The Roman and Byzantine Graves and Human Remains ISTHMIA RESULTS of EXCAVATIONS CONDUCTED UNDER the AUSPICES of the AMERICAN SCHOOL of CLASSICAL STUDIES at ATHENS

isthmia

volume ix

the roman and byzantine graves and human remains ISTHMIA RESULTS OF EXCAVATIONS CONDUCTED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS

i oscar Broneer, Temple of Poseidon (1971) ii oscar Broneer, Topography and Architecture (1973) iii oscar Broneer, Terracotta Lamps (1977) Athens iv mary C. Sturgeon, Sculpture I: 1952–1967 (1987) at v timothy E. Gregory, The Hexamilion and the Fortress (1993) vi steven Lattimore, Sculpture II: Marble Sculpture, 1967–1980 (1996) vii isabelle K. Raubitschek, The Metal Objects (1952–1989) (1998) Studies VIII Catherine Morgan, The Late Bronze Age Settlement and Early Iron Age Sanctuary (1999) Classical of distribute. not School Do only. American use The Personal ©2012 isthmia

EXCAVATIONS BY THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES AND THE OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY UNDER THE AUSPICES OF THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS

THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS PRINCETON, NEW JERSEY 2012 Athens at Studies Classical of distribute. not School

Do © The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2012 ISBN: 978-0-87661-939-1

only. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data American Isthmia : excavations by the University of Chicago, under the auspices of the use American School of Classical Studies at Athens

The v. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. Contents: v. 1. Temple of Poseidon / by Oscar Broneer—v. 2. Topography and architecture / by Oscar Broneer—v. 3. Terracotta lamps / by Oscar Broneer— v. 4. Sculpture I : 1952–1967 / by Mary C. Sturgeon—v. 5. The Hexamilion and the Personal ©2012 fortress / by Timothy E. Gregory. 1. Isthmia (Greece)—Antiquities. 2. Greece—Antiquities. 3. Excavations (Arch- aeology—Greece—Isthmia. I. Title II. Broneer, Oscar, 1894–1992. III. Sturgeon, Mary C. (Mary Carol), 1943– IV. Gregory, Timothy E. V. University of Chicago. VI. University of California, Los Angeles. VII. Ohio State University. DF261.I85B76 938´7 76-362971

typography by ascsa publications 6–8 charlton street, princeton, new jersey printed in the united states of america by thomson-shore, incorporated, dexter, michigan Athens MATRI CARISSIMAE

at γειναμένωι χάριτας, γαμέται λέχος, ὑέι φάμαν ἄψογον ἐς πυμάταν ἀὼ ἐνεγκαμέναι Studies Classical of distribute. not School Do only. American use The Personal ©2012 ©2012 The American School of Classical Studies at Athens Personal use only. Do not distribute. Preface

Athens The study of the graves and human remains from the Isthmian Sanctuary and Fortress has had a long history. Since the 1950s, excavations at Isthmia by the American School of Classical at Studies at Athens (ASCSA) have uncovered over 150 graves and over 100 skeletons. Apart from a few isolated interments and a scattering of disarticulated bones, these burials were investigated by the team sponsored by the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA) under the direction of the late Paul Clement. The analysis and publication of this material has been under- Studies taken by his successor, Timothy E. Gregory, who directs the team sponsored by the Ohio State University (OSU). The known burials were nearly all located in two separate areas represent- ing disparate periods in the history of the site: the West Cemetery on the edge of the modern village of Kyras Vrysi, and the Fortress adjoining the Hexamilion just northeast of the Temple of Poseidon. The Late Archaic and Classical burials at the West Cemetery are the subject of Classical a future volume that will describe the pottery, small finds, and bones from the graves and 1 of discuss the historical and social context of their interment. The present volume covers the graves and human remains belonging to the local community in Roman to Byzantine times, distribute. particularly the inhabitants of the fortifications and the ruins of the Sanctuary from the end of the 4th to the 7th or 8th centuries. not

School The study of the graves and their contents has been an important component in the research program of the OSU project almost since its inception. At the invitation of Gregory, Myra Do Giesen conducted a preliminary examination of human bone from the site in 1989–1990. She was the first person to collate the pertinent records, to try to make sense of their depo- 2

only. sitional context, and to generate an inventory. I assumed responsibility for the publication

American of the human remains in 1995 as a part of my larger study of the historical setting of the graves. I completed a new comprehensive analysis of the mortuary and skeletal remains dur- use ing two long study seasons at Kyras Vrysi in 1996 and 1997, and during shorter visits in 1998 The and 2000 to 2004.3 John Robb, who at the time was teaching at Southampton but has since moved to Cambridge, joined me in 1998 to observe and to report on paleopathology. The introduction and many descriptions and identifications of lesions in Chapter 7 reflect his contribution. My lively dialogue with him has steered me away from many methodological Personal ©2012 and interpretive pitfalls, for which I am very grateful. Although I began the composing this book in 1997, various professional and personal distractions, beyond the vicissitudes of compiling and analyzing complex data that reside

1. For preliminary reports, see Clement 1969, pp. 142–143; are preparing the volume on the West Cemetery. 1970, p. 119; 1974, pp. 102–105; Clement and Thorne 1974. The 2. Gregory and Kardulias 1989, pp. 16–17; O’Roark and West Cemetery previously was called Lambrou Field after the Giesen 1991; Kardulias and Shutes 1992, p. 20; Rife and Gie- surname of the former landowner. Note that the graves discov- sen 1994. The observations and conclusions presented herein ered to the south across the modern road on the Filis property supersede any previously published. belong to the same necropolis. The author and Martha Risser 3. Gregory, Kardulias, and Rife 1997, p. 4; Rife 1998. viii Preface

overseas, delayed its submission until 2005. At that point, recognizing that scholarship in related fields, particularlyL ate Antique archaeology, had increased dramatically in recent years and being aware of the duration of revision, editing, and production to come, I made the decision to stop incorporating new publications. Therefore, I have not cited works published after 2005, even though certain important studies have now appeared that complement the present volume in interesting ways.4 Graves and bones, particularly those of post-Classical date, are frequently encountered during excavation; almost all major sites, and many of secondary importance, have produced them. Yet one of the greatest challenges I faced in preparing this book was the absence of a clear precedent in published scholarship on Greek remains. This book brings a new perspective in various ways: it applies current theoretical approaches to the study of burial and society; it fully integrates the study of funerary ritual with the study of skeletal biology; it employs a con-

Athens textual approach to understanding graves and human remains within the larger frameworks of a community and a region; it explores life and death in the Greek countryside; and it inves- at tigates social history during the transition from ancient to medieval times. Since this project contributes to an emerging scholarly discourse and the subjects it covers will not be familiar to many readers in the fields of classical archaeology and ancient history,I have considered it important to adopt a wide scope. Accordingly, I have explained my data and techniques in

Studies detail, have compiled a generous bibliography, and have tried to situate the Roman and Byz- antine graves and human remains from the Isthmus in relation to published evidence from elsewhere in Greece as well as other regions of the world. This will, I hope, provide a more useful and meaningful study for a larger audience than a simple catalogue and commentary. I hope, too, that it will highlight the dire need for the standardized collection, description,

Classical and publication of the abundant mortuary and osteological records of Greece.

of I conducted the research for this book under the auspices of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens and with permission granted by the former Fourth Ephoreia of distribute. Classical and Prehistoric Antiquities at Nafplio and the Sixth Ephoreia of Byzantine Antiq- uities at Patras. For their interest and support I gratefully acknowledge Zoë Aslamatzidou not

School and Panayiota Kasimis, archaeologists for the Ephoreia; William D. E. Coulson†, James B. Muhly, and Stephen Tracy, successive directors of the American School; and Scott Pike, for- Do mer interim director of the Wiener Laboratory of the American School. The directors of the excavations at Isthmia, Timothy E. Gregory and Elizabeth R. Gebhard, have permitted my work and generously assisted in the preparation of this publication. In particular, I thank only. Gregory for recognizing the significance of the graves and human remains and for enabling American my study over the long term. use In undertaking this study and preparing its publication I have enjoyed the technical aid The and intellectual counsel of several people. Nancy Buschini, Blanche Kim, and Steve Koob offered their expert advice concerning the conservation and storage of the bones in 1995 and 1996. I acknowledge the able assistance of several students in biological anthropology and Mediterranean archaeology, including Heather Heerssen (Kenyon College, 1995), Personal ©2012 Sarah Kielt (Bryn Mawr College, 1995), Victoria Semos (University of Texas-Austin, 1998), Nancy Tang (Cornell University and the University of London, 2000), and Dhruva Jaishankar (Macalester College, 2002). Tang and Jaishankar diligently tabulated the taphonomic and osteological data. I thank Nina Loney and especially Nora Dimitrova for translating publications in Bulgarian, Russian, and Serbo-Croatian during my research. All graphic material in this book appears by courtesy of the Isthmia Excavations. Many individuals have helped with the visual documentation of the graves and their contents. The line art is the work of several

4. One notable study is the thesis on the bioarchaeology of Byzantine Greece by P. Tritsaroli (2006). Preface ix

architects, illustrators, and excavators with the Chicago, UCLA, and OSU projects over the years, including myself. Many photographs of the site, the graves, and the human remains in situ, along with a few photographs of the artifacts, were taken by Emile Serafis and Paul Clement. Almost all photographs of the bones, several of the artifacts, and a few of the site and graves were taken by Daniel M. Curtis. He has also prepared all drawn and photographic images for digital reproduction and printing. I sincerely thank him for his skill and profes- sionalism in completing this most important part of the project. I also owe my gratitude to many teachers, colleagues, and friends. The success of any interdisciplinary endeavor depends on the constructive collaboration of people with diverse viewpoints. I warmly acknowledge the following individuals for their help during the course of my research and writing, without burdening them with complicity in any errors or dispari- ties that remain in this book. Gregory offered his unconditional encouragement and astute

Athens criticism at all stages. I have learned much about archaeology, history, religion, and the natural environment from discussion and correspondence with N. N. Ambraseys, William at Caraher, Kevin Clinton, John Coleman, Florin Curta, Archibald Dunn, John V. A. Fine Jr., Ann Ellis Hanson, George Kacandes, P. Nick Kardulias, Paul Legutko, John Mansfield, Charles Pazdernik, David Potter, Raymond Rogers, Guy D. R. Sanders, John Shean, Alice-May Talbot, Thomas Tartaron, Lita Tzortzopoulou-Gregory, and Fikret Yegül. On topics of special-

Studies ized scope and on classes of artifacts I have consulted individuals pursuing related research in the Corinthia: Professor Gregory, John Hayes, Jeanne Marty†, Melissa Moore Morison, Dr. Sanders, and Kathleen Warner Slane on Roman and Byzantine pottery; Birgitta Lindros Wohl on lamps; Liane Houghtalin and Orestes Zervos on coins; and Richard K. Dunn and Jay Stratton Noller on geology and geomorphology. I thank them for furnishing unpublished

Classical evidence and valuable observations. In osteological study I have profited from the advice

of of anthropologists Sandra Garvie-Lok, Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, Clark Spenser Larsen, and Douglas H. Ubelaker, who have discussed the project at various stages and assiduously re- distribute. viewed drafts of Chapters 5 through 7. Finally, Mireille Lee has been my deepest source of intellectual guidance and personal support, for which I owe more than I can express. not

School This book would not have been possible without the generous financial and administrative support of several institutions and offices.M y study overseas in 1997 and 1998 was aided by Do grants from the Horace H. Rackham School of Graduate Studies of the University of Michi- gan. I completed the basic research and writing while I was James Rignall Wheeler Fellow at the American School of Classical Studies (1995–1996) and Townsend Assistant Professor only. of Classics at Cornell (1999–2002). The Department of Classics and Olin Library at Cornell American provided the necessary resources and a conducive atmosphere for the completion of much use of this book. The library staff of Macalester College, particularly Aaron Albertson, assisted The greatly with interlibrary loan acquisitions. Lastly, I am grateful to the editorial staff of the ASCSA Publications Office, under the sure guidance of Charles Watkinson and Andrew Reinhard, for their hard work, high standards, and broad vision in exploring new avenues for scientific publication. Personal ©2012 I dedicate this book to my mother, Pat Rife (1943–2000). She made me a sandwich in Kyras Vrysi to nourish my work and bought me a computer in White Bear Lake to facilitate my writing. During the completion of this project, when I was far away, she developed leukemia. Like Prima at Corinth, the radiant woman survives in the memory of the living so long as the living preserve her glorious memory. She will be with me, and I will continue to learn from her, for a long time.

Macalester College St. Paul, Minnesota x Preface

During the final preparation of this volume for production,I have not fundamentally altered the content or expanded the argument. This decision was motivated by a concern to preserve the study’s integrity and to ensure its rapid publication. I have, however, slightly enhanced the bibliography predating 2005 and have very selectively added citations of more recent publications pertaining to the northeastern Peloponnese and to human skeletal remains from Greece, Cyprus, and Asia Minor. Andrew Reinhard, Carol Stein, and Timothy Wardell at the ASCSA Publications Office deserve my sincere gratitude for the timely and careful attention they have given this manuscript. Publication of this book was aided by financial support from the offices of theV ice Provost for Research and the Executive Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at Vanderbilt University, as well as from the von Bothmer Publication Fund of the Archaeological Institute of America, the Packard Humanities Institute, and the Ohio State University Excavations at Isthmia. Athens Vanderbilt University at Nashville, Tennessee

List of illustrations xv Athens List of Tables xxi at Bibliography and Abbreviations xxiii 1. Themes, Procedures, and Materials 1 Themes and Approaches 2

Studies Procedure of Study 6 The Creation of the Material Record 11 Part I: The Archaeological, Historical, and Social Context of the Graves 2. The Graves and Associated Remains 21

Classical The Archaeological Dimensions of Mortuary Behavior 21 The Chronologies of Burial 23 of Description of the Graves by Area 25 distribute. Northeast Gate 25 Tower 2 56 not School Tower 13 61

Do Tower 14 62 Loukos Field 72 Decauville Graves 75 only. Roman Bath 76 American Hexamilion Outworks 82 use West Foundation 88 The Palaimonion 91 Theater Cave 96 Catalogue of Burial Deposits 99 Personal ©2012 Catalogue of Funerary Artifacts 103 3. Burial Chronology, Topography, and History of Settlement 113 Phase I: The Roman Sanctuary (mid-1st to late 4th centuries) 114 Phases II–III: the Late Roman Fortifications (end 4th to mid-6th centuries) 120 Phase IV: The Early Byzantine Settlement (late 6th to 7th/8th centuries) 135 Phase V: The Middle to Late Byzantine Fortress (10th to 15th centuries) 144 Epilogue: Kyras Vrysi, Ayios Ioannis Prodromos, and Its Cemetery by Lita Tzortzopoulou-Gregory and Joseph L. Rife 146 xii Contents

4. Funerary Ritual, Mortuary Variability, and Society 153 Greek Funerary Ritual during the Roman and Byzantine Eras 159 Mortuary Form and Variability 163 rituals before Burial 164 selection, Acquisition, and Preparation of a Site for Burial 167 Multiple Burial 169 grave Design and Typology 172 Burial Orientation 181 Corporeal Position 183 Funerary Assemblage 187 Secondary Burial 199

Athens human Disturbance of Graves 202

at Social Structure and Ideology 206 Age 207 sex and Gender 210 Vertical Position 213

Studies Horizontal Position 218 Christian Ideology 222 social and Ideological Deviancy 230 Part II: The Osteological and Bioarchaeological Context of the

Classical Human Remains 5. The Condition and Composition of the Human Remains 235 of The Condition of the Skeletal Assemblage 238 distribute. Osteological Methodology 247 determination of Sex 248 not School estimation of Age at Death 249

Do measurement of Bones 253 observation of Nonmetric Traits 254 The Composition of the Skeletal Sample 258 only. Paleodemography 259 American Physical Appearance and Diversity 265 use growth and Stature 282 The Nonmetric Variability 286 6. Teeth and Oral Health 293 Diet and Oral Hygiene 293 Personal ©2012 Conditions of the Teeth and Alveolar Structures 296 variation in Dental Form, Location, and Number 298 Enamel Hypoplasia 306 Dental Wear 313 Dental Trauma 319 Plaque and Calculus 324 Dental Caries 326 alveolar Defects and AMTL 334 summary of Local Dental Conditions 349 Oral Health in the Greek World during Roman and Byzantine Times 351 Contents xiii

7. Paleopathology and Paleoepidemiology 367 Catalogue of Conditions 368 The Paleoepidemiology of the Skeletal Sample 405 Congenital Anomalies 406 Hematological Disorders 409 Infectious Disease 413 Joint Disease 415 Trauma 429 Neoplasia 436 summary of Local Paleopathological Conditions 437 Disease and Injury in the Greek World during Roman

Athens and Byzantine Times 441 8. Life and Death at the Isthmus between Rome and Byzantium 457 at

Appendix: Metric and Nonmetric Traits in the Skeletal Sample 469 Indexes General Index 481 Studies Index of Burial Sites and Regions 497 Index of Lots Cited 503 Index of Objects Cited 505 Index of Ancient, Byzantine, and eastern Sources 507

Classical Index of Inscriptions 511 of distribute. not School Do only. American use The Personal ©2012 ©2012 The American School of Classical Studies at Athens Personal use only. Do not distribute. Illustrations

Athens Figures at 1.1. the Isthmus of Corinth 2 1.2. the Isthmian Sanctuary 3 1.3. the Isthmian Fortress and adjacent graves 4 1.4. human remains from NEG 69-004, as stored by excavators in 1969 and retrieved for study in 1990 7

Studies 2.1. northeast Gate, actual-state plan 26 2.2. northeast Gate, schematic plan 27 2.3. northeast Gate, restored plan 28 2.4. neg 69-103, 69-004, and 69-008 and surroundings 29 2.5. Coverings of NEG 69-103 and 69-004 30 2.6. neg 69-103A, B in grave 31 Classical 2.7. neg 69-004A, C–E, glass pitcher (7), and bottle (13) in grave 32

of 2.8. neg 69-004B and legs of A in grave 32 2.9. spiral and transverse fractures in long bones of NEG 69-004C–E from handling by Late Roman builders 33 distribute. 2.10. Covering of NEG 69-008 with lamp (5) 34 2.11. stones on floor of NEG 69-008 after excavation 35 not

School 2.12. neg 67-001A–K, coins (1–3), ring, and buckle (18) in grave 37 2.13. Coins (1–3) and ring in NEG 67-001 37

Do 2.14. West end of NEG 67-001 with cup (8) 37 2.15. neg 67-003B in grave after removal of other skeletons 39 2.16. Covering of NEG 69-005 40

only. 2.17. neg 69-005A–C in grave 40

American 2.18. Covering of NEG 69-001 41

use 2.19. Covering of NEG 69-001 42 2.20. neg 69-001A–D in grave 43 The 2.21. West end of NEG 69-001 with earring (19) 44 2.22. east section of Trenches 69-5/95-1 northwest of the Northeast Gate 45 2.23. Covering of NEG 69-007 46 2.24. Covering of NEG 69-007 46 Personal ©2012 2.25. neg 69-007A, B in grave 47 2.26. neg 69-009, plan and sections 48 2.27. Covering of NEG 69-009 and surroundings in 1969 49 2.28. Covering of NEG 69-009 in 1998 49 2.29. inner layer of tiles sealing burial compartment of NEG 69-009 49 2.30. neg 69-010, plan and sections 51 2.31. Covering of NEG 69-010 and surroundings in 1969 52 2.32. detail of cross on west end of covering of NEG 69-010 in 1969 52 2.33. Covering of NEG 69-010 in 1998 52 2.34. inner layer of tiles sealing burial compartment of NEG 69-010 53 xvi Illustrations

2.35. tile fragments at west end of floor ofNEG 69-010 53 2.36. tower 2, actual-state plan 56 2.37. Covering and marker of T2 68-006 57 2.38. t2 68-006A in grave 57 2.39. t2 68-006 with stones lining walls after removal of skeleton 58 2.40. Covering and marker of T2 68-002 59 2.41. t2 68-002A in grave 59 2.42. Covering of T2 68-003 60 2.43. t2 68-003A, B in grave 60 2.44. reconstruction of tiles (IM 68-109) paving T2 68-003 after removal from cist 61 2.45. tower 14, actual-state plan 63 2.46. t14 67-002A in grave 64 2.47. t14 67-002 64 2.48. architectural terracotta (IT 895) from under head of T14 67-002A 64 Athens 2.49. t14 67-004A in grave 65 at 2.50. lower legs of T14 69-701A 66 2.51. Covering over east end of T14 69-991 67 2.52. upper body of T14 69-991A in west end of cist 67 2.53. lower body of T14 69-991A in east end of cist 67 2.54. t14 69-002A in grave 68 Studies 2.55. Covering of T14 69-003 69 2.56. t14 69-003A in grave 69 2.57. Covering of possible grave northwest of Tower 14 71 2.58. loukos Field, actual-state plan 73 2.59. lou 69-801A in grave 74 Classical 2.60. lou 69-801 74

of 2.61. deC 69-901A, B in grave 76 2.62. tiles covering DEC 69-902 77

distribute. 2.63. Pitched tiles covering DEC 69-902 after removal of outer tiles 77 2.64. roman Bath, actual-state plan 79

not 2.65. slab and debris enclosing channel with RB 76-002 80 School 2.66. rb 76-002 81

Do 2.67. differential preservation of femoral and tibial fragments of RB 76-002C and 76-002A 81 2.68. hexamilion Outworks, actual-state plan 83 2.69. ho 70-901A–C 84

only. 2.70. Covering of HO 70-902 86

American 2.71. top three skeletons in HO 70-902 87 2.72. bottom seven skeletons in HO 70-902 87 use 2.73. West Foundation, actual-state plan and sections 89 The 2.74. WF 62-001A in grave 90 2.75. reconstruction of tiles (IT 811–814) enclosing WF 62-001 after removal from cist 90 2.76. Central area of the Sanctuary during its Antonine phase 92 2.77. Palaimonion, actual-state plan and sections 93 Personal ©2012 2.78. temple of Palaimon during excavation in 1956 94 2.79. Covering of PAL 56-001 94 2.80. PAL 56-001A with earring (17) and beads (33) 94 2.81. P AL 56-001 95 2.82. theater Cave, actual-state plan 97 2.83. tC 60-001A 98 2.84. Coin of Leo I (1) 103 2.85. Coin of Marcian (2) 103 2.86. illegible coin (3) 103 2.87. Pentanummium (4) 103 Illustrations xvii

2.88. lamp (5) 104 2.89. lamp (6) 104 2.90. glass pitcher (7) 105 2.91. Coarse-ware cup (8) 106 2.92. Fine-ware jar (9) 106 2.93. Coarse-ware bowl (10) 107 2.94. unguentarium (11) 107 2.95. Cooking pot (12) 107 2.96. Pierced coin (pendant?; 14) 109 2.97. bronze finger ring (15) 109 2.98. Pair(?) of bronze earrings (16) 109 2.99. bronze earring (17) 109 2.100. iron buckle (18) 109 2.101. Pair of gold earrings (19) 109 Athens 2.102. beaded necklace with bone pendant cross (20, 21), suggested reconstruction 110 at 2.103. bone pendant cross (20) and various beads (21a–k) from necklace 110 2.104. iron loop (buckle or pendant?; 22) 111 2.105. bronze ring (23) 111 2.106. bronze buckle (24) 111 2.107. stone bead on glass rod (necklace?; 25) 111 Studies 2.108. iron disks (26) 111 2.109. iron rings (27) 111 2.110. iron nail (hobnail?; 28) 111 2.111. bone button (29) 112 2.112. iron buckle (30) 112 Classical 2.113. bronze loop (31) 112

of 2.114. shell bead (32) 112 3.1. ayios Ioannis Prodromos, Kyras Vrysi in 2005 148

distribute. 3.2. Cemetery of Ayios Ioannis in 2000 149 3.3. standard tomb type, Ayios Ioannis 150

not 3.4. tomb at ground level with concrete border, Ayios Ioannis 150 School 3.5. row of tombs, Ayios Ioannis 151

Do 4.1. distribution of the orientations of 25 burials by period 182 4.2. survival of skeletal elements after secondary burial in HO 70-901 200 5.1. surficial etching on right parietal and occipital of DEC 69-901A 240

only. 5.2. surficial etching and structural degradation on left parietal and occipital of NEG 67-001C 240

American 5.3. Cavitation, flaking, and fracturing on frontal of NEG 69-007A 240 5.4. differential rates of preservation of skeletal elements in 48 adults 242 use 5.5. differential rates of preservation of skeletal elements in 21 subadults 243 The 5.6. age structure among skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine date 270 5.7. distribution of age at death by sex among skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine date 270 5.8. neg 69-103B 271 5.9. neg 69-004B 271 Personal ©2012 5.10. neg 69-004C 271 5.11. neg 69-004D 271 5.12. neg 67-001B 272 5.13. neg 67-001C 272 5.14. neg 67-001D 272 5.15. neg 67-003B 273 5.16. neg 69-005C 273 5.17. neg 69-001A 273 5.18. neg 69-001D 273 5.19. neg 69-007A 274 xviii Illustrations

5.20. neg 69-007B 274 5.21. neg 69-999A 274 5.22. t2 68-002A 274 5.23. t2 68-003A 275 5.24. t14 67-002A 275 5.25. t14 67-004A 275 5.26. t14 69-002A 276 5.27. t14 69-003A 276 5.28. lou 69-801A 276 5.29. rb 76-002A 277 5.30. rb 76-002C 277 5.31. ho 70-901A 277 5.32. ho 70-901B 278 5.33. ho 70-901C 278 Athens 5.34. ho 70-902D 278 at 5.35. ho 70-902F 278 5.36. ho 70-902H 279 5.37. ho 70-902I 279 5.38. ho 70-902J 279 5.39. WF 62-001A 280 Studies 5.40. tC 60-001A 280 5.41. growth rates in five diaphyseal lengths in 17 individuals up to 12 years old 284–285 5.42. distribution of stature by sex among skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine date 287 5.43. sites of Roman and Byzantine date with skeletons of known stature for comparative study 290 6.1. neg 69-103B 300 Classical 6.2. neg 69-004B 300

of 6.3. neg 69-004C 300 6.4. neg 69-004D 300

distribute. 6.5. neg 69-004E 300 6.6. neg 67-001B 300

not 6.7. neg 67-001C 300 School 6.8. neg 67-001D 300

Do 6.9. neg 67-003B 300 6.10. neg 69-005B 301 6.11. neg 69-005C 301

only. 6.12. neg 69-001D 301

American 6.13. neg 69-007A 301

use 6.14. t2 68-002A 301 6.15. t2 68-003A 301 The 6.16. t14 67-002A 301 6.17. t14 67-004A 301 6.18. t14 69-002A 301 6.19. t14 69-003A 302 Personal ©2012 6.20. lou 69-801A 302 6.21. deC 69-901A 302 6.22. deC 69-901B 302 6.23. rb 76-002B 302 6.24. ho 70-901A 302 6.25. ho 70-901B 302 6.26. ho 70-901C 302 6.27. ho 70-902D 302 6.28. ho 70-902E 302 6.29. ho 70-902F 303 Illustrations xix

6.30. ho 70-902H 303 6.31. ho 70-902I 303 6.32. ho 70-902J 303 6.33. WF 62-001A 303 6.34. tC 60-001A 303 6.35. ho 70-902?, linear enamel hypoplasia in C1L 303 6.36. neg 69-004B, fractured upper incisors and mandibular AMTL 303 6.37. neg 69-004C, calculus, periodontitis, and acute abscess in periapical granuloma in P3R–M3R 304

6.38. neg 67-001C, caries and periodontitis in P3R–M3R 304

6.39. t14 67-002A, caries and periodontitis in M1R–M3R 304

6.40. WF 62-001A, gross caries in M1R 305 6.41. neg 67-001C, caries, periodontitis, acute abscesses in periapical granulomata and periodontal cyst, and AMTL in upper and lower anterior teeth 305 6.42. neg 69-007A, periodontitis, acute abscess in periodontal cyst, and AMTL in P4R–M3R 305 Athens 6.43. neg 69-007A, periodontitis, acute abscess in periapical granuloma, and AMTL in C1L–M3L 305 at 6.44. t14 67-002A, fracture, acute abscess in perapical granuloma, and AMTL in P4L–M3L 306

6.45. ho 70-901C, caries, periodontitis, acute abscesses in periodontal cysts, and AMTL in P4R–M1R 306 6.46. WF 62-001A, large periapical cavities around roots of M1L draining into maxillary sinus 306 6.47. distribution of ages of growth disruptions causing enamel hypoplasia 311 6.48. Frequencies of defects and AMTL in alveoli of Late Roman to Early Byzantine date by age 346 Studies 6.49. Frequencies of defects and AMTL in alveoli of Late Roman date by age 346 6.50. sites of Roman and Byzantine date with published teeth for comparative study 354 7.1. neg 69-004B, three right fibula fragments with periostitis; NEG 69-004?, unsided fibula fragment with periostitis 378 7.2. neg 69-004E, right shoulder with degenerative changes from rotator cuff disease: right Classical proximal humerus; right glenoid cavity 379

of 7.3. neg 67-001A, sacrum with sacralized coccyx 379 7.4. neg 67-001A, right ulna with healed fracture 379

distribute. 7.5. neg 67-001B, sternum with manubriomesosternal fusion and ossified first sternocostal cartilage 380 7.6. neg 67-001B, sacrum with sacralized coccyx 380

not 7.7. neg 67-001C, vertebral joint disease: C2–C3 with apophyseal ankylosis; T3–T4 with School apophyseal ankylosis and spondylosis deformans 381

Do 7.8. neg 67-001F, frontal with healing cribra orbitalia in both orbits 382 7.9. neg 67-003A, left radius with healed fracture 383 7.10. neg 69-001?, right metacarpal IV with enchondroma 383

only. 7.11. neg 69-007A, ossified costal cartilage 384

American 7.12. neg 69-007A, right and left first carpometacarpal joints with severe osteoarthritis: right and left metacarpals I; left trapezium 384 use 7.13. neg 69-007B, left frontal with healed cribra orbitalia 385 The 7.14. t2 68-003B, ossified left conoid ligament: coracoid process of scapula; clavicle 386 7.15. t14 67-002A, sacrum with spina bifida occulta and sacralized coccyx 387 7.16. t14 67-002A, right proximal humerus with degenerative changes from rotator cuff disease 387 7.17. t14 67-002A, right and left first interphalangeal joints with severe osteoarthritis 387 Personal ©2012 7.18. t14 67-002A, right and left radii(?) and ulnae with healed fractures; pseudarthrosis in right ulna 388 7.19. t14 67-002A, left fifth finger with traumatic ankylosis from interphalangeal fractures 389 7.20. t14 67-002A, left middle or lower rib with healed fracture 389 7.21. t14 67-004A, sacrum with sacralized lumbar 392 7.22. t14 67-004A, right and left shoulders with traumatic and degenerative changes from severe chronic anterior dislocation: right scapula and humerus and left scapula; right and left glenoid cavities 392 7.23. t14 69-002A, sacrum with spina bifida occulta 393 7.24. lou 69-801A, left tibia with popliteal enthesophyte 393 7.25. rb 76-002B, right ulna with healed fracture 394 7.26. rb 76-002C, left tibia fragment with periostitis 395 xx Illustrations

7.27. rb 76-002C, frontal with healed depressed fracture 395 7.28. rb 76-002C, L5 with bilateral spondylolysis 395 7.29. ho 70-901A, left ulna and radius fragments with four healed fractures 396 7.30. ho 70-901C, right and left tibiae with enthesophytes 397 7.31. ho 70-901C, right parietal with perimortem perforation surrounded by radiating, concentric, and crushing fractures 398 7.32. ho 70-902G, sacrum with sacralized coccyx 400 7.33. ho 70-902H, right parietal with healed depressed fracture 400 7.34. ho 70-902J, lumbarized sacrum with sacralized coccyx 401 7.35. ho 70-902? (Z1), sternum with sternal aperture and ossified first sternocostal and xiphoid cartilage 402 7.36. ho 70-902? (Z1), sacrum with sacralized coccyx 402 7.37. ho 70-902? (Z5), sacrum with sacralized coccyx 402 7.38. ho 70-902?, ossified costal cartilage, female type and male type 403 7.39. ho 70-902?, left tibia fragment with periostitis 404 Athens 7.40. ho 70-902? (Z3), right fibula with ossified anterior talofibular ligament and posttraumatic at degenerative changes from severe ankle sprain 404 7.41. ho 70-902? (Z5), right scapula with healed fracture 405 7.42. t14 67-002A, lateral ends of left and right clavicles with degenerative porosity 420 7.43. ho 70-902? (Z2), sternum with ossified first sternocostal and xiphoid cartilage 421 7.44. ho 70-902? (Z4), L2–L5 with joint disease: L2–L5 with apophyseal osteoarthritis; L5 with Studies intervertebral (osteo)chondritis and spondylosis deformans 421 7.45. ho 70-902? (Z1), L3–L5 with joint disease: apophyseal osteoarthritis; spondylosis deformans 421 7.46. neg 67-001B, L1 with apophyseal osteoarthritis 422 7.47. vertebrae with intervertebral (osteo)chondritis and Schmorl’s nodes: NEG 67-001B, T6–T7; T14 67-004A, T8; T14 67-002A, middle Ts 422 Classical 7.48. skeletal distribution of 22 traumatic lesions 430

1.1. abbreviations for Areas of the Archaeological Site 8 Athens 1.2. Periodization of the Early Roman to Early Modern Settlement 9 at 1.3. Factors in the Preservation of the Graves and Human Remains 12–13 4.1. material Components of Mortuary Behavior in 30 Graves by Phase 154–158 4.2. distribution of the Position of the Arms in 22 Bodies by Period 185 5.1. Periodization of 65 Skeletons 237 5.2. survival of Erupted Dentition in 61 Skeletons 246 Studies 5.3. sex and Age at Death of 65 Skeletons 250–251 5.4. Postcranial Measurements in Subadult Skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 255 5.5. Cranial and Mandibular Measurements in Adult Skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 256 5.6. Cranial and Mandibular Measurements in Adult Skeletons of Late Roman Date 257 5.7. Cranial and Mandibular Measurements in Seven Adult Skeletons of Disparate Dates 258

Classical 5.8. Postcranial Measurements in Adult Skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 260–261

of 5.9. Postcranial Measurements in Adult Skeletons of Late Roman Date 262–263 5.10. Postcranial Measurements in Six Adult Skeletons of Disparate Dates 264–265

distribute. 5.11. nonmetric Traits in Subadult Skeletons of Late Roman and Early Byzantine Date 266 5.12. nonmetric Traits in Adult Skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 267

not 5.13. nonmetric Traits in Adult Skeletons of Late Roman Date 268 School 5.14. nonmetric Traits in Six Adult Skeletons of Disparate Dates 269

Do 5.15. Cranial and Postcranial Indices among Skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 270 5.16. estimation of Living Stature in 26 Adults of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 287 5.17. Comparison of Stature in Several Greek Skeletal Samples of Roman to Modern Date 288–289

only. 5.18. Coincidence of Nonmetric and Congenital Traits in Multiple Burials 291

American 6.1. variation in Dental Form and Location 299 6.2. instances of Linear Enamel Hypoplasia 308–309 use 6.3. Frequency of Enamel Hypoplasia by Period and Sex 310 The 6.4. mean Wear Scores in Permanent Dentition of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date by Age 315 6.5. mean Wear Scores in Permanent Dentition of Late Roman Date by Age 315 6.6. angle of Wear in Permanent First Mandibular Molars by Wear Stage 316 6.7. mean Wear Scores in Permanent Dentition by Period 317 Personal ©2012 6.8. mean Wear Scores in Permanent Dentition by Sex 317 6.9. instances of Dental Trauma 320 6.10. instances of Calculus 325 6.11. Frequency of Calculus by Period 326 6.12. Frequency of Calculus by Sex 326 6.13. instances of Dental Caries 328–329 6.14. Frequency of Carious Teeth of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date by Dental Class 329 6.15. Frequency of Carious Lesions of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date by Dental Site 330 6.16. Frequency of Carious Teeth of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date by Age 330 6.17. Frequency of Carious Teeth of Late Roman Date by Age 330 xxii tables

6.18. Frequency of Carious Teeth by Period and Sex 331 6.19. instances of Alveolar Defects 338–342 6.20. instances of AMTL 343 6.21. Frequencies of Defects and AMTL in Alveoli of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date by Age 345 6.22. Frequencies of Defects and AMTL in Alveoli of Late Roman Date by Age 345 6.23. Frequencies of Alveoli with Defects and AMTL by Period and Sex 347 6.24. dental Samples from Roman and Byzantine Sites 352–353 6.25. Cariosity in Several Greek Dental Samples of Roman and Byzantine Date 360–361 7.1. Paleopathology in 65 Skeletons 369–373 7.2. instances of Cribra Orbitalia 374 7.3. instances of Joint Disease by Site 375–377 7.4. Frequency of Joint Disease by Joint in Adults of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 417 7.5. Frequency of Joint Disease by Joint in Adults of Late Roman Date 418 7.6. Frequency of Joint Disease in Adult Vertebrae of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date 419 Athens 7.7. Frequency of Joint Disease in Adult Vertebrae of Late Roman Date 419 at 7.8. distribution of Joint Disease during the Late Roman to Early Byzantine Periods by Age 423 7.9. distribution of Joint Disease during the Late Roman Period by Age 423 7.10. distribution of Joint Disease by Sex and Period 423 7.11. Frequency of Trauma in Skeletons of Late Roman to Early Byzantine Date by Site 431 7.12. Frequency of Trauma in Skeletons of Late Roman Date by Site 431 Studies 7.13. Paleopathology in Several Greek Skeletal Samples of Roman and Byzantine Date 442–444 Classical of distribute. not School Do only. American use The Personal ©2012 Bibliography and Abbreviations

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Abbreviations of Periodicals, Series, and Lexica

AA = Archäologischer Anzeiger HTR = Harvard Theological Review AASS = Acta sanctorum, 71 vols., Antwerp 1643–1940; repr. IG = Inscriptiones graecae Turnhout 1966–1971 IJAnth = International Journal of Anthropology ActaArchHung = Acta archaeologica Academiae scientiarum IJCT = International Journal of the Classical Tradition Hungaricae IJO = International Journal of Osteoarchaeology AIIN = Annali dell’Istituto italiano di numismatica JAC = Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum AJA = American Journal of Archaeology JAnat = Journal of Anatomy AJHB = American Journal of Human Biology JAnthArch = Journal of Anthropological Archaeology AJPA = American Journal of Physical Anthopology JAS = Journal of Archaeological Science AM = Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, JBJS = Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery Athenische Abteilung JBL = Journal of Biblical Literature AmerAnt = American Antiquity JFA = Journal of Field Archaeology Antiquity = Antiquity. A Quarterly Review of Archaeology JFS = Journal of Forensic Sciences AR = Archaeological Reports JGR = I. Zepos and P. Zepos, eds., Jus Graecoromanum, 8 vols.,

Athens ArchDelt = Αρχαιολογικόν Δελτίον Athens 1931; repr. Aalen 1962 ArchEph = Ἀρχαιολογικὴ Ἐφημερίς JHS = Journal of Hellenic Studies at ArchJ = Archaeological Journal JMA = Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology ArchKorrBl = Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt JÖB = Jahrbuch der österreichischen Byzantinistik ArchNews = Archaeological News JPaleopath = Journal of Paleopathology ArchOB = Archives of Oral Biology JRA = Journal of Roman Archaeology ArchRW = Archiv für Religionswissenschaft JSS = Journal of Semitic Studies ArhVest = Arheološki Vestnik LSJ = H. G. Liddell, R. Scott, and H. S. Jones, A Greek-English Studies ΒΑΑΕ = Βιβλιοθήκη τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας Lexicon, 9th ed., Oxford 1940 BAR-BS = British Archaeological Reports, British Series MAAR = Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome BAR-IS = British Archaeological Reports, International Series Mansi = G. D. Mansi, ed., Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplis- BASP = Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists sima collectio, 53 vols., Florence 1759–1798; repr. Paris BCH = Bulletin de correspondance hellénique 1901–1927 BF = Byzantinische Forschungen MÉFRA = Mélanges de l’École française de Rome, Antiquité

Classical BiblArch = Biblical Archaeologist MGHAA = Monumenta Germaniae historica, auctores antiquissimi BICS = Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies MGHSS = Monumenta Germaniae historica, scriptores of BSA = Annual of the British School at Athens MGHSSrM = Monumenta Germaniae, scriptores rerum Merovin- Byzantion = Byzantion. Revue internationale des études byzantines gicarum

distribute. ByzZeit = Byzantinische Zeitschrift OC = Oriens christianus CAH 2 = Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed. OCD 3 = S. Hornblower and A. J. S. Spawforth, eds., The Oxford CahArch = Cahiers archéologiques Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Oxford 1996 not

School CarRes = Caries Research OpAth = Opuscula atheniensia CÉFR = Collection de l’École française de Rome OWAN = Old World Archaeology Newsletter

Do CFHB = Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae PastPres = Past and Present CIG = Corpus inscriptionum graecarum ΠΔΣΠΣ = Πρακτικὰ τοῦ Διεθνοῦς Συνεδρίου Πελοποννησιακῶν CP = Classical Philology Σπουδῶν (Πελοποννησιακά Suppl.) CPG = E. L. Leutsch and F. G. Schneidewin, eds., Corpus par- PG = J.-P. Migne, ed., Patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca, only. oemiographorum Graecorum, 2 vols., Göttingen 1839–1851 161 vols., Paris 1857–1866

American CRAI = Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des inscriptions PL = J.-P. Migne, ed., Patrologiae cursus completus, series latina, et belles-lettres [Paris] 221 vols., Paris 1844–1880 use CSHB = Corpus scriptorum historiae byzantinae Prakt = Πρακτικὰ τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας

The CurrAnthr = Current Anthropology RACrist = Rivista di archeologia cristiana DHGE = A. Baudrillart, A. de Meyer, and R. Aubert, eds., RBK = K. Wessel and M. Restle, eds., Reallexikon zur byzan- Dictionnaire d’histoire et de géographie ecclésiastiques, Paris tinischen Kunst, Stuttgart 1963– 1912– RDAC = Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus DOP = Dumbarton Oaks Papers SBMünch = Sitzungsberichte, Bayerische Akademie der = Wissenschaften (München), Philosophisch-historische Klasse Personal ©2012 ΕΕΠΘ Ἐπιστημονικὴ Ἐπετηρὶς τῆς Πολυτεχνικῆς Σχολῆς τοῦ Ἀριστοτελείου Πανεπιστημίου τῆς Θεσσαλονίκης SEG = Supplementum epigraphicum graecum EpetByz = Ἐπετηρὶς Ἑταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν SkrAth = Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen Ergon = Τὸ Ἔργον τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας SIMA = Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology GazArch = Gazette archéologique TravMém = Travaux et mémoires. Centre de recherche d’histoire et GGM = C. Müller, ed., Geographi Graeci minores, 2 vols., Paris civilisation byzantine, Paris 1855–1861 VigChr = Vigiliae Christianae GOTR = Greek Orthodox Theological Review WorldArch = World Archaeology GRBS = Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies YPA = Yearbook of Physical Anthropology HB = Human Biology xlviii Bibliography and Abbreviations

Abbreviations For Terms in the Text

AC = alveolar crest M = molar(s) (often followed by superscript or subscript AMTL = antemortem tooth loss number[s]) ATFL = anterior talofibular ligament m = meters C = canine(s) (often followed by superscript or subscript masl = meters above sea level number[s]); or cervical vertebra/-ae (often followed by max. = maximum number[s]) mm = millimeters CEJ = cementum-enamel junction mos. = months cm = centimeters NB = notebook (i.e., primary record of fieldwork) d. = died P = premolar(s) (often followed by superscript or subscript D. = depth/deep number[s]) Diam. = diameter p. = preserved H. = height/high R = right, when referring to bones or teeth km = kilometers S = sacral vertebra/-ae (often followed by number[s]) I = incisor(s) (often followed by superscripted or subscripted sd = standard deviation number[s]) T = thoracic vertebra/-ae (often followed by number[s]) Athens L = left, when referring to bones or teeth Th. = thickness/thick

at L = lumbar vertebra/-ae (often followed by number[s]) TMJ = temporomandibular joint L. = length/long W. = width/wide Studies Classical of distribute. not School Do only. American use The Personal ©2012 1 u Themes, Procedures, and Materials

Athens his study describes and interprets the graves and human remains of Roman and Byzantine date in the area of the Panhellenic Sanctuary1 and the succeeding fortifica- at T tions on the Isthmus of Corinth, which were excavated under the auspices of the American School of Classical Studies between 1954 and 1976 (Figs. 1.1–1.3). These burials belonged to local residents during several phases in the long history of their settlement. Most date to the Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods (end of the 4th to late 7th or 8th centuries),

Studies but a few date to the Early to Middle Roman (mid-1st to 4th centuries) and the Middle to Late Byzantine eras (12th to 15th centuries) or later. The 30 graves2 found in 11 separate locales in the central, northern, eastern, and far western3 areas of the archaeological site called Isthmia contained the bodies of at least 69 individuals4 and an assortment of artifacts. Bones from at least four other skeletons were found in secondary contexts to which they

Classical seem to have been moved during ancient building activities. Besides the much earlier buri-

of als in the West Cemetery, these remains comprise the largest body of mortuary and skeletal evidence so far recovered at the Isthmus.5 distribute. The graves are spare and mundane in form and content. They were built mostly from reused materials and were partially sealed, were seldom marked at the surface and appar- not

School ently never displayed epitaphs, and infrequently contained objects, such as small vessels, lamps, coins, and articles of clothing and adornment. In contrast to the paucity and sim- Do plicity of the graves, the surviving hard tissues of the bodies were relatively well preserved, especially those from enclosed interments that were not extensively disturbed. Several large graves contained multiple bodies that had been added over a short period. Both men and only. women, adults and children were interred in the graves. For the most part the inhabitants American led healthy lives, but suffered ailments that were not uncommon in ancient Mediterranean use society, such as tooth loss, broken arms, and arthritic joints. The

1. The word “Sanctuary” refers to the entire area associ- subadults had completely or almost completely disintegrated ated with the Isthmian cults and festivals, whose exact limits before the graves were discovered (NEG 69-008, DEC 69-902). Personal ©2012 remain unknown; see Isthmia II, p. 3, n. 10. Within the Sanctu- Skeletons in two other graves (T13 54-001, PAL 56-001) were ary, the “central area” is the area occupied by the precincts recorded in situ but not recovered. of Poseidon and Palaimon and all contiguous structures 5. On the West Cemetery, see p. vii, n. 1. In addition, exca- (Figs. 1.2, 2.76). vations in trench GW2 over the Mycenaean Wall directly south 2. This total includes one unexcavated feature near Tower of the central area (NB JGH, p. 356 [Oct. 3, 1959]) uncov- 14 that was probably a grave (pp. 71–72). ered portions of one human right lower leg and foot (bone 3. One grave was found at the West Foundation ca. 2 km lots 83+89+97: metatarsals I, II, III, and V, first proximal pha- west of the Temple of Poseidon (pp. 88–91). lanx, calcaneus, distal and shaft fragments of tibia and fibula). 4. Significant portions of 65 skeletons were available for These remains, which were mixed with ovicaprid and canine study, although two subadults were represented only by teeth bones, seem to represent undifferentiated refuse from an ear- (NEG 69-009A, 69-010A). The remains of at least two more ly period at the Sanctuary. 2 themes, procedures, and materials Athens at Studies Classical of distribute. not

School Figure 1.1. The Isthmus of Corinth Do Themes and Approaches

only. These graves and human remains furnish valuable evidence concerning society, religion, American economy, and biology in the Corinthian countryside from Roman to Byzantine times, par-

use ticularly for the Late Roman and Early Byzantine periods. When considered together with

The associated traces of habitation, the mortuary and skeletal remains bear vivid testimony not only to how these people died but also to how they lived. The graves, their contents, and their locations were used by the local community in an intentional and meaningful manner. When men, women, and children participated in the ritual process of mourning, interment, Personal ©2012 and commemoration, they identified themselves according to social relationships and ex- pressed their beliefs concerning life and death. A close examination of the material remains of these funerary rituals can therefore reveal the social, economic, and religious character of the community and its composition by gender, age, descent, and status. Furthermore, study of the human bones and teeth can reveal the demographic structure, diet, occupational hazards, and health of local residents. The larger significance of the graves, the human remains, and the settlement emerges when they are considered within the frame of regional trends.6 The full variability of mortuary

6. For approaches to mortuary and biological variability on a regional scale, see, e.g., O’Shea 1984, Beck 1995a, and Silver- man and Small 2002. ©2012 The American School of Classical Studies at Athens Personal use only. Do not distribute.

Figure 1.2. The Isthmian Sanctuary 4 themes, procedures, and materials Athens at Studies Classical of distribute. not School Do only. American

use Figure 1.3. The Isthmian Fortress and adjacent graves The

behavior within a region can only be traced through intersite comparison. Since separate communities within a geographic area live in proximity, share resources and natural condi- Personal ©2012 tions, and often interact with one another, their burial practices usually exhibit basic simi- larities. But the material and spatial dimensions of funerary ritual also reflect the structural or ideological variation between contemporary, contiguous groups. Likewise, the examination of biological diversity within a region can reveal differences in life experiences and population boundaries stemming from locally distinct economic and subsistence strategies, settlement patterns, and familial relations. The evidence from the Isthmus has therefore been examined within the regional context of the Corinthia. During the Roman and Byzantine eras, the regional center was the city of Corinth, which controlled two nearby ports, Lechaion and Kenchreai, and maintained a dependence on the surrounding countryside (Fig. 1.1). The urban community at Corinth Themes and Approaches 5

furnishes the most significant point of comparison to the community in its hinterland at the Isthmus. While the two places were variously linked by the movement of traffic, regional military strategy, and systems of production and trade, they display different scales and com- plexities of settlement. Thus, an understanding of the Isthmus is dependent on an understanding of Corinth, and vice versa.7 It has been worthwhile, as well, to consider evidence from locales elsewhere in the northeastern Peloponnese but still within the Corinthian orbit of communication, travel, and exchange. Although the publication of mortuary, skeletal, and habitational remains of Roman and Byzantine date from this large region has been in- consistent, particularly in peripheral areas, the evidence from several major sites in addition to Corinth, such as Nemea and Argos, has been documented extensively. When compiled for comparison, the published record provides an adequate basis for beginning to outline general patterns of variation across the northeastern Peloponnese.

Athens Such a contextual approach to the graves, human remains, and settlement at the Isth- mus sheds light on several essential developments in the transformation of Greek society at from classical antiquity to the Byzantine middle ages. These include the demise of pagan cults and the evolution of Christianity, the implementation of Imperial defensive schemes involving massive fortification, the diverse effects of plague, earthquake, and invasion on local communities, and the changing face of rural economy and settlement. The Greeks

Studies who lived and died at the Isthmus during these centuries saw their world fundamentally change. Although their settlement diminished, they survived during the Byzantine “dark age.” Throughout this transitional era, they were hardly confined by rustic isolation, cultural stagnation, or material destitution. They continued to encounter frequent travelers and to interact with neighboring settlements. Their shifting lifeways and funerary rituals speak to a

Classical capacity for adaptation and innovation.

of While the overarching goal of this study is to investigate these historical developments, the line of inquiry has been organized in order best to record and to interpret two rather distribute. different types of evidence, graves and human remains. To this end, the book is divided into four sections. The first section, the present chapter, introduces the main themes, the proce- not

School dures, and the materials under study. The second section, which is comprised of three chapters (Part I: Chaps. 2–4), addresses the graves within their archaeological, historical, and Do social contexts. Chapter 2 describes the physical remains of the graves, including their form, contents, and associations. Chapter 3 discusses the historical and topographical setting of these physical remains by surveying long-term changes in settlement. Chapter 4 reconstructs only. the funerary rituals that led to the creation of the graves and examines the relationship American between those rituals and the social structure and ideology of the local community. The use third section, which also comprises three chapters (Part II: Chaps. 5–7), addresses the hu- The man remains in their osteological and bioarchaeological contexts. Chapter 5 discusses the morphological and demographic composition of the skeletal sample, including sex, age at death, living stature, and metric and nonmetric traits. Chapter 6 examines teeth as evidence for oral development and health. Chapter 7 addresses the paleopathology of the bones and Personal ©2012 the paleoepidemiology of the skeletal sample. The fourth and final section (Chap. 8) sum- marizes the mortuary and skeletal evidence from the settlement at the Isthmus and evalu- ates its significance for understanding the transformation of theG reek countryside. Although the description and analysis of the two primary data sets requires divided treatment, the mortuary and osteological sections of this study are integrated, so that discussion in one often depends on information presented in the other. Therefore, the descriptions

7. Recent scholarship on center-periphery interactions in ban and rural communities as dual components in regional Late Antique Greece and Asia Minor (e.g., Mitchell 1993, La- networks of settlement, production, and exchange. van 2001b) has demonstrated the importance of viewing ur- 6 themes, procedures, and materials

of individual graves (Chap. 2) include summaries of skeletal traits (Chaps. 5–7), and the discussion of funerary rituals, social structure, and ideology (Chap. 4) takes into account the age, sex, and genetic character of the dead (Chap. 5). Likewise, the investigation of oral health and paleopathology (Chaps. 6–7) refers back to a reconstruction of the local settlement and its living community (Chap. 4). This repetition of information and conclusions in separate sections is intended to aid the reader by consolidating relevant evidence and assembling a composite picture of life and death in a changing world.

Procedure of Study

It is important to outline the procedure of study at the outset. The basic goal was to docu-

Athens ment the graves and human remains as accurately and precisely as possible using standard techniques in funerary archaeology and physical anthropology. The procedure was also de- at signed in such a way as to derive information that would be pertinent to the central themes outlined above. Finally, measures were taken both to facilitate the comparative analysis of the graves and bones at the Isthmus with those from other sites and to permit ready access to the remains for future investigation.

Studies The study began with the collection of all materials and primary records in the storerooms and workspaces at Kyras Vrysi, the modern village on the ancient site. These include the artifacts and bones recovered from the graves and the field notes, reports, drawings, and photographs recording their excavation. Inventoried and lotted artifacts and textual and visual records had been shelved and catalogued in the usual manner. The bones had remained

Classical since excavation in the storeroom of the Isthmia Museum (Fig. 1.4), in some cases for nearly

of three decades, in wooden crates and trays with handwritten labels. It was evident from references to the graves in notes, reports, and labels that the excavators had not systematically distribute. identified them.S ometimes they were numbered sequentially by area (e.g., “Tower 14 #2”), sometimes they were designated by an associated feature (“Roman Bath drain skeletons”), not

School and sometimes they were given no identification at all. When numbers were assigned, those numbers were often used in field notes, on storage boxes for lotted pottery and bones, on Do plans and detail drawings, and in artifactual and photographic inventories. The old grave numbers have also appeared in previous publications, namely, the annual field reports in and the description of the fortifications inIsthmia V. only. Αρχαιολογικόν Δελτίον It was necessary to devise a new system for identifying burials from across the site that not American only preserves the old numbers but also uniquely designates single graves and skeletons. use These new burial numbers consist of five digits separated after the first two by a hyphen and The followed by a letter. The first two digits indicate the year of excavation, the second three indicate the old number, and the letter indicates a single skeleton. For example, 69-004C is the third of at least three skeletons (A–C) from a grave called “Grave #4” that was excavated in 1969. If the excavators had not assigned a grave number, or had repeated a number al- Personal ©2012 ready used at another locale in the same year, the second three digits of the new number were arbitrarily assigned. Thus, for example, the four graves that were the first ones discovered in four separate areas during the 1969 campaign, two of which had been designated “Grave #1” and two of which were nameless, were renamed 69-001, 69-801, 69-901, and 69-991. The assignment of letters was determined by the order in which the bones from one grave were examined, not the order in which they were either interred or excavated. Bones in multiple burials that could not be associated with individual cranial or pelvic remains were designated collectively by the grave number followed by a question mark (e.g., Procedure of Study 7 Athens at Studies Classical of

distribute. Figure 1.4. Human remains from NEG 69-004, as stored by excavators in 1969 and retrieved for study in 1990 not School 69-901?).8 One important class of information the new numbering scheme does not en-

Do code is the locale of excavation. Therefore, abbreviated names for the areas where human remains were found have been prefixed to the burial numbers (e.g.,RB 76-002B). The abbreviations for areas are given in Table 1.1.

only. In addition to the new numbering scheme, the study adopted a consistent terminology

American for referring to mortuary practices and to periods in the history of the local settlement.

use “Grave” and “interment” refer to the physical presence of a space containing one or more bodies and other objects. “Burial” refers to either the intentional, often ritual, act of inter- The ment or the product of that act, that is, one or more dead individuals and any funerary items placed in a grave. Archaeologists and historians sometimes use the term “cist” to refer to an unprotected hole in which a burial is made (like Modern Greek λάκκος). In this study, “cist” Personal ©2012 designates the cutting for the interment, without implying the form of either the cutting or its enclosure. In retracing the history of the settlement and its burials, it was necessary to identify remains according to periods of habitation. This periodization is defined by major historical events, artifactual developments, and architectural phases at the Isthmus, which will be

8. In one unusually complex grave containing ten bod- ulnae, femora) were given randomly assigned serial numbers ies (70-902), no bones could be identified with a single skel- after an altered form of the standard burial number (e.g., eton (pp. 85–86). Therefore, separate skeletal elements (e.g., 70-902Z3). 8 themes, procedures, and materials

Table 1.1. Abbreviations for areas of the archaeological site

NEG northeast Gate T2 tower 2 T13 tower 13 T14 tower 14 DEC decauville Graves LOU Loukos Field RB Roman Bath HO Hexamilion Outworks WF West Foundation

Athens PAL Palaimonion

at TC theater Cave

discussed in Chapter 3. The periodization of local settlement from Roman to modern times is given in Table 1.2. Two major eras in the history of the site are commonly identified by a phrase linking sequential periods. “Late Roman to Early Byzantine” designates the era Studies of most intensive, continuous occupation of the fortifications from the years just preced- ing their construction in ca. 410–420 through their renovation under Justinian, the Slavic incursions of the late 6th to early 7th centuries, and the “dark age” occupation that ended in the late 7th or 8th century. In this study, “late antiquity” will be synonymous with the Late Roman period,9 while the term “Early Christian” has been eschewed.10 “Middle to Late Classical Byzantine” will designate the second era of dense habitation at the Fortress, beginning with of the revival of the local settlement in the 10th century, reaching its apogee during the 12th

distribute. to 14th centuries, and declining during successive military operations in the 15th century. The next stage in the study was the close examination of the artifacts, bones, teeth, and

not primary records in order to establish the original state of the graves. This required a recon- School struction of how the graves had changed since the time of interment, as discussed below.

Do The study of the mortuary remains involved the collection and recording of all relevant depositional, artifactual, and structural data from the early excavations. It proved helpful to return to several burial sites for further exploration to clarify their form and associa- only. tions.11 The study of the human remains was a two-part process. The first was an inventory

American of all skeletal elements and an evaluation of their state of preservation. The second was an

use examination of the remains in order to establish sex and age at death, to collect metric and

The nonmetric data, and to document paleopathology. During the examination, special attention was devoted to the handling of the human remains and to their long-term storage.12 Before inspection, many bones and teeth had to be cleaned. Several retained soil matrix in cavities and fissures, and a few were coated with Personal ©2012 9. The elusive term “late antiquity” has had a varied usage religion and culture). Furthermore, as a historical designa- in past and current scholarship; see Bowersock, Brown and tion, it identifies one period by a single religion, even though Grabar (1999, pp. ix–x) for a useful formulation. that religion existed both earlier and later, during periods 10. Although the designation “Early Christian period” is identified by ruling regimes (“Roman” and “Byzantine”). still used (e.g., Nemea III, p. xxx), the author considers it a 11. NEG 69-103, 69-004, 69-001, 69-007, 69-009, 69-010, misnomer for general historical phasing. It is chronologically T2 68-003, T14 69-002, LOU 69-801, RB 76-002, HO 70-902, incorrect (the early phase of Christianity was the 1st century), PAL 56-001. politically inaccurate (Imperial, military, and local adminis- 12. Sease (1994, pp. 48–52), Bass (1995, pp. 331–338), tration was in many respects neither distinctly nor uniquely and White (2000, pp. 292–300) provide useful overviews of Christian), and culturally biased (Christianity was only one the proper procedures for conserving and storing human re- factor in the development of Late Antique Mediterranean mains. Procedure of Study 9

Table 1.2. Periodization of the Early Roman to Early Modern settlement

Early Roman Mid-1st to early 2nd centuries Middle Roman Mid-2nd to late 4th centuries Late Roman End of the 4th to mid-6th centuries Early Byzantine Late 6th to 7th or 8th centuries Middle Byzantine 10th to 12th centuries Late Byzantine 13th to 15th centuries Ottoman 16th to early 19th centuries Early Modern Mid-19th to early 20th centuries

13 Athens a calcareous shell from environmental moisture. Once the bones and teeth were clean, they were conserved as needed. None was so friable that it required chemical consolidation. at Many, however, were broken and marred by postmortem degradation in their depositional context, by damage during excavation, by crowded and unpadded packing in boxes and bags, and by occasional handling. Furthermore, during the 1970s and 1980s some fragmentary bones had been rejoined using masking tape, which caused staining and exfoliation, Studies and several postmortem breaks had been mended with Elmer’s Glue, a poly(vinyl) acetate emulsion which discolored the bones and stripped contiguous surfaces after only a few years in storage.14 To rectify these earlier measures, the masking tape and white glue were care- fully removed and selectively replaced with Acryloid B-72 in a 10% acetone solution.15 Since its initial application in 1995 and 1996, Acryloid has proven to be an optimal adhesive. Classical The cleaned and restored remains were treated for clearer identification and better pres- of ervation. Burial numbers were written on all major bones, all skeletal elements that could be identified with individuals were segregated, and all elements from the same skeleton were distribute. bagged by type or anatomical region. Some bones had been wrapped by the excavators or their successors in newspaper or toilet tissue. These products had served well for cushion- not School ing in the short term, but in places the newsprint had bled onto the bones and the tissue

Do had stuck to irregular surfaces, leaving tiny shreds in narrow crevices and cancellous tissue. These materials were removed and selectively replaced with Ethafoam, a polyethelene packing medium that is pliable, acid-free, and shock-absorbent.16 Finally, the remains were as-

only. signed by grave to numbered crates with the contents clearly marked. Rectangular wooden

American crates were chosen because they are sturdy, easy to lift and transport, can be repaired at

use minimal cost, and stack tightly but do not completely seal off the bones. They permit the circulation of air but prevent intrusion by the common denizens of the apothiki, lizards and The rats. One of the most important components in the study of the graves and human remains was their visual documentation in drawings, photographs, and digital images. Drawing and Personal ©2012 photography are essential to archaeological research because they preserve visual data of a

13. These elements were washed in warm water without ad- 14. Koob (1981), Selwitz (1988), Johnson (1994, pp. 225– ditives and dried in a shaded, protected location away from 226), and Sease (1994, p. 12) evaluate the utility of various direct sunlight and blowing sediment. Dental instruments and adhesives in archaeological conservation, including PVAs soft-bristle brushes, both dry and moist, aided finer cleaning. (UHU) and cellulose nitrate resins (Duco, Durofix, UHU Lime concretions were removed from bones using a brush Hart). dipped in a 5% acetone solution of hydrochloric acid and 15. Acryloid is a thermoplastic acrylic resin that is recom- from teeth using wooden picks and a sparing wash in a 15% mended for its long-term stability, transparency, penetration, acetone solution of acetic acid. Special care was taken so as not durability, and reversibility (Brothwell 1981, p. 10; Koob 1986; to gouge the cortex or enamel, to erase pathological features, Johnson 1994, p. 227). or otherwise to alter osseous or dental surfaces. 16. Sease 1994, pp. 14–15. 10 themes, procedures, and materials

contextual or material nature and allow for independent evaluation and comparative study. While traditional methods of photography have served these purposes well,17 digital tech- nology offers a more versatile medium for recording and sharing visual data.18 In the study of the mortuary and skeletal remains at the Isthmus we have implemented new techniques for capturing, manipulating, and storing visual information bridge the transition from traditional photography to digital imaging. The visual documentation of the material was a three-stage process beginning with the initial drawing and photography of graves and funerary artifacts. The excavators in the 1950s to 1970s always plotted graves on actual-state plans but seldom prepared formal drawings of them.19 They always photographed the interments, which preserved crucial information, but procedures varied.20 The excavators stored the human remains without study or photography but photographed funerary artifacts on 35 mm or medium format black-and-white 21

Athens film using a copy stand indoors. Many of these inventory photographs were publishable with only slight modifications.T he excavators stored all negatives and prints in filing draw- at ers and albums on site. Over the years many negatives have been destroyed or lost, but in each case a high-quality print from the damaged or lost negative has survived. The second stage in the visual documentation of the mortuary and skeletal remains was conducted by Daniel M. Curtis over roughly six weeks in Kyras Vrysi during the summers of

Studies 1996, 1998, and 2000. His goal was to complete the photographic record for publication and archival storage. He visited several burial sites to capture features that had not been previously documented and shot new photographs of several funerary artifacts. Most of his efforts were devoted to photographing the human remains for the first time.22 He photographed the bones on Kodak TMAX ISO 100 and Ilford FP4 ISO 125 black-and-white film with a

Classical 35 mm SLR camera (Nikon 8008S or Canon A2) with a 50 mm lens for macro-focusing.

of The camera was mounted on a Hama 6229 copy stand with four rotatable 100-watt tungsten bulbs. The subject was placed on a plate of nonglare glass suspended 5.5 cm over a sheet distribute. of black cloth. The direction of lighting and orientation of the subject followed scientific convention.23 Due to financial and temporal constraints,M r. Curtis did not compile a visual

not 24 School record of the total skeletal assemblage but did photograph many more elements than ap- pear in this volume. Elements were chosen in order to create a primary visual archive of the Do bones and teeth and to illustrate published discussions of those remains.25 The third and final stage in the visual documentation of the mortuary and skeletal remains was completed by Curtis in the United States between 1998 and 2002.26 This involved only. the digitization of all photographs, the manipulation of those digital images, and provision American for the long-term preservation of the visual record. All black-and-white negatives pictur- use The 17. Dorrell (1994), Howell and Blanc (1995), and Roskams Figs. 7.1, 7.10, and 7.26. (2001, pp. 119–132) offer useful introductions to archaeologi- 23. Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994, pp. 10–12), Hillson cal photography. (1996, pp. 305–306), and White (2000, pp. 309–312, 517–519) 18. Dorrell 1994, pp. 254–255; Besser 2003. outline these procedures for the photography of archaeologi- Personal ©2012 19. Dillon and Verano (1985) outlines the proper proce- cal bones and teeth. dure for drawing graves. 24. See the recommendations of Buikstra and Ubelaker 20. Several photographs show the graves after the displace- 1994, pp. 10–11. ment or removal of their walls or bones: Figures 2.6, 2.46, 25. The following photographs were taken: all adult skulls, 2.50, 2.54, 2.59. The correct procedure for photographing regardless of preservation, in the anterior, lateral, and poste- graves is discussed in several manuals: Dillon and Verano rior views; all upper and lower adult dentitions in the occlu- 1985, pp. 145–146; Dorrell 1994, pp. 132–133; Ubelaker 1999, sal view; noteworthy details of the teeth, such as severe caries, p. 14; White 2000, pp. 284–286 (photography by Pieter Arend attrition, or dental trauma; pubic symphyses and auricular sur- Folkens); Roskams 2001, pp. 130–131, pl. 23. faces, which are used to estimate age at death; all congenital 21. Howell and Blanc (1995, pp. 75–84) outline the proper defects, infectious lesions, trauma, and neoplasia; a represen- procedure for studio photography. tative sample of cases of cribra orbitalia and joint disease; and 22. Apart from the work of Curtis, Andrew Reinhard examples of postdepositional alteration to bones. photographed the fragmentary long bones in Fig. 2.9, and 26. Besser 2003 is an introduction to digital image capture John Robb photographed the pathological specimens in and digital asset management. The Creation of the Material Record 11

ing the graves, artifacts, and human remains were scanned to Kodak Photo CD and Ko- dak Pro Photo CD master disks, which served as an excellent storage medium in terms of affordability and quality. All preserved line drawings of graves and artifacts, as well as the prints of negatives that had been destroyed or lost, were scanned at high resolution (800 dpi for drawings; 300 dpi for prints). Once all hard copies of visual data had been translated into 8-bit grayscale images, they were adjusted using Adobe Photoshop (versions 4.0 to 7.0) on a Macintosh computer. This involved the application of standard tools, the regularization of sizes, and the insertion of scales and arrows. These modifications have not distorted or erased original visual information essential to the subject; such adjustments are the same as those made during the traditional printing and retouching of photographs and the drafting and copying of drawings. After preparing the digital images, Curtis archived the visual record in a way that would promote long-term stability and easy accessibility. The

Athens original negatives, prints, and drawings were catalogued, cleaned, relabeled, and returned to the site in improved storage spaces. at

The Creation of the Material Record

Studies Once these procedures had been established, it was possible to investigate the graves, artifacts, bones, and teeth as evidence for funerary rituals and skeletal biology. The gradual transformation of graves and bodies over time after death and burial can filter or even erase traces of both the osteological character of the deceased individual and the activities surrounding that individual’s death. The biological interpretation of human remains re-

Classical quires the assessment of the diachronic impact of natural and cultural agents.27 The osteolo- 28 of gist must distinguish postmortem changes from ante- or perimortem disease and trauma. Moreover, understanding the state of preservation is necessary in order to examine the dis- distribute. tribution and prevalence of pathological conditions in a skeletal sample.29 It is also important to determine the depositional and postdepositional pathways, or formation processes, not

School by which the material components of mortuary behavior have moved from a cultural to an archaeological context.30 Reconstructions of burial chronology and settlement history, Do along with interpretations of funerary custom and social identity, rely on the evaluation of formation processes. The natural environment and human activity were primary factors in the creation of the osteological and mortuary records at the Isthmus. These factors are sum- only. marized in Table 1.3. The calculation of the relative survival and preservation of the bones American (Table 1.3, right two columns) will be discussed in Chapter 5. use The lithologic sequence and natural topography of the site of the Isthmian Sanctuary The and Fortress constitute the depositional environment of the Roman and Byzantine graves.31 A bed of fine-grained, compact but soft marl is exposed on the north side of the Fortress and outside the circuit in the defensive ditch. A coarse limestone conglomerate bed overlying the marl crops out on the north edge of the enceinte. The soil overlying the conglomerate Personal ©2012

27. Taphonomy is the study of the postmortem change more recently Ubelaker 1991; Aufderheide and Rodríguez- of biomatter, especially bone and tooth, within a particular Martín 1998, pp. 15–18; and Lovell 2000, p. 236. environment. White (2000, pp. 407–424) and Mays (1998, 29. Walker, Johnson, and Lambert 1988 (paleodemogra- pp. 15–37) offer useful introductions; Lyman (1994) and Mar- phy); Waldron 1987; 1994, pp. 10–27 (paleoepidemiology). tin (1999) present definitive surveys of taphonomy; Haglund 30. O’Shea (1984, pp. 23–31) discusses factors affecting and Sorg (1997a) provide a collection of introductory essays burial sites; Schiffer (1987) gives a basic survey of formation on forensic taphonomy. The author thanks Thomas Tartaron processes. and Raymond Rogers for informative discussions about tapho- 31. On local geology, see Isthmia VIII, pp. 3–4; on local to- nomy in general and depositional conditions at the Isthmus pography, see Isthmia II, pp. 1–3; Isthmia V, p. 9; Isthmia VIII, in particular. p. 15. The author thanks Jay Noller for discussing the geomor- 28. Wells 1967 is a classic essay on “pseudopathology”; see phology of the Isthmus. 12 themes, procedures, and materials

Table 1.3. Factors in the preservation of the graves and human remains Burial Design Environmental Factors

Area and Depositional Drainage Presence Floritur- Sedimentary Gravitur- Grave No. No. Covering Lining Matrix Zone of Snails bation Compression1 bation2 NEG 69-103 2 Complete None Soil Y Y N N Y NEG 69-004 5 Complete Partial? Soil Y N N Y N NEG 69-008 1? Partial? Partial? Soil Y Y N N N NEG 67-001 11 None Complete Soil Y N Y N Y NEG 67-003 5 None Partial Soil Y N N N N NEG 69-005 3 None Partial Soil Y Y N N N NEG 69-001 4 Complete Complete Soil Y N N N Y

Athens NEG 69-007 2 Complete None Marl Y Y Y N N at NEG 69-009 1 Complete None Marl Y N N N Y NEG 69-010 1 Complete None Marl Y N N N Y T2 68-006 1 Complete Complete Soil Y N Y N N T2 68-002 1 Partial Complete Soil Y N N Y Y

Studies T2 68-003 2 Complete Complete Conglomerate Y N Y N N T13 54-001 1 Partial Partial Soil N ?? ? ? T14 67-002 1 Partial Partial Soil N N N Y Y T14 67-004 1 None None Soil N N N N N T14 69-701 1 Partial? Partial? Soil N N N N N Classical T14 69-991 1 Partial Complete Soil N N N N Y of T14 69-002 1 Partial None Soil N N N N Y T14 69-003 1 Partial None Soil N N Y Y Y distribute. LOU 69-801 1 None None Soil N N Y N N

not DEC 69-901 2 Partial Partial Soil Y Y Y N N School DEC 69-902 1? Complete None Soil Y N Y Y N

Do HO 70-901 3 None None Soil Y N N N N HO 70-902 10 Partial Partial Marl Y N Y Y Y Stone-lined

only. RB 76-002 3 Complete Complete Y N N N Y drain American WF 62-001 1 Partial Partial Soil N N N Y N

use Concrete PAL 56-001 1 Complete Complete N N N N Y The foundation TC 60-001 1 None None Soil in marl cave N N N N N 1 This includes only those graves in which damage to bones, artifacts, and graves could be confidently attributed to compression. Numerous teeth and ribs were also affected by sedimentary compression. 2 Personal ©2012 This includes only those graves in which bones or artifacts had clearly moved after deposition. Gravity affected all graves to a certain degree. 3 This only includes surficial damage that can be confidently identified as having occurred during excavation. 4 This includes only those graves from which bones were recovered after their initial excavation.

is a fine, clayey to sandy matrix containing a fraction of calcium carbonate and decomposed organic matter, with a neutral to slightly alkaline pH (7–8). The local terrain is dominated by the Rachi, a prominent ridge lying just south of the Temple of Poseidon, and by the Great Ravine, which borders the site on the north and defines the course of theH examil- ion. Three roughly parallel tributaries cut across the site from the high ground in the south toward the Great Ravine (Fig. 1.2). The drainage of the Sanctuary was facilitated not only by The Creation of the Material Record 13

Anthropogenic Factors Disturbance Reuse for Primary or Bones Excavation Intended Par- Unintended Survival Preservation During Additional Secondary Removed after Damage to tial Recovery Partial Recov- Rate of Bones Rate of Bones Construction Burial Burial Reopening Bones3 of Bones ery of Bones4 (%) (%) Y Y Primary N N N N 65.02 40.63 Y Y Primary Y N N N 45.49 29.94 Y Y Primary ? N N Y 0.40 0.21 N Y Primary N N N N 44.28 30.72 N Y Primary Y N N N 25.41 13.80 N Y Primary N Y N N 47.42 37.45 N Y Primary N Y N N 60.41 43.72

Athens N Y Primary N N N N 38.63 34.90

at N N Primary N N N N 0.00 0.00 N N Primary N N N N 0.00 0.00 N N Primary N Y N N 63.95 59.87 Y Y Primary N Y N N 41.85 32.94

Studies N N Primary N Y N N 68.67 60.19 Y N Primary ? ? Y N 0.00 0.00 Y N Primary N N N N 88.84 85.62 Y N Primary Y N N N 90.13 89.70 ? N Primary ? N Y Y 12.02 10.52 Classical Y? N Primary N N N N 32.19 20.17 of Y N Primary Y N N N 69.10 67.06 Y? N Primary N N N N 78.97 74.03 distribute. N N Secondary? N N N Y 45.90 38.95

not N Y? Primary N N N N 10.94 8.21 School N Y Primary N N N N 0.00 0.00

Do ? Y? Secondary Y N N N 24.89 19.81 N Y Primary N Y N Y 46.48 22.09

only. N Y Primary N Y N N 24.18 14.45

American N N Primary N N N N 34.33 26.61 use N N Primary N Y N N 0.00 0.00 The N N Secondary Y Y Y N 7.73 7.73 Personal ©2012 deep gullies but also by artificial drains, several of which passed through the fortifications near the Northeast Gate and Tower 2.32 Once these channels were no longer maintained, run-off collected at the base of the ramparts and in the steep taphros (defensive ditch), even- tually burying them under accumulating sediment. Microvariations in the local landscape generated small differences in the preservation of human remains. A few cists were cut into the marl and conglomerate, but most were cut into the soil above the conglomerate (Table 1.3). In general, this slightly alkaline,

32. Clement 1969, p. 142 (North Drain); Isthmia V, pp. 47, 48, 81, 116, figs. 8, 16, pls. 11:a–d, 14:a, 22:c, 42:b (drainage near the Northeast Gate and Tower 2). 14 themes, procedures, and materials

well-drained soil and the semiarid, temperate climate favored the preservation of skeletal material.33 However, interment in calcareous strata promoted infiltration by soil water and the precipitation of salts; moisture then dissolved and leached out the organic and mineral constituents of hard tissues. As a result, surviving bones and teeth are sometimes fragile and display a thin encrustation or discoloration.34 A secure covering and lining in a grave could mitigate, but not prevent, the deleterious effects of these natural agents on the remains inside. It is, therefore, not surprising that the decomposition of hard tissues was most rapid in drainage zones, especially in partly or completely uncovered graves on the north side of the Fortress.35 Bones and teeth in cists that were poorly sealed and exposed to draining water have completely or almost completely disappeared.36 In contrast, the best-preserved skeletons were found in mostly sealed graves in the well-drained area on the west side of the Fortress.

Athens The flora and fauna of theI sthmus had a negligible impact on the preservation of human remains. In most areas of excavation, vegetation is grassy with shallow roots, but bushes at and trees grow here and there, especially alongside buried or exposed architecture where water tends to collect. Roots of varying sizes had penetrated cists that were especially shallow and unshielded (Table 1.3). Invading roots sometimes marked the surface of bones, displaced them, or broke them down. There are scattered traces of burrowing rodents at the

Studies Isthmus, but earthworms and molluscs are frequent in the moister areas on the north edge of the site, in the gullies, and near the marl exposures. The most common terrestrial snails in cists exposed to moisture were typical Mediterranean species of turriculate and discoid gastropods (Rumina decollata and Eobania vermiculata; Table 1.3). Since these snails are not sarcophagous, they must have moved into the graves well after the decomposition of soft tis-

Classical sues, either burrowing to estivate or entering through worm action and erosional crevices.

of Although there is no sign that molluscs directly destroyed the human bodies, their presence implies that other factors, such as air, water, organic matter, and shallow depth, affected the distribute. burial environment.37 Natural processes also influenced the preservation of graves at theI sthmus. Gravity had a

not 38 School long-term effect on the position of the bodies after interment and skeletonization. It was not uncommon for bones to shift over time into unnatural positions once soft tissues had Do dissolved. Jaws that had been closed or tied shut for burial sometimes dropped open with the decay of the temporomandibular ligaments (see Fig. 2.56).39 The small bones of hands that had been placed over the chest, abdomen, or pelvis of the deceased often migrated to only. the floor of the cist with the decay of soft tissues (see Fig. 2.47). Chemical decay, sedimen- American tary compression, and gravity determined the preservation and location of the funerary ar- use tifacts. The condition of these objects at the time of discovery depended on several factors, The including material, soil chemistry and composition, and moisture.40 Nearly all iron objects are severely corroded (see Figs. 2.100, 2.104, 2.108–2.110, 2.112), and bronze objects often display green corrosion or have disintegrated (see Figs. 2.98, 2.113), while objects in gold, Personal ©2012

33. See Henderson 1987, pp. 46–47; Lyman 1994, pp. 418– 36. NEG 69-008, 69-009, 69-010, DEC 69-902. 419, 421–422; Janaway 1996, p. 69; Martin 1999, pp. 152–155. 37. The author thanks Henk K. Mienis, curator of the Na- On soil as a burial environment in general, see Janaway 1996, tional Mollusc Collections at the Hebrew University of Jeru- pp. 58–63. salem and Tel Aviv University, for identifying snail specimens 34. E.g., DEC 69-901B, HO 70-902 (adult teeth unidenti- and discussing their ecology. fied to individual). In both cases, the staining may have arisen 38. On the effects of gravity at archaeological sites, see as much from the decay of contiguous roots as from minerals Wood and Johnson 1978, pp. 346–352 and Schiffer 1987, in soil water. p. 216. 35. Bones: NEG 67-003D-E, 69-007A, B, 69-009A, 69-010A, 39. NEG 69-103B, T2 68-002A, T14 67-002A, 69-003A. T2 68-002A, 68-003B, DEC 69-901A, B. Teeth: NEG 67-001K, 40. Janaway (1996, pp. 78–81) surveys the decay of artifacts 69-005C, 69-007A, T2 68-003A, B, DEC 69-901A, B. in burial environments. The Creation of the Material Record 15

lead, stone, bone, and shell remain intact (see Figs. 2.101–2.103, 2.107, 2.111, 2.114). Ter- racotta lamps and vessels that had been buried intact were found in near perfect condition (see Figs. 2.88, 2.89, 2.91–2.94), but the condition of glass varies dramatically (see Figs. 2.7, 2.90). Textiles played an integral part in the funerary ritual, but did not survive to the time of the grave’s discovery. Not unlike bones and teeth, small, round artifacts such as buckles and beads sometimes moved from their original positions. Artifacts that had been worn on the torsos of the dead during the funeral and deposition, such as necklaces and pendants, remained over the chest until the skin and internal organs had dissolved, at which point they passed through the thoracic cavity and settled near the scapulae or vertebrae.41 In three graves, earrings were found where they had come to rest after the earlobes to which they were once attached had disappeared (see Figs. 2.21, 2.80, 2.81). Environmental agents did not significantly alter the form of the interments. Lined and

Athens covered cists typically incorporated durable materials in sturdy designs. One exception was the disintegration of the coffin or bier in the grave cut into the Palaimonion (56-001), which at left behind only splinters and nails. Gravity had little effect on the form of the graves. Cover- ing and lining elements shifted most when they were not supported by soil, stones, or mor- tar around the edges. The depth of sedimentation over the graves, especially those on the north side of the site, tended to enhance stability by encasing them. In some cases, however,

Studies the overburden displaced, cracked, or compressed coverings, particularly those using large flat tiles (see Fig. 2.62), which could crush bones.42 Downslope movement and soil creep did not affect the graves because most were interred in static deposits.43 Burrowing animals did not disrupt the graves, but tree roots dislodged the stones sealing the slabs over one grave (see Fig. 2.42), and smaller roots cracked and slightly displaced the tiles over another (see

Classical Figs. 2.62, 2.63).

of Successive phases of human activity in earlier burial areas significantly affected the condition of bones, teeth, and graves at the Isthmus (Table 1.3). During the early 5th century, distribute. the builders of the Hexamilion interrupted earlier graves south of the Northeast Gate and inside Tower 2. Workers attempted to preserve these interments by setting the foundation not

School blocks around them, but during the excavation of the footing trench they could not avoid opening graves and often altering their form and contents (see Figs. 2.7–2.9). During the Do initial occupation of the Fortress in the early 5th to mid-6th centuries, local residents commonly added bodies to preexisting graves rather than digging fresh cists. This practice produced several multiple interments with as many as 10 or 11 bodies. Continued inhumation only. in single graves is evident in the purposeful modifications to the designs of the graves and American the relative positions of the skeletons (see Figs. 2.12, 2.16, 2.18–2.20, 2.66, 2.70). These ac- use tivities affected not only the situation but also the survival and preservation of the human The remains. The displacement of bones led to breakage, the disruption of the original grave design often exposed bones to weathering, and occasionally bones were removed. Local residents also practiced secondary burial, the removal of human remains from one place and their redeposition in another, during late antiquity. The transplanting of remains led to Personal ©2012 a lack of protection over the new grave, an unconventional orientation of burial, the dense collection of bones, and the incomplete representation of skeletons. The process of secondary burial caused the loss of numerous small bones and damage to those that remained.

41. NEG 69-009, 69-010, T14 69-002, 69-991, RB 76-002, HO Martín (1998, p. 17) discuss this process. 70-902, PAL 56-001. Note, however, that the pocket of coins in 43. The surface markers above NEG 69-009, 69-010, T2 68- NEG 67-001 was discovered somewhat higher in the cist, closer 002, and 68-006 were found in their original state, even though to where it had originally been placed (Figs. 2.12, 2.13). the first two had been erected on an incline (Figs. 2.27, 2.28, 42. E.g., T2 68-002A, T14 67-002A, 69-003A, WF 62-001A. 2.31–2.33, 2.37, 2.40). Lyman (1994, pp. 423–424) and Aufderheide and Rodríguez- 16 themes, procedures, and materials

Construction and secondary burial also affected earlier burials during later phases in the occupation of the site (Table 1.3). The erection of small houses near Tower 14 during the Late Byzantine era cut into underlying Early Byzantine cists. As in earlier times, these building activities altered the design of graves and led to both the partial destruction and the selective extraction of skeletal remains (see Figs. 2.45, 2.46, 2.49, 2.54). The two latest graves from the site also reflect unusual burial conditions.44 In the first case, the skeleton might have been moved to the cist from another locale before the decomposition of the ligaments, and the extended legs were folded back over the chest (see Figs. 2.59, 2.60). In the second case, the body was already skeletonized when only the skull and a few other bones were re- deposited in a cave above the ancient Theater, together with various animal bones (see Fig. 2.83). The modern residents of Kyras Vrysi have had no significant impact on the graves. Most interments are situated northeast of the village, buried well below modern ground

Athens level and protected within the archaeological site. However, olive cultivation south of the Fortress and bulldozing northeast of Tower 2 has disturbed the tops of three graves.45 at Another important anthropogenic factor in the preservation of the mortuary and skeletal remains at the Isthmus was the method of excavation and recovery. The decisions and ac- tions of archaeologists determined the data that were collected from burial contexts.46 The early excavators were unusually systematic and meticulous for the discipline of classical ar-

Studies chaeology during the 1950s–1970s, but of course they did not attain the high standards set by archaeologists and anthropologists today.47 They had no expertise in the documentation and analysis of mortuary or osteological evidence and did not fully comprehend its historical and biological importance. One important class of evidence that did not receive adequate attention was stratigraphic context. The excavators recorded depositional units, but in many

Classical cases had difficulty defining graves because the walls of the cists were indistinct at the top.

of Depositional sequences in most of the burial areas can be retraced with confidence from a combination of elevations, written accounts, photographs, and artifacts. The lots from the distribute. early campaigns typically contained representative samples of finds from discrete excavated units, but excavators retained on average more material from graves than from other con-

not 48 School texts. Occasionally they discarded small finds, but in most cases they saved well over half the sherds, and in some cases a total sample.49 Moreover, they almost always maintained the Do integrity of burial deposits, even when digging at the Northeast Gate and Tower 14, where habitational remains were dense and the risk of contamination high. The return to selected burial sites for inspection or cleaning in recent years has resulted in the recovery of crucial only. information concerning the stratigraphic contexts and designs of graves. American In recording graves and saving their skeletal contents, the excavators were veritable pio- use neers during a time when their colleagues at other classical sites usually neglected burials of The Roman and Byzantine date and discarded human bones. Their method of excavating graves involved opening the cist, clearing the fill to the level of the skeleton, and removing the bones. Frequent references in the notebooks show that sieving was a regular practice.50 But the excavators did not always recover and store the bones from individual skeletons sepa- Personal ©2012

44. LOU 69-801A, TC 60-001A. Dirkmaat and Adovasio (1997, pp. 39–50) provide useful in- 45. LOU 69-801, DEC 69-901, 69-902. troductions from the viewpoint of forensic archaeology. 46. Schiffer (1987, pp. 339–364) discusses the practice of 48. NEG 69-004 (nail), 69-005 (nails), 67-001 (ring), T14 archaeology as a formation process. O’Shea (1984, p. 26), 69-991 (beads?), 69-002 (pins), RB 76-002 (leather or textile), Haglund and Sorg (1997b, p. 20), and Mays (1998, pp. 14–15, PAL 56-001 (nails, beads). 22–23) note the impact of investigative method on mortuary, 49. E.g., lot 67-T14-071 from T14 67-002 (see NB 1967 RP osteological, and forensic evidence. II, p. 171). 47. Most handbooks review techniques for excavating 50. E.g., NB NEG I, p. 127 (69-004); NB NEG II, p. 45 graves and recovering human remains: e.g., Parker Pearson (69-005); NB NEG III, p. 67 (69-001); NB NEG IV, p. 49 1999, pp. 198–204; Ubelaker 1999, pp. 3–38; White 2000, (69-007); NB JN-LO II, p. 103 (T2 68-003); NB T14 III, p. 141 pp. 279–291. Hunter and Dockrill (1996, pp. 40–53) and (69-002). The Creation of the Material Record 17

rately, particularly when they came from complex multiple interments (Fig. 1.4). Sometimes they did not recover all of the bones that survived in the graves, either out of disinterest or on practical grounds (Table 1.3). More frequently, they missed bones because they simply did not recognize them. Their main goal in excavating the total fill in each grave was to recover small artifacts, such as coins and jewelry, not diminutive or irregular bones, which are easily mistaken for rocks by the inexperienced. Some postmortem damage to the bones can be attributed to excavation and handling (Table 1.3). A comparison of the photographs of bones in situ to those of bones in the laboratory reveals that certain elements were drastically broken at some point after discovery. In one instance, a partially exhumed skeleton was left exposed over the Easter holiday and the skull was crushed, purportedly by vandals (see Figs. 2.46, 2.47).51 Certain fragile bones were inadvertantly destroyed during recovery. Numerous crania exhibit damage caused by

Athens excavation and storage. Some have perforations and gouges with clean, sharp edges and no soil adhering, which indicate forceful contact by digging implements.52 The relatively high at frequency of such damage on the crania can be variously explained. First, this part of an extended and supine skeleton often rests at the highest elevation in the grave and is therefore the first element encountered when digging.S econd, the excavators at the Isthmus trans- ported and stored skulls in square or rectangular boxes, crates, and trays that did not always

Studies accommodate their form as tall, thin-shelled, spheroid structures. This led to the abrasion or compression of the bones when containers were stacked and shelved. Finally, skulls are handled more often than other bones during excavation because, unlike any other element in the human skeleton, they fascinate the imagination and signify the mortal condition. One cranium that could be reconstructed from around 60 pieces had perhaps at some point

Classical shattered when it was accidentally dropped (see Figs. 2.83, 5.40).

of The cumulative impact of environmental and anthropogenic factors on the creation of the material record at the Isthmus was not so profound that meaningful mortuary and oste- distribute. ological evidence was irretrievable. The varied remains that have been documented provide a broad basis for reconstructing funerary ritual and skeletal biology, as long as the effects not

School of formation processes are taken into account. It is impossible to know how accurate such reconstructions are without excavating all graves and recovering all bones and teeth that ex- Do ist at the site. Numerous graves belonging to the settlement around the Roman Sanctuary, the Late Roman fortifications, and the Byzantine community have yet to be discovered. The paucity of graves from the Middle Roman and Late Byzantine periods undoubtedly results only. from the selective nature of exploration. Archaeologists have not systematically investigated American much of the area on the periphery of the Sanctuary where Roman graves are to be expected, use or inside the Fortress where Byzantine graves are to be expected. Although the number of The graves so far discovered at the Isthmus is small compared to other major Corinthian cemeteries, these 30 graves and their contents represent the mortuary interests and skeletal biology of over twice as many individuals, which is a significant total.T he compiled mortuary and osteological evidence for the local settlement and its inhabitants contributes greatly to Personal ©2012 our understanding of the Greek countryside during a pivotal era in its history.

51. Another mishap at Easter two years later crushed the 52. For a more specific discussion of such damage, see fragmentary cranium (69-999A) found in a secondary context p. 239. at the Northeast Gate (NB NEG 1969 I, p. 123). ©2012 The American School of Classical Studies at Athens Personal use only. Do not distribute.