The Socratic Method Can Be Dangerous

Wirning: The Socratic Method Can Be Dangerous

Louis GOLDMAN

The Socratic method is inappropriate ocrates was executed for practic- ing it. Plato advised that it not be for children because it teaches them taught until the student had mas- tered all of higher education and then to question adult authority before not until the age of 30 Yet Mortimer they have the necessary experience. Adler, Theodore Sizer, and others are said to advocate its introduction into the public schools.'.2 I am referring, of course, to what Plato called "dialectics" and our con- temporary advocates call "the Socratic method" Times change, we are told. Plato's rationale no longer holds, and what did Socrates in will be applauded today I contend, however, that Plato's reasons are still good. that the Athe- nians knew what thev were doing when they brought Socrates to trial, and that those who advocate the So- cratic method may be leading Ameri- can teachers to the choices given Soc- rates by his jury

Louis Goliman is As*stasn Professor, FoundationsofEducaton. Collge of Edu- cation. WVicita State niterstAl Wichia, Kansas MO:- i - Q~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

Though exemplified in such early derived from his recognition of his meaningful pattern. Plato recognizes dialogues as The Meno and The Euth- own ignorance, is now proposing that the plight of the learner and recom- ypiro, it is only in Book VII of The even these scientific and mathematical mends that "the various studies ac- Repubic3 that Plato presents a detailed studies need to be examined and their quired without any particular order by discussion of the nature of the dialecti- limitations understood. The philoso- ... children .. must be integrated into cal process. The discussion of dialec- pher or dialectician "grasps the reason an overview which reveals the kinship tics follows Plato's discussion of the for the being of each thing" (534 b); of these studies to one another and curriculum for the higher education of he tries "to give an account" of things with the nature of that which is" (537 the ruling class or decision makers. (531 e, 533 c), he "tries by discus- c). This curriculum includes arithmetic, sion-by means of argument without geometry, astronomy, and harmony the use of any of the senses--to attain and is designed to accustom the learn- to each thing itself that is; he doesn't er to think abstractly, to discover the give up before he grasps by intellec- principles or essential properties of tion itself that which is good itself things, rather than to remain on the .."(532 a). concrete level where individual cases Full understanding requires us to U are randomly encountered. examine ideas or concepts internally Socrates, who had always believed and externally. An internal examina- that "the unexamined life is not worth tion will analyze the idea so that we living' and that his special wisdom can formulate its essential meaning .J and reveal all assumptions or hypothe- ses that are entailed by it, until we can be secure in using the concept as the foundation for further knowledge. An external examination will relate ideas to each other or syntbesize them into a

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the same way, but it too is likely to err The Socratic methd,. by searching than that, recognizing that an illusion in its own wayv. As each position may for hidden assumptions or hypotheses is an illusion gives us no assurance be successiveiv discredited, our wis- for any apparent gitvz, tells us that that its contrary will in turn be the dom grows, but it is a negative wis- things are not always what they seem ultimate truth. As Aristotle remarked, dom. We learn what is not the way, to be, that the truth may not be in only one arrow can hit the center of and we become less arrogant, more conventional wisdom, that matters of the target, but an infinite number can open to new possibilities. Ultimately fact need to be transcended to discov- miss it. Invalidating a thesis may sug- we may see reason turn upon itself er the facts of the matter. But more gest an antithesis that does not err in and discover or intuit its own limita- tions. We see Socrates abandon reason as he heeds his inner voice, and we realize that mind is mightier than mere consciousness and that life and being transcend mind. Further Questioning It is often remarked that for Socrates and Plato the mind has existed prena- tally in the cosmic mind or the realm of ideas and that learning is a form of recollection or remembering. But it is less noted, though more demonstra- ble, that the Socratic method amounts

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to a relearning and reorganization of ments), they misuse them as though death. The wisest man of his time was what was previously known in this they were play, always using them to blind to the human requirement of life-knowledge that has been gath- contradict and ... refute others" (539 habit and tradition, of having a past. ered in a random pattern like colored b). They will question what the law He failed to heed the traditional wis- pieces of a kaleidoscope. The Socratic says is just and fair, and they will refute dom of his culture to avoid excess- method shakes things up, destroys the arguments about its validity until they "nothing too much"--and he was cut casual patterning, and looks for a bet- come to "neither honor nor obey down. R. Freeman Butts comes to a ter-more comprehensive and logi- them any longer in the same way" similar conclusion: "It may ultimately cally consistent-pattern. That pattern (538 e). Generalized, it can be imag- be decided that the greatest weakness is again examined with the same crite- ined that all the customs, mores, stan- of Socrates was his failure to stress a ria and may again be found wanting; dards, values, and conventional wis- positive education for citizenship that the kaleidoscope is again shaken. Phi- dom of the society will be examined would develop the basic loyalties to losophy is a search for the ideal archi- and refuted by these immature dialec- the common values of democracy at tectonics of "all time and existence" ticians who are "like puppies enjoying the same time that it developed the If anything is crystal clear, it is that pulling and tearing with argument at ability to criticize, which was Socrates' Socratic questioning leads to further those who happen to be near" (539 b). chief glory."s questioning. From this process we Of course, it is the older generation, A proper education of the young learn patience rather than The Answer. the fathers and authority figures, who must begin with a hrm grounding in In the dialogues the relentless search uphold the traditional views; indeed. the nature and values of our culture. for an ultimate truth is matched only their claims to legitimate authority rest Without teaching the rules of the game by a ubiquitous dread of hubris, or upon these views. And their sons, and the lay of the land, we handicap idolatry, should we ever claim to have armed with the Socratic method, come the young and threaten the continuity found it. pulling and tearing at them as Oedipus of the societ. Teaching the essential The Socratic method is nothing if it attacked Laius. Small wonder that Soc- knowledge, skills, and values of our is not upsetting and unnerving. Dew- rates was accused of attacking tradi- culture presents a challenge and a ey's remark about inquiry applies tional religion and of corrupting the paradox and requires some epistemo- squarely: "If we once start thinking no young. So Plato, chastened and sad- logical tightrope walking. On the one one can guarantee where we shall dened decades later, has Socrates hand they are essential They are non- come out, except that many objects, ironically warn us that only older men, negotiable It is tempting to portray ends and institutions are doomed. Ev- over the age of 30, who have orderly them as absolute and eternal and in- ery thinker puts some portion of an and stable natures--only these should vest them with divine authority But apparendy stable world in peril, and engage in philosophy or the Socratic they are also relative to our culture no one can wholly predict what will method (539 d). Thev have been created by peoples; emerge in its place."4 The inherent and they will inevitably be changed, skepticism of the method can easily The Nature and Value of just as thev vary in other lands and at turn to nihilism; its openness to new Culture other times. We do impose our culture visions and revisions may erode stan- As Dewey observed, inquiry leads to and its standards on the voung; to do dards and disorient and alienate its change; and in a dynamic and demo- otherwise would he irresponsible and disciples. cratic society such as ours or fifth injurious to them. But we must try to No one was more keenly aware of century Athens, inquiry should be wel- give good reasons for these standards; these dangers than Plato himself. He comed. Without change a society will and we need to be open to discussion, had seen the dangers inherent in the stagnate; and the energies of its citi- lest we be accused of indoctrination. Socratic method become real, had zens may turn inward, destructively. On the other hand, in these early vears seen it turn against Socrates himself. But every society also needs stability we should not take the initiative to So he has Socrates ask the question, and continuity, and the absence of demonstrate inconsistencies and other "Don't you notice how great is the these will generate anarchy. The two inadequacies in the belief systems we harm coming from the practice of are part of an organic unity, and a are helping to inculcate As R. S. Peters dialectic these days?... Its students are healthy society needs to find a middle has written, "To take a hatchet to a filled with lawlessness" (537 e). He way. Continuity ensures structure, pupil's contribution before he has goes on to describe how we become without which nothing can function, much equipment to defend it, is not socialized, saying that "we have from grow, or develop. only likely to arrest or warp his growth childhood convictions about what's It was Socrates' failure to recognize in this form of thought; it is also to be just and fair by which we are brought the claims of a convention-based sta- insensitive to him as a person.""' We up as parents, obeying them as rulers bility because of his intoxicated, mon- have seen thus far that as desirable as and honoring them" (538 c). But then omaniacal thirst for inquiry that led the Socratic method may be, great "lads get their first taste (of argu- finally and inevitably to his trial and difficulties have emerged. The corn-

EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP I-T

prehensive overview, or synthetic as- ing, nothing less, nothing more. "Soc- pect, first requires that children have rates is a metaphor of an activity of considerable experience. That experi- mind," writes Joseph Needleman. 8 For ence may then be scrutinized, ana- humans it is inevitable that there will lyzed, and reconstituted. In fact, that be thinking; the question is merely "A school climate process may continue indefinitely with one of degrees, the extent and the that will generate each synthetic overview reanalyzed depth we will go. By calling the think- and ultimately reconstituted. But even ing process "dialectics" or "the Socrat- critical thinking the first comprehensive vision re- ic method," however, we have opened quires a level of experience young the door to a new insight. Thinking is requires a faculty children prior to high school age will the mind talking to itself, dialoguing, of strong not usually attain. answering its own questions. The dia- The analvtic aspect encounters logue, the Socratic method, is really individuals who more severe problems. If we assume the externalization of thinking; more children are capable of this manner of accurately, thinking is the internaliza- differ widely in thinking, despite Piaget, Socratic meth- tion of a social process, a dialogue, an their ideas, values, odology may prove damaging to the interaction between two people. But vulnerable young child, as Peters indi- the duality involved is essentially of and teaching cated, and may rob him or her of a two ideas as presented by the people styles." needed sense of security. It may lead and not the people themselves. Hu- to a growing recognition that there is man beings have a duality insofar as no truth and that reason is a poor tool. we think. We are "both the one who Cynicism and despair may follow. In asks and the one who answers," savs older students who are insufficiently Arendt.9 Our two selves strive to be mature it can become a weapon in the consistent with each other Indeed, conflict between generations, with the insofar as thev are, there is no think- young attempting to discredit the val- ing. Only when we encounter contra- ues and conventional wisdom of the dictions or otherness do we become older generations. Hannah Arendt re- perplexed and wonder. This encoun- marked that Socratic "thinking as such ter is the origin of thought. There is no does society little good . it does not difference between Socrates encoun- create values . but, rather dissolves tering a Sophist or Dewey's "problem- accepted rules of conduct"- Socrates atic situation"' 0 because these are the was perceived as the instigator of the external or social occasions for the self activity that undermined Athenian so- to undertake thinking or problem ciety; and he was ordered to desist, or solving. which we process the world and the to leave Athens, or to take hemlock Once we have grasped the notion very stuff of our thinking and die that thinking is not only something For political reasons an idea-cen- For the most part our citizens as that goes on subjectively in one's head tered curriculum cannot be too close- well want the schools to transmit our but also has an objective correlative in Iv associated with the individual teach- cultural traditions, not change them. what goes on between two people er or with contemporary factions. It When teachers emphasize change and (who embody ideas), we can take one must take account of our deeply con- inquiry to the detriment of continuity, further step. The teaching of thinking servative nature (which includes a dis- their communities may censor the ac- or the stimulation of the mind is not trust of thinking) and appear safe from tivity, suggest that the teacher relocate, done by somehow tinkering with radical departures from our tradition. or force the teacher out of teaching. mental processes or developing tech- The curriculum I would advocate is, Thus, the Socratic method may be as niques or skills. Rather, since thinking nevertheless. the curriculum that is perilous to the teacher as it is to the has the external or social aspect to it, most likely to develop critical think- student The case against introducing our attention should focus on institu- ing, most likely to produce divergent the Socratic method in the public tionalizing the Socratic method or radical thinkers. It is the traditional schools is strong indeed. One way of doing this is to adopt a liberal arts curriculum From that tra- curriculum that is more idea centered dition came the pbilosophes of the An Idea-Centered Curriculum than.sill centered. Skills are not expe- French Revolution. Jefferson and his And yet, in a larger sense, we have no rienced as contrary to one another and cohorts in America. Karl Marx and choice. In the deepest sense dialectics will not generate thought. Ideas, on John Dewev, and among our contem- or the Socratic method is simply think- the other hand, are the means through poraries. Paul Goodman and Iv-an II-

SEPTEMBER 1984 61 lich. These critical thinkers were not This objective would not necessarily A faculty that because of its differences educated in schools that taught prob- be achieved within each classroom, in is in perpetual discussion among its lem-soving tecbniques or critical the formal setting, but could be members is also a faculty that shows thinking or creativty. Indeed, one achieved by internal, informal dia- students by example that ideas and raises the heretical question, "Is the logue that would be set in motion thinking do matter and must enter into paucity of independent, critical think- within the individual student. Such an the way we conduct our lives, that ers among today's 'me' and the 'post- arrangement would also generate a critical thinking is not a performance me' generation a result, not of lack of terrific amount of informal discussion within a classroom setting but is an attempts to engineer critical thinking, between the students of the school-- essential component of full, successful but of their very presence?" again, not in the formal classroom living. The liberal arts curriculum can be setting. The institutionalization of diversity, recommended because it is both polit- This model needs to be considered by creating faculties composed of ically safe and educationally sound. It with the utmost seriousness. The labo- strong individuals, is easier said than is richest in ideas, perhaps in strange, ratory of history seems to confirm its done. Some colleges and universi- divergent ideas that are more other success; and it requires neither a revo- ties-usually the superior ones-have than the fashionable and contempo- lution in teacher education nor inno- succeeded, but our public school fac- rary; and hence it is most capable of vative programs, techniques, and ma- ulties are characterized by an increas- operating "Socratically" or of stimulat- terials for teaching critical thinking. It ing homogeneity. This may ultimately ing thinking. requires care only in the selection of be the most serious problem facing teachers, and I shall soon return to this the future of our schools, as it may be Instittional Diversity important issue. the most limiting factor in developing Now, I doubt that we can educate On the other hand, this model critical thinking. The level of compen- teachers to use the Socratic method; strikes at the heart of many contempo- sation of teachers and their social class and as I have already shown, we prob- rary approaches. While it embraces origins, preservice education, pro- ably shouldn't even if we could. Few formal and even compulsory school- gram design, hiring standards and per- philosophy professors, including ing as a means, it implies that the sonnel directors, current administra- those who are lifelong scholars of culmination of the educational ef- tive philosophy, school board con- Socrates himself, have successfully fort-thinking-may occur within the trols, and other factors have contribut- used the Socratic method in any mean- everyday life of the student in an infor- ed to this growing homogeneity. How ingful or profound way. Of course, we mal setting. Nothing is remarkable to reverse this trend, however, is not all ask students, "What do you mean by about this, except that it is not the way within the scope of this paper. "Per- so-and-so?" Plenty of articles and man- modem schooling operates. If the goal haps," as Socrates might say, "we shall uals are available on techniques of of schooling is achieved outside the return to this someday. For now, how- questioning, for classroom teachers formal setting, then measurement and ever, my wife is expecting me home, through Rogerian therapists. But the evaluation lose their importance, if not and we must end the discussion."[ relentless and incisive questioning of their very being. Teachers lose their Socrates himself has never been close- accountability. Students are no longer ly approached. It requires not only a viewed as material to be manipulated 'Mortimer J Adler The Paideia Propos vast experience, but a genuine open- or managed, and the conclusions of al. New York: Macmillan, 1982 ness to new experience, a lack of their thinking cannot be monitored. 'Theodore R. Sizer,llorace's Compro- dogmatism, and a playful and experi- Outcomes of student thinking may be mise The Dilemma of the American High mental personality that is extremely unpredictable and mav never even be School. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1984 rare in this world. And it requires a known to the teacher or school, as 'All quotations are from Allan Bloom's talent for listening and for hearing an' behavioral objectives for students are translation of The Republic of Plato, New particular utterance in the total con- transcended. But isn't that what hap- York: Basic Books, Inc., 1968 text of the communication. This sel- pens when there is true inquiry, when 'Joseph Ratner, Intelligence in the Mod- dom occurs between parents and chil- we follow the argument where ern Worlds of John Deue''s Philosopln, it (New York The Modern Libraryn 1939), p dren or between husbands and wives. leads? Surely, if the argument is worth- To expect it to occur in classrooms of while, it will lead out of the classroom 'R. Freeman Butts, The Education of the 30 students is follv. and into the life of the student' West (McGraw Hill, NY, 1973). p 92 Yet, if we look at the matter from an What creates an invigorating school "R. S. Peters, Ethics and Education (Lon- institutional perspective, it is not nec- climate, then, is not a faculty of moder- don. George Allen and UInwin, 1966), p 59. essary for each teacher to be capable ate, even-headed, undogmatic, friend- -Hannah Arendt, The Life of the Mind of entertaining and examining altema- ly, tolerant, pluralistically oriented (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, tive beliefs by having an open person- teachers who are compatible at facult- 1978), p 192 ality. The faculty as a whole may reflect meetings and are mutually supportive "Joseph Needleman, The Heart of Philos- ophy (New York: Bantam, 198 2 ), p 25 a wide spectrum of beliefs, with each of each other's decisions and views. A 'Arendt, p 185 member holding his or her beliefs school climate that will generate criti- "'Emanuel Shargel. -Dewey's Dialectic' with the utmost dogmatism; and we cal thinking requires a faculty of Philosophy of Education 1981 (Philosophy could still achieve the objective of strong individuals who differ widely in of Education Society, Normal, Ill., 1982) stimulating or generating thinking. their ideas, values, and teaching styles. pp. 162-171 I I EDUCATIONAL LEADERSHIP

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