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Physical Properties of Escherichia Coli Spheroplast Membranes 2082 Biophysical Journal Volume 107 November 2014 2082–2090 Article Physical Properties of Escherichia coli Spheroplast Membranes Yen Sun,1 Tzu-Lin Sun,1 and Huey W. Huang1,* 1Department of Physics & Astronomy, Rice University, Houston, Texas ABSTRACT We investigated the physical properties of bacterial cytoplasmic membranes by applying the method of micropi- pette aspiration to Escherichia coli spheroplasts. We found that the properties of spheroplast membranes are significantly different from that of laboratory-prepared lipid vesicles or that of previously investigated animal cells. The spheroplasts can adjust their internal osmolality by increasing their volumes more than three times upon osmotic downshift. Until the spheroplasts are swollen to their volume limit, their membranes are tensionless. At constant external osmolality, aspiration increases the surface area of the membrane and creates tension. What distinguishes spheroplast membranes from lipid bilayers is that the area change of a spheroplast membrane by tension is a relaxation process. No such time dependence is observed in lipid bilayers. The equilibrium tension-area relation is reversible. The apparent area stretching moduli are several times smaller than that of stretching a lipid bilayer. We conclude that spheroplasts maintain a minimum surface area without tension by a mem- brane reservoir that removes the excessive membranes from the minimum surface area. Volume expansion eventually exhausts the membrane reservoir; then the membrane behaves like a lipid bilayer with a comparable stretching modulus. Interestingly, the membranes cease to refold when spheroplasts lost viability, implying that the membrane reservoir is metabolically maintained. INTRODUCTION Direct probing of the physical properties of cell membranes (23), and daptomycin (24). To understand the in situ activ- has been performed on various animal cells with the ities of membrane-acting antibiotics, we need to know the methods of micropipette aspiration (1–5) and tether pulling physical properties of the target membranes (25). (6–10). These physical studies have provided invaluable As inhabitants of natural environments, bacteria have insight into the mechanical properties of eukaryotic cell abilities to survive very large changes of external osmolality membranes and thus a better understanding of the mem- (17). In E. coli, the cytoplasm responses to the changes of brane’s functions in cell biology (1,8,9,11). In comparison, external osmolality by adjusting its solute content and the the cytoplasmic membranes of bacteria are much less ac- amount of water (17,26–30). As a result, the cytoplasmic os- cessible to experimental study because they are normally motic pressure could exceed that of the surrounding medium shielded by outer membranes. Experimentalists have made by 0.5 to 3 atm, as the external osmolality decreases from use of spheroplasts, the cells from which the outer mem- 0.5 to 0.03 osmole/kg (Osm) (30). The cytoplasmic mem- branes have been removed, for patch-clamp, fusion, and brane cannot sustain such a large pressure drop. Cayley other experiments (12–14) and also for antibiotic studies et al. (30) have showed that the periplasmic solutes and vol- (15). However the physical properties of spheroplast mem- ume also changed with external osmolality, and concluded branes have not been studied. In this study we apply the that the periplasm and cytoplasm are iso-osmotic (31,32). method of micropipette aspiration to probe the stretching Hence the turgor pressure is supported by the peptido- elasticity of Escherichia coli (E. coli) spheroplast mem- glycan-cell wall complex, rather than by the cytoplasmic branes. The measurements reveal the basic properties of membrane (21,30). However, the physical properties of bacterial cytoplasmic membranes, which are significantly cytoplasmic membranes are otherwise unknown. different from that of red cell membranes, or of labora- Accordingly, we investigated E. coli speheroplasts over a tory-prepared lipid vesicles. It is generally believed that range of external osmolality. We found that, except at very the tension in the cytoplasmic membrane determines the low external osmolalities, the spheroplast membranes are actions of mechanosensitive channels and osmoregula- tensionless. However, increasing the area of a spheroplast tors (16–18), and perhaps other integral proteins as well membrane by micropipette aspiration creates tension. As (19,20). The cytoplasmic membranes are also the target of the tension changes by aspiration, the area of the spheroplast naturally produced membrane-acting antibiotics, as has membrane changes to a new equilibrium value by a relaxa- been demonstrated recently with LL37 (21,22), cecropin tion process. And the relaxation is loading-rate dependent. The equilibrium tension-area relation is reversible. These results indicate that the cell maintains a minimum surface Submitted May 8, 2014, and accepted for publication September 30, 2014. area without a tension, and the surface area is controlled *Correspondence: [email protected] by a membrane reservoir equivalent to membrane folds. Editor: Hagan Bayley. Ó 2014 by the Biophysical Society 0006-3495/14/11/2082/9 $2.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2014.09.034 E. coli Spheroplast Membrane 2083 At constant external osmolality, unfolding and refolding of water-filled U tube manometer and a negative pressure in the pipette was the membranes are reversible, thus providing an apparent produced by adjusting the height of the water level reference to the atmo- elasticity of stretching. However, when the cell lost its sphere pressure (34). Although the technique for measuring spheroplasts and giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) is the same, the small size of sphe- viability, the area increase loses its reversibility, implying roplasts imposes some restrictions on spheroplast measurements. For GUV that the reversible membrane reservoir is metabolically experiments, the typical dimensions are 5 mm for the micropipette radius maintained. Our results can be understood by assuming ðRpÞ and 15 mm for the GUV radius ðRvÞ. The applied membrane tension that the membrane reservoirs are mediated by reversible is in the range of 1 to 7 mN/m, which requires a suction pressure Dp of 0:27 1:9 103 2:7 18:9 noncovalent chemical bonds. À Â Pa, equivalent to À cm of water [calculated from the Laplace equation Dp ¼ 2tð1=Rp À 1=RvÞ ] (see Fig. S1 A). For a spheroplast of radius 2.5 mm, using a micropipette of radius 1.1 mm, MATERIALS AND METHODS the same tension would require three times as much water pressure. Thus the maximum applicable membrane tension is limited to ~ 2 mN/m Bacterial strains and culture by the 20 cm height of the water column. If an aspirated spheroplast consisted of a spherical part and a cylindri- E. coli K-12 strain MG1655 (ATCC 700926) was purchased from ATCC cal part (a protrusion into the micropipette) (similar to the GUV shown (Manassas, VA). Luria-Bertani (LB) medium (5 g/L yeast extract, 10 g/L in Fig. S1 A), Lp the length of the protrusion, Rp the radius of the micropi- peptone from casein, and 10 g/L sodium chloride) containing 15g/L agar pette, and Rv the radius of the spherical part were carefully measured. from EMD Millipore (Billerica, MA) was used for the growth of colonies Then it was straightforward to show DA ¼ 2pRpDLp þ 8pRvDRv and 2 2 of E. coli. The medium was autoclaved before used for sterility. DV ¼ pRpDLp þ 4pRv DRv (33). As long as the osmolality balance was maintained, there should be no change of volume (the effect of the pressure Chemicals and media change by suction was so small that its contribution to the chemical poten- tial change was ~ 10À3 that of osmolality). Under the condition DV ¼ 0, DA was directly proportional to DL : DA 2pRp 1 Rp=Rv DLp. The frac- Sucrose, Tris, hydrochloric acid, lysozyme, DNase, EDTA, magnesium p ¼ ð À Þ DA=A chloride, sodium hydroxide, cephalexin, carboxyfluorescein, and carbonyl tional area change was calculated from the change of the protrusion DL cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) were purchased from Sigma length p. If aspiration created a spherical protrusion (Fig. S1 B)(35), the V ph2 r h=3 pH2 R H=3 Aldrich (St. Louis, MO). FM 4-64 and Sytox green were purchased from volume was ¼ ð ð ÞÞ þ ð v ð ÞÞ, and the area A 2prh 2pR H Life Technologies (Grand Island, NY). E. coli total lipid extract was pur- ¼ þ v (Fig. S1 C); the area change was calculated at constant chased from Avanti Polar Lipids (Alabaster, AL). volume and the tension was calculated by the Laplace equation Dp ¼ 2tð1=r À 1=RvÞ. The experiment of the GUVs of E. coli total lipid extract followed the Preparation of E. coli spheroplasts previously established method (34). We prepared giant spheroplasts of E. coli by following the detailed pro- cedure described by Renner et al. (14). Briefly, cells were grown in LB me- RESULTS dium by shaking at 37C overnight to the stationary phase. A small aliquot (1:100 dilution) was added into the LB medium and incubated in 37C Giant spheroplasts of E. coli while shaking at 200 rpm until the absorbance at l ¼ 600 nm reached 0.5 to 0.7. One-half ml of the cell culture was diluted to 5 ml in LB medium. The methods for growing E. coli spheroplasts are well estab- m To grow long filamentous cells, cephalexin (60 g/ml) was added and the lished (14,36). First, cephalexin was added to the cell cul- culture was grown with shaking (200 rpm) at 42C for 2 h. After cells reached an average length of ~ 50 mm, cells were harvested by centrifuga- ture. In the presence of cephalexin that blocks septation, tion at 3000 Â g for 1 min. The pellet was suspended in 500 mL of 800 mM E. coli grew into long filaments (Fig. 1 A).
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