. p. 246. 218. Jaini, P. S. (1993), Jaina Puranas: A Puranic Counter Tradition (https://books.google.com/?i d=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA207), ISBN 978-0-7914-1381-4 219. Upinder Singh 2016, p. 26. 220. See Jerome H. Bauer "Hero of Wonders, Hero in Deeds: "Vasudeva Krishna in Jaina Cosmohistory (https://books.google.com/books?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C&pg=PA151)" in Beck 2005, pp. 167–169 221. Cort, J. E. (1993), Wendy Doniger (ed.), An Overview of the Jaina Puranas, in Purana Perennis (https://books.google.com/?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA191), pp. 220–233, ISBN 978-1-4384-0136-2 222. Helmuth von Glasenapp (1999). Jainism: An Indian Religion of Salvation (https://books.goo gle.com/books?id=WzEzXDk0v6sC&pg=PA317). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 316–318. ISBN 978-81-208-1376-2. 223. Cort, J. E. (1993), Wendy Doniger (ed.), An Overview of the Jaina Puranas, in Purana Perennis (https://books.google.com/?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC&pg=PA191), p. 191, ISBN 978-1- 4384-0136-2 224. Jeffery D. Long (2009). Jainism: An Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id=JmRlA gAAQBAJ&pg=PA42). I. B. Tauris. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-84511-625-5. 225. "Andhakavenhu Puttaa" (http://www.vipassana.info/ay/andhakavenhu_puttaa.htm). www.vipassana.info. Retrieved 15 June 2008. 226. Law, B. C. (1941). India as Described in Early Texts of Buddhism and Jainism (https://archiv e.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.513920/2015.513920.India-as#page/n5/mode/2up). Luzac. pp. 99–101. 227. Jaiswal, S. (1974). "Historical Evolution of the Ram Legend". Social Scientist. 21 (3–4): 89– 97. doi:10.2307/3517633 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3517633). JSTOR 3517633 (https://w ww.jstor.org/stable/3517633). 228. G.P. Malalasekera (2003). Dictionary of Pali Proper Names (https://books.google.com/book s?id=x8ObMQ1GGsUC&pg=PA439). Asian Educational Services. p. 439. ISBN 978-81- 206-1823-7. 229. H. T. Francis; E. J. Thomas (1916). Jataka Tales (https://books.google.com/books?id=WYjR AwAAQBAJ). Cambridge University Press (Reprinted: 2014). pp. 314–324. ISBN 978-1- 107-41851-6. 230. Gunapala Piyasena Malalasekera (2007). Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names: A-Dh (https://bo oks.google.com/books?id=up5O9zrSX80C&pg=PA825). Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 825–826. ISBN 978-81-208-3021-9. 231. E.B. Cowell; WHD Rouse (1901). The Jātaka: Or, Stories of the Buddha's Former Births (htt ps://books.google.com/books?id=PtdAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA57). Cambridge University Press. p. 57. 232. Daniel E Bassuk (1987). Incarnation in Hinduism and : The Myth of the God-Man (https://books.google.com/books?id=k3iwCwAAQBAJ). Palgrave Macmillan. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-349-08642-9. 233. Edward Geoffrey Parrinder (1997). Avatar and Incarnation: The Divine in Human Form in the World's Religions (https://books.google.com/books?id=VkV5AAAAMAAJ). Oxford: Oneworld. pp. 19–24, 35–38, 75–78, 130–133. ISBN 978-1-85168-130-3. 234. Guth, C. M. E. (1987). "Monumenta Nipponica, Vol. 42, No. 1 (Spring, 1987 ), pp. 1–23". Monumenta Nipponica. 42 (1): 1–23. doi:10.2307/2385037 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F238 5037). JSTOR 2385037 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/2385037). 235. "info-sikh.com - Diese Website steht zum Verkauf! - Informationen zum Thema info-sikh" (ht tp://ww1.info-sikh.com/VVPage1.html). ww1.info-sikh.com. 236. Smith, Peter (2000). "Manifestations of God" (https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00 00smit/page/231). A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 231 (https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/231). ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. 237. Esslemont, J. E. (1980). Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era (http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/je/BN E/bne-6.html#gr5) (5th ed.). Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. p. 2. ISBN 978- 0-87743-160-2. 238. Siddiq & Ahmad (1995), Enforced Apostasy: Zaheeruddin v. State and the Official Persecution of the Community in Pakistan, Law & Inequality, Volume 14, pp. 275–324 239. Minahan, James (2012). Ethnic groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, USA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 6–8. ISBN 978-1-59884-659-1. 240. Burhani A. N. (2013), Treating minorities with fatwas: a study of the Ahmadiyya community in Indonesia, Contemporary Islam, Volume 8, Issue 3, pp. 285–301 241. Cormack, Margaret (2013). Muslims and Others in Sacred Space. Oxford University Press. pp. 104–105. 242. Harvey, D. A. (2003). "Beyond Enlightenment: Occultism, Politics, and Culture in France from the Old Regime to the Fin-de-Siècle". The Historian. 65 (3): 665–694. doi:10.1111/1540-6563.00035 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1540-6563.00035). 243. Schure, Edouard (1992). Great Initiates: A Study of the Secret History of Religions. Garber Communications. ISBN 978-0-89345-228-5. 244. See for example: Hanegraaff, Wouter J. (1996). Religion and Western Culture: Esotericism in the Mirror of Secular Thought. Brill Publishers. p. 390. ISBN 978-90-04- 10696-3., Hammer, Olav (2004). Claiming Knowledge: Strategies of from to the New Age. Brill Publishers. pp. 62, 174. ISBN 978-90-04-13638-0., and Ellwood, Robert S. (1986). Theosophy: A Modern Expression of the Wisdom of the Ages. Quest Books. p. 139. ISBN 978-0-8356-0607-3. 245. Crowley associated Krishna with Roman god Dionysus and Magickal formulae IAO, AUM and INRI. See Crowley, Aleister (1991). Liber Aleph (http://sacred-texts.com/oto/aleph_3.ht m). Weiser Books. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-87728-729-2. and Crowley, Aleister (1980). The Book of Lies. Red Wheels. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-87728-516-8. 246. Apiryon, Tau; Apiryon (1995). Mystery of Mystery: A Primer of Thelemic Ecclesiastical . Berkeley: Red Flame. ISBN 978-0-9712376-1-2.

Bibliography Doniger, Wendy (1993). Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (https://books.google.com/books?id=-kZFzHCuiFAC). SUNY Press. ISBN 978- 0-7914-1381-4. Beck, Guy L. (1993), Sonic theology: Hinduism and sacred sound (https://books.google.co m/books?id=ZgybmMnWpaUC), Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-0-87249-855-6 Brown, C. Mackenzie (1983). "The Origin and Transmission of the Two "Bhāgavata Purāṇas": A Canonical and Theological Dilemma". Journal of the American Academy of Religion. 51 (4): 551–567. doi:10.1093/jaarel/li.4.551 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjaarel%2Fl i.4.551). JSTOR 1462581 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1462581). Edwin Bryant; Maria Ekstrand (2004). The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant (https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPdgrBhoC). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-50843-8. Bryant, Edwin F. (2004). Krishna: the beautiful legend of God (https://books.google.com/boo ks?id=icxPm82VcbgC). Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044799-6. Bryant, Edwin F. (2007), Krishna: A Sourcebook (https://books.google.com/books?id=HVDq CkW1WpUC), Oxford University Press, USA, ISBN 978-0-19-514891-6 Bryant, Edwin Francis, Maria Ekstrand (2013). The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant (https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxP dgrBhoC). Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-50843-8. Dimmitt, Cornelia; van Buitenen, J. A. B. (2012). Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in the Sanskrit Puranas (https://books.google.com/books?id=re7CR2jKn3QC). Temple University Press (1st Edition: 1977). ISBN 978-1-4399-0464-0. John Irwin (1974). "The Heliodorus Pillar at Besanagar". Puratattva. Archaeological Society of India (co-published Art and Archaeology Research Papers, USA). 8: 166–176. M D Khare (1967). "Discovery of a Vishnu temple near the Heliodorus pillar, Besnagar, Dist. Vidisha (MP)". Lalit Kala. 13: 21–27. JSTOR 44138838 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/441388 38). M D Khare (1975). "The Heliodorus Pillar – A Fresh Appraisal: A Rejoinder". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 36: 92–97. JSTOR 44138838 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/441 38838). Singh, Upinder (2016), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century (https://books.google.com/books?id=Pq2iCwAAQBAJ), Pearson Education, ISBN 978-93-325-6996-6 The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana , translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896 The Vishnu-Purana, translated by H. H. Wilson, (1840) The Srimad Bhagavatam, translated by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, (1988) copyright Bhaktivedanta Book Trust Knott, Kim (2000), Hinduism: A Very Short Introduction (https://books.google.com/books?id =Wv8XK_GU9icC), Oxford University Press, USA, p. 160, ISBN 978-0-19-285387-5 The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, edited by E. B. Cowell, (1895) Zimmer, Heinrich (1953) [April 1952], Campbell, Joseph (ed.), Philosophies Of India (https:// archive.org/details/Philosophy.of.India.by.Heinrich.Zimmer), London, E.C. 4: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, ISBN 978-81-208-0739-6 Ekstrand, Maria (2004). Bryant, Edwin H. (ed.). The Hare Krishna movement: the postcharismatic fate of a religious transplant (https://books.google.com/books?id=mBMxPd grBhoC). New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-12256-6. Matchett, Freda (2001). Kṛṣṇa, Lord or Avatāra? (https://books.google.com/?id=1oqTYiPeA xMC). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1281-6. Sangave, Vilas Adinath (2001), Facets of Jainology: Selected Research Papers on Jain Society, Religion, and Culture (https://books.google.com/books?id=QzEQJHWUwXQC), Mumbai: Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-81-7154-839-2 Susan V Mishra; Himanshu P Ray (2017). The Archaeology of Sacred Spaces. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-67920-7. Gaurangapada, Swami. "Sixty-four qualities of Sri Krishna" (http://nitaaiveda.com/Compiled _and_Imp_Scriptures/Glories_of_Lord_Krishna/Krishna_the_Supreme_Absolute_Truth/64_ Qualities_of_Lord_Krishna.htm). Nitaaiveda. Nitaiiveda. Retrieved 24 May 2013. Goswami, S. D. (1995). The Qualities of Sri Krsna (https://web.archive.org/web/2015051817 2553/http://krishna.com.br/krishna:quem_e_krishna). GNPress. ISBN 978-0-911233-64-3. Archived from the original (http://krishna.com.br/krishna:quem_e_krishna) on 18 May 2015. Garuda Pillar of Besnagar, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report (1908–1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129. Flood, Galvin D. (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism (https://books.google.com/books?id=K pIWhKnYmF0C), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0 Beck, Guy L. (Ed.) (2005). Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular Variations on a Hindu Deity (https://books.google.com/?id=0SJ73GHSCF8C). SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0- 7914-6415-1. Marijke J. Klokke (2000). Narrative Sculpture and Literary Traditions in South and Southeast Asia (https://books.google.com/books?id=fx3mpR4uKmkC). BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-11865- 2. Kumar Das, Sisir (2006). A history of Indian literature, 500–1399 (https://books.google.co m/?id=BC3l1AbPM8sC). Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 978-81-260-2171-0. Rocher, Ludo (1986). The Puranas. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-02522-5. Rosen, Steven (2006). Essential Hinduism. New York: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-99006-0. Schomer, Karine; McLeod, W. H., eds. (1987), The Sants: Studies in a Devotional Tradition of India, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 9788120802773 Sheridan, Daniel (1986). The Advaitic of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa (https://books.googl e.com/?id=qrtYYTjYFY8C). Columbia, : South Asia Books. ISBN 978-81-208-0179-0. Sutton, Nicholas (2000). Religious doctrines in the Mahābhārata (https://books.google.com/ books?id=rFyUHC-ORp4C). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 477. ISBN 978-81-208-1700-5. Valpey, Kenneth R. (2006). Attending Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā as devotional truth (https://books.google.com/books?id=N5pjQgAACAAJ). New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-38394-3. History of Indian Theatre By M. L. Varadpande. Chapter Theatre of Krishna, pp. 231–94. Published 1991, Abhinav Publications, ISBN 81-7017-278-0. Varadpande, Manohar Laxman (1987). History of Indian theatre (https://books.google.com/? id=SyxOHOCVcVkC). vol. 3. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-221-5.

External links

Krishna (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Krishna-Hindu-deity) at Encyclopædia Britannica The Legends of Krishna (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1253142), W. Crooke (1900), Folklore Bathing in Krishna: A Study in Vaiṣṇava Hindu Theology (https://www.jstor.org/stable/15097 39), Dennis Hudson (1980), The Harvard Theological Review Krishna, Christians, and Colors: The Socially Binding Influence of Kirtan Singing at a Utah Hare Krishna Festival (https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5406/ethnomusicology.58.3.0454), Sara Black Brown (2014), Ethnomusicology

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Radha-Krishna (IAST rādhā-kṛṣṇa, Sanskrit: राधा कृ ण) are collectively known within Hinduism as the combined forms of Radha Krishna feminine as well as the masculine realities of God. Radha and Krishna are the primeval forms of God and His pleasure potency respectively in the Gaudiya Vaishnava school of thought.

In some schools of Vaishnavism, Krishna is referred to as Svayam Bhagavan, and Radha is illustrated as the primeval potency of the three main potencies of God, Hladini (immense spiritual bliss), Sandhini (eternality) and Samvit (existential consciousness) of which Radha is an embodiment of the feeling of love towards the almighty Lord Krishna (Hladini). With Krishna, Radha is acknowledged as the Devanagari राधाकृ ण Supreme Goddess, it is said that Krishna or God is only satiated by Sanskrit rādhā-kṛṣṇa devotional service in loving servitude and Radha is the personification transliteration of devotional service to the supreme lord. Various devotees worship her with the understanding of her merciful nature as the only way to Abode Goloka attain Krishna. Radha is also depicted to be Krishna himself, split into Festivals Holi, Sharad [1] two, for the purpose of His enjoyment. , Purnima, It is believed that Krishna enchants the world, but Radha enchants even him. Therefore, she is the supreme goddess of all and together Janmashtami, they are called as RadhaKrishna.[2] Radhastami, Gopashtami There is a popular myth regarding Radha, that she is just a work of fiction of poem called Gita govinda written by Jayadev in 12th CE where he mentions Radha for the first time. But Scholars say that it is a rumour spread by devotees who prefer worshipping Krishna alone, they confirm that Radha is mentioned in Radhopnishad of Rig Veda, Radha tapani Upanishad of Atharv Veda, Shiv puran, Brahmanda puran, Skanda puran, Padma puran, Matsya puran, Brahma vaivart puran, Devi bhagvat puran, , Garg samhita and many other ancient authentic texts. She is also mentioned in Shrimad bhagvatam in many places but in a hidden way. ADI shakracharya who happened way before Jayadev mentioned Radha in his work called Jagannathastkam. Sage Garg the sage who did 'naam Karan' to lord Krishna mentions Radha in his memoir called Garg samhita. Radha did existed but she was not a celebrated goddess as it had been a male dominated society. People usually don't worshipped the feminine form of God. Later in 2000 BC people started worshipping the feminine form of God which gave birth to the sect called and also enlightend the world about Radha in detail. The work of Jayadev and rasik saints like Chaitanya mahaprabhu and his six disciple goswamis just enlightend people about Radha who is the feminine form of Brahman and who is also considered the complete incarnation of Mahalaxmi[3] It is also believed that Radha is not just one cowherd maiden, but is the origin of all the gopis, or divine personalities that participate in the rasa dance.[4]

Contents Name Shakti and Shaktiman Philosophy In traditions Bisnupriya Manipuri Vaishnavas Bhagavata Gaudiya Vaishnava Sampradaya Nimbarka sampradaya Vallabha sampradaya Outside Hinduism Temples Popular songs and prayers See also Footnotes References Further reading

Name

Vigneshwara cannot be broken into two – Krishna (Devanagari: कृ ण), the eighth incarnation (Avatar) of Vishnu, and his shakti Radha (Devanagari: राधा) such was the love of Radha towards Krishna that they are one. Krishna in Vrindavana is depicted with Radha standing on his left.

Shakti and Shaktiman

The common derivation of shakti and shaktiman, i.e. female and male principle in a god implies that shakti and shaktiman are the same.[5] Each and every god has its partner, 'betterhalf' or Shakti 14th-century fresco of Radha Krishna and without this Shakti, is in Udaipur, Rajasthan sometimes viewed being without essential power.[6] It is a not uncommon feature of Shree Radha Krishna Ashta Shakthi Hinduism when worship of a pair rather than one personality Mandir at Parashakthi Temple, constitutes worship of God, such is worship of Radha Krishna. Pontiac, USA Traditions worshiping Krishna, as svayam bhagavan, who is male, include reference and veneration to his Radha, who is worshiped as supreme. A view that exists of orthodox Krishnaism, the sect of the worship of Krishna, is that Radha is shakti and Krishna is shaktiman and are always found without any tinge of materialistic attributes or cause.[7]

Philosophy From the Vaishnava point of view the divine feminine energy (shakti) implies a divine source of energy, God or shaktiman. "Sita relates to Rama; Lakshmi belongs to Narayana; Radha has her Krishna." As Krishna is believed to be the source of all manifestations of God, "Radha, his consort, is the original source of all shaktis" or feminine manifestation of divine energy.[8]

A number of interpretations according to traditions possess a common root of personalism in the understanding of worship. Specifically Caitanyaite Gaudiya Vaishnava doctrine and mission is fiercely "personalistic," proclaiming the supremacy of Krishna, the identification of Caitanya as Radha-Krishna, the reality and eternality of individual selves, and a method for approaching the absolute reality and the Deity as a person first and foremost.[9]

Jiva Goswami in his Priti Sandarbha states that each of the Gopis exhibits a different level of intensity of passion, among which Radha's [10] Radha and Krishna pastime on a is the greatest. swing, while Krishna plays his flute. Bronze, probably 20th century. In his famous dialogs Ramananda Raya describes Radha to Caitanya and quotes, among other texts, a verse from Chaitanya Charitamrta 2.8.100, before he goes on to describe her role in the pastimes of Vrindavana.[11]

The central pivot point of the theology is related to the word rasa. The theological use of the word can be found very early, about two thousand years before the Nimbarka or Caitanya school, in a phrase that the tradition frequently quotes: "Truly, the Lord is rasa" (raso vai sah) of Brahma sutras. This statement expresses the view that God is the one who enjoys the ultimate rasa or spiritual rapture, emotions.[12]

In traditions

Radha Krishna are worshiped in the following traditions of Hinduism:

Bisnupriya Manipuri Vaishnavas

King Gareeb Nivaz ruled from 1710 to 1734 and was initiated into Vaishnavism of the Chaitanya tradition, which worships Krishna as the supreme deity, Svayam bhagavan. He practiced this religion for nearly twenty years. Preachers and pilgrims used to arrive in large numbers and cultural contact with Assam was maintained.[13]

The Manipuri Vaishnavas do not worship Krishna alone, but Radha- [14] Krishna. With the spread of Vaishnavism the worship of Krishna Radha-Krishna, a depiction of and Radha became the dominant form in the Manipur region. Every Bhairava Raga, Ragamala painting, village there has a Thakur-ghat and a temple.[15] Rasa and other c. 1770 dances are a feature of the regional folk and religious tradition and often, for example, a female dancer will portray both Krishna and his consort, Radha, in the same piece.[16]

Bhagavata In Vedic and Puranic literature, Radhas and other forms of the root Radh have meaning of ‘perfection’, ‘success’ and even ‘wealth’. Lord of Success, Indra was referred to as Radhaspati. In references to Mahavishnu as the Lord of Fortune and freely used by Jayadeva as Jaya Jayadeva Hare – the victorious Hari, and ‘Radhaspati’ all found in many places. The word Radha occurs in the Atharva Veda, Taittiriya BrAhmana and Taittiriya Samhita.[17]

Charlotte Vaudeville, in the article Evolution of Love Symbolism in Bhagavatism draws some parallel to Nappinnai, appearing in Godha's magnum opus Thiruppavai and in Nammalwar's references to Nappinnani, the daughter-in-law of Nandagopa. Nappinnai is believed to be the source of Radha’s conception in Prakrit and Sanskrit literature although their characteristic relations with Krishna are different. In the ritual dance called Kuravai, Krishna dances with his wife Nappinnai.

"It is a complex relationship, for the devotee is the ‘same as and yet different from’ the Lord, and so even in the joy of union there is the pain of separation. Indeed, the highest form of devotion, according to Yamunacarya, comes not in union but after the union, in the ‘fear of new separation’."[18]

Yasastilaka Champukavya (AD 959) all make references to Radha and Krishna well before Jayadeva's period. There are elaborate references to Radha in Brahma vaivarta and Padma Puranas.[19]

Gaudiya Vaishnava Sampradaya

Gaudiya Vaishnava, as the name suggests, usually refers to the region of Bengal. Early Bengali literature gives a vivid description of the depiction and evolution of understanding of Radha and Krishna.[20] It is believed, however, that the source of Jayadeva Goswamis heroine in his poem Gita Govinda remains a puzzle of the Sanskrit Literature. At the same time there are well documented references to works earlier than Gita Govinda, which some count to be more than twenty. The figure of Radha is one of the most elusive in the literature of Sanskrit; she is described only in a few selected passages of Prakrit or Sanskrit poetry, a few inscriptions and a few works on grammar, poetry and drama. Jayadeva has referred to them and created an exquisite lyrical poem of passionate devotion in the twelfth century, and from this poetic beginning a huge movement specific to Bengal began.[21]

Baru Chandidas is a poet notable for being a prominent Early Middle Bengal historical figure; the date of his poem Srikrsnakirtana is still Drawing of the image of under question however the text remains one of the most important Radharaman,1542 (http://www.salagr evidences of early portrayal of the popular story of "Lord Krishna's am.net/sstp-RadhaRamanVrindavan. love for the cowherd girl Radha" in Bengali literature and religion. html) seen as not only Krishna but The 412 songs of Srikrsnakirtana are divided into thirteen sections also as Radha-Krishna. that represent the core of the Radha-Krishna legendary cycle, with many variants providing excellent comparative material. The manuscript clearly suggests that the songs were meant to be song, and implies particular ragas for the recitation. There is considerable debate as to the authenticity of the text that has significant religious meaning.[22] In this Bengali tradition of Caitanya Vaishnavism metaphysical status and Radha-worship is considered to be established by Krsnadasa in his Chaitanya Charitamrta where he represents the doctrine that prevailed among the Vrindavan Caitanyaites following Caitanya's demise in 1533. It is believed that Krishna, desiring to experience fully what it is like to love Krishna as Radha does, has appeared as Caitanya Mahaprabhu. And what Radha (appearing as Caitanya) does in her longing for Krishna is to chant his names.[23] One of the self manifested Deities established by Gopala Bhatta Goswami is called Radha Ramana, it is not surprising that Radha Ramana is seen as not only Krishna but also as Radha-Krishna.[24] And worship in his temple, located in the centre of Vrindavana is a perpetual daily affair, involving several prescribed events throughout the day,[25] with the goal of being theoretical and remote, but with aspiration of the possibility to attend and associate directly with Radha and Krishna.[26]

Nimbarka sampradaya

The Nimbarka sampradaya worship of the youthful Krishna, alone or with his consort Radha, is one of the earliest dating at least to the 12th century, just as does.[27] According to Nimbarka, Radha is the eternal consort of Vishnu-Krishna and there is also a suggestion, though not a clear statement, that she became the wife of her beloved Krishna.[28] Nimbarka rescues Radha from the presumed The Shankha-Chakra-Tilaka immoral implication of much of the literature, and gives to her a emblems of the Sri Nimbarka dignity unattained elsewhere.[29] Sampradaya. The Nimbarka Sampradaya founded by Nimbarka is one of the four bona fide Vaishnava traditions. Lack of evidence due to the destruction of Mathura and Vrindavan in the 13th Century and 14th Century has meant that the true dates and origins of this tradition are shrouded in mystery and await investigation.

Nimbarka, who is widely held by scholars such as Satyanand Joseph, Prof. Rasik Bihari Joshi, Prof. M. M. Aggrawal etc., to be at least of the same time or before the appearance of Shankaracharya, was the first acharya to worship Radha along with Krishna in Sakhi Bhava Upasana method of worship. In his Vedanta Kamadhenu Dashashloki, it is clearly stated that:- ange tu vaame vrishabhaanujaam mudaa viraajamaanaam anuruupasaubhagaam. sakhiisahasraih parisevitaam sadaa smarema deviim sakalestakaamadaam. verse 6. The left portion of the body of the Supreme Lord is Shrimati Radha, seated blissfully, as beautiful as the Lord Himself; who is served by thousands of gopis: we meditate on the Supreme Goddess, the fulfiller of all desires.

This theme was taken up by Jayadeva Goswami and other poets of the time who saw the inherent beauty and bliss which constitute this philosophy.

In this sampradaya, the significance of Radha is not less than the significance of Sri Krsna. Both are conjointly the object to be worshiped in this school of Nimbarka,[30] who is also one of the first commentators on Brahma Sutras under the name Vedanta-Parijata-Saurabha. The later acharyas of the Nimbarka Sampradaya in the 13th and 14th centuries in Vrindavana composed much literature on the Divine Couple. Swami Sri Sribhatta, the elder god-brother of Jayadeva composed the Yugala Shataka for the Dhrupada style of musical presentation like Jayadeva, however unlike Jayadeva who composed his work in Sanskrit, Swami Shribhatta's compositions are in Vraja Bhasha, a Hindi vernacular which was understood by all inhabitants of Vraja. Indeed, the rest of the acharyas of this tradition wrote in Vraja Bhasha and due to the lack of prevalence of this language in modern times, very little research has been done, even though these Acharyas predate the Six Goswamis of Vrindavan by centuries.

In any case, the sole object of worship in the Nimbarka Sampradaya is the unified Divine Couple of Shri Radha Krishna. According to the 15th century Mahavani written by Jagadguru Swami Sri Harivyasa Devacharya radhaamkrsnasvaroopaam vai, krishnam raadhaasvarupinam; kalaatmaanam nikunjastham gururoopam sadaa bhaje I ceaselessly praise Radha who is none other than Krishna, and Sri Krishna who is none other than Radha, whose unity is represented by the Kaamabeeja and who are forever resident in Nikunja Goloka Vrndavana.

The contribution from the Nimbarka Sampradaya to the philosophy of Radha Krishna is undeniable, as the philosophy and theology originate in it.

Swaminarayan Sampradaya

Radha-Krishna Dev has a special place in the Swaminarayan Sampraday as Swaminarayan himself referred to Radha Krishna in the Shikshapatri he wrote.[31] Further, he himself ordered the construction of temples in which Radha Krishna have been installed as deities. Swaminarayan "explained that Krishna appears in many forms. When he is together with Radha, he is regarded as supreme lord under the name of Radha-Krishna; with Rukmini he is known as Lakshmi-Narayana."[32] The first temple constructed in the sect, built Murti of RadhaKrishna Dev (Center in Ahmedabad in AD 1822, houses the images of Nara Narayana, and Right) at the Swaminarayan forms of Arjuna and Krishna, in the central shrine. The shrine on the Temple in Cleveland. left of the hall has murtis of Radha Krishna.[33] According to the philosophy of the tradition there were many female companions of Krishna, gopis, but out of all of them Radha was considered to be the perfect devotee. Those who wish to come close to Krishna must cultivate the devotional qualities of Radha.[34] According to theory the sect has set aside Goloka as the supreme heaven or abode (in fact, in some of their temples, such as the Mumbai Temple, the murtis installed are those of Shri Gaulokvihari and Radhikaji), because there Krishna is supposed to be enjoying himself with his Gopis,[35] who according to the Swaminarayana sampradaya the milkmaids with whom Krishna danced; his relations with them symbolize the relation of God with the devotee in reciprocation.[36]

Vallabha sampradaya

Vallabhacharya, founder of Pustimarga even before Chaitanya, worshipped Radha, where according to some sects, the devotees identify mainly with the female companion (sakhis) of Radha who are privileged to arrange intimate pastimes for RadhaKrishna.[37]

One of the prominent poets of this tradition, which also called Radhavallabhi, named Dhruvadasa was notable for being principally concerned with the private relationships of Radha and Krishna. In his poetry Caurasi Pad and in the commentaries of his followers, the concentration is in meditation on the unique benefits of constant reflection on the eternal lila. Krishna with Gopis. Smithsonian Institution Radhavallabhis share with their Vaishnava co-religionists a great regard for Bhagavata Purana, but some of the pastimes that are outside the scope of relationships with Radha and gopis do not feature in the concept of this school. Emphasis is placed on the sweetness of the relationship, or rasa.[38]

Outside Hinduism In opinion of some Hindu scholars as well as scholars of Hinduism, a golden age existed when Muslims and Hindus created a common culture mainly because some Muslim rulers patronized Sanskrit and translations from Sanskrit into Persian, while there were Muslim poets who criticised Hinduism and personal form of Radha-Krishna.[39]

Temples

In India

Temples of Sri Sri Radha Krsna are prevalent throughout India and the world though Braja Mandala including Vrindavan and Mathura are considered to be the centers of Radha-Krishna worship. The most important temples of Vrindavana are

Madan-mohan, Govinddev, Radha-Raman, Radha-Gokulananda, Radha-Damodar, Banki-behari, Jugal Kishor, Radha-Gopinath, Radha Shyamasundar, Radha-vallabha and Iskcon temple.[40]

Shree RadhaVallabh Temple Vrindavan[41]

Shri Radhavallabh Temple is among the 7 most famous temples of Thakur of Vrindavan including Sri Radhavallabh ji, Shri Bankey Bihari Ji, Shri Govind Dev ji, Shri Madan Mohan Ji, Shri Gopinath Ji, Shri Radha Raman Ji and Shri Radha Damodar Ji. Banke Bihari temple, Vrindavan

Shree Radha Ras Bihari Ashta Sakhi Mandir[42]

Outside India

There are number of traditions that spread the worship of Radha-Krishna in many countries, be it associated with migration or preaching activities of sadhus. One such prominent adept, A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada opened a number of centers himself wherein he could train mleccha-turned-brahmin students to worship Radha-Krishna murtis and become "devoted to the service of Godhead".[43]

Popular songs and prayers

The Shri Radhika Krishnastaka (also called the Radhashtak) is a hymn. It is said that the reciter can get to Krishna via Radha by chanting it.

See also

Vrindavan Chandrodaya Mandir Banke Bihari Temple Krishna and Radha in a Pavilion Krishna Balaram Mandir Radha Raman Temple Radha-vallabha

Footnotes 1. Rosen 2002, p. 50 2. Rosen 2002, p. 52 Chaitanya-charitamritaAdi-lila 4.95 (http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080824092217/http://vedabase.net/cc/adi/4/95/en) 2008-08-24 at the Wayback Machine, 3. Schwartz 2004, p. 49 4. Schweig 2005, p. 43 5. Surendranath Dasgupta, A History of Indian Philosophy (1991) p. 31 6. Santilata Dei, Del Santilata, Vaisnavism in Orissa (1988) p. 167 7. Kakoli Basak, (1991) Rabindranath Tagore, a Humanist - p. 11 8. Rosen 2002, p. 54 9. Valpey 2006, p. 110 10. Schweig 2005, p. 125 11. Schweig 2005, p. 126 12. Schweig 2005, p. 79 13. chief ed. K. Ayyappa Paniker. (1997). Medieval Indian Literature: An Anthology. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-0365-0.p.327 (https://books.google.com/books?id=KYLpvaKJI MEC&pg=RA1-PA327) 14. Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature - p. 4290 (https://books.google.com/books?id=g-wbAAAAIA AJ&q=Manipur+Radha&dq=Manipur+Radha&lr=&client=firefox-a), Amaresh Datta, Mohan Lal,1994 15. Shanti Swarup (1968). 5000 Years of Arts and Crafts in India and Pakistan. New Delhi. p. 272.p.183 (https://books.google.com/books?id=lnVQAAAAMAAJ&q=Manipur+Radha&dq=M anipur+Radha&pgis=1) 16. Schwartz 2004, p. 35 17. "Lord Krishna and Rama in the Primary Vedas – ISKCON Desire Tree - Devotee Network" (htt p://www.iskcondesiretree.com/m/blogpost?id=2103886:BlogPost:2629710). www.iskcondesiretree.com. Retrieved 2017-06-09. 18. Charlotte Vaudeville, "Evolution of Love Symbolism in Bhagavatism", Journal of the American Oriental Society LXXXII (1962), 39 19. "Musical Saints of India" (http://www.sankeertanam.com/saints%20texts/Jayadeva%20&%20Gi ta%20Govindam_2003_SK.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved 2013-12-27. 20. Chatterji, S.K. (1936). "Purana Legends and the Prakrit Tradition in New Indo-Aryan". Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies. 8 (2): 457–466. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00141096 (https://do i.org/10.1017%2FS0041977X00141096). JSTOR 608054 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/608054).literary study of their lyric literature of Bengal Vaishnavism, has given a useful conspectus of the "Historical Development of the Radha- Krishna Legend" 21. Miller, S.B.S. (1975). "Radha: Consort of Krsna's Vernal Passion". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 95 (4): 655–671. doi:10.2307/601022 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F601022). JSTOR 601022 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/601022). 22. Stewart, T.K.; Caṇḍīdāsa, Baṛu; Klaiman, M. H.; Candidasa, Baru (1986). "Singing the Glory of Lord Krishna: The" Srikrsnakirtana". Asian Folklore Studies. 4554 (1): 152–154. doi:10.2307/1177851 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1177851). JSTOR 1177851 (https://www.jsto r.org/stable/1177851). 23. Valpey 2006, pp. 30–31 24. Valpey 2006, p. 52 25. Valpey 2006, p. 58 26. Valpey 2006, p. 75 27. The penny cyclopædia [ed. by G. Long]. 1843, p.390 [1] (https://books.google.com/books?id=_8 cWRilIuE0C&pg=RA1-PA390&dq=rudra+sampradaya&as_brr=3#PRA1-PA390,M1) 28. Sharda Arya, Sudesh Narang, Religion and Philosophy of the Padma-purāṇa: Dharmaśāstra. Miranda House (University of Delhi). Dept. of Sanskrit, India University Grants Commission, 1988. 547, p.30 29. Melville T. Kennedy, The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the Vaishnavism of Bengal, 1925. 270, p.7 30. Ramesh M. Dave, K. K. A. Venkatachari, The Bhakta-bhagawan Relationship: Paramabhakta Parmeshwara Sambandha. Sya. Go Mudgala, Bochasanvasi Shri Aksharpurushottama Sanstha, 1988. p.74 31. "Shikshapatri, verse 109 by Swaminarayan" (http://www.swaminarayan.nu/sampraday/shiksha. shtml). 32. Williams 2001, p. 74 33. Williams 2001, p. 96 34. Williams 2001, p. 85 35. Williams 2001, p. 59 36. Williams 2001, back matter 37. White, C.S.J.; Redington, James D. (1990). "Vallabhacarya on the Love Games of Krsna". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 110 (2): 373–374. doi:10.2307/604565 (https://doi.or g/10.2307%2F604565). JSTOR 604565 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/604565). 38. Snell, R. (1992). Synoptic and sectarian bhakti in the poetry of Dhruvdas (https://books.google. com/books?id=BE40dp6SCFUC&pg=PA247). ISBN 0-521-41311-7. 39. Gaeffke, P. (1992). How a Muslim looks at Hindu bhakti (https://books.google.com/books?id=B E40dp6SCFUC&q=%22Radha+Krsna+%22&pg=PA247). ISBN 0-521-41311-7.p. 80 40. Rosen 2002, p. 117 41. radhavallabh.com (http://www.radhavallabh.com) 42. ashtasakhimandir.org (http://www.ashtasakhimandir.org) 43. Valpey 2006, p. 109

References Rosen, Steven (2002). The hidden glory of Further reading India. Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. ISBN 0-89213-351-1. Kakar, Sudhir. "Erotic fantasy: the secret Schwartz, Susan (2004). Rasa: performing passion of Radha and the divine in India (https://archive.org/details/ Krishna",Contributions to Indian Sociology rasa00susa). New York: Columbia (New Series) 19, no.1 (Jan-June 1985):75- University Press. ISBN 0-231-13145-3. 94. Schweig, G.M. (2005). Dance of divine love: Miller, Barbara Stoller. "The divine duality of The Rasa Lila of Krishna from the Radha and Krishna", in The Divine Consort: Bhagavata Purana, India's classic sacred Radha and the Goddesses of India, eds. J. love story. Princeton University Press, S. Hawley and D. M. Wulff. Berkeley: Princeton, NJ; Oxford. ISBN 0-691-11446-3. University of California Press, 1982, pp. 13– Valpey, Kenneth Russell (2006). Attending 26. Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya Vaiṣṇava mūrti- Patnaik, Debi Prasanna (1955). "Concept of sevā as devotional truth. New York: Radhakrishna in the Panchasakha Routledge. ISBN 0-415-38394-3. Literature". Proceedings of Indian Oriental Williams, Raymond (2001). Introduction to Conference. 18: 406–411. Swaminarayan Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65422-7. Goswami, Sri Rupa. Bhakti-Rasamrta- Vaudeville, Ch (1962). "Evolution of Love- Sindhuh. Vrindaban: Institute of Oriental Symbolism in Bhagavatism". Journal of the Philosophy, 1965. American Oriental Society. 82 (1): 31–40. Prabhupada, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami. doi:10.2307/595976 (https://doi.org/10.230 Krsna: The Supreme Personality of 7%2F595976). JSTOR 595976 (https://www. Godhead. [A Summary Study of Srila jstor.org/stable/595976). Vyasadeva's Srimad-Bhagavatam, Tenth Wulff, D. M. The Divine Consort: Radha and Canto.] Los Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Trust, the Goddesses of India, Berkeley: University 1970. 2 vols. of California Press. 1982 Wilson, Frances, ed. The Love of Krishna: Refer Wiki Article Radha Krishna Spiritual The Krsnakarnamarta of Lilasuka Portal Bilvamangala. Philadelphia: University of Frédéric Ligier, Annick Le Scoëzec Masson, Pennsylvania Press, 1975 Les Amours de Râdhâ, Musique et poésie inspirées de miniatures de l'École de Kangra,Paris, Garamond, 2016

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