Jack Pardon P B1232265

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT GEOGRAPHY

TITLE OF PROJECT

An Assessment of the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods: Ward 23, Muzarabani District.

Author JACK PARDON P B1232265

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

Date 30 May 2017

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have read this project and have approved its submission of marking after confirming that it confirms to the department requirements.

…………………………………………… …………………………. …………………………………………... .………………………… Supervisor Date

DECLARATION

I PARDON JACK do hereby declare that this project is herein my own and has not been copied or lifted from any source without acknowledgement of the source.

Signed ………………………………… Date …………May 2017……………….

DEDICATION

To all Muzarabani District Ward 23 residents, May the Lord, our God guide and protect you through all adversities in life.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My love goes to my parents Mr and Mrs Jack, my brothers Takudzwa and Wisdom for their unwavering support throughout my entire academic journey. Mr and Mrs Banda thank you for being there for me when I needed you the most. Development Studies 2017 class, I thank you for the peer support you provided and all the assistance offered during data collection.

I am grateful to the guidance and steadfast commitment of my supervisor Dr Mavhura throughout this study. He is the source of inspiration that instigated me to carry out this study. Above all, I give thanks to the Most High GOD for strengthening me.

ABSTRACT

Rural livelihoods are the weapons to salvage rural people from the extremes of poverty and ensuring self-sustenance. However these weapons are constantly under threat from natural disasters like drought. In Zimbabwe, droughts have been labelled as the most common disaster therefore constantly posing threat to rural livelihoods. To contain this predicament that is relentlessly destroying development efforts in rural areas it is important to firstly assess the impacts of these events. This study aimed at assessing the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods in ward 23, Muzarabani district. The main objectives of the study were to examine community vulnerability to drought, identify the livelihoods practised in the ward and to assess the impact of drought on these livelihoods. A total of 150 participants were engaged and both quantitative and qualitative methods were employed. Data collecting tools like questionnaires, face to face interviews and personal observations were employed. Findings from this study revealed that the study area is a drought prone area as participants indicated that the area succumbed to four disaster events in the last 20 years. The notion that agriculture is the only livelihood in rural areas does not apply to ward 23 as results from this study indicated that both agricultural and non-farm livelihoods are common in the area. The study also revealed a decrease agricultural in output, loss of capital, loss of labour and livestock losses are some of the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods. Findings from this study indicated that drought impacts on rural livelihoods in the ward were exacerbated by issues such as absents of modern irrigation facilities; lack of education, over dependency on maize and lack of access to markets. To reduce adverse impacts of drought on livelihoods the study recommended the establishment modern irrigation schemes, the growing of indigenous crops that are drought resistant and also to increase the availability of agricultural extension services so as to increase flow of information in the ward.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Number of household into agricultural livelihoods Table 4.2: Number of households into Non-farm livelihoods

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 3.1: Map of study area

Fig 4.1: livelihood productivity

Fig 4.2: Number of households reporting a decrease in output

Fig 4.3: Sand scooping well

Fig 4.4: household involvement in non-farm activities

Fig 4.5: drought mitigation strategies

Fig 4.6: type of crops grown at household level

Fig 4.7: Level of education among participants

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LIST OF ACRONYMS

UNDP United Nations Development Programme ZIMASSET Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio Economic Transformation SADC Southern Africa Development Committee NGO Non Governmental Organisation

AGRITEX Agricultural Extension

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Household questionnaire for ward 23 households

Appendix 2: Key informant Interview guide

Appendix 3: Interview guide for NGO officials involved in poverty alleviation in ward 23

Table of Contents APPROVAL FORM ...... i DECLARATION ...... ii DEDICATION ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v LIST OF TABLES ...... vi LIST OF FIGURES ...... vii LIST OF ACRONYMS ...... viii LIST OF APPENDICES ...... ix CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Back ground of the study ...... 1 1.3 Justification of study ...... 3 1.4 Statement of the problem ...... 3 1.5 Research aim ...... 4 1.6 Research objectives ...... 4 1.7 Research questions...... 4 1.8 Definition of terms ...... 4 1.8.1 Livelihood ...... 4 1.8.2 Disaster ...... 4 1.8.3Vulnerability ...... 5 1.8.4Drought ...... 5 1.9 Organisation of study ...... 5 1.10 Summary ...... 5 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 6 2.1 Introduction ...... 6 2.2 Drought ...... Error! Bookmark not defined. 2.3 Drought history (Zimbabwe) ...... 8 2.4 Impacts of drought on development ...... 9 2.5 Livelihoods ...... 11

2.6 Rural livelihoods ...... 11 2.7 Rural livelihoods and droughts ...... 12 2.7.1 Sustainable livelihood framework ...... 14 2.8 Summary ...... 17 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 18 3.1 Introduction ...... 18 3.2 Study area ...... 18 3.3 Research design ...... 19 3.4 Targeted population ...... 20 3.5 Sampling techniques and procedures ...... 20 3.6 Data sources...... 21 3.6.1 Questionnaires ...... 21 3.6.2 Face to face interview ...... 21 3.6.3 Observation guide ...... 22 3.7 Desktop review ...... 22 3.8 Data analysis and presentation procedure ...... 23 3.9 Ethical considerations ...... 23 3.10 Limitations ...... 23 3.11 Summary ...... 24 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ...... 25 4.1 Introduction ...... 25 4.2 Drought occurrence in Muzarabani (ward 23)...... 25 4.3 Household livelihood strategies ...... 26 4.3.1 Agricultural livelihoods ...... 26 4.3.2 Non-farm livelihoods ...... 27 4.4 Adverse impacts of drought ...... 30 4.4.1 Decrease in Agricultural output ...... 30 4.4.2 Loss of wetlands ...... 31 4.4.3 Depletion of forestry and wild life resources ...... 32 4.4.3 Live stock losses ...... 33 4.4.4Capital loss ...... 34

4.4.5 Loss of labour...... 35 4.5 Factors exacerbating adverse impacts of droughts on rural livelihoods ...... 36 4.5.1 Absent of irrigation facilities ...... 37 4.5.2 Over dependency on maize ...... 37 4.5.3 Access to markets ...... 38 4.5.4 An uneducated population (lack of education) ...... 39 4.5.5 Inaccessibility of Extension services ...... 40 4.6 Summary ...... 40 CHAPTER 5: DISCUSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 42 5.1 Discussion ...... 42 5.2 Conclusion ...... 44 5.3 Recommendations...... 45 References ...... 47

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Chapter One: Research Introduction

1.1 Introduction Disasters and their impacts have been detrimental to development initiatives around the globe over the past years. In recent years the world has experienced some catastrophic events and some of them brought misery and stress as the human race failed to cope. These events have become a recurrent phenomenon in rural areas, making livelihoods unsustainable and increasing poverty in these areas. This study assesses drought impacts on rural livelihoods basing on the case of Muzarabani district ward 23. The first chapter outlines the purpose of the study, research objectives, justification of study and the research questions. Chapter two focuses on the review of various works done by other different authorities and scholars in areas related to assessment of drought mitigation strategies. The research methodology, which includes data collection tools and limitations of the study, will be outlined in chapter three of the study. Chapter 4 of this study focuses on presentation of data and data analysis. Discussions, recommendations and conclusion will be revealed in the last chapter of the study.

1.2 Back ground to the study Droughts have become a major cause of concern for people in rural Zimbabwe for the past years and those in Muzarabani are of no exception. Zimbabwe as a whole is among the group of sub Saharan countries vulnerable to disasters like droughts. Due to climate change Rainfall patterns are no long predictable; some areas can have above normal rainfall while some experience very low rainfall levels leading to the simultaneous occurrence of droughts and floods in various areas around the country. Such scenarios have continued to undress communities off their protection as they are year by year becoming less resilient and prone to disasters.

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2007), a medium-high global gas emission scenario would see an increase in annual mean surface air temperatures of between 3º and 4ºC by 2080. This implies difficult times ahead for rural people that depend directly/indirectly on agriculture especially rain fed agriculture for their livelihoods and have few assets or strategies to cope with the changes to come. Due to climate change, the series of droughts that affected Zimbabwe contributed greatly to the collapse of the agro-based economy. According to the UNDP the Zimbabwean economy shrunk by 2.8% in year 2001 and has

1 continued to do so for the next 10 years. In year 2016 the el-Niño induced drought left hundreds of families in rural Zimbabwe food insecure forcing the Zimbabwean government to declare the situation a state of national disaster, requiring in excess of 1 billion contain the situation(The Standard, February, 2016).

According to Manyani (2013) Muzarabani district experiences extreme weather conditions in form of recurring droughts and occasional floods. The term Muzarabani means “flood plain” and this makes the area susceptible to occasional floods and various diseases. Floods in the district are a result of mal-adaptation strategies such as deforestation, cultivation of flood plains and settlement that tend to offer short term solutions with long term repercussions. Back flow induced floods also affect the area. When water levels in Kariba dam reaches full capacity, water is released from the dam to avoid dam failure. Most of these releases are done during the rainy season, the time when most of the rivers are at full capacity. Further downstream the levels of water in Cabora Bassa continue to rise from inflows from the Zambezi and its tributaries which in turn lead to backflow, causing floods in Muzarabani.

The settlement character in Muzarabani villages has been highly influenced by fertile soils along the flood plain that are good for crop production (Madamombe, 2004)and also by people migrating into the region in search of better agricultural soils. However this type of settlement has increased the region`s vulnerability to disasters. Disasters like drought have continued to run havoc on the livelihoods of people in the area impoverishing the people to such an extent that their lives are at the mercy of humanitarian initiatives.

According to Goredema et al (2011) rural livelihoods are the weapons to salvage rural people from the extremes of poverty and ensuring self-sustenance. It is then of paramount importance to take note of all factors affecting the sustainability of rural livelihoods if the goal of self- sustenance and poverty reduction outlined in the ZIMASSET is to be achieved. Droughts have since been labelled a major stumbling block to Zimbabwe’s economic drive from pre-colonial era as they pose threats to livelihoods around the country. Although the severity of droughts vary from season to season and also at individual levels, it is important to take a deep look at how this events affect people in Muzarabani at ward level.

1.3 Justification of study Disaster impacts are detrimental to development and these impacts are intensive in rural areas where there are little or no safety nets. In Muzarabani district, drought disasters are a common phenomenon that has continued to cripple down development initiatives in the area. Extreme conditions characterises the district and people from the area continuously seek humanitarian aid to curb starvation. Traditional knowledge about the Zimbabwean economy reflects that rural folks rely on agriculture as the back bone of rural economies. Most of the livelihoods in the area are centred more or less on agriculture which is a practise very susceptible to droughts that are common in the area. The study is of huge importance as it tries to find out the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods. Since rural livelihoods are the weapon of choice to salvage rural people from poverty, assessing the impacts of disasters such as droughts on these livelihoods is a fundamental initiative. It is important to understand the extent of how drought events affect livelihoods so that appropriate measures can be taken in such a way to make the populace cope with the adverse impacts of these events. Understanding the factors affecting rural development is also important for policy formulation and interventions that would help rural people realise changes in living standards. Livelihood strategies pursued by rural dwellers define their food security levels as food security is closely linked to sustainable livelihoods strategies. This therefore means that it is important to look at factors affecting livelihoods if food insecurity is to be exterminated. This study will play a crucial role in the bid to improve rural livelihoods as it will reveal the areas of weakness within livelihood activities practised in these areas.

1.4 Statement of the problem Despite noticeable efforts being channelled towards rural development and poverty reduction, a huge amount of people are still living below the poverty datum line due to the failure of rural livelihoods. A diverse portfolio of livelihoods has been endorsed as a strategy to ease the pressure and reduce poverty in rural areas. Non-farm economic activities such as basketry and entrepreneurship have emerged in rural areas. However livelihoods in rural areas have remained unsustainable and have failed to champion rural people out of poverty. Nkomo (2010) noted that almost a third of the country`s population were in need of food assistance of food assistance in 2010 despite agriculture being the most common source of livelihood in rural Zimbabwe. It is of huge importance to assess the impacts of drought, which is one of the major threats on rural livelihoods so that this phenomenon can be tactically diffused.

1.5 Research aim To assess the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods in Muzarabani District, ward 23.

1.6 Research objectives  To examine community vulnerability to drought in ward 23.  To identify rural livelihoods practised in the study area.  To assess the impacts of drought on livelihoods in the ward.

1.7 Research questions  What are the causes of vulnerability to drought impacts in ward 23?  What are the most common livelihoods in Muzarabani?  What are the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods?

1.8 Definition of terms

1.8.1 Livelihood The activities, the assets and access that jointly determine the living gained by and individual or a household (Ellis, 1998).When it comes to an individual a livelihood is the ability of an individual to access and obtain necessities in life which include food, shelter and clothing. Therefore one can say that all activities involved in finding of food, shelter and clothing required for survival by an individual are livelihoods.

1.8.2 Disaster It is a serious disruption of the functioning of a community or society, causing major human, material or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using only its own resources. Disasters can be better understood as consequences of everyday actions and decisions which cumulatively lead to disaster (Hewitt 1997).Natural disasters occur when human beings and their infrastructure get in the way of earths processes (Abbot 2004).

1.8.3Vulnerability The likelihood of an individual or a group of people to experience negative physical, social and economic impacts due to disasters and failure to cope without assistance from external factors (chambers, 1989).

1.8.4Drought Drought is a protracted period of deficient precipitation resulting in extensive damage to crops, resulting in loss of yield. It is the deficiency of precipitation over an extended period of time usually a season or more resulting in a water shortage for some activity, group, or environmental sector (Opiyo et al, 2015).according to the World Meteorological Organization (1975) there are four types of drought which are metrological, agricultural, hydrological droughts and socioeconomic droughts.

1.9 Organisation of study The research is presented in five chapters that are inter-related. The introductory chapter; chapter one is comprised of the background of study ,statement of the problem , justification of study, objectives ,research questions and definition of terms.

Chapter two covers all the literature related to the study and the theoretical framework of the study. In chapter 3 a description of the study area is revealed .the research design, research methods, sampling procedures and data analysis are also outlined in this chapter. Limitations encountered and ethical issues are also outlined in chapter three. Chapter four is centred on revealing the findings and analysing the data. The whole study is summed up in chapter five. Discussions, summary, conclusion and recommendation related to the impacts of disasters on rural livelihoods.

1.10 Summary This chapter highlighted the fundamental aspects of the study. This includes the background of the study and the aim and objectives of the study. The aim of the research is specifically to assess the impacts of disasters on rural livelihoods. The next chapter will focus on the theoretical framework and empirical literature review.

Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction The impacts of disaster are detrimental to sustainable and human development and over the years a noticeable amount of articles and researches have been published all reiterating the impacts these events pose to livelihoods everywhere around the world. According to the World Bank (2012) over 3.3 billion people live in rural areas and in sub-Saharan Africa over 65% of the population live in rural areas. The livelihoods that sustain this entire population are therefore of unparalleled importance. This chapter is going to look and review the literature related to the study and also justify the importance of this study on a literature point of view by revealing the gaps that have been left open by the literature that was published.

2.2 Drought impacts on a global scale Drought is one of the most devastating but least understood weather phenomena, largely because of its slow onset and its accumulating impacts over time (Opiyo et al, 2015).According to the World Meteorological Organization (1975), droughts are classified as either meteorological: lack of precipitation over a region for a period of time, hydrological: a period with inadequate surface and subsurface water resources, agricultural: a period with declining soil moisture and consequent crop failure due to lack of surface water resources, or socioeconomic: failure of water resources systems to meet demands, which impacts human activities both directly and indirectly.

Water shortage is central to the definitions of drought (Shumba, 2000).However droughts must not be confused with aridity as droughts are temporary and aridity is permanent. Shumba (2000) further explained that a dry spell or deficiency of precipitation has to be protracted enough to cause damage for it to be referred to as a drought. Droughts are not only experienced in areas naturally experiencing low precipitation but also in areas where high rainfall is experienced. Such complexities about the occurrence of droughts have made people understand less about the causes of droughts making livelihoods susceptible to the weather phenomenon. Some people still regard these events as an act of God thus making mitigation methods to prevent catastrophic outcomes less fruitful (Ndlovu, 1993).

The El Nino phenomenon has been labelled the major culprit leading to the frequent occurrence of drought events in Southern Africa (SADC, 2008).Wilhite (2002) argues that a stronger El Niño signal is a clear sign of difficult drought seasons ahead. Recorded history agrees with Wilhite`s view as much of the drought experienced in the region have El Nino roots. Chenje (1994) postulated that the El Niño phenomenon should be blamed for the 1992 drought that crippled the Southern side of Africa.

Droughts are among the most severe disasters around the world. According to the UNISDR (2009) the frequency of these events and their negative impacts is on the rise. For instance in the Asian region, in particular, India and China recorded the largest number of people affected by drought from 1980 to 2006.Udmale et al (2014) stated that 17% of the years between 1901 and 2010 were drought years in India. This has limited the growth rate of India`s economy as poverty and poor living standards became an eye sore in the country. An estimated 30 million people died in China in 1958 due to famine and hunger, nine million dead in the Soviet Union in 1921(Green, 2008).According to Green (2008) over a billion people succumbed to the impacts of droughts and famine in 2008 for the first time in human history. Despite the world`s growing population, there was never a situation before when food insecurity was a cause of such concern to government heads. This proves to us that the frequency of drought events is on an increase and more often, livelihoods are failing to champion the rural populace out of the food insecurity and poverty crisis.

In Mali, the desertification rate and drought frequency has been on an increase. The increase in droughts has been attributed to desertification as woman cut wood as a source of livelihood. The Sinsibere project worked to reduce desertification by developing sustainable sources of income for rural women as an alternative to their commerce in wood. These alternative livelihoods included vegetable gardens and making Shea butter products like soap. Besides environmental, literacy and financial education, training in soap making and in making energy-efficient stoves was organized for the rural women (Ballara and Tomo, 2011).

In 2011, the horn of Africa experienced the worst drought in 60 years, exposing more the 13 million people to poverty and food in security. The 1984 drought induced famine in Ethiopia

7 claimed an estimated one million people (Green,2008).Mavhura et al (2015) noted that about 60% of the sub-Saharan Africa population is susceptible to droughts. Over the resent years such catastrophic events have increased in frequency, limiting growth in Africa as agriculture is the main economic driver. In Zimbabwe about 65% of the country receives fewer than 500 mm of precipitation per annum (Nyakudya and Stroosnijder 2011) as quoted by Mavhura et al (2015).This reveals that even the residents of ward 23, Muzarabani district are under fire, making livelihoods less sustainable due to such events.

2.3 Drought history (Zimbabwe) Drought is one of the main natural disasters that are experienced in Zimbabwe from time to time (CEDRISA, 2009). The country has a long history of droughts that can be traced back to the pre- colonial times. During the pre-colonial times these events where regarded as an act of God as people could not comprehend the causes of such a phenomenon.”Nzara” a Shona term that translate to hunger, is the term used when referring to a drought. However these droughts were not frequent during the pre-colonial and colonial era as they are today. According to Hicks (1993) when these events eventually occurred, the colonial administration and its successor in post-independence Zimbabwe have often been commended for effective management of the impacts.Although the country has gone through trying times due to droughts, there is never a situation where masses of people had to die due to famine and starvation. The 1992 drought which is regarded as the worst drought disaster in the century did not result into a famine (Gunning, 1998).According Munro (2006) the 1992 drought was properly coordinated both at national and international level making the situation easy to contain. Food for work programs initiated by the government around the country helped curb starvation and in turn reduced the impacts of the drought.Drought has been occurring almost every 4-5 years in most parts of the region since the early 1980s. Most parts of the region were hit by severe drought in 1981 -1984, 1986-1987, 1991 -1992, 1994- 1995, 2001 -2002, and 2006-2007 (Russell, 2008). Studies point out that the ongoing climate change process will result in increased intensity, frequency of hydro-meteorological extreme events such as drought and flood the region (World Bank 2008).

However the country passed through hush conditions due to colonial or white settler occupation. Most of the famines that impacted the country according to Iliffe (1990) were either caused or worsened by the colonial policies of segregation and the constant fighting between the natives

8 and the colonialists, as these conflicts disrupted the flow of cultivation and harvesting. These include the 1892 drought that reduced African woman to scavengers. More over the 1933 food shortages were highly influenced by skewed policies that promoted only the rights of the settlers. Grain was made scarce so that blacks could depend more on white controlled Maize Control Boards instead of their own outputs.

2.4 Impacts of drought on development Drought impacts can be diabolical to human activity and in the last two decades many studies have consistently presented forecasts and demonstrations of an increase in the frequency and intensity of natural disasters (Mata-lima et al, 2013).As these events continue to increase as revealed, their impacts on human life and development can be catastrophic. The rate at which the world`s population is increasing at, demand for food has sky rocketed. However, protracted and frequent droughts have made it impossible for governments to ensure food security to the populace as these disasters are wide spread and difficult to contain.

Droughts have negative impacts on the economy of a country. In rain fed agricultural systems, erratic rainfall can have comprehensive and devastating impacts on affected livelihoods and local economies (Devereux, 2007).In the Sub-Saharan Africa most economies are dominated by agriculture as the main economic activity and the frequency of these events have posed threats to the growth rates of these countries. The series of droughts that affected Zimbabwe contributed greatly to the collapse of the agro-based economy. UNDP (2004) estimated that agricultural output in Zimbabwe declined by 3% and the economy shrunk by 2.8% in year 2001.Due to persistent droughts that followed, the Zimbabwean national output continued to decline limiting development in the area since agricultural output was a major foreign currency earner in the county. Between the years 2000 and 2008 the Zimbabwean economy plummeted due to the decline in agricultural output(world bank, 2009).The period between 2000 and 2008 saw the so called bread basket of Africa reduced to a mere bagger with approximately 2 million people requesting humanitarian aid. This economic failure has been highly attributed to the frequent droughts that hit the country in such a short period of time. The government of Zimbabwe however tried to control the situation by embarking on a trajectory towards the establishment of irrigation schemes but in the 2015/2016 season due to the el-Niño induced drought, rivers and dams failed

9 cope. According to Government of Zimbabwe (2010) agriculture contributed 33, 9% of the Gross Domestic Product. As an economy dominated by agriculture, the impacts of climate change really played a role in making the Zimbabwean situation tougher.

In Muzarabani people are already facing challenges; crop failure due to shortages of rainfall has increased. People who cannot afford to grow or produce food to sustain themselves right through the year are forced to buy. However, when shocks such as droughts occur, food shortages increases. Food being a basic necessity, a decline in supply can relatively increase food prices. Such scenarios provoke trade-based failures to food entitlement (Devereux, 2007).The increase in food price will in turn reduce asset price resulting in a collapse in trade-based entitlement to food. In rural areas where cattle rearing in common, livestock that they sell or exchange for grain are worth only a fraction of their pre-crisis value after a disaster event affects demand and supply patterns on local commodity markets (Swift and Hamilton, 2001).such situations have negative impacts on the growth rate of an economy.

Droughts can lead to different outcomes even for demographically similar communities. Several studies have shown that negative impacts affect mainly vulnerable groups, and increase gender inequality, worsening women and girls situation (Ballara and Toro, 2011). In many cases this also includes elderly women and men. The potential contributions that women can offer to the disaster risk reduction are often overlooked and women are seldom recognized as agents of change in their role, among others, as leaders in building community resilience to disasters. During disasters, women are more vulnerable and are the most affected. Development strategies employed to fight against such events still lack some gender mainstreaming approaches. It is there for of paramount importance for this study to take note vulnerable groups and find out how they fare during droughts.

Droughts also have an impact on a country`s employment structures .Farmers who produce inadequate food to achieve production self-sufficiency must resort to other sources of entitlement to feed their families. The first of these is off-farm employment, to generate income or food that will cover part or the entire gap between the household’s crop production and household food needs. According to Devereux (2007), 89% of the labor force in Malawi works on smallholder farms or commercial estates. Due to droughts employment structures are disrupted in turn

10 increasing poverty and a rise in food price. In Muzarabani, rainfall is erratic and there have been more frequent floods and droughts. According to Chenje (2000) the basin since 1980s experience at least three drought seasons in a decade. Several drought and floods have afflicted the basin in recent years. The frequency of these events on the study area creates employment problem as people are forced to look for employment on unreliable nonfarm activities.

2.5 Livelihoods According to Scoones (2009), there is no universally endorsed definition to grasp the term livelihood. The most endorsed definition of livelihood is the one given by Chambers and Conway. A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stress and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base (Chambers and Conway 1991).

Crucial aspects of this definition are assets and capabilities required for an individual or household to earn a living. Assets are resources that households combine in order to choose between available options of living for positive outcomes (Krantz, 2001).In most rural areas like Muzarabani, natural resources are the most common assets and these include land, which is an important and indispensable resource in rural areas. Livelihoods in rural areas are highly dependent on land. Agriculture, which is the most common source of livelihood in rural areas, is highly depended on this asset.

2.6 Rural livelihoods Of the attributes of the current rural livelihoods is the presence of diverse livelihood activities, unlike the conventional notion that posits rural way of life as entirely agrarian. Dominant classification is that can be made between agriculture (livestock and crop production), off-farm strategies (wage employment on others’ farm) and non-farm (nonagricultural livelihood strategies wage employment outside agriculture, self-employment, property income and remittances) (Levine, 2014).Due to factors like rural electrification, decentralization and infrastructural development, people in rural areas are no longer centered on agriculture being the main source of income. Off farm and non-farm livelihood strategies have been adopted as sustainable strategies to eliminate chronic food insecurity.

Since assets and access to resources are unevenly distributed among households and communities, livelihoods portfolio of households with in certain locality are various (Dorwardet al, 2001). Many differences appear among those who are seemingly practicing the same livelihood strategy. Households with similar capital endowment may pursue different livelihood strategy because of different preferences, objectives, constraints and incentives attached to certain livelihood activities (Levine, 2014).Therefore, besides asset endowments of households, the means through which households derive livelihood from a particular combination of on-farm and off-farm activities is more relevant criterion to understand poverty and resource use (Miyuki 2006).Due to migration; households with members outside the borders of Muzarabani district now have new sources of income that has in turn increased their financial base. Diversification of livelihoods at household level has increased so as to improve food security. Diversification of livelihoods is now a common phenomenon in rural areas.

2.7 Rural livelihoods and droughts Drought is the major threat to sustainable development in Southern Africa. They severely affect the livelihoods of the people in the region. According to World Bank (2008) they account for 70 percent of economic losses linked to natural hazards in the region. In 2002-03, an estimated 13 million people faced food shortages because of severe drought in Southern Africa (Tango International, 2005).The number of people affected by droughts in the southern part of Africa clearly show the vastness of the threat these events pose to rural livelihoods.

Livelihoods in Malawi are dominated by agriculture Less than 15% of the national population is urbanized, 89% of the labor force works on smallholder farms or commercial estates and 72% of Malawi’s exports are agricultural (Wobst et al, 2004).Agriculture in Malawi is predominantly rain fed, but rainfall is variable and unpredictable. This combination of high dependence on rain fed agriculture, while rainfall is highly possibly increasingly erratic, leaves household livelihoods and the national economy highly vulnerable to weather shocks. When a weather phenomenon such a drought occurs, one can only imagine the impacts it will pose on an agricultural depended economy such as Malawi. Muzarabani residents are no different from Malawi citizens. Despite the fact that agriculture is not the only sustainable livelihood in the area, the livelihoods are interlinked and more dependent on agricultural output (Moyo, 1990).

This shows how important agriculture is, both as a livelihood and as a primary source of raw materials to the chain of livelihoods linked directly or indirectly to the livelihood.

Livestock rearing has acted as a safety net during disaster events for rural folks in Zimbabwe from time immemorial. Chikara (1970) makes clear the argument on the role of cattle in the Shona culture claiming that a family without cattle in Shona society is as a house built on sand, which soon crumbles. To most people in rural areas losing livestock is the most serious blow to long term livelihood and family security. In rural setup, the family’s cows are used as a savings mechanism. When a disaster strikes or there is a medical emergency, families rely on the sale of livestock for large expenditures. Livestock exchanges during times of droughts make the communities worse susceptible to future droughts as that depletes their draught power base. As argued by Scoones et al (1996), recovery after drought seasons is a slow and painful process.

Drought also affects livestock through shortage of pasture and water for drinking. During the1992 drought households lost their goats deaths due to shortage of pasture (Mahonda, 2010). In addition, more than a million cattle were killed as a result of starvation induced by the drought (Maphosa, 1994). Frequent droughts are associated with the deterioration of livestock condition, increased incidences of various diseases and livestock deaths and a collapse of livestock markets (Speranza, 2010).

Wild fruits often referred to as famine fruits give communities a lifeline during the times of adversity. There are limitless recipes for the preparation of household food supplements using the fruits. A history of the role of the muchakata tree and other fruit trees in the social and cultural fabric of the Shona in Zimbabwe made it possible to still depend on the fruits when faced with serious drought impacts such as food scarcity. The myth of how people from the old days would request for food from the trees. This myth further contributed to the trees being treated with so much importance and it could also have been a way of informing the young generations that there is food under a muchakata tree whenever the need arises, especially in adversity. Just like the tree saved their ancestors from hunger; it too continues to save the current generations from the severe drought impacts. Manyani (2013) noted that people in Muzarabani relied on fruit gathering during droughts to reduce food insecurity and also as a source of

13 income. To most people in rural areas, fruit gathering is a reliable source of livelihood that acts as a safety net as it is more resilient. In Muzarabani, wild fruits like masawu are abundant and a lot of people are earning a living by selling these.

Market gardening is another livelihood which sustains the lives of Muzarabani people as it provides them with a variety of vegetables to enhance their diet (Manyani, 2013).People in rural areas like Muzarabani practice gardening as an income generating project and also to improve family diet. However gardening in most rural areas has led to river siltation as noted by Manyani. Stream bank cultivation due to water shortages and a lack of financial resource to practice sustainable irrigation is quite common in rural areas. Due to river siltation this livelihood in many rural areas is no longer sustainable.

2.7.1 Sustainable livelihood framework This study is guided by the sustainable livelihood approach. This is mainly due its eclectic tendency to appraise the resource base of rural households, the way they combine their assets and pursue certain livelihood activities to achieve cherished livelihood outcomes. Since most people in sub-Saharan countries are living below the poverty datum line, this is a pro poor development tool that can help enhance development in rural areas.

Sustainable livelihood approach looks beyond sectorial view to address livelihoods of people under consideration (Morse and McNamara, 2013).This approach is also against the notion that poor people are powerless as it endorses the view that rural folks always utilize what they have when choosing livelihoods to sustain themselves(De Haan, 2012).

The livelihood approach is of huge importance in rural areas as it offers long term insights of people’s livelihoods by taking into consideration the shocks and other factors that enhance the unsustainability of livelihoods. The approach also acknowledges the fact that people in rural areas are not only centered on agriculture but also hinges on non-farm activities to improve living standards (Burchi and De Muro, 2012).

The realization that economic growth may be essential for poverty reduction, there is no automatic relationship between the two. It all depends on the capabilities of the poor to take advantage of expanding economic opportunities. Thus, it is important to find out what precisely it is that prevents or constrains the poor from improving their lot in a given situation, so that

14 support activities could be designed accordingly. The sustainable framework offers an opportunity to development practitioners to model an effective trajectory towards food security and poverty reduction.

Livelihood approach to addressing rural poverty is sketched through sustainable livelihood framework which is developed, and adapted by various agencies for different interventions. It presents the main factors that affect people’s livelihoods and typical relationships between them and these include frequent droughts that have continued to haunt rural folks over the past years (Haidar 2009). To improve life in rural areas the sustainability aspect of livelihoods has emerged to become one of the main objectives of development work from the 1990s up to date (Scoones, 2009).The framework is therefore a useful analytical instrument which provides researches an insight to depart from where the people are living and what they are doing to sustain life (Castalonge, 2008).

Most frameworks base their landmark on the definition of Chambers and Conway given above and hence incorporate the fundamental elements of livelihood: assets, capabilities and activities for making a living. Assets and capital are at the center of the sustainable livelihood approach as they can be employed to achieve desirable goals and reduce poverty and vulnerability among households. According to Hadju, 2006 assets are resources, combined by households to make living possible.

Human capital is the amount and quality of knowledge and labour available to perform a task in a household. Manyani (2013) noted that Muzarabani is endowed with an economically active population which if given proper training, adequate support and guidance would drive the economic base of the area. This proves that the study area already has a reliable work force to drive development initiatives in the area. Since agriculture (the main economic activity) is labour intensive, human capital is important to perform tasks such as furrowing and watering of crops. Having access to a fountain of human capital capacitates households and enhances sustainability of livelihoods. However, according to Manyani (2013) only 9.3% have attained tertiary education. With such an unskilled labour force like that, it is difficult to reduce poverty as climate and other factors like technology are changing, making it difficult for rural folks to cope. Migrating from the drought prone region has emerged as an option for many people in the

15 district. This has affected the availability of labour in the area, making labour intensive livelihoods like agriculture susceptible to shocks.

Another crucial aspect of assets and capital is natural capital. It is the quality and quantity of natural resources ranging from land, forests and water resources. Muzarabani is generally a flat area suitable and favorable for agricultural activities. The soils are very fertile, enabling people in the area to grow a variety of crops. The area is also a drainage area for the famous Zambezi River that never runs dry. Tributaries supplying the river are perennial rivers making water an abundant resource in the area. The area is sparsely populated, forests and wild life are still flourishing in the area making fruit gathering are reliable livelihood source. Factors affecting the exploitation of these resources include the shortage of funds. With a dependable source of water close to the area, irrigation was a viable option. However frequent disasters have sucked the people dry, they lack the fiscal ability to erect such projects.

According to Mahonda (2010) Muzarabani district lacks infrastructure and functional road networks to fuel development in the area. To ensure rampant movement of information, which is a crucial aspect of the contemporary development discourse, infrastructure and functional communication networks are essential. The study area is weak in this category. This has reduced development in the communal area. To create a robust economy in rural Muzarabani, physical capital in the area must be improved.

Financial capital, which is the regular and consistent in flows of money and savings, are also a fundamental aspect of household asset. The Muzarabani community lacks a sustainable financial base and most of the residents depend on humanitarian aid to earn a living. People in the area have been crippled by the dependency syndrome making them unable to financially capacitate themselves.

To end the list of assets and capital, social capital are the social resources upon which people draw in pursuit of livelihoods (Bennett, 2010).These include networks, membership of groups, relationships of trust and access to wider institutions of society. While most of these assets are considered in terms of the household, they exist under the wider context which necessitates the mediating factors that promotes access and utilization. In Muzarabani there are a lot of NGOs

16 activities and also governmental initiatives are noticeable. This shows that the area has high chances of growth basing on the social capital available in the area.

2.7.1.1 Livelihood Vulnerability context Livelihoods are complex and changing and hence confront different risks. These risk factors that surround livelihoods are referred to as the vulnerability context. Vulnerability denotes proneness to a sudden, catastrophic, or fall in the level of living. The vulnerability context describes the external factors that influence households’ assets and livelihood opportunities.

Vulnerability context frames the external environment in which people make living. Shocks like economic fluctuations, health problems, natural events like El Nino and conflicts can destroy assets directly (Gutu et al, 2012).Seasonal shifts in prices, employment opportunities and food availability are the most enduring sources of adversities for rural poor. Other factors involve governance and technological trends.

Vulnerability is being susceptible to harm after being exposed to stress (Adger, 2006).In our case this stress can be inform of droughts. Droughts affect capital and assets and in turn reduce productivity. The movement of people running away from affected areas affects human capital and also the social capital within a household. The sustainability of labour intensive livelihoods like agriculture is questioned during such times. Nevertheless, livelihoods have different sensibility levels to shocks like droughts which why this study is of paramount importance as it introspects the impacts of the drought phenomenon to rural livelihoods in Muzarabani district.

2.8 Summary This chapter reviewed related theoretical and empirical literature in relation to the study. The chapter highlighted the impacts of drought on rural economies and livelihoods. Among the impacts, the literature revealed that drought increases food insecurity and also make rural people susceptible to disasters. The literature also highlighted that people in rural areas practice off-farm livelihoods, which is against the notion that agriculture is the livelihood that characterize rural areas. The chapter also deliberated on previous researches that link with the current study.

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction This chapter highlights the research methodology. It shades light on the methods employed during the data gathering process to get the findings and the conclusions of the research. The methods where exploited so as to fully project the findings of the research, to show disaster impacts on rural livelihoods in Muzarabani district which is the study area(Ward 8). The study was aimed at unveiling the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods and also to identify the type of livelihoods practised in the area. The research process that was used is also presented in this chapter. It also explained why a particular research methodology was used, the methods used to collect data, how respondents were selected. In addition, discussion of how the data was processed analysed and presented.

3.2 Study area Muzarabani district is an area in Mashonaland central, a province in Zimbabwe. The area is located to the North of the capital city (Harare) and it lies within the catchment area of the great Zambezi River. Muzarabani has a total population of 122791(ZIMSTAT 2012), 49.8% of the total population are males which is equivalent to 61 160 people (ZIMSTAT 2012). The percentage of child population in the district is 51.8.

The map below shows Muzarabani communal area and the location of ward 23 in the area. The map also locates Lake Cabora Basa and various rivers passing through the area. The road network linking the ward to other wards and districts is also depicted.

Fig 3.1: Map of study area

The district is in ecological region 4 and 5 and people in the region are mainly small holder farmers who depend on agriculture as the only source of livelihood. Region four receives 450- 650 mm annual rainfall and is subject to frequent seasonal droughts and severe dry spells during the rainy season (Moyo, 2000).The region is mainly suitable for livestock, forestry, wildlife and tourism as economic activities. The farming is based on livestock and drought resistant fodder crops (Vincent and Thomas, 1960) in Chenje (2000). The climate is very hostile and not suitable for rain fed agriculture. Temperatures are usually as high as 35 Degrees Celsius in November and are at around 14 Degrees Celsius in June. The area is under the jurisdiction of four chief namely chief Hwata, chief Changara, chief Kasekete, chief Chiweshe and sub chief Muzarabani. The district has 35 wards.

3.3 Research design A research design is a detailed outline of how an investigation will take place and it includes how data is to be collected, what instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be used and the intended means for analysing data collected (Dawson, 2009). In this study the researcher

19 used a case study design because the research focused at a single entity or case. As supported by Bell, (1995) a case study design is focused on enquiry around an instance that is, a study of a particular phenomenon. For this research a case study design was employed focusing on Muzarabani district so as to have a close analysis and to be able to reach meaningful conclusions. Researching tools such as questionnaires, observations and interviews are all compatible with the research design which is why this research design was adopted so as to have a broad and a deep data fountain. However, the setback of using case studies is that it is not possible to generalise on the basis of the findings (Dawson, 2009).

3.4 Targeted population The targeted population is a group of people or items about which information is to be gathered from (Bernard, 2006).It is the group of people a particular research is interested in and it is from that set of people the research will draw conclusions from. The targeted population from which conclusion are to be drawn from for this research will be residents of Ward 8,Muzarabani district and well informed stake holders in issues pertaining to the matter. A total of 150 households were targeted as participants.

3.5 Sampling techniques and procedures Involving all affected stakeholders from the selected area can be a challenge. A total of 150 households will be selected using random sampling technique. This research will call upon two sampling techniques to come up with clear and credible conclusions. Simple random and purposive technique are the two sampling technique that will be employed during this research. Purposive technique will be used to select key informants and simple random will be used to select participants. All respondents will be drawn from the district and a few important informants will be drawn from various disaster pertaining institutions. Eligibility is defined by Burns and Grove (2003), as “a list of characteristics that are required for the membership in the target population”. In line with this definition, for an individual to be eligible s/he has to be: A member of the community that is s/he should fall under the area which is under the jurisdiction of Muzarabani Rural District Council: A member of an organization or government department that operate in Muzarabani; A member of an organization or government department that deals with drought management in Muzarabani. These were the characteristics that qualified a participant into participating in this research.

3.6 Data sources This study employed various techniques during the data collection phase. This was done to ensure that there is no bias of data as these techniques would then complement each other. To collect data from participant households, household questionnaires were used. Face to face interviews were also conducted to gather information from key informants selected for this study. The researcher also employed observation guides to gather information and to cement the reliability of information provided by participants and key informants.

3.6.1 Questionnaires According to Dawson (2009) a questionnaire is a set of questions designed to generate the data necessary for accomplishing the objectives of the research project. The questionnaire was designed to solicit information at household level. The researcher used questionnaires because they can easily be processed by computer statistical packages like Excel. Questionnaires were developed for the Muzarabani residents and will consist of a combination of both open and closed questions. According to Leedy (2005), questionnaires are familiar to most people and unlike face to face interviews, the respondent will be freely expressing his or her views on paper thus making the outcome more feasible. The close ended questions helped to capture direct answers from the respondents, whilst the open ended questions allowed the respondents to express their views as they wish. The questionnaire focused on issues such as household characteristics, drought mitigation strategies employed at household level, sources of income, and the impacts of droughts on family income sources. The questionnaire was self-administered to the 150 participants by the researcher. The questionnaire guide for questionnaires to Muzarabani residents will be shown later.

3.6.2 Face to face interview Sokolow (1985) gives several advantages of interviewing which include the encouragement of personal thought, respondent attentiveness to questions, and the ability of the interviewer to sense non-verbal feedback. However, on the other hand, interviews are time consuming especially planning and administering. Propper (2004), states that interviews need more time to analyze as the researcher uses devices like recorder which require replay for fully understand the conversation, the recorders are also expensive.

Interview questions were asked to the key informants’ people in the Ward who have a better understanding and experience of the drought situation in Muzarabani. This was supported by Bowling, (2002) who points out that the interview is a good idea when one is pursuing a survey piece of research, or when trying to paint a detailed descriptive picture of some phenomena of either some process or when trying to understand respondents’ unique experiences and perspectives. The researcher interviewed the District Administrator, the local councilor for ward 23, AGRITEX Officers and village heads from the study area. To prepare the respondents for the interview, an interview schedule was prepared by the researcher and dispatched to the respondents in advance.

Representatives of NGOs operating in the area were also interviewed. These were NGOs that has issue to do with drought mitigation in the area under surveillance.World Vision, Help Germany and GOAL are some the organisations operating in the area. The local councillor was interviewed since he acts a government representative in the area and he also work hand in hand with NGOs in the area.

3.6.3 Observation guide Observation trips were conducted by the researcher to identify the area understudy. Field observations were also employed to verify the responses obtained from interviews and questionnaires. It was also done to identify some of the issues that may not be aired out clearly during interviews and questionnaires. The researcher made personal observations throughout the study period. Data was collected through watching and listening to people as they discussed. There were both participant and non-participant observations. The researcher also observed the types of livelihoods people in Muzarabani are involved in. Through observations; a clear picture of the situation in the ward was brought out as it gave the researcher a degree of independence away from the influence of outside factors.

3.7 Desktop review Rodgers (1989), defines desktop review as shelf information gathered at some time earlier for other purposes, but which can shed more light on the subject under study. Thus the researcher gathered secondary data which relates to the subject from textbooks, newspapers and the internet.

3.8 Data analysis and presentation procedure Quantitative data from the questionnaires was analysed using Microsoft Excel and qualitative data was analysed thematically. Transcripts from interviews were analysed using the participant’s own words and words and without preconceived classification. The participant’s language and phrases were examined; categorised and recurrent themes were identified. Recurrent themes are the similar and consistent ways people think about, and give accounts concerning particular issues.

For open ended questionnaires, the researcher looked into the themes as they emerged from the data as they were coded and then put into conceptual categories and the results were described. They were listed and categorised in respect of similarities of answers. Statistical tables and percentages were used to present the data to simplify interpretation of data. The results were presented in both quantitative and qualitative terms. They were in the form of frequency tables, bar graphs and pie charts.

3.9 Ethical considerations The researcher considered the research values of voluntary participation, anonymity and protection of respondents from any possible harm that could arise from participating in the study. Thus, the researcher; introduced the purpose of the study as a fulfillment of a Bachelor of Science degree in Development Studies. The research was not for any other hidden agenda and the respondents were requested to participate in the study on a voluntary basis and refusal or abstaining from participating was permitted. The researcher also assured the respondents of confidentiality of the information given and protection from any possible harm that could arise from the study since the findings would be used for the intended purposes only. The respondents were to be provided with feedback about the findings of the study.

3.10 Limitations The research activities were bound to encounter a range of challenges in which most of them were solved. Some of the respondents were perceived to be expecting something thinking that this research is for NGOs and this led to the tendency of giving irrelevant and bias information such that they can be beneficiaries of the program. The researcher noted that some of the respondents feared being tagged to some political parties. Those with disabilities could not be

23 reached and information from this group was not obtained. Due to these limitations, results from this study could fail to give a true reflection of the situation in Muzarabani wards 23.

3.11 Summary This chapter discussed research methodologies and justification on why these methods were chosen. Research instruments and design covered issues such as descriptive research design population, sample and data collection procedures. The data was interpreted using pie charts and graphs. To allow validity of the data, different instruments were used that includes questionnaires, interviews and observations as they complement each other. The chapter will pave the way for chapter 4 because this methodology is the one which was used for data presentation and analysis. The next chapter will outline data presentation, interpretation and discussion of the findings.

Chapter Four: Data Presentation and Analysis

4.1 Introduction This chapter focused on presenting the findings of this study. The objectives of the study stated in chapter one were answered based on results obtained. McKenzi et al (2009) noted that, `the goal of data analysis is to reduce, organise, synthesis and summarise information in order to make sense of it’. To allow easy and clear interpretation of the results, various techniques were used for presentation of results and these include tables, bar graphs and pie charts.

4.2 Drought occurrence in Muzarabani (ward 23) Drought has acted as a major drawback to development initiatives in drought prone areas like Muzarabani. The frequency of these events has crippled rural livelihoods in areas like Muzarabani. The area is under natural farming region 4 and rainfall is highly unreliable in the area. This makes the area prone to shocks such as droughts. Evidence from this research revealed that people in Ward 23, regard their area as a drought prone area. Among the participant households, 97.3% agreed to the notion that the area is drought prone. When asked about the number of droughts experienced in the last two decades most of the participants (35%) indicated that the area has experienced 4 severe drought scenarios. This agrees with the findings of Muhonda (2011) who noted that drought occurrence in Muzarabani is after every 3-5 years. However some (26%) highlighted that the area has succumbed to more than 6 drought events in the last decade. Rainfall in the area is highly variable and below average rainfalls has been experienced of the past decade (Muhonda, 2011).

An interview with AGRITEX officer indicated that rainfall pattern in the Ward under surveillance is irregular. Despite the area experiencing normal rainfall in some seasons, rainfall is erratic and usually disappears for periods of three to four weeks, thus leading to crop stress. If such a phenomenon occurs during critical stages of plant growth like the flowering stage, despite having normal rainfall the impacts could be similar to that of a season long drought season. This explains why people uphold the notion that the area has experienced more than 6 droughts over the past two decades. This has affected agriculture related livelihoods thus increasing food insecurity among households. Whether the area has experienced such a number of drought events over a period of 20 years or not, to dismiss the fact that droughts are common in ward 23 could

25 be wrong as evidence really shows that they mostly occur after every 3 – 5 years thus impacting negatively on rural livelihoods.

4.3 Household livelihood strategies

4.3.1 Agricultural livelihoods In rural areas mixed farming is the dominant livelihood strategy. It involves both the growing of crops and the rearing of livestock.

Table 4.1: Number of household into agricultural livelihoods Agricultural livelihood Number of households Percentage number activities practising the livelihood( N=142) Crop farming 15 10.6% Livestock rearing 3 2.1% Both crop farming and livestock rearing 124 87.3% (Source: primary data)

Among the participants who participated in this study, 87.3% highlighted that they practise both livestock rearing and crop farming. Some of them revealed that they are only into crop farming alone (10.6%).Only 3 households indicated that they are only into the rearing of livestock among all livelihoods pertaining to agriculture. This shows that in the bid to reduce susceptibility to drought impacts, households have diversified their livelihoods as a strategy.

Most of the households are into both crop farming and livestock production and this is because crop farming, the most practised livelihood is a labour intensive livelihood and livestock like cattle is a source of labour. People in the area rear cattle to reduce work load. Cattle is used to pull ploughs to till the soil so that the highest possible outputs can be attained thus making the livelihood sustainable. Despite the fact that a large number of participant households has revealed that they are into mixed farming, there are households practising crop farming only. These households are forced to share animal for traction with other households. It is difficult to practise crop farming without hiring animal labour so poor households are forced to share or rent.

In recent years the livestock rearing livelihood has attracted a lot of investors. Due to the availability of vast grazing lands in the area, livestock production has been on an increase. According to a study carried out by Manyani (2013) households in Chadereka (a ward near Kaireze ward 23) have experienced a growth in the livestock rearing livelihood. In this study 3 of the participant households indicated that they rely on livestock rearing alone to earn a living. This can be attributed to the fact that NGOs are promoting livestock value chains. FACHIG, an NGO operating in the area have initiated livestock value chains in the district. To boost the livestock rearing livelihood, the NGO initiated a program to refurbish the livestock sales pen in ward 8 (Muringazuva). This made it easy for farmers to sale their livestock and has made livestock rearing a sustainable livelihood. This is why households relying on livestock rearing are evident in ward 23.

These livelihoods however remain reliable on rainfall and scenarios such as droughts can cause a rise in poverty prevalence. There are no sustainable irrigation schemes in the ward; stream bank cultivation is an environmental challenge in the ward. The sustainability of livestock production has also been constantly questioned. During previous droughts reports have been forwarded all reiterating the vulnerability of the livelihood to drought events. Despite efforts from various humanitarian organisations to capacitate the communities in the area livelihoods have remained vulnerable as they are constantly under threat from natural disasters.

4.3.2 Non-farm livelihoods The engagement of people in non-farm activities is becoming more common in rural areas. According to the participants of this research; agriculture is not the only source of livelihood practised in the rural community of Kairezi ward 23. While it is true that small holder farming is the most practised type of livelihood, non-farm livelihoods play a crucial role in complementing farming to reduce poverty in rural areas. To many households, livelihood diversification has emerged as a possible solution to reduce vulnerability to drought impacts despite the fact that non-farm livelihood opportunities in rural Muzarabani are limited in both availability and income generating potential.

Findings from this research revealed that 80% (113) of the participatory households were involved in at least one or more non-farm activities. This is evidence to show that livelihood

27 diversification to reduce the adverse impacts of drought events, is among the strategies employed by ward 23 residents to ensure sustainability of livelihoods.

A large number of households indicated that they are into unskilled labour employment (50%). These employments usually contribute very little to the welfare of the household. This is because the only source of such a livelihood is tilling the soil for other villagers or doing odd jobs such as weeding. Returns from such activities are very small to improve food security. According to Zimbabwe Poverty Atlas (2015) poverty prevalence is high in ward 23 as the ward ranks second with a poverty prevalence rate above 90%.This proves that despite livelihood diversification, poverty in the ward is still at alarming levels.

Table.4.1: Number of households into Non-farm livelihoods Non-farm livelihoods N= 113 Percentage Remittances from household members 32 28.3 Unskilled wage employment 57 50.4 Fuel selling(wood, charcoal ) 33 29.2 Formal employment 5 4.4 Wild fruit gathering 36 31.9 Trading activities(shop, retailing ) 11 9.7 Local services(transport, weaving, handicraft, brewing) 45 39.8 Skilled non-farm work like masonry, carpentry 28 24.8 Renting properties (land, animals, houses in urban areas) 16 14.2 (Source: primary data)

Trading as a livelihood is slowly emerging in the ward as people purchase goods from outside districts in limited amount to exchange with food stuffs. Among the participants 9.7% indicated that they are into trade. The Mukumbura border post is a common entry point of Kapenta coming from the Cabora bassa Dam and people in the ward according to one village head in an interview are engaging themselves in the Kapenta business. However, due to fiscal challenges such activities are not that fruitful in the ward. The sustainability of trade is questionable as most people in the ward according the village head only practise Non-farm activities during the dry season only as farming evidently remains the main livelihood.

Wild fruit gathering is a common livelihood in the Muzarabani communal area. A number of wild fruits do well in the area and this has been acting as a safety net for the local populace during drought events. Dafunga kwedu kuDanda kwataidya masawu, nhunguru ne tsambatsi (reminiscing about my days in Dande, where we used to feast on wild fruits like masawu, nhunguru and tsambatsi) were the words of Oliver Mtukudzi, a popular Zimbabwean Afro Jazz musician in one of his popular songs. This shows how Dande the other name for Muzarabani is popularly known as a stronghold for wild fruits. The gathering of masawu (Zizphuas-mauritiana) is a common livelihood in Muzarabani. However, despite the fact that wild fruits do well in the area, if value addition strategies are not initiated the livelihood remains unsustainable. People rely on outsiders from Bindura and Harare to come and purchase the fruits as transport to ferry the goods to the market is a challenge as roads according to the researcher`s observation are in bad shape. When these outsiders are not around, the livelihood is unsustainable.

Ward 23 residents according to one village head in an interview also rely largely on remittances from family members outside the boarders of the district.28% of the participant households also revealed remittances is one of the non-farm activities they rely on. People cross the border into Mozambique to look for employment whenever the situation at home presses enough to push them away. According to the findings of Mavhura et al (2013) in his study in Chadereka, relatives in Diaspora are assisting friends and family with the provision of agricultural inputs and food stuffs. These findings show how remittances are important as a livelihood source in rural areas; however the number of households benefiting from the livelihood is small to fuel a downward change in the poverty prevalence rate in the area. Moreover the literature to fully cement the role of Non-farm livelihoods in rural areas is still lacking.

Among the 113 participants who agreed to be involved in non-farm livelihood, when asked to rate the productivity of their livelihood. 72% of the indicated 2 meaning the livelihoods were poor in terms of productivity.14% indicated that productivity was on average and only 4% gave their livelihoods a high rating of 5. This shows that the significance of non-farm livelihoods is still questionable in terms of poverty reduction in ward 23.

80% 73% 70% 2( below average) 60% 50% 3( average) 40% 30% 4( slightly above 20% 14% 10% average) 10% 4% 0% 5( highly productive)

Fig 4.1: livelihood productivity (source: primary data)

4.4 Adverse impacts of drought The impacts of droughts on agrarian societies like Muzarabani ward 23 automatically depends on the availability and access to different assets. Agricultural production, which is without doubt the main livelihood activity in the area that was under surveillance highly depend on natural and physical assets. These are the variables mainly affected by droughts thus making the livelihood unsustainable. Natural capital, such as the water resources are bound disappear during drought events, thus making the situation a big puzzle difficult to complete. Furthermore, in rural areas, there is a direct link between agricultural activities and non-farm livelihoods and this means to some extent livelihood diversification is not an effective strategy in drought mitigation. The synergies between agricultural and non-farm livelihoods have played a devastating role in enhancing drought impacts on rural livelihoods.

4.4.1 Decrease in Agricultural output From germination to fruit bearing, moisture availability is one of the fundamental aspects essential for plant growth. Eliminating moisture from the equation has a huge significance on the plant life cycle. Drought events create such a situation where moisture is scarce thus making plant growth difficult. Crop farming is a rural livelihood highly depended on water availability and in rural areas agriculture is mainly rain fed. Because agriculture is highly dependent to precipitation, a shortage in precipitation is bound to reduce output.

96% 100% output decrease

50% No significant impacts 6%

Fig 4.2: Number of households reporting a decrease in output (source: primary data)

Among the participant households 95.7% (134) households indicated that they experience a decrease in livelihood output in any drought event that impacts the area. In agrarian economies the occurrence of natural disasters such as drought events can ignite catastrophic losses to sectors of the economy. Findings from this research tally with the findings of Mavhura et al (2015) who according to his study found out that 85% of the participant households where experiencing food shortages. A decrease in livelihood output is highly linked to food insecurity, the later being an after effect of the first. This entails that droughts have contributed to the rise in poverty prevalence rate in the ward and have a direct impact on agricultural rural livelihoods such as crop production. Since agriculture is the main livelihood in ward 23, a reduction in the livelihood`s output have diabolical impacts on food security and other livelihoods as there is a connection between livelihoods.

4.4.2 Loss of wetlands The increase in frequency of droughts in Muzarabani has lead to the lowering of the water table. During disaster events people in the ward used to rely on wetlands to practise gardening and this acted as a safety net. According to an interview with an AGRITEX officer stream bank cultivation is a common practise in the area. The interview also revealed that the levels of river siltation are at alarming levels as channels are no longer following their natural courses. Muvamba and Kareze Rivers flow through the area making the banks of these water channels favourable to gardening activities. In an interview with one of the village head, he revealed that wet lands are disappearing and river levels are decreasing. This has made market gardening a challenge as people end up relying on undependable sand scooping wells to irrigate their gardens.

Fig 4.3: Sand scooping well (mifuku) (source: primary data)

The disappearance of water in ward 23 during drought has a huge significance to household food security levels and the sustainability of their livelihoods. Generally, soils in the ward have a poor moisture retaining capacity and this has increased resident’s reliance on fertile alluvial soils along river channels. Since rivers are dry the greater part of the year, the cultivation of maize (mudzedze) has become highly unsustainable thus jeopardizing the profitability of the practise. According to oral tradition, people settled in Muzarabani to exploit the fertile soils caused by floods that are common in the area. This has for years been the main livelihood in the area. However the frequency of drought events is ensuring the disappearance of the practise. The disappearance of wetlands and water resources in the ward has hampered agricultural activities.

4.4.3 Depletion of forestry and wild life resources Livelihoods in rural Muzarabani are highly dependent on natural resources such as wild life and forestry. According to the findings of this research, 36 households revealed that they are into wild fruit gathering. Fruit gathering in ward 23 has been over the years a common livelihood activity and has continued to sustain several households. However an interview with an AGRITEX officer revealed that agro forestry was under threat as consistent droughts are depleting ecological resources. Deforestation is evident in some parts of the ward and this has lead to the decrease of fruit bearing trees in population. The depletion of forestry and ecological resources therefore has a direct impact on fruit gathering which is renowned livelihood in ward 23.

However, through community engagement and use of secondary data, the researcher found out that drought in some way enhanced agro-forestry (wild fruit gathering). Indigenous knowledge has it that the abundance of wild fruits is a sign of an eminent drought event. Such indigenous knowledge systems have put communities at an advantageous position, by exploiting this knowledge to enhance their livelihoods. When the fruits are abundant they gather more. However it is the market that remains a challenge, to access the market with these fruits is an insurmountable task. So despite replenishing the Zambezi valley with much needed fruits, to underline drought as having a positive impact on rural livelihood would be unreasonable. If one is to look at this from an economic perspective he will note that the increase in supply of this fruits ignite a decrease in market value.

4.4.3 Live stock losses Persistent droughts have been constantly questioning the sustainability of livestock rearing as a rural livelihood. In the Shona culture the rearing of cattle has always been a widely practised phenomenon. During disasters cattle was used to source food to reduce famine. The researcher engaged the Agricultural Extension officers to establish and to fully comprehend the impacts of drought on livestock rearing activities. The local AGRITEX officer had this to say about the impact of drought on livestock rearing:

Drought affect livestock by drying up wetlands, pasture land and water resources, streams and decreasing availability of drinking water to live stock. Increasing temperature is also affecting livestock generating different new born diseases. Due to extreme drought, there was direct impact on the growth of palatable grass. This has affected livestock which has further affected on production of milk, milk products and meat. Livestock population is also decreasing.

A decrease in livestock population poses threat to both the rural populace and the national economy at large. The cumulative effect of the drought shock is to reduce herd sizes below levels that farmers consider viable to meet their food and cash needs and to reconstitute the herd. Folks in rural Muzarabani significantly depend on their livestock for multiple purposes and a decline in livestock will cripple a country like Zimbabwe as above 60% of the country`s population depend on agriculture.

Protracted drought periods are forcing villagers to sell their cattle to purchase food stuffs and this has increased poverty levels in Kairezi village as households are continuously being stripped off their assets making them more vulnerable to droughts. According to the village head drought has worsened their case; it has forced them to sell the little valuable assets they possessed. Traders from outside the district come to purchase livestock in the district at very low prices knowing that the hunger stricken villagers will comply or else they starve to death. At household level, this has depleted the abilities of families to fend for themselves leaving them at the mercy of donors. According to the natural farming regions, livestock rearing is the most suitable farming activity in the ward. Persistent droughts are posing threats to this livelihood.

In this study, the researcher also observed that cattle play a huge role in the sustainability of crop production as cattle is used for both ploughing purposes and to transport goods to the market. According to Devereux (2000), three critical determinants of relative wealth and household food security status are farm size, availability of family labour, and access to draught power. Livestock losses therefore have a direct impact on agricultural production as it is outlined as a critical determinant of household food security. Moreover the transportation of perishable goods like garden produce to the market is impossible without the use of cattle drawn carts. Since the study revealed that drought instigates livestock loss, it is clear to see how drought has impacted rural livelihoods in the ward.

4.4.4Capital loss Agriculture is a capital intensive livelihood. To produce more one must invest a lot of money into the livelihood. This includes the purchasing of inputs and labour charges. Findings from this study revealed that due to droughts, farmers are continuously losing money as they try to make ends meet. The failure of Muzarabani residents to reduce poverty prevalence in the area is attributed to this. A village head had this to say pertaining to the issue:

In 2015, I bought certified seeds at very high costs and sowed the seeds in my two and half hectors of land. The timing was right and plants germinated well, however the skies stopped blessing us in January and the entire field was doomed. I bought another 25kgs of seed and replanted the field again. Unfortunately the seed did not do well too and in 2016 I was forced to exchange my favourite beast for bags of maize.

Money to purchase inputs is hard to come by in rural Muzarabani. Some fortunate households depend on remittances from family members to purchase inputs. The less fortunate are left exposed as money is not a common commodity in the ward. So to purchase inputs, these smallholder farmers have to dig deep into their coffers and empty every penny they find. Households that pass through the same situation as this village head did are left on their knees with little hope that they will stand up again.

Agriculture is the main livelihood in rural areas and all nonfarm livelihoods depend on capital obtained from agriculture. Most of the villagers engage into these non-farm activities after harvesting using profits gained from farming.

casually 35% seasonally 40% permanently 29%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40%

Fig 4.4: household involvement in non-farm activities (source: primary data)

When asked how they undertake the non-farm activities the majority households (39.8%) revealed that they are involved seasonally. Among the respondents 34.5% of the households who had indicated that they are into non-farm livelihoods (113) revealed that they undertake non-farm activities casually and only 33(29.5) indicated that they are permanently involved in non-farm activities. If agriculture fails, the destiny of these off-farm livelihoods becomes bleak thus further exposing people in the ward to adverse impacts of drought. The synergy between non-farm and farming activities in the ward shows that most of the non-farm livelihoods are unsustainable if agriculture production fails. Livelihoods like brewing are under this category.

4.4.5 Loss of labour In an agricultural driven society like Muzarabani ward 23, to improve the sustainability of rural livelihoods, human capital plays a crucial role to achieve that goal. Evidence shows that the ward has a large productive population but due to drought the ward is losing this precious resource. Interviews with Muzarabani residents revealed that the younger generation is migrating into

Mozambique, Centenary and Mvurwi in search of greener pastures. This has impacted livelihoods negatively as the younger and older generations are too weak to till the soil.

Moreover, 129 of the 142 participant households revealed that they are involved in food for work activities in the ward. These are community safety nets programs initiated by concerned organisations to reduce food insecurity in the ward. Members are awarded food after working and completing various tasks. These tasks mainly require the participation of able bodied men since some of the activities are energy draining. Despite achieving notable targets towards food security, these food for work initiatives can however be blamed for making livelihoods in the area unsustainable. The able bodied are compiled to work 4 hours a day just for food, forced to ignore or leave their livelihoods unmonitored. The labour that is usually available for livelihoods has dwindled due to this thus making drought the culprit.

150 116 136 100 87 129 50 23

0 0 38 number ofhouseholds number

mitigation strategies

Fig 4.5: drought mitigation strategies (source: primary data)

4.5 Factors exacerbating adverse impacts of droughts on rural livelihoods The impacts of droughts are more severe in rural areas despite the fact that agriculture, which the main economic activity is the main livelihood in rural areas. This study tried to establish the factors that magnify drought impacts in rural areas. People in rural areas adopted livelihood diversification as a way to solve the drought conundrum; however despite experiencing plausible changes courtesy of livelihood diversification, the majority of rural people still practise unsustainable livelihoods.

4.5.1 Absent of irrigation facilities Findings from this study indicated that people in Muzarabani practise poor farming methods. Combined with climate change and frequent droughts, agricultural practises adopted in the study area are of no help as emergency planners are trying to fuel a change away from the current state of affairs.

“Irrigation is practised by only a handful of households. These are households close enough to water points or households that own gardens along Musengezi River and other streams in the ward. These gardens have been a real revelation to the villagers as they act as safety nets to reduce the impacts of catastrophic events”. Said the village head, during an interview session.

The area is in natural farming region IV and rainfall is highly variable in the region. Despite being aware of this fact, people are still relying on rainfall to water their crops. Climate change has ensured that depending on rain fed agriculture is no longer sustainable. The interview revealed that only a few households practise irrigation in the ward. This has exacerbated the impacts of droughts in the ward since without irrigation the probability that crops will fail is high. While irrigation is looking like the real deal, the real future of agriculture ward 23 residents still rely on rain-fed agriculture. It is like throwing arrows in the dark trying to overcome the diabolical threat posed by drought events that are now being exacerbated by climate change. The plentiful water resource available in the Zambezi valley must be utilised if any positive changes are to be noted in ward 23.

4.5.2 Over dependency on maize Maize remains the most grown crop in the ward. This is due to the role the crop plays in the country`s economy and to the general populace. Maize is the country`s staple crop and people rate this crop as a profitable commercial crop.

maize

soya bean

cotton

millet

sorghum

0 50 100 150

sorghum millet cotton soya bean maize total number of 120 93 64 71 138 households=142

Fig 4.6: type of crops grown at household level (source: primary data)

Among the participant households, 138 households indicated that they grow maize.120 and 93 revealed that they grow drought resistant crops like sorghum and maize respectively. According to the findings of this research, maize still remains the most grown crop in the ward. This is because of the edge maize got over indigenous crops like millet and sorghum. Maize is easy to harvest than the other crops and the crop also fetch a better price in the market. Rural dwellers always lament over the low prices small grain crops go for at the market. Small grain crops have become secondary crops as people now prefer growing maize. Those with smaller pieces of land would rather grow maize than growing indigenous crops. However in Muzarabani, indigenous crops fair better than maize as they are drought resistant. The colonial system can be blamed for this current state of affairs where maize fair as the most favoured crop. This has increased the impacts of drought on agricultural production.

4.5.3 Access to markets Access to market is one of the fundamental aspects that determines and fuel the sustainability of rural livelihoods. Through observations, this study noted that roads that connect the ward with other districts are dilapidated and communication with the outside world is a challenge. The emergency and development of market driven livelihoods such as market gardening have been jeopardized and ward residents are feeling short-changed.in an interview, one ward 23 resident had this to say:

Outsiders who come to purchase our goods treat us unfairly. The crops we sell them end up going at very low prices as these buyers always mention bad roads as the reason why our goods must sell cheap. We can’t take our produce to the market since we do not have the transport and the few transporters that come here demand very high fees.

Despite the fact that market gardening is adding so much to household diet, the financial contribution of the livelihood is debatable. Moreover, Muzarabani centre cannot sustain the livestock business that is always booming in the district. Livestock market is bigger in more urbanised areas and poor roads are limiting the connection between the area and the markets.

4.5.4 An uneducated population (lack of education) Findings in this study revealed that secondary education is the highest level of education most people in the ward have attained. Among the respondents 28% indicated that they had only attained primary education. This lack of education has significant impacts on livelihoods practised in ward 23. This has denied people an opportunity to choose between different livelihoods and shift away from agriculture which is highly prone to droughts.

10%

17% never primary 45% 28% secondary tertiary

Fig4.7. Level of education among participants (source: primary data)

To avert the impacts of drought and to reduce dependency on aid, sustainable channels of going around this have been advocated for. Saving some for a rainy day has been outline as contingent measure that could help residents retract poverty prevalence in the ward. To understand the importance of saving education is important and this is what lacks among most of the participants. According to observations people in the ward spend their money to buy home-made

39 beer (kachasu and chiseven day) that is traditionally common in the area. Moreover, illiteracy in the ward has perpetuated the dependency on low out-put agriculture.

4.5.5 Inaccessibility of Extension services Findings from this study revealed that there are challenges encountered during policy implementation and the accessibility of Extension services at grassroots level. Zimbabwe’s agricultural policies for food security clearly offer a possible trajectory, that if followed could champion rural folks out of the grip of poverty. However, people are marginalised due to communication breakdowns during the information dissemination process. Such breakdowns have derailed development initiatives in ward 23 in Muzarabani. During an interview an AGRITEX officer had this to say regarding the issue:

“The government gave most of us motor bikes so that we can move around educating people and inspecting agricultural work done by small holder farmers in our designated wards. The challenge now is that most of these motor bikes are off the road and need repair. We are no longer mobile as we used to be and farmers are now having challenges” he said

Households involved in agricultural activities have been having challenges due to the inaccessibility of Extension Officers in the ward. As new methods and sustainable ways of practising agriculture emerge, it is the mandate of Extension officers to educate the local populace. However the situation at ground does not reflect this.

4.6 Summary This chapter looked at presenting, analysing and interpreting the data that was gathered during the survey. The study singled out ward 23, which is a rural area with the hopes that findings from this research will be a reflexion of the state of affairs in all rural areas. Rural areas account for well over half of the country`s population thus cementing the significance of this study. The findings of this study revealed that people in rural areas are involved in both agricultural and non-farm livelihoods. Agriculture however emerged as the most prominent livelihood with all participant households involved. The study indicated that drought impact rural livelihood in multiple ways such as output reduction and livestock death. Drought also impacts natural resources that are essential in sustaining the livelihoods. Findings also revealed that drought impacts in the area are exacerbated by lack of education, distance from the market and over

40 dependency on maize. The next chapter will deliberate on discussion, the study conclusion and recommendations.

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Discussion According to Gwimbi (2009) droughts pose threats to the sustainable development of rural areas. According to the findings of this study crop failure, deaths of livestock are some of the atrocities that are attributed to droughts in rural Zimbabwe. These catastrophic events have exacerbated the prevalence of poverty and food insecurity in the country.

Communities that rely on rain-fed agriculture are vulnerable to drought (Blaikie, 1994).Kairezi is a typical example of such a community. Households that participated in this study revealed that agriculture is their main economic activity and as eluded by Blaikie (1994) the ward is vulnerable to adverse impacts of drought. Over the years the Zambezi valley has been characterised as a disaster prone area due to the frequent occurrence of droughts and floods in the area. These events have drained the community dry, exposing the ward to further harm. This is because livelihood diversification is still a challenge in the area due to limited resources and exposure. People in ward 23 are yet to taste the benefits of rural electrification which is a fundamental driver of rural development. So close but yet so far, electricity just exist in the dreams of many in the ward. The Cabora Basa dam which is a major electricity supplier to the country is just within a distance from the ward and people in the ward are yet to enjoy the benefits. The availability of electricity could change lives in the ward and cause a shift of minds away from the notion that Muzarabani is barren. Modern irrigation can suddenly become a realistic an option.

This study revealed that maize production still dominates as the main crop in the ward. Country wide, maize still boasts as the staple crop and the crop has experienced some form of privilege over indigenous crops. The dominance of maize in the local market has increased the vulnerability of agricultural driven livelihoods to drought impacts. Millet and sorghum, despite being drought resistant are still regarded as fringe crops in the ward. The findings of this research tally with the findings of Mavhura et al (2013) in his study of the Zambezi valley that indicated that the area is a drought prone area making the cultivation of maize a challenge. Therefore, massive campaigns to educate the society are timely needed if the cultivation of drought resistant crops is to become a sustainable drought mitigation strategy. However the department that has

42 been mandated to do such a task is incapacitated. According to Jayne et al (2006) the economic collapse resulted in a resource gap as brain drain did not spare the extension services department. Faced with such a challenge, very little is to be expected of the department towards empowering smallholder farmers. If the current economic situation prevails, drought impacts will continue to run havoc on rural livelihoods.

Poor farming methods have exacerbated the vulnerability of rural livelihoods to natural shocks. Findings from this study indicated that stream bank cultivation is a common practise in ward 23. Soils in Muzarabani do not retain moisture and during drought stream bank cultivation is a common practise. River siltation has increased due to this practise making the availability of water during drought a challenge. NGOs operating in the area are trying to endorse the practise of minimum tillage to stop siltation but however this is still considered as the time consuming and labour intensive compare to using ox-drawn plough (Murwira et al, 2000).To adopt this practise farmers must be educated in such a way that they do not view this as a primitive way of doing things but as way of improving livelihood sustainability and the conservation of natural resources.

According to Scoones (1998) the availability of natural capital is the main driver of rural livelihoods. However this study revealed that drought directly reduce the availability of capital. During drought farmers continue to lose money towards goods unbudgeted for. This has crippled rural folks limiting their chances of emerging of the web. To reduce drought impacts, the government has been over the years implementing strategies to subsidies agricultural activities in rural and resettlement areas. Some commendable heights have been reached towards this endeavour however the situation in ward 23 still needs to be monitored.

This study also revealed that access to market was a challenge in ward 23.The road network system in the ward is poor .Participants have revealed that this has caused an increase in transport cost and a reduction in crop price. This has exposed people in the ward to the impacts of drought. Cottco, which is a cotton buying company used to help cotton farmers as they would visit villages to buy the cotton or establish stations nearby, however this is no longer the practise as cotton prices have plummeted. People in Muzarabani are now into tobacco farming and the market is only located in Harare. Market gardening is not flourishing to projected heights due to lack of access to markets. NGOs are just marking people establish gardens but they are doing

43 very little to solve the market problem and ward 23 has remained marginalised. Mitigation strategies endorsed by these institutions are non-structural. There are no dams constructed in the ward. The community is forced to sustain exploiting available resources.

The linkages between livelihood strategy and food security has been exposed in this study. When livelihoods fail households tend to suffer food insecurity. This study revealed that agricultural livelihoods are impacted the most by drought events. Those who have diversified their livelihoods are better off during disasters. According to the Devereux (2007) families that cannot access food through production to achieve food security must involve themselves into non-farm activities. This shows how important non-farm livelihoods are towards rural poverty reduction. While it is important to appreciate the crucial role played by non-farm livelihoods, it is also important to note that drought also affected households involved in formal employment (Non- farm livelihood) in terms of food security though it is to a lesser extent.

5.2 Conclusion The study shows that the trend of drought in ward 23 is increasing from year to year even if its degree is varying between and among the years. This increasing trend of drought has been highly affecting the ward’s livelihoods and aggravates the vulnerability to different socio-economic activities of the society.

Livelihoods in ward 23 are heterogeneous. Households in the ward pursue a number of livelihoods and these include agricultural and non-farm livelihoods. This has been a drought mitigation strategy employed to act as a shield during drought events. However, livelihood diversification is not equally important as some of the livelihoods are new to the area. The synergy between agricultural livelihoods and off-farm activities also make off-farm livelihoods vulnerable to drought impacts. It is therefore important to establish livelihoods that are independent of agricultural activities.

The impacts of drought on livelihoods are reflected by poverty prevalence. In wards 23 poverty prevalence is high. This has been due to agricultural failures that are a being propelled by frequent droughts in the area. The area is under natural farming region four where rainfall is highly variable. Farming in such circumstances is highly unreliable. This study therefore concludes that rain-fed agriculture is no longer a viable option. A more radical way to tackle the

44 endemic must be employed. Though it might strain the government`s fiscal capabilities, the establishment of irrigation schemes in the Zambezi valley looks like an option.

NGOs operating in Muzarabani and ward 23 in particular are mainly centred on relief programmes as many participant households indicated that they access aid through initiatives such as food for work. These, according to the findings of this study have contributed towards worsening the situation. More time is spent doing food for work than time spent enhancing and developing livelihoods. This has created a dependency syndrome thus making livelihoods vulnerable to droughts. To help reduce vulnerability NGOs must reshape their stance and try to play a vanguard role in disaster preparedness.

In a nutshell the impact of drought on rural livelihood in ward 23 have been catastrophic. Crops failure, loss of livestock, land degradation siltation of water bodies have become the order of the day. Due to the inaccessibility of the area and lack of education among residents the situation and outcomes have been horrendous. Agriculture production in the ward has plummeted leading to increased poverty levels and food insecurity in the ward. In developing countries rural areas like Kairezi agriculture still boasts as the back bone of rural development. The failure of agriculture in the ward can be regarded as the main reason why poverty prevalence in the ward is still above 90%.

5.3 Recommendations The over arching recommendation of this study is that rural livelihood resilience to drought needs to be strengthened. Having assessed the impacts of droughts on rural livelihoods, it is apparent that households need to be resilient enough to deal with future adversities with few or minimum external interference. Below are specific recommendations to help solve the drought conundrum:

 The communities should be encouraged to grow the indigenous crop varieties which are suitable for their climates. However, the farmers have been encountering challenges with marketing such crops. It is, therefore, important that markets are established and farmer’s access to such markets must be made easier. This could be tied with improved road networks and transport services, and closing the loop between agricultural production and the farmer`s accessibility to the consumers.

 There is no modern irrigation system that helps the people in time of drought in Muzarabani in general and in ward 23 in particular. Even the traditional irrigation is not properly utilized. So, much is expected from the government and other concerned institutions in providing awareness to scale up the traditional water harvesting and to expand modern irrigation system. With a higher irrigation rate Muzarabani can be expected to have a higher capacity to adapt to drought challenges and other economic shocks.  Information availability and easy accessibility is very essential for small holder farmer’s agricultural preparedness, and the information should be correctly packaged for easy understanding. AGRITEX officers are of importance especially in rural areas where farmers encounter difficulties accessing mainstream media. The liaison between research and extension services helps in developing new agricultural production methods and new seed varieties that will survive the harsh conditions. There should also be an effort to invest in agricultural research on the use of new crop varieties and livestock species that are more tolerant to drought. These agricultural departments must be capacitated to improve rate of operation.  NGOs rural poverty reduction strategies need to incorporate programs on enhancing rural non-farm livelihoods that absorb the surging rural population. There must be focus on how people in rural areas can shift from being agrarian societies to become industrialised. This can be a long term target as it has become apparent that the effects of climate change are going cause an increase in drought events.

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APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Household Questionnaire

An assessment of the impacts of drought on rural livelihoods: Muzarabani District Ward 23

Household Questionnaire

District: ______Ward: ______Village: ______

Date of interview: ____/____/___

Section A: Individual and Household Characteristics

1. Sex of respondent 1 = male

2 = female

2. Age of respondent 0-15 15-20 21-30

31-40 41-50 50++

3. Position of respondent in the household

1 = Head 2 = Spouse 3 = child

4 = other specify……………………………………………………………………………

4. Age of household head

1 = 20-30 2 = 31-40 3 = 41-50 4 = 50+

5. Sex of Household Head

1 = male 2 = female as

6. Education of Household head

0 = no formal education at all 1= Primary 2 = ZJC 3 = ‘O’ Level 4 = ‘A’ Level

5 = Diploma 6 = Certificate 7 = Degree 8 =other specify______

2 Section B: Geography of the area 1. Would you say ward 8 is a drought prone area? Yes No

2. How many droughts have you experienced in the last 20 years? 0 2 3 4 5 6+

3. Which one was the most devastating drought? State the year

4. What is the rainfall pattern in Ward 8? Normal Irregular Highly irregular

5. When did you last receive a normal rainfall and harvest? State the year

3 Section C: Livelihood strategies of households

1. Are you a farmer? (No (IF No SKIP TO Question 12), Yes) ……….…………………………………..

2. If your response to question is “Yes”, which are your agricultural activities?

Crop farming Livestock rearing Both crop farming and livestock rearing

3. If your answer for question Number 2 involves “crop farming option” what are the crop types your household usually grow?

Crop type maize sorghum cotton millet Soya bean Others specify below

4. How do you rate the crop productivity of your household relative to your neighbourhood? (Lower almost equal Higher

5. Which are the methods your household follows to support crop production? a) More modern farm implements (fertilizer, seeds, and chemicals) b) Expanding previously uncultivated land c) Crop rotation d) If other specify …………………………………………………………………..

6. How much do you make annually through crop farming? ……………………………………

7. Do you have access to land? YES NO

8. If yes is your answer to question 1, what is your total land size ………………………………………………. 9. What is the proportion of your land (In hectare) for? Grazing……………………………………crop production…………………………………. Tree planting…………………………… for other purposes ………………………………..

10. Do you practice irrigation on your pieces of land? YES NO

11. Rate the adequacy of your land size to support your household’s living? (Extremely Inadequate=1, Adequate=2, Very Adequate=3)………………………………..

12. If your answer for question Number 2 involves “livestock rearing” which are your livestock?

Type of cattle goats pigs donkeys Chicken/fowl total livestock run number

13. of the following, which are your three main reasons to raise livestock? To sell during Livelihood crisis =1, for transport=2, for their products=3, for agricultural activities =4, to sell and Purchase food =5, Purchase agriculture inputs=6 …………………………………………

14. Which of the following methods do you use to improve livestock productivity?

Increasing the number of local livestock=1, introducing new breeding livestock=2, Fattening and selling for profit=3, other…………………………………...

15. How much do you make yearly through livestock rearing? ………………

Non-farm livelihood activities

11. Does your household engage in non-farm activities? (No (SKIP TO Q ),Yes)………

12. If Yes to question Number 11, indicate your response by putting “” corresponding to the activity?

Non-farm livelihood Response Total monthly income activities Yes No Formal employment.eg teacher Remittances from household members Trading activities(shop, retailing etc) Local services(transport, drinks, weaving, handicraft) Fuel selling(wood, charcoal etc) pension Unskilled wage employment others

13. If your answer to question number 12 is Yes Temporarily/casually=1; seasonally or as par time activities=2; permanently=3………………

14. Why do you pursue nonfarm livelihood activities? Have no other means of living =1, Because of low productivity of farming=2, have small land to rely on farming=3, uncertain agricultural performance=4, due to attractive nonfarm wage =5, to increase cash saving=6, due to wide opportunity available=7, because I have skill other than farming=8, if other please specify ………………………………..

15. Which livelihood strategies do you think is more productive?

Agricultural=1, non-agricultural=2, A combination of both agricultural and non-agricultural activities=3………….

Section D: Impacts of droughts on livelihoods

1. Do you experience a decrease in livelihoods output during drought events? YES OR NO …………………………..

2. Explain how droughts have affected the livelihoods your household pursue. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………

Section E: Mitigation strategies to reduce adverse impacts of droughts

1. What are the main food crops grown in the area …………………………………………… ……………………………………………. ……………………………………………

2. among the mitigation strategies given below, tick and rate using a scale of 0-5 (5 being the most effective) the strategies you use.

STRATEGY RATING

Drought relief

Drought resistant crops

Irrigation

Water harvesting

Selling livestock

Cash remittances

Others (specify

3. What are the Drawbacks you face in exploiting the drought mitigation strategies?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………… 4. Explain how NGOs operating in the area helping you to improve the effectiveness of these strategies. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………

Appendix 2: Key informant Interview guide

Questions

1. Would you please describe rural livelihood activities in ward 23

2. What are the impacts of droughts on rural livelihoods of Muzarabani Ward 23?

3. What are the mitigation strategies that have been implemented in the ward to reduce

vulnerability to droughts?

4. How effective are these strategies in reducing vulnerability to droughts

5. To improve the sustainability of rural livelihoods in your area what do you think must be

done?

Appendix 3: Interview guide for NGO officials involved in poverty alleviation in ward 23

Questions

1. Would you say Kairezi ward 23 is a drought prone area?

2. What do you think are the main impacts of drought on rural livelihoods?

3. What sort of assistance do you give to ward 23 household to mitigate adverse impacts of

drought and to reduce vulnerability?

4. Do people benefit from the strategies you initiated in the ward?

5. When selecting beneficiaries which criteria do you employ?