I CONTROL NUMBER 2. SUBJECT CLASS11CATION (695) BIBILIOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET PN-AAH-474 SE00-0000-G100 3. i "LE ANl) SUITITFLE (240) An annotated bibliography of the sociology and political economy of Somalia, Sudan, and 4. I'lRSONAL AUTHORS (100)

Fleuret, Patrick; Jama, M. A.; Laitin, David; Murdock, M. S.; Thotas, G. L.

5. CORPORATE AUTHORS (101)

Inst, for Development Anthropology

6. DOCUMENT DATE (110) 7. NUMBER OF PAGES (120) 8. ARC NUMBER (170)

1979 17p. _ AFRO16.301.F616 9. REFERENCE ORGANIZATION (130) IDA 10. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES (500)

11. ABSTRACT (950)

12. DESCRIPTORS (920) 13. PROJECT NUMBER (150) Bibliographies Scciology Economic development 14. CONTRACT NO.(140) 15. CONTRACT Social sciences TYPE (140) Sudan AID/afr-C-1594 Somalia 16. TYPE OF DOCUMENT (160) Tanzania 58

AID 590-7 (10-79) INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT ANTHROPOLOGY, INC. Westview Station c : P. 0. Box 45, 13905 Binyhaiton, New York f7

AN AINOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE SOCIOLOGY AND

POLITICAL EC)NOMY OF SOMALIA, SUDAN, AND

TANZANIA

prepared with the assistance of Patrick Fleuret Mohamud A. Jama David Laitin Muneera Salem Murdock Garry L. Thomas

Contract No. AID/afr-C-1504

June 1979 This bibliography is prepared as a guide, to assist development officers; and contractor personnel in the identification, design, implementation, and assessment of socially sound programs and projects which better benefit rural low income populations in Somalia, Sudan, afid Tanzania, and are based on their needs, interests, and participation. It is not comprehensive. It stresses monographic material which is widely avail- able, and which could form the basis of working libraries for AID missions. It ignores most of the vast periodical literature and it omits documents prepared specifically for AID under the assumption that these are well-known and widely distributed in the region or are easily available from the AID Reference Center. SO MAL I A

Tile bulk of the expatriate Somali literature is in Italian and French. A genera bibliograpihy by I'ohadw ed Khalif Salad, Somalia: a Biblioraphical Survey (Wesport, CN Greenwood Press., 1977) is a g.od source of technical information - -e., geolog.y, soil! minerals, c IirwLate). There is a very useful, although not anrntated, bib] iography in Cas tagno (197b), and in Lewis (1909), the latter with hrief annotations. Much relevai materiatl will be found in Harold G. Marcus The Modern History of Ethiooia and the Hoi of Africa: a Select and Annotated Bibliograp-i-(S-tafof,-CA: Hoover Insti tution Press -1 127- An early listing of documents was compiled by Helen F. Conover, Officii Publications of Sonaliland, 1941-1959 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Lihrary of Congress, 1960). In addition to such continent-wide journals as Africa and the Journal of Modern African Studies, a good source is Horn of Africa Journal, published quarterly (P. 0 Box 803, Summit, NJ 07901. Ali Issa Abdi 1978 Comnercial Banks and Economic Development. New York: Praeger.

Limited but useful accounts of Somali commercial bank practices.

Andrzejewski, B. W. and I. M. Lewis, eds. 1964 Somal i Poetry, an Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Castagno, Margaret 1975 Historical Dictionary of Somalia. African Historical Dictionaries, No. 6. ,letuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

An alphabetic listing of persons, places, concepts, things, and events in Somalia. Sample: "DANDARAWIYA. A small tariga, a branch of the Ahmadiya, with a few agricultural settlements in the north. The Dandarawiya is more puritanical in its religious observances than the Ahmadiya, Qadariya, Rifaiya, or Salihiya." Good bibliography.

Cerulli, Enrico 1957, 1959, 1964 Somalia: Scritti vari editi ed inediti. Rome: Istituto Poli- grafico dello Stato P.V.

This is the major source of historical and sociological information for the Southern region of Somalia, complementing Marlowe's work in Central Somalia, and Lewis' in the North.

Decraene, Philippe somalienne." evue Francaise d'Etudes Politiq 1977a "Notes sur May.la voie socialiste Africaines,

1977b L'exp6rience socialiste sonalienne. Paris: Berger-Levrault.

Correspondent for Le Monde and editor-in-chief of Revue Francaise d'Etudes Politiques Africaines, Decraene has authored the best of the'journalistic accounts of Soma'i development efforts under military/socialist rule.

Essa Mahanud Y. 1972 Low-cost Housing in Somalia: a Study of Traditional Housing in Somalia and a Proposal for a New Housing Concept. Copenhagen. Food and AgrictIitur, Organization 1968 Aqricultural and Water S urveyj Somalia. Vol. 6, Social and Economic Aspects of Development. Rome: FAO/UNDP.

A report on sociologicai factors influencing agricultural development.

Ganzglass, Martin R. 1971 The Penal Code of the Somali Democratic Republic: with Cases, Cownmentary, and Examples. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.

International Monetary Fund 1976 Somalia: Recent Economic Developments. Washington, D. C.: IMF. Information on domestic production during the early 1970s, prices, employmey and earnings, public finance, development planning, money and banking, balance of payments, and exchange and trade. There are the usual useful IMF tables of information, plus brief narrative sections on resettlement efforts and the structure of the public sector. Such material goes rapidly out-of-date, yet there is a recurrent temptation to use it faute de mieux.

Interrational Labour Office 1977 Economic Transformation in a Socialist Framework: an Employment and Basic Needs Oriented Development Strategy for Somalia. Addis Ababa: ILO.

The most useful of the studies by international organizations, for it attempts to understand Somalia ecenomy and social organization within the context of the development posture seltcted by t'ie government. "Although the objective of maximisation of proluctive employrment is mentioned in the Development Programme in a rather general way, th. Government has been keenly alive to the problem and is perhaps one Pr the very few countries in Africa which have taken concerted measures to reduce, if not wipe out, unemployment and under-employment-" There is an interesting technical paper by geographer Jeremy Swift on nomadic , and other papers dealing with the livestock "sector", including a discussion of pastoral cool eratives.

Karp, Mark 1960 The Economics of Trusteeship in So,,alia. Boston: Boston University Press.

A now out-of-date discussion of the economics of and pastoralism in southern Somalia during the 1950s. Contains useful bibliographic foot- notes dealing with economic developments.

Konczacki, Z. A. 1973 The Economics of Pastoralism: a Case Study of Sub-Saharan Africa. London: Frank Cass.

With good intentions but flawed science, the author looks for a solution to the "crisis" of pastoralism on the semi-arid range in three African regions Somalia, Botswana, and the Sahel. The author misses the dynamism of pastoral ecology, the optimizing behavior of herdsmen which has been pointei out in almost every modern field-based study. Because of his mobility, he the herdsman shuns toe accumulation of material goods. "As a consequence of this, his cultural development is restricted and his way of life remains largely unchanged." Laitin, David 1977 Politics, Language and Thought. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

A discussion of the implementation of language reform in Somalia and its implications for development.

1976 "The political economy of military rule in Somalia," Journal of Modern African Studies, September.

A comparison of civilian and military regimes in their attempts to fulfill development goals. Aggregate data are used; no microanalyses of development projects are included. Laurence, Margaret 1965 The Prophet's Camel Bell. London: Macmillan & Co. Ltd.

1964 New Wind in a Dry Land. New York: Knopf.

A Canadian woman describes her experiences as the wife of an engineer on development projects in Somalia's northern areas in the 1950s. A sensitive and sympathetic appraisal of Somali ethos. lewis, loan M. 1975 Abaar: the Somali Drought. London: International African Institute.

Good discussion of the problem and some attempted solutions.

1969 Peoples of the Horn of Africa: Somali, Afar and Saho. London: Internation African Institute.

Ethnographic survey, originally published in 1955, reissued with a new prefa in which Lewis wrote: "...there can be few countries where the foreign researcher is more welcome or given greater freedom to carry out his work... The material is presented in the outline form standard in all volumes of the Ethnographic Survey of Africa. There is a useful bibliography with brief annotations.

1965 The Modern History of Somaliland: from Nation to State. London: Weidenfel and Nicolson.

This is a fine short introduction to Somali history, which adds information from the oral tradition to that from the documentary sources to achieve a penetrating analysis. The Somalis were divided among three European powers, but remained culturally a single nation. Their post-colonial history, focus on finding a single state for its people, reverses that of other African states, whose major internal problem is achieving nationhood out of a conger ies of different peoples. The book is now out-of-date, but it remains usefu for the colonial and immediately post-colonial periods.

1962 Marriage and the Family in Northern Somaliland. East African Studies No. IE Kampala: East African Institute of Social Research.

A brief technical study of the relationships between lineage incorporation c divorce, in a society which has both high rates of marital instability and patrilineal descent. A useful glimpse not only of Somali kinship, but also what social anthropologists write about for each other. Lewis, I. M. (continued) 1961 A Pastoral Democracy: a Study of Pastoralism and Poli tics anona the Northe Somali of the Horn of Africa. New York: Oxford University Press for Inter national African Institute.

Based on 20 nonths of intensive field research during the ,mid 1950s, this i a now classic study of pastoral social and political organization, how competition between clans "over water and grazing rights is resolved. Lewis aralyzes both the nomadic Dulbahante and the farming Jibriil Abokor. Despi the -esearch being over 20 years old, it remains must reading on both Somali and pastoral bibliographies.

Marlowe, David H. 1963 The Galjaal Barsana of Central Somalia: a Study of the Relationship betwee Socio-Political Change, Inter and Intra Group Conflict and Political and Social Behavior. Originally offered as a doctoral thesis at Harvard Univer sity, and subsequently as a final report under Contract AMSDA 49-007-MD 96C Human Research and Resources Division, Office of the Surgeon General, Unite States Army.

Like Lewis's work Further north, this study focuses on lineage organizatior and politics among Somali during the late 1950s. A very worthwhile study, it may be difficult to obtain. A copy may be consulted in the Institute for Development Anthropology library and, of course, at Harvard.

Muuse Galaal and B. W. Andrzejewski 1956 Hikmaad Somaali. London: Oxford University Press. Nurudin Faarah 1970 From a Crooked Rib. London.

An insightful novel about Somalia by a Somali.

Travis, William 4967 The Voice of the Turtle. London.

A somewhat fictionalized account of the frustrations and joys of working with Somalis. Travis was engaged in a turtle canning project under private sponsorship during the early independence years.

Trimingham, J. Spencer 1952 Islam in Ethiopia. London: Oxford University Press.

Includes some material on the history of Islam in Somalia. SUDAN

The Sudan is an area of classic anthropoligical investigation. The British colonial rulers, desiring to learn something ibout the culture of the people they were ruling, encouraged anthropological fieldwork in the Sudan especially in the southern region; see Professors C.G. Seligian and B.Z. Seligmnin, Paqan Tribes of the Nilotic Sudan, 1932, and the works of E.E. Evans-Pritchard, The NuLLer 1940, Kinship and Marriage Among the Nuer 1951, and Nuer Religion 1956. It is said that the field of political anthropology began in the Sudan with Evans-Pritchard's studies of the Nuer. Evans-.Pritchard argued that the Nuer, qithout. stratification and elaborate political mechanisms, maintained social con- trol through the operation of their segmentary lineage system.

The Sudan itself has an active tradition of publishing. Sudan Notes and Records, founded in 1918 is ne of the most respected journals in Africa. Once almost exclusively dominated by British scholars it is now almost totally Sudanese in both editorship and authorship. Other publications in the Sudan are, Sudan Journal of Development Research published biannually by the Economic and Social Research Council and Sudan Journal of Economic and Social Studies; monograph series published b2! Development Studies and Research Centre of the Faculty of Economics a,,j Social Studies at the University of Khartoum; seminar series pub- lished by the Institute of African and Asian Studies also at the University.

The following bibliography is only of books and essays in books that appeared after 1960.

Ahmed, Abdel-Ghaffar M. 1974 Shaykhs and Followers: Political Sturggle in the Rufa'a al-Hci Nazirate in the Sudan. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press.

Dr. Ahmed is a Sudanese social anthropologist who has been very active in development programs. The Study is the result of fieldwork carried out among the Rufa'a al-Hoi in the southern Gezira for a period of six months in 1969 and six weeks in 1971. The author gives a "descriptive analysis" of the struggle for political power in the Rufa'a al-Hoi Nazirate Nazirate politics are viewed in ter'ms of three arenas: the tent cluster and the camp, the village, and the Rural Council. The arenas are por- trayed as hierachical and interdependent. Prizes gained in one arena are used in competition in other arenas.

1973 "Tribal and Sedentary Elites: A Bridge Between Two Communities," in Cynthia Nelson, ed., The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society. Berkeley: Institute of International-trudies, University of California.

An essay on the relationship between nomads and sedentary populations in the Funj area in the southern part of the Gezira. The relationship is viewed in a transactional framework: the two groups are engaged in a symbiotic relationship where they exchaige goods and perform services for each other. The role of the elite as middlemen is emphasized. Asad, Talal 1970 The Kababish : Power, Authority and Consent in a Nomadic Tribe. New York: Praeger Publishers.

A detailed and scphisticated study of the socio-political organization of the Kababish pastoralists of northern Kordofan. The focus oV the book is the relationship between the Kababish rulers arid their subjects. Asad introduces the topic by discussing the authority of the Kababish household head over his animals and those of his wife and younger children. Here Asad stresses the role of individual choice as it relates to herd management. The discussion of authority of the house- hold heads serves as an excellent introduction to the main theme of the book: the political authority and dominance of a small elite group ever the rest of the Kababish and the structural basis for that domi- nance.

Barclay, Harold B. 1963 Buurri al Lamaab. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

An ethnography of Buurri al Lamaab, a suburban village near Khartoum. Barclay provides information about things such as the political organiza- tion of the village, economy, religion, family and kinship grouping, etc. The book is not strong in internal cohesion but nevertheless is useful for' social anthropologists and development planners who are interested in the area.

Barnett, Tony 1977 The Gezira Scheme: An Illus;jn of Development. London: Frank Cass.

A study of the Gezira Scheme, a large cotton production, intensive irrigation scheme in the Gezira between the White and the Blue in Central Sudan. Barnett examines the effects on the tenants of the incorporation ,n the Scheme, which was established during the Condomii- nium Period and corntinues to the present day, in a world capitalist economy. Barnett concludes that the tenants are excluded from effec- tive political control and are becoming more and more in debt. The reason is that labor requirements on tenancies exceed family labor available and the tenant is almost always forc d to hire labor. Since this labor is relatively expensive the tenant has to enter into debt to pay for it. Only tenants with access to other resources, either capital or kinship ties, might be able to escape debt. Barnett argues that what is happening in the Gezira Scheme is an example of underdevel- opment rather than development. Barth, Fredrik 1967 'Human Resources: Social and Cultural Features of the Jebel Marra Project Area." Department of Social Anthropology, University of Bergen. Mirieo.

This repcrt was prepared for FAO as part of a joint study by a group of experts. Although the report itself might not be easily accessible., it has been included in this bibliography since it reappears in parts in R. Firth, ed., Themes in Economic Anthropology, London, 1967, under the title "Economic Spheres in Darfur." The group of experts consisted of social aothropologists, hydrologists, geologists, and agronomists, and worked over a period of five years during which they made an in- ventory of the total resources of the area. The above report deals with human resources. Barth shows how agricultural production is organized in the area and how these forms of production are embedded in the wider social context of Fur villages. He argues that for suc- cussful social change to occur in the area, the present social organiza- tion which enables the population to sustain themselves must first be replaced by another which is functionally equivalent.

Buxton, J.C. 1964 Chiefs and Strangers: A Study of Political Assimilation Among the Mandari. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

A historical reconstruction of the political structure of the Mndari of southern Su'an. Buxton focuses on clientship, a very important institution in the Mandari political s.stem. It allows a chief to strengthen his power by entering into a client relationship with a "strong" outsider. The relationship functiuns to the mutual advantage of both parties since the host offers his clients protection and the clients serve to strengthen the host's political power.

Cunnison, Ian 1966 Baggara Arabs: Power and the Lineage in a Sudanese Nomad Tribe. London: Oxford University Press.

This study based on a field research between 1952 and 1955 examines the social organization of the Humr, a section of the Baggara Arabs of southwest Kordofan. Cunnison discusses how the H-umr political organiza- tion changed from an agnatic segmentary lineage system in the 19th century to a hierachical administrative system of Nazirs, Omdas and Sheikhs (imposed over the segmentary lineage system) in the Condominium period. Although the focus of the book is political, Cunnison provides excellent information about the pastoral way of life of the Humr. Cunnison, I. and W.R. James, eds. 1972 Essays in Sudan Ethnography. London: Hurst.

A collection of essays by a dozen social anthropologists on Sudan ethnography. The essays cover a wide range of topics and areas ip the Sudan: blood'and money and vengence among the Baggara in south- western Kordofan (Cunnison), the scructural basis for the political stratification among the Kababish of northern Kordofan (Asad), sedentari- zation not necessarily as prefering the sedentary ideology but as a strategic choice based on different economic and ecologic alterna- tives among the Rura'a al-Hoi in the southern part of the Gezira in the Blue Nile Province (Ahmed), and others.

Dafalla, Hasan 1975 The Nubian Exodus. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press.

A detailed narration of a massive planned resettlement of 50,000 Sudanese Nubians who had to be moved from Wadi Halfa as a result of the construction of the Aswan High Dam and resettled in the Khashm el Girba area in eastern Sudan. The book is divided into two parts; the first describes the Nubian homeland, their traditions and their economy. The second part deals with the emigration itself. Dafalla was the Commissioner of Wadi Halfa and later Commissioner in charge of emigra- tion and lived in Wadi Halfa for six years.

Deng, Francis Mading 1972 The Dinka of the Sudan. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

A case study written by Francis Deng, son of the late Paramount Chief of the Ngok Dinka, a diplomat, who holds a Doctrate in Law from Yale University and is an anthropologist. The book is "a portrait of Dinka life from birth to death; in tradition and in transition." Deng dis- cusses the north-south conflict not only as a political one between north and south but also as ethnic between Arabic north and Black African south, and as religious between Islam and .

1971 Tradition and Modernization: A Challenge for Law Among the Dinka of the Sudan. New Haven: Yale University Press.

A study of change and continuity among the Ngok Dinka with emphasis on "traditional" law and outside pressures to "modernize" it. Deng regards law as an instrument of change in Dinka society.

1972 The Dinka Through Their Songs. London: Oxford University Press.

'A comprehensive coverage of Dinka songs (texts and translations) with a sociological introduction of about one quarter of the book." Deng, Francis Mading 1974 Dinka Folktales: African Stories from the Sudan. New York: Africana.

A collection of 21 Dinka folktales with an analysis of the way "Dinka institutions and Vdlues" are reflected in them.

1978 Africans of Two Worlds: The Dinka in Afro-Arab Sudan. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Haaland, Gunnar 1969 "Economic Determinants in Ethnic Processes," in Frederik Barth, ed., Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 6 An essay which describes and analyzes processes involved in ethnic boundary maintenance between two major ethnic groups in western Sudan, the sedentary hoe cultivator Fur and the cattle nomads Baggara. Haalanid argues that the identities of Fur/Baggara are associated with different economic specialization and different value standards. A Fur who practices cattle nomadism is faced with organizational pro- blems which the Fur pattern of individual households adapted to hue cultivation, proves inadequate. Also the Fur value standards become very difficult to meet. Thus Haaland &rgues that the nomadizatior, of sedentary Fur implies a change of ethnic identity; the nomadic Fur become Baggara.

Hoyle, Steve 1977 "The Khashm el Girba Agricultural Scheme: An Example of an Attempt to Settle Nomads," in Phil O'Keefe and Ben Wisner, eds., Landuse and Development. London: International African Institute.

In this paper Hoyle examines the government's attempts to settle nomads on the New Halfa Agricultural Scheme. Although the government regards the Scheme as a "Failure" where it attempts to settle nomads since the extent of settlement on the Scheme is slightly below 50% of projected figure, Hoyle argues that the same evidence could be interpreted as showing that the Scheme does serve some economic purpose for the inhabitants of the area. The Scheme did not function as an alterna- tive source of income to the nomadic population but proved very impor- tant as a supplementary one. The present results could have been pre- dicted had the government regarded the Scheme in the wider context instead of as an entity in itself. Mohammed, Abbas 1973 "The Nomadic and the Sedentary: Polar Complentaries--Not Polar Opposites," in Cynthia Nelson, ed., The Desert and the Sown: Nomads in the Wider Society. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies, University of California.

An essay which challenges the popular view that the relationship between pastoral nomads and their sedentary neighbors is one of "polar opposition." The author argues for the view that the relationship is rather one of "polar complementarity."

Murdock, Muneera Salem 1979 The Impact of Aqricultural Development on a Pastoral Society: The Shukriya of the Eastern Sudan. Preface by Prufessor Michael M. Horowitz. Mimeo. [Available from AID Reference Center].

This study is the result of three months fieldwork among the Shukriya of the Butana in eastern Sudan. The author examines the effect of agri- cultural development schemes on pastoral societies. She demonstrates how the benefits of scheme tenancies have been unequally distributed, both between the major ethnic units involved--Halfawis resettled from Wadi Halfa, and the indigenous pastoral Shukriya and related Arabic- speaking herders--and within these units. She shows that while tradi- tional elites benefited disproportionately elite women may actually have lost ground.

SrbO, Gunnar M. 1977 How to Survive Development: The Story of New Halfa. Khartoum: Devel- opment Studies and Research Centre, Faculty of Economics and Social Studies, University of Khartoum. Monograph No. 6.

In this study Srbo examines the phenomenon of "off-scheme interests" among the tenants of the New Halfa Agricultural Scheme. Although the government attributes the "failure" to the poor performance of the tenants who spend as little time a, possible on the Scheme in favor of their "off-scheme interests", S6rbO argues that it is the pursuit of these interests which enables the Scheme to continue to exist, since it enables the tenants not to rely on the Scheme for all their income but only for part of it.

1977b "Nomads of the Scheme--A Study of Irrigation Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eastern Sudan," in Phil O'Keefe and Ben Wisner, eds., Landuse and Development. London: International African Institute.

An essay on the reaction of the Shukriya tribes in eastern Sudan to the Sudanese government's attempts to sedentarize them. The author states that although the Shukriya participated in the agricultural scheme, they continued to pursue their traditional activities of herding ancd rainfed sorghum cultivation. This continued interest in livestock is viewed as an insurance against the risks of modern agriculture. TANZAN IA

The following is a brief, annotated social science bibliography on Tanzania. Almost all of the books have been published since 1970, although for several, the field research was done in the late 1960's. No articles are included, ex- cept for those published in edited collections, the feeling being that writings published in book form are generally more accessible to someone interested ir building a library collection. Much of the most significant recent field re- search has been done by non-Americans; this fact is underscored by the fact that many of the books, listed here, are published outside the United States. All, however, are readily available through American distributors.

There are several basic readings on Tanzania left off this list because they did not meet the criteria employed in putting together this bibliography. Anyone interested in understanding Tanzania should read the three volumes of President Julius Nyerere's collected writings and speeches: Freedom and Unjl (1965), Freedom and Socialism (1968), and Freedom and Developmentl9l7-, all published by Oxford University Press. The Arusha Declaration Ten Years After (1977) is the President's most important piece of writing since his last pubilished collec- tion. There are several very readable accounts of Tanzania's political history; among them are: G. Andrew Mcuuire, Toward "Uhuru" in Tanzania (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969) and William Edgett Smith, We Must Run While They Walk (New York: Random House, 1971). Cranford Pratt's The Critical Phase in Tanzania, 1945-1968; Nyerere and the Emergence of a Socialist Strategy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), is the most recent scholarly study. Finally, for anyone in Tanzania interested in reading studies based upon field research, there are three excellent sources of material unavailable, for the most part, in the rest of the world: the mimeographed seminar papers given at the Economic Research Bureau (E R B ) and the monographs and research reports issued by the Bureau of Resource Assessment and Land Use Planning (BRALUP), both attached to the University of Dar-es-Salaam; and the senior and Master's theses of the University's social science majors, available at the campu - library.

Boesen, Jannick, Birgit Storgaard Madsen, and Tony Moody 1977 : Socialism From Above. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

The initial field research for this study, carried out by a political scientist, a social anthropologist, and an agricultural economist, was done in West Lake Region between 1970-72. Two members of the research team later spent more than a year in the Region helping to prepare an Integrated Regional Development Plan. The study establishes that there was almost no policy generated which could translate ideology into implementation. The result was not only an implementation approach which negated the philosophical under-pinnings of -.jamaa and ignored prerequisites for .village development; the freedom given the bureau- cracy to implement villagization also led to the bureaucratization of development and the protection of bureaucratic class interests. Clark, 14. E. 1978 Socialist Development and Public Investment in Tanzania, 1964-73. Toronto: Toronto University Press.

With its emphasis on rural development as opposed to urban development, Tanzania has pursued an individual path in socialis. development. This work is the first empirical analysis of public investment in matters of agriculture, education, rural health, manufacturing, and coimnerce, comparing the actual pr..gramme of investment to the strategy outlined in the Arusha Declaration of 1967.

Cliffe, Lionel, and John S. Saul, eds. 1972 Socialism in Tanzania: An Interdisciplinary Reader; Vol. I: Politics. Dar-es-Salaam: East African Publishing House.

1973 Socialism in Tanizania: An Interdisciplinary Reader; Vol. II: Policies. Dar-es-Salaam: East African Publishing House.

These two volumes, with more than 100 articles between them, include most of the articles on the Tanzanian colonial lejacy, imperialism, iciaiism, development and underdevelopment writter, during the five yea!s after the Arusha Declaration (1967). While more than half of the articles were written by political sciertists, a consistent effort is made "to view Tanza nian pc,litics (and policies) in historical persrective... (and) in relatonship with the economic, social, and cultural dimensi-ns of Tanzanian life." Most of the arti les are by non-lanzanians, Yepresenting perhaps 15 ndtio,lities, many by the so called "white Marxists" at the University of Dar-es-Salaam during those years.

Cliffe, Lionel, et al., eds. 1975 Rural Cooperation in Tanzania. Dar-es-Salaam: Tanzania Pub!*shing House.

This volu. ,- is a collection of 24 articles by social scientists written between 1970-72, aamd three government (or Nyerere) papers, including thce seminal piecL "Socialism and Rural Development." The articles analyze the polit..al economy of rural Tanzania, the marketing coopera- tives (since disbanded), the implementation of ujamaa, and projections as to the problems inherent in institutionalizing rural cooperation in a country with such diverse cultures and political economies.

Finucane, James R. 1974 Rural Development and Bureaucracy in Tanzania; the Case of Mwan;a_ Region. Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies.

This study, based upon field research between 1958-70, examines the Tanzanian government's stated ideology that, in order for both develop- ment and growth to occur, villagers must patticipate in the planning process. It concludes that, in fact, the bureaucratic (or development- from-above) model persists: there remains the expectation that develop- ment can be achieved through the exhortations of distant leaders, that the best decisions can be made centrdlly on behalf of the natiout's farmers. The 1972-73 decisions to decentralize (or regionalize) the planning process, he asserts, "are designed not to increase pirticipa- tion of the people in decisions, but to produce a better bur aucratic method." Where Tanzania is different from many other developing nGtions, is in the fact that it articulates a participatory, more egalitarian model, and its elites are le!s well off and are better intentioned.

Hekken, P. M. van, and H.U.E. Thoden van Velzen 1972 Land Scarcity __dRural Inequality__in Tanzania; Somte Case Studies from Rungwe District. The Hague: Moiton and Co.

The authors of this book did anthropological fieldworm in three villages in southwestern Ta:izania between 1966-68. Their study unalyzes the growth of rural class formation in a Tanzania which is attempting to curb social exploitation and privilege. Basic to rural class formation is "relative land scarcity" and unequal access to relatively scarce land. While poorer farmers had not yet developed a sense of class consciousness, wealthy farmers were successful aL "establishing net- works both within their own communities and with powerful persons out- side the village in order to safeguard and expand their interests." Numerous case studies in patron-client relationships, intimidation, social leveling, and formal dispute settlement illustrate the thesis.

Knight, C. Gregory 1974 Ecology and Chane:. Rural Modernization in an African Community. New York: Academic Press.

This study, by a geographer, is one of the most comprehensive and insightful of local studies. Knight studied the Mbozi in South West Tanzania in the late 1960's. He is particularly useful for including excellent quantitative data and for making a sophisticated analysis of the processes of social change. His emphasis on what he calls "elhnogeography" adds an important dimension to this work. Highly recommended.

Kurtz, Laura S. 1978 Historical Dictionary of Tanzania. Metuchen, NJ and London: The Scare- crow Press.

Although not a social scientific work, this is a useful compendium of information on contemporary as well as historical Tanzania. It includes a short chronology and very brief history of the country, a list of frequently-used acronyms, and a good, 70 page, selective (but non- annotated) bibliography, organized into nearly 100 subject areas. The "dictionary" is more than 250 pages of descriptions: place names, organizations, basic who's who, products, publications, historical and political events, themes, and English and Swahili "buzz words." McHenry, Jr., Dean E. 1979 TanzaniasUjmad Villarnes; The Implementation of a Rural Development Stra tegY. Berkeley: Institute of International Studies (University of Cali ifornia).

Combining extensive I ibrary research (including quoted material from numerous University of Dar-es-Saldam student's theses) with his own field research, McHenry established first the historical arid r litical context for Tanzanian villagization efforts, ther examines the means (persuasion, inducement, and compulsion) used to move people into u i_aa villages, and finally evaluates the ujamaa village policy. He estimates that only 25%' of the nation's rural dwellers moved into nucleated settlements as a result of either persuasion or inducement, that force (or the threat of force) wds the most important variable in accomplishing villagization (although only rarely with any violence to people), and the party has retreated "for the forseeable future" from ujamaa-ization (communal farming),

Newman, James L. 1970 Th Ecololical Basis of Subsistence Change Among the Sandawe of Tanzaria. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences.

This book is a cultural geographer's study of the changing subsis- tence mode in a one-timr., hunting-and-gathering population in the Central Highlands of Tanzania. It presents an inventory of the Sandawe habitat, a description of how the people perceive their environment (including the socio-political environment), and discusses the adap- tations required of the population as it moved from a nomadic exist- ence to a sendentary (and dispersed) subsistence, mixed-agricultural system. Newman describes the physical environment as being "brittle," and argues that a "concomitant of environmental brittleness is marginality for human habitation." He sees "the integrated, multiple land-use pattern" of the pre-Arusha Declaration Sandawe as probably the most optimal system for living on the land, and predicts that intensive agricultural development projects or ranching schemes, continued reclaimation of land in Zsetse fly-infested areas, and the increased use of at the expense of more drought-tolerant grains, all will lead to environmental deterioration, human suffering, and dislocation.

Rald, Jorgen, and Karen Rald 1975 Rural Organization in District, Tanzania. Uppsala: Scandina- vian Institute of African Studies.

This study, done by anthropologists over a three year period in West Lake Region, has two parts to it: the first half of the book deals with how the Haya people "organize their life in society with regard to space arid time," examining especially land use, land tenure, agri- cultural and animal-husbandry strategies, and the policy of agricultural extension; the second half of the book is a very thorough labor allocation/agricultural return/household expenditure and consumption survey of approximately 100 households in one political ward over an agricultural year. Among the issues treated are male and female labor, roles under traditional and (changing) cash crop systems, the inroads cash farming and specialization have made on Haya culture, the nature and administration of the marketing cooperative in the area, and the extent to which sinallholder development has led to rural class formation.

Ruthenberg, Hans, ed. 1968 Smallholder Fa:'ming and Smallholder Development in Tanzania: Ten Case Studies. Munchen: Weitfurum Verlag.

The case studies presented here are summaries of ten individual studies previously published in German; the book includes, as well, two new integrating essays by the editor on characteristics of snallholder farming and definitions of various types of farming systems. Several of the essays include fairly detailed accounts and inventories under such headings as land use patterns, labor economy, livestock economy, and economic returns. Some devote attention to diet, nutrition, and health, the profitability of government agricultural projects, or the comparative advantage of different scales production.

Samoff, Joel 1974 Tanzania: Local Politics and the Structure of Power. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

This study is different from most studies of political development in Tanzania in that it focuses upon neither the center-periphery relation- ship (the penetration of national politics in rural areas) nor national politics, but upon local politics in an urban area. Set in Moshi, a northern town of nearly 30,000 people, in 1968-69, shortly after the country announced its strategy of socialism and self-reliance, Samoff examines entreprenuerial maneuvering and class behavior as well as local political leadership and institutions of governance. He con- cludes that in this very prosperous area of Tanzania, a legacy of anti-colonialism and "anti-ceniter orientation" remains, the sense of alienation directed now towards a centrist political system perceived as being committed to challenging the existing social and political order.