PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 http://pos.sissa.it/ The impact of space exper- (Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (2004) † ∗ Conclusions Jets, Gamma-Ray Bursts, Star Formation, Cross Sections of Nuclear Reactions in Stars, Galactic Compact Sources, Habitable Zone in the Milky Way and Exoplanets, Big Bang Theory, Background in the Universe, Problem of the Flatness of the Universe, Extragalactic Background Light, Determination of the Hubble Constant, Re-ionization Epoch Unified Scheme for Collapsed Objects, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • [email protected] [email protected] iments on our knowledge of the physics of the Universe In this paper – a short updated version(GSG2004) of – our we review will paper briefly aboutsubstantially discuss the " research old in and this newedge field. results and feelings, Thanks obtained we to in can describe the astrophysics, theand results, that main Biology". chosen pillars marked We that by will support us remark the the following "Bridgeand importance our between ‘passive of the knowl- physics Big the Bang experiments’ joint venture ground– oftowards and ‘active the space–based physics knowledge that, experiments’ of with the their physicsprospects results, of for our are improving our universe. directed knowledge New of generation thethe experiments aforementioned open main pillars. up new We will discuss about Copyright owned by the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike Licence. c Frontier Research in Astrophysics, 26-31 May 2014 Mondello (Palermo), Italy ⃝ Franco Giovannelli INAF - Istituto di Astrofisica eE-mail: Planetologia Spaziali, Roma Lola Sabau-Graziati INTA-Dpt Cargas Utiles y Ciencias delE-mail: Espacio, Madrid Frontier Research in Astrophysics: Old and New Results PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 Passive Physics Franco Giovannelli " and from " 2 Active Physics Experiments (APEs) " ground– and space–based. The APEs try to reproduce in laboratory the Schematic diagram of the temperature of our Universe versus its age. The domains where APEs Speaker. A footnote may follow. For describing the origin of our Universe, the Big Bang model (BBM) is generally accepted, Figure 1 shows schematically the temperature of the Universe versus its age. The light–red In this paper we will briefly discuss the main pillars of this bridge by using the huge amount of The birth of the universe and its present status constitute the two banks of a river in which ∗ † but it is not complete. Indeed,matter the BBM in is the based on universe the is Cosmological uniformly Principle which distributed assumes on that all scales. This is a very useful approximation Figure 1: and PPEs operate are marked with the light–red and the light–indico rectangles (after Denegri, 2006). Experiments (PPEs) physical conditions of ourobserve Universe our at Universe after the the beginning epoch(CMB) of of gives recombination, its witness when life the of and Cosmicreionization, the Microwave later, when Background conditions the while first of stars the appear the – PPEs"active" for primeval try providing and Universe, information to about "normal", and the quasars formation later of(GRBs), (QSOs), galaxies, – stellar and after evolution all the and the epoch Supernovaethe processes explosions. of injection giving of These heavy rise latter elements to phenomena in therocky are Gamma interstellar planets, responsible Ray medium, and of condition Bursts then necessary maybe for the the flowering formation of of the life. and the light–indico rectangles indicate the domains2006). of APEs and The PPEs, positions respectively (after in Denegri, indicated. the Fig. 1 of the various LHC (Large Hadron Collider) experiments are experimental data coming from " the life of the universeGiovannelli is (2001a) slowly nicknamed flowing. "The Bridge Undoubtedly betweenthe the title the two of Big banks the Bang are workshop and joined held Biology" in by that Stromboli a constituted (Aeolian bridge Archipelago, that Sicily, Italy) in 1999. Frontier Research in Astrophysics 1. Introduction PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 ∼ × 7 . 9 yr). ∼ yr), Star 9 8 10 10 × × 14 7 Franco Giovannelli ∼ ∼ s), Electroweak transition 35 yr), Earth formation ( − 9 yr), Today ( 9 10 10 × 4 × . 5 9 . ∼ 11 ∼ 3 s), Nucleosynthesis (3 minutes), Matter domination ( yr), Galaxy formation Era (start at 6 5 − 10 yr (Komatsu & Bennett, 2014). × yr), Life on Earth ( 9 4 9 s), Grand unification transition (10 10 ∼ 10 × 43 × ) yr), Solar system formation ( − 9 11 059 10 . ∼ 0 × ± 3 CDM cosmology. Recent measurements from WMAP provide an age of our 2 Gyr. The WMAP determination of the age of the universe implies that globular . Λ ∼ 77 0 . ± 13 7 ( Evolution of our Universe from the Big Bang till today (courtesy of Shellard, E.P.S., 2003). . yr), Recombination ( s), Quark-hadron transition (10 3 11 We will briefly discuss the state of art of the BBM by using the recent results coming from Figure 2 (Shellard, 2003) shows the evolution of our Universe from the Big Band till today: Spergel et al. (2003) by using the first year data from WMAP derived for the age of the yr), Acceleration ( 10 − Figure 2: 9 × 2. Big Bang APEs and PPEs. Universe of clusters form within 2 Gyr after theformation Big Bang, in a the reasonable estimate that is consistent with structure Quantum gravity wall (10 Universe 13 Frontier Research in Astrophysics that allows one toour develop Universe the requires basic going beyond Bigthe the Bang Cosmological inflation scenario, Principle. theory but may Many a cosmologistsuniverse provide and more suspect the the that complete framework origin of understanding for structure of explaining within the it. large-scale uniformity of our (10 5 formation peak ( 10 PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 010 K) . 0 ± 726 . Franco Giovannelli (0)(1+z), which gives at CMBR = T CMBR 5 GeV has been detected. This value is com- . 4 126 ∼ excess at σ -ray energy bands has been deeply discussed by Ressell & Turner γ Three experimental results in favour of the BBM (see text for explanation). ) at redshift z = 2.34, ranging between 6 and 14 K (Srianand, Petitjean & Ledoux, CMBR Figure 3: The Diffuse Extragalactic Background RAdiation (DEBRA) permeates through the whole In the last decade several experiments provided results confirming the validity of the BBM. In From ATLAS results, a 5.0 Recently the collaboration of the BCEP2 experiment claims the detection of E-mode and B- As we can see from Fig. 1, the different experiments of LHC can provide information about electromagnetic spectrum, and itthe is DEBRA peaked as a in radiation theradiation produced by microwave from a region. radio cosmic to source: It HE the is whole Universe. possible Such to a consider background 3. Background Radiation in the Universe Fig. 3 one canprimordial see: light elements i) (de (left Bernardis et panel): al.,et 2000) red al., superimposed star 2001); to - the ii) theoretical (central the curvesRadiation panel): experimental (Burles (T confirmation red of line - the the content temperature of of the the Cosmic Microwave Background patible with the expected mass ofa Higg’s boson remarkable (Gianotti, step 2012). in supporting If this the result BBM would would be be confirmed, reached. 2.2 PPEs mode polarization of the CMB (Adeinflationary et model al., of 2014). the Universe If would B-mode bebig polarization definitively confirmations. would confirmed. be However, big confirmed, discoveries the need 2000), in agreement with the theoretical temperature law T the first moment of thelooking life directly to of the the Universe. Universe. LHC is a complementary tool for HE observatories Frontier Research in Astrophysics 2.1 APEs z = 2.34 a temperature of(Bartelmann, 9 2008, K; after iii) Mather (right et panel): al., the 1990). CMB radiation temperature (2 PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 is independent Λ Franco Giovannelli = 0.3, and that the m Ω eV, as shown in Fig. 4 (after Ressell & Turner, = 0.7. This sums up to unit total cosmic energy 5 20 Λ Ω related to the cosmological constant Λ to 10 ρ 9 − whereas the density 3 10 GeV, respectively. The domain at higher energies is now explored by numer- ≈ The Grand Unified Photon Spectrum of the Diffuse Extragalactic Background Radiation (after One of the most critical points about our Universe is the problem of its flatness. The present Henry (1999, 2002) thoroughly discussed the updated experimental situation of the cosmic normalized cosmological constant is around state of the cosmological testsobtained with is the illustrated BOOMERanG (Balloon in Observations Of Fig. MillimetricGeomagnetics) Extragalactic experiment 5. Radiation (de and Bernardis The et al., left 2000).Universe. panel They The are of right fully Fig. panel consistent of with Fig. 5 athree spatially 5 shows flat shows different the the observational combination results of approaches: theii) likelihood i) contours CMB type-Ia obtained (Spergel with SNe et (Tonry al. etSchuecker, 2005). al., 2003; 2003; One Bennett Riess can et et see al. al. that the 2013); 2004); cosmic iii) matter galaxy density clusters is (Schuecker close et to al. 2003; background. 4. Problem of the Flatness of the Universe density and suggests a spatially flatredshift universe. like (1 However, the + density z) of cosmic matter growths with Figure 4: Ressell & Turner, 1990). Frontier Research in Astrophysics (1990), and in GSG2004 andDEBRA the leads references to the therein. Grand Unified Thethe Photon analysis electromagnetic Spectrum of (GUPS), spectrum, covering the from 29 different 10 orders components of of magnitude of 1990). The light–red andgreater the than light–indico rectangles indicateous the experiments domains space–based, with like energieslike Fermi less Whipple, LAT observatory or Veritas, (up HESS, tothese Magic, experiments 300 and will GeV) provide the to and coming fill ground–based, (1990) the CTA where zone (Cherenkov only of upper Telescopes the limits Array). GUPS were diagram reported. prepared All by Ressell & Turner PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 Franco Giovannelli 6 m wavelength, respectively. µ Extragalactic Background Light (EBL): left panel – the contribution to EBL of redshifted dust Constraints of cosmological parameters (after de Bernardis et al., 2000; Schuecker, 2005, Bennett The intergalactic space is filled with the light produced by all the stars and accreting compact emission and redshifted star light; right panelcontributions – (after experimental Finke data clearly & reproducing Razzaque, the 2009). shapemark of For 100 the a and former comparison 1 of the two plots, red and blue vertical lines objects that populated the observable Universe throughout the whole cosmic history. This relic cos- Figure 6: et al., 2013). of z. The final results fromof WMAP "flat (Bennett Universe". et Thus al., it 2013) is shows necessary a to little be misalignment careful with in the the5. line conclusions. Extragalactic Background Light Figure 5: Frontier Research in Astrophysics PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 0 0 1 U of − 2 / 3 " such − ) 0 = 500 km h absorption itself must 0 5.7 km s ( γ 0 – × 10 GeV. This ± γ . There was an 3 . 1 ∼ 0 Franco Giovannelli − ∼ 06 for these clusters, = 88.8 . Mpc 0 0 1 − distance indicators ∼ b Ω 1. This result strongly favors a 1. The age of the universe is T ∼ = Ω /50 54) obtained with the MAGIC experi- 0 . 0 ) against EBL photons with wavelengths . Sandage (1958) recognized that objects –rays with energy above − = H ≃ 1 γ e 2, this yields . − 50 –ray sources above a critical energy (Buson, 0 + γ ∼ Mpc 7 1 − cluster Ω –rays than before believed (Coppi & Aharonian, 1997). γ to 200 km s , and de Vaucouleurs & Peters (1986), on the other, favoring H . Moreover, a prediction of the inflation is a flat universe, roughly 1 0 1 − ) is one of the most important numbers in cosmology because it is − 0 , and de Vaucouleurs (1993) who determined H Mpc 1 Mpc . It is necessary to have two measurements: i) spectroscopic observations 1 0 − 1 − − Mpc 1 − = 50 km s = 50 km s made by Hubble himself (Hubble, 1927, 1929a,b; Hubble & Humason, 1931). Baade 0 0 1 4 km s − . Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (1999a) in their review paper noted that observations with ± 1 The Hubble constant (H Thanks to measurements of the quasar 3C 279 (z Direct measurements of the EBL are difficult due to bright local foregrounds. A powerful ap- − Mpc 1 − confirmed by BOOMERanG and WMAP results, that implies value of H hot X-ray gas (Mushotzky, 1992).in reasonable Since agreement with the BBN, but only if h needed to estimate the size andvalue age is of one the of universe. the The most important exciting.coming problem Indeed, from of in determination the different of literature experiments H itobtain is using a possible different true to value find methods. for many H determinations that However, reveal it the is galaxy’s veryfrom redshift, complicate Earth indicating (and to this its is radial the most velocity; difficult ii) value to the determine). galaxy’s Reliable precise " distance = 109 Mpc ROSAT satellite have shown that rich clusters of galaxies have mass fraction 6. Hubble Constant proach for probing these diffuse radiation fields in the UV to far-IR bands is through Frontier Research in Astrophysics mic background from IR to UV is6 called shows: the (left diffuse panel) Extragalactic – Background the Light contribution(right (EBL). to panel) Figure EBL – of experimental redshifted dust data emission clearly& and reproducing Razzaque, redshifted the star 2009). shape light; of The theemission light–red former and and contributions redshifted light–indico (Finke star rectangles light, respectively. show the zones of redshifted dust of high-energy photons. Actually pair production (e process introduces an attenuation in2015 the – these spectra proceedings). of ment (Albert et al., 2008), and with(GRBs) the many measured sources with at the high redshift, Fermi includingthat LAT Gamma the observatory Ray Universe Bursts (Abdo is et more al., transparent to 2010), it has been demonstrated as variable stars and supernovaebe (SNe), cautiously must derived be from foundlocal a gravitational in sample influences galaxies. are of negligibly The galaxies small.constant value is that The of long history are and H of full far the of determination enough controversial of debates. away the Indeed, that Hubble from the motions first due evaluation of to H that Hubble had thoughthot were gas the and brightest he stars arrivedacute at in disagreement the some between first Sandage of recognizably (1968) modern his andfavoring value galaxies Sandage H of and were 75 Tammann in km (1990), on s fact the clouds one of hand, from ultraviolet to infrared is effective at attenuating s (1952) pointed out thatbeen there incorrect. were This two reduced different H types of Cepheid, so Hubble’s calibration had PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 . 1 7 = 1 ± − − 0 ∼ = 60 9 km 0 ? = 59 Mpc ± 0 0 1 8 km s − ± 100 (Gnedin, = 76 Measurements 0 ∼ Franco Giovannelli = 72 1 only if H 2.4 km s 0 . = 1 ± − (Komatsu et al., 2011). Ω 1 − Mpc 1 ", his last unpublished paper, = 73.8 ". − 0 Mpc 1 1000 until about z − ∼ determination, and its derived values 0 ". How large is the redshift to which the . Van den Bergh (1989) in his review – 1 2.5 km s − ± Mpc 1 5 (systematic) km s 8 − 1). On the other hand, the age of globular clusters = 71.0 ± reionization 5, from observations of the spectra of quasars with = 0 ≈ Ω 6 km s Reflections on Hubble constant ± 30 and reionized most of the hydrogen in the universe by z 1 (random) ∼ = 56 ± 0 . Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (1997) analyzing all the available data 1 the last large review on the scale of distances before that the true value = 62.3 − most variable constant of the whole Universe , that a posteriori seems to be the proper one. Indeed, in 2001 the HST 0 " (Damon et al., 2004). Sandage et al. (2006), by using the Hubble Space 1 − " – concluded that the most probable value of the Hubble constant is H Mpc by using SNIa as standard candles and HST observations of Cepheids in parent 1 Mpc − 1 (Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati, 1999b). Panagia (1999) gave a value H 1 − 1 − − . A large summary about the methods used for H Mpc 1 for a matter dominated universe ( − 3 Gyr (Schramm, 1990). This is consistent with a universe with 1 Mpc (Freedman et al., 2001). Again van den Bergh (1992) critically reviewed the distance 0 − be determined 1 8 km s 1 > 45 km s ± − The formation of the first stars and quasars marks the transformation of the universe from its The argument for an extended period of reionization is now proved by measurements. Indeed, Ground-based observations of the CMB on subdegree angular scales suggest that the gas con- Later Riess et al. (2011) with the HST determined a value of H So that it appears very clear the difficulty in determining the value of the Hubble constant, Professor Livio Gratton (1990) in " 0 − Mpc 0 ± 1 − smooth initial state to its clumpylight current began state. to In form current at cosmological a(see models, redshift review the z by first Loeb sources & of Barkana, 2001). the WMAP has detectedscales the (Kogut correlation et between al., temperature 2003) and that polarization has an on amplitude large proportional angular to the total optical depth of CMB tent of the universe was mostly neutral since recombination at z 7. Reionization Epoch which seems to be the " of H that he defined perhaps " the highest redshifts (e.g.verse Giallongo from et neutral al. to highly 1994). ionized is This called " change of the ionization state of the uni- Frontier Research in Astrophysics = 2/3 H is 15 km s 6 km s critically discussed and compared the many> evaluations H of the Hubble constant giving as result 52 67 Key Program team, led by Wendy Freedman, announced their final result: H This value agrees with the WMAP results: H 2000 and the references therein) because earliersurface reionization to would have lower brought redshift, the last smoothingthat scattering the the universe intrinsic is CMB highly anisotropy. ionized, At since the z same time, we know reionization started and stopped is object of strong debate. galaxies of SNIa. in that epoch concluded that H Mpc determinations to individual galaxies, groups,s and clusters and derived a value H Does this determination, finally, close the history about the search of the "true" value of H can be found in theof Proceedings the of Hubble the constant Fall 2004Telescope (HST) Astronomy to 233 determine the Symposium Hubble on constantIa " from supernovae, the found Cepheid-calibrated H luminosity of Type PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 6) ∼ Franco Giovannelli 5. , a multi–parameter fit to the WMAP ri ± 15 = 20. Panagia et al. (2005) in deep HST/VLT/Spitzer 9 20, but did not conclude until much later (z ∼ ∼ ri (Kaplinghat et al., 2003; Sunyaev & Zeldovich, 1980; Zaldar- 5 – may be capable of reionizing its surrounding region of the τ . 6 ≥ 5 (Spergel et al., 2003). On the other hand, the evolution of quasar spectra 6 shows a rapid decrease in the amount of neutral Hydrogen, indicating the ± ≈ placed at z 17 ⊙ = M ri A sketch of reionization epoch (after Xiangping Wu’s Talk at the Summer School on "Cosmic 7 and z 11 ≈ 10 The argument of the possibility of describing all the collapsed objects with a unique scheme Figure 7 shows schematically the updated experimental situation about cosmic sources (galax- However, although there is rather good agreement about the epoch of re-ionization, how really The WMAP detection of reionization (Kogut et al. 2003) implies the existence of an early gen- Modeling reionization with a single sharp transition at z × 6 (Knox, 2003). images found that the∼ source UDF 033238.7-274839.8universe, starting – the a process at post–starburst a redshift galaxy as with high as a z mass 8. A Unified Scheme for Collapsed Objects ies, GRBs, QSOs, SNe) detected at highof redshifts. z The during light–red which rectangle the marks the reionization possible occurred. range re-ionization occurs is still objectobservations of show debate. that Indeed, the Dopita measuredto et rates produce al. of re-ionization, (2011), star suggest considering formation the thatcould presence in be recent of the the another early fast source accretion universe of shocks are formed ionizing insufficient around photons. the This cores source of the most massive haloes. eration of stars able to reionize the universe at z photons to Thomson scattering, riaga, 1997). data gives z end of reionization (Fan etdatasets al., is 2003). that A reionization simple started interpretation early, to z explain these two very different Figure 7: Reionization" at the KIAA-PKU , Beijing, China, July 1-11, 2008 ). from z Frontier Research in Astrophysics PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 , HG L + NUC L = Franco Giovannelli TOT ) one obtains the upper z ∆ is the host galaxy luminosity, formed by the in- 10 HG , as shown in the Figure 86 of GSG2004. If the choice of ) z ( xmax versus z for extragalactic X-ray emitters. Red crosses and red line represent GP86 diagram. is the nuclear luminosity and L xmax L NUC The emission of the extragalactic X-ray sources can be expressed as L Taking the brightest objects for an arbitrary binning of redshift ( From the evidence that the shapes of SEDs (Spectral Energy Distributions) of different kind where, L tegrated emission of itsdiagram. discrete In sources. the long Such reviewalso components paper the GSG2004 can data there coming be is from derivedet a X-ray al., by discussion surveys 1999). about of using the extragalactic the GP86 objects GP86 diagram at using higher sensitivities (Hasinger part of the GP86 diagram, L Figure 8: The deeper surveys shown inindicates the the diagram range are of indicated Mineo with et different al. colors. (2014) results. The light plum-colored band of AGNs (Cen A, NGCter, 4151, 1982), and Giovannelli 3C & 273)EINSTEIN Polcaro are observatory, (1986) practically constructed (GP86), the the by same maximumindependent using (e.g. of luminosity the experimental diagram Ramaty current data for classification & coming extragalacticthe of Lingenfel- those objects, same from objects. engine the producing Indeed, energy thoseare (supermassive extragalactic black classified objects hole have as with blazars, accretion orthe disk line radio-loud and of jet) QSOs, sight and or and they radioblack the hole galaxies jet in axis. depending function on The of the attenuationcalculated such by in angle Bednarek an the between et angle emission al. of and (1990). a the cosmic beam source Lorentz’s containing factor a of the particles have been Frontier Research in Astrophysics have been discussed since long time& by many Rees authors. (1984) In discussed theirmodel review the of paper, Begelman, active theory Blandford galactic of nuclei (AGNs). extragalactic radio sources and in particular the unified PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 Franco Giovannelli function should be ) z ( xmax 11 is repeated for each survey with higher sensitivities one z . Figure 8 shows the GP86 diagram (red crosses) and the 1 ∆ − yr 1 − ⊙ M 1 − erg s 40 10 ≈ and 39 Several examples of jets can be seen in the Chandra X-ray images. Such jets are coming from Therefore, following the very interesting paper by Beall et al. (2007), astrophysical jets are a However, highly collimated supersonic jets and less collimated outflows are observed to emerge Jets are thought to be produced by the powerful electromagnetic forces created by magnetized Every object rotating with adequate energy produces a jet. Relativistic jets have been found in 10 different sources, such as the radioand galaxies nebulae, Pictor and A, several Cyg Herbig A Haro and objects: Cen HH A, 30, the HH Crab 34, andremarkable HH Vela pulsars 47, laboratory as for shown a in number Figure of 9. important physical processes. They provide a confirmation from a wide variety of astrophysicalplanetary objects. nebulae, They are compact seen objects in young (likestars), stellar and galactic objects in black (YSOs), the proto- holes nuclei or ofvelocity, active microquasars, and galaxies and amount (AGNs). X-ray of Despite binary energy theirphysics different do transported), physical they they scales share? have (in These strong size, in systems morphological nature are similarities. and either hydrodynamic are, What or aswas magnetohydrodynamic published such, (MHD) by governed de Gouveia by dal Pino non-linearthe (2005). equations. role Very interesting of discussion An has magnetic important been reconnection published reviewsources, about on like on jet/accretion from this microquasars disk topic to systems, low valid luminous& AGNs, Kadowaki, in till 2010). different YSOs kind (de Gouveia of Dal cosmic Pino, Piovezan gas swirling toward a collapsed object (i.e.collapsed black object, hole). some Although can most be of ejectedforces the at can material extremely extend falls over high into vast the speeds. distances Magnetic andal., fields may 2008). help spun explain out the by narrowness these of the jet (e.g. Clarke et numerous galactic and extragalactic cosmic sourcesby at electrons different and energy bands. protons – They accelerated canthe up be to formed matter relativistic and/or energies – photons whichstrongly through generate dependent interactions on high with the energy angle radiation.the formed Lorentz by factor the The beam of spectra axis theGuillory of and & particles Rose, the such (e.g. 1999; line a Beall, of 2002, Bednarek radiation sight, 2003; et are and Beall al., et obviously al., by 1990 2006, and 2007). the references therein; Beall, 9. Jets in Astrophysics Frontier Research in Astrophysics the brightest object forobtains an a arbitrary family of curves parallel todiscussed that of by the GP86 aforesaid diagram. are Thisclasses means still of that compact valid, the conclusions extragalactic namely, X-raykind there sources. of is central This a X-ray strongly source. indicates physical the The continuity existence numerical between of continuity a the of unique the different whole L interpreted as owed to anstatus. evolution of the Moreover, central the X-ray source partthe from discrete of a sources GP86 very within active at the toal. lower a galaxies. redshifts more (2014) quiet converge This that to was provide≈ recently the a supported level range by of of the emission possible results emission due of of to Mineo discrete et sources in the galaxies between deepest surveys (as clearly shown inplum-colored). the figure), and the allowed band of Mineo et al. (2014) (light PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 Franco Giovannelli , was identified (Mirabel et al., 1992). 12 annihilateur 92c. It became then rapidly clear that the advantages of . -ray bursts. The presence and evolution of these jet–like 0 γ ∼ Clockwise from left upper panel the spectacular jets emanate from i) the center of the radio galaxy Although there is no clear definition of a microquasar, we can characterize it as a galactic In 1992 the first so-called microquasar, The association of jets with accretion disks strengthens the case for similar physical processes binary system – constituted of a compact object (stellar mass black hole or neutron star) surrounded structures is of course a testament to the principle of conservation of angular momentum. in all these phenomena (e.g., Beall,tially 2003; the Marscher, 2005), same and physics it is hasJets become working have, plausible over therefore, that a become essen- a broad ‘laboratory’ rangeunderstanding or of perhaps of temporal, an the anvil, physical spatial, that processes and we in luminosity can the use scales. sky. to help us forge our This source was exhibitingsuch bipolar observation radio in jets our spread Galaxy,galaxies. over however Therefore several jets this light-years. had observation made been clear Thisquasars already the was observed and existence emanating of the microquasars. a from first morphological distant candidate analogy Indeed, between GRS Mirabel 1915+105 & –motions, Rodríguez discovered while by (1994) frame Castro detected velocity Tirado was from et v the al. black (1994) hole – apparent superluminal of special relativity in terms of relativistic Dopplereffects. boosting, When superluminal motion, coupled and with time their dilation black-hole/neutron-stargeneral origins, relativity. Over jets the have course implications of for twothat testing decades of jets astrophysical research, are we ubiquitous have becomewith phenomena aware jets in can astrophysics. beand found quasars, Extended in clusters linear star–forming of structures regions, galaxies, now galactic and associated binaries, microquasars, active galaxies Figure 9: Pictor A; ii) Cen AHaro radio objects: HH galaxy; 47, iii) HH Cygnus 34, A and HH radio 30 galaxy; (NASA/Chandra iv) X-ray Observatory Vela pulsar; ACIS Images). v) Crab Nebula; vi) Herbig Frontier Research in Astrophysics microquasars compared to quasars(approaching were and that receding) jets, i) and they iii) theobservation are of accretion/ejection superluminal closer, timescale motions, is ii) the much morphological it shorter. analogy withthe After is quasars this question became possible was stronger, and then: to is observe thisyes, both morphological then analogy microquasars really subtended really by are(microquasar physics? “micro”–quasars. whose If jet the points For towards answer instance, the is observer), there in should order to exist complete microblazars the analogy with quasars.

PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 Millions of light-years of Millions Franco Giovannelli














































































emission optical UV and km) Relativistic jet 9 Relativistic plasma clouds (~10 Accretion disc 300.000 km/s ~




















QUASAR























































































































































































































Jets



















galaxy Host Rotating black hole supermassive 13 emission 3 Relativistic jet Relativistic plasma clouds Powerful X-ray






(~10 km) Accretion disc 300.000 km/s ~





































































































































Jets



































































































































MICROQUASAR Companion Rotating black hole













star



































stellar mass

Light-years Sketch showing analogies between quasars and microquasars. Note the different mass and length A recent review about jets in astrophysics has been published by Beall (2014). Gamma-ray burst (GRBs) were discovered in 1967 – thanks to the four VELA spacecrafts, Theoretical and observational works show that jets from AGN can trigger star formation. How- Microquasars are among the best laboratories for high energy phenomena and astroparticle 10. Gamma Ray Bursts originally designed for verifying whetherBan the Treaty Soviet – Union when abided 16 strong the events 1963 were Limited detected (Klebesadel, Nuclear Strong Test & Olson, 1973). Since then ever, in the Milkyformation Way has the been first found – in(2015) and the discussed surroundings jet-induced so star of far formation the by –microquasar microquasar a only jets GRS microquasar. may Although clear 1915+105. not star case be formation Mirabel statistically induced ofmay et significant by have al. relativistic in been the jets important Milky inducing Way, to jets(Mirabel star from trigger et stellar star al. black formation 2011). holes during the re-ionization epoch of the universe physics. They arecosmic good rays candidates and to neutrinos. beof For emitters current these space of reasons missions. astroparticles: the Sinceis study each very necessary of component high to microquasars of energy undertake is the multifrequency photons, place system one in observations emits of these in at the objects. different order main wavelengths, to goal it understand phenomena taking Figure 10: scales between both types of objects (Chaty, 1998). Frontier Research in Astrophysics by an accretion disk and aA companion star schematic – view emitting of at a high-energyTaking and microquasar, this exhibiting compared broad relativistic definition, with jets. nearly quasars, 20 is microquasars given in in our Figure Galaxy have 10 been (Chaty, observed. 1998). PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 CDM CDM, Λ Λ 2 (Tanvir et . 8 ∼ Franco Giovannelli 14 3 considering the Swift GRBs tracing the star formation history and . 8 ≃ 30 s (75%) (e.g. Kouveliotou et al., 1993). The counterparts for all bursts ∼ The idea that GRBs could be associated to gravitational waves (GWs) emission is now popu- For this reason we believe useful to read the very interesting scientific-social remark made by Although big progress has been obtained in the last few years, GRBs theory needs further Important implications on the origin of the highest redshift GRBs are coming from the de- Theoretical description of GRBs is still an open strongly controversial question as discussed 2 s (25%), and . 0 lar. Indeed, short GRBs are believed tobinaries be (Nakar, 2007) produced and by the the recent mergers observation of ofvir either a et double kilonova associated NSs al., with or 2013; GRB130603B NS-BH (Tan- Berger,binary Fong coalescences & generate Chornock, strong 2013) lends GWstional support in wave to the detectors this sensitive hypothesis. frequency (Blanchet, band Iyer Such of compact & Earth-based Joguet, gravita- 2002; Blanchet & T. Damour, 1989). Recently, Arnon Dar at the end(Barbiellini of & the Longo, paper 2003). discussed by Guido Barbiellini at the Vulcano Workshop 2002 investigation in the light ofordinated, the such as experimental BeppoSAX data or comingor BATSE/RXTE or from SWIFT ASM/RXTE old or or and AGILE IPN new or orthe satellites, HETE Fermi literature often or since LAT INTEGRAL the or co- discovery MAXI. ofwhat Indeed, is GRBs, jet’s in the composition? problem spite (kinetic of or of magnetic?); theirdeceleration thousands ii) energy radius?); where papers emission iii) is is appeared dissipation how occurring? still is in (photosphere? elusive:(Zhang radiation et i) generated? al., (synchrotron, 2013). Inverse Compton, hadronic?) tection of the GRB 080913 at z = 6.7 (Greiner et al., 2009), GRB 090423 at z quintessence, quintessence with a time-varying equationmodel of is state the and preferred brane-world which models. is however compared with other results. elsewhere (e.g. Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati, 2008; Giovannelli,been 2013). published Many about review papers GRBs. have 2004; Among them Meszaros, we 2006); can Woosley & cite2010; Bloom, those Inoue 2006; published et in al., Granot, 2013). the 2007,Berger last Recently 2009; (2014). an decade Granot interesting (Piran, & review Ramirez-Ruiz, about short GRBs has been published by can be observed in allPerley wavelengths et (X, al., UV, 2014). opt, IR, radio): the afterglow (e.g. Kann et al., 2010; the cosmic metallicity evolution in different background cosmological models including Frontier Research in Astrophysics GRBs have remained a puzzlethe for problem the of GRBs community originated of thousands hightation articles most (e.g. energy of astrophysicists. the them review devoted For by to Mazets this theirtherein). & physical reason Golenetskii, interpre- BATSE/CGRO 1988; experiment the detected reviewcreased by 2704 GSG2004 with GRBs and new the from generation references satellites 1991Fermi (BeppoSAX, to LAT). RossiXTE, From 1999. the HETE, BATSE and INTEGRAL, This KONUS SWIFT, isotropicgin and number distribution have of in- been GRBs, demonstrated. their GRBs cosmological may ori- ∼ be classified into two groups depending on their duration: al., 2009), and GRB 090429Bapproaching at to z the = possibility 9.4 ofstars (Cucchiara detecting appeared. et GRBs al., Izzo at 2011). et the090423 al. end This within of means (2010) their Dark that discussed fireshell really Era, successfullytion we model. where a rate are the theoretical (SFR) first Wang interpretation up & Pop of to III Dai the z GRB (2009) studied the high-redshift star forma- PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 ), with α ) is decreasing α Franco Giovannelli 1% of today’s stars ∼ 9, and declined exponen- . 1 ≈ equivalent width, EW(H α ) is lower for high-mass galaxies. α 15 However, these results were already largely discussed and presented by Hopkins & Beacom The cosmic history of star formation, heavy element production, and reionization of the Uni- Fumagalli et al. (2012) investigated the evolution of the H The key dynamical processes involved in star formation – turbulence, magnetic fields, and In his splendid review, Robert C. Kennicutt, Jr. (1998) discussed the observations of star (2006), and summarized in the Fig. 11. The light–red rectangle marks the range of redshift where verse from the cosmic "darkpaper by ages" Madau to & Dickinson the (2014). presentrate A consistent epoch density picture peaked has is approximately emerging, been whereby 3.5 discussed the Gyr star-formation in after the the recent Big Bang, review at z self-gravity – are highlycomplete nonlinear quantitative description and of multidimensional. the physics& involved Therefore, Ostriker in (2007) it the attempted process is to ofstar extremely star review formation formation. the difficult into theory McKee a large-scale of and starrange from formation. small-scale galaxies to regimes For giant and molecular this clouds reviewedinclude reason (GMCs) each they and how their in divided GMCs substructures. turn. Important form problems determines and Large the evolve, initial scales mass what function determines (IMF).systems Small the they scales beget. star range They discussed from formation formation dense of rateaccretion. cores both to (SFR), low– and the and high–mass The protostellar stars, what development including ongoing mechanisms of governing winds angular and momentum outflowscomprehensive transport theory is of in increasingly star disks. formation well will understood, be However, tested as they by are the concluded next the that generationredshift of a and telescopes. its dependence onspectroscopic stellar Treasury mass, program using the withground-based first the telescopes, data HST-WFC3. from they the found 3D-HST Combiningtowards that the survey, these a at present epoch, data large all and with masses that at the those each characteristic redshift from the EW(H EW(H tially at later times,today with was an formed e-folding before timescalestar-formation a rate of redshift density, and 3.9 z another = Gyr. 25%formed formed 1.3. during after Half the z About epoch of = of 0.7. 25% the reionization. Less formed stellar than before mass the observed peak of the cosmic formation rates (SFRs) in galaxies thatquence provide and showing vital that clues these to observations are theKennicutt, key physical Jr probes nature of & of the Evans evolutionary the II histories Hubble (2012) oflarge-scale se- galaxies. reviewed star the progress formation, over with the a previousies. focus decade Methods in on of observations the measuring of gas interface contentsprescriptions between and for extragalactic star-formation calculating and rates star-formation have Galactic rates been stud- werestar discussed, provided. formation and and updated They gas reviewed on relations scales between ranging from entire galaxies to individual molecular clouds. 11. Star Formation Frontier Research in Astrophysics Aasi et al. (2014) searchedterPlanetary for Network gravitational (IPN) waves in associated 2005-2010 withfirst, during 223 second, LIGO’s and GRBs fifth third detected science and by runs. sixth theof No science In- evidence the runs of IPN a and GRBs gravitational Virgo’s wave in signalassociated the associated with sample, with the any nor GRBs evidence has for been a found. population of weak gravitational wave signals PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 , – 2 CNO Be. These 7 ) γ O reaction of the He, Franco Giovannelli 4 15 ) γ He( 3 N(p, chain). There are two paths 14 pp He and 4 chain and He(D,p) 3 pp He, 3 ) γ 16 Be reactions of the 8 –cycles (Bahcall, 1989). ) γ 0.6 MeV worth of neutrinos (in the CNO ≈ Be(p, 7 –cycle, which predominates in the Sun and cooler stars, and the – and pp pp Evolution of SFR density with redshift (after Hopkins & Beacom, 2006). Be and 7 ) γ He: the 4 He, 4 Figure 11: He atom is about 0.71% less than the combined rest masses of four hydrogen atoms (note H to He( 4 1 3 –cycle will allow a substantial improvement in our knowledge on stellar evolution. The knowledge of the cross-sections of nuclear reactions occurring in the stars appears as one The LUNA (Laboratory for Underground Nuclear Astrophysics) is devoted to measure nu- Most stars derive their luminosity from the conversion of hydrogen to helium. The rest mass CNO of the most crucial pointsof of the all astroparticle physics. Direct measurements of the cross sections clear cross sections relevant inunderground in astroparticle the physics. Gran Sasso Laboratory It ofsured is the with INFN. the The good most LUNA accuracy collaboration valuable has the already experiment key mea- running reactions D(p, of one that the electrons are included in the atomic masses here). The difference, or about 26.7 MeV/c 12. Cross Sections of Nuclear Reactions in Stars the star formation density hadrate the density maximum. evolution, the ranges This of will stellarand be the masses antineutrino leading better and to understood neutrino core-collapse backgrounds when and from the core-collapse typeto supernovae Ia the supernova will supernovae, next be known generation thanks experiments both ground– and space–based. is released as heat, except for from 4 cycle, which predominates in starsmain with channels slightly of higher the central temperatures. Figure 12 shows the Frontier Research in Astrophysics PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 " in which Franco Giovannelli (Strieder, F. et al., 26 Li abundances. The ) 7 γ He, 3 Mg(p, 25 –cycles (Bahcall, 1989). CNO F (Di Leva, A. et al., 2014). 18 – and ) Li (Anders et al., 2014). γ 6 pp ) 17 γ , O(p, α 17 H( 2 F (Scott, D.A. et al. 2012); The Evolution of Compact Binary Stars Systems 18 ) γ O(p, 17 The main channels of the (Straniero et al., 2013); 26 ) γ Figure 12: Li (Anders et al., 2013), and 6 Li cross section – which is the key reaction for the determination of the primordial abun- Li – has been measured (e.g. Gustavino, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2012, 2013), as well as that ) 6 6 γ ) Mg(p, , γ 25 α In the following we are going to briefly discuss the main characteristics of the galactic compact In the Galaxy there are different kinds of compact sources: white dwarfs (WDs), neutron stars Other reactions fundamental for a better knowledge of stellar evolution have been studied by A general data base for Experimental Nuclear Reaction Data (EXFOR) can be found in: H( He, 2 4 D( sources. (NSs) and black holes (BHs),cosmic both sources isolated are and available in inPostnov the binary literature. & systems. Yungelson We (2014) mention Thousand the about papers last about " available these exhaustive review by 13. Galactic compact sources the LUNA experiment: e.g. https://www-nds.iaea.org/exfor/exfor.htm. they review the formation and evolution ofMerging compact of binary stars compact-star consisting binaries of WDs, aregravitational-wave NSs, (GW) expected and astronomy. to BHs. In be the first the partifestations most of of important the close review, sources they binaries discuss for observational with forthcoming in man- NS the and/or formation BH and components evolutionnatal and of their kicks, compact merger which stars rate, in NSs crucial binary andmon points systems, envelope BHs phase including acquire of the during binary treatment theNS-BH evolution, of core which and the are collapse BH-BH most of binaries. relevant massiveevolution to stars of the In binary and merging WDs the the rates and second their of com- of observational NS-NS, part manifestations, cosmologically-important including of thermonuclear their the SN role as Ia. review,thought progenitors they to They discuss be also the consider the best AM formation verificationometers. CVn-stars, binary and GW which sources are for future low-frequency GW space interfer- measurements substantially reduces the theoretical uncertainty of D, dance of of Frontier Research in Astrophysics 2012) PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 . The ⊙ Flavia’ star, 10 M ≡ ≥ Franco Giovannelli M 2) together with transient hard X-ray behav- . 0 yr, mainly located in the galactic plane (e.g., van > 18 7 10 ≤ between 2 and 3 hours, which separates polars – experiencing grav- Period Gap Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (2011) discussed the history of the discovery of optical indi- Accretion powered X-ray pulsars usually capture material from the optical companion via Such systems are the best laboratory for the study of accreting processes thanks to their relative For general reviews see e.g. Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (2001,HMXBs 2004, are young 2014) systems, and with van age den For a recent reviews on CVs see the papers by Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (2012; 2015). The detection of CVs with the INTEGRAL observatory (Barlow et al., 2006) have recently 10 days) and a large eccentricity of the orbit ( > cators of high energyupdated emission to in the the prototype March–Aprilbefore system 2010 the A0535+26/HDE event X-ray when 245770 outburst a (Caballero strong et al., optical 2010) activity that occurred was roughly predicted 8 by days Giovannelli, Gualandi & stellar wind, since thisspecific primary conditions (e.g. star the generally passage at(e.g. does the A not periastron 0535+26/HDE of fill 245770), the neutron its itthe star) is Roche neutron and possible in lobe. star the particular formation behind systems ofprocess the However, a of in shock temporary mass front some accretion transfer of disk fromGiovannelli around the the & primary Ziolkowski stellar (1990) star wind. and onto by the Giovannelli This secondary et enhances al. collapsed the (2007) star, in as efficiency the discussed of case by of the A 0535+26. optical luminosity of the system is dominated by the early type star. high luminosity in a large partbetween of the the electromagnetic optical spectrum. companion Because andrelated. of the collapsed In strong object, X-ray/Be interactions low binaries andthe the stellar high mass wind loss energy and, sporadically, processes processes to are the areby expulsion due gravitational strictly of to effects casual close the quantity of to rapid matter the( rotation essentially periastron of triggered passage the of Be the star, neutron star. The long orbital period Heuvel (2009) and references therein. itational radiation – from intermediate polarsthe – idea experiencing about magnetic physical continuity braking between – thesolving renders two this attractive classes. important Further problem. investigations are necessary for 13.2 High Mass X-Ray Binaries Paradijs, 1998). A compact object –pulsar) the is secondary star orbiting –, around mostly an a magnetized early neutron type star (X-ray star (O, B, Be) – the primary – with renewed the interest of highonce energy more astrophysicists the for low–energy astrophysical such community. systems,inside the The and so-called detection subsequently of involving CVs having orbital periods Frontier Research in Astrophysics 13.1 Cataclysmic Variables ior are the maincontaining characteristics 114 of X-ray these pulsars systems.the (Liu, Among Magellanic van Clouds the Paradijs (Liu, whole & van sampleextensively van Paradijs studied. of den & galactic Among Heuvel, van these, systems den 2006), the Heuvel,to and system concomitant 2005), favorable 128 A causes, only 0535+26/HDE HMXBs which few 245770 rendered in of possible isquency thirty them the observations, nine have most best years been of of known coordinated them thanks multifre- discussedBurger et by al. e.g. (1996). Giovannelli & Sabau-Graziati (1992, 2008), PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 Franco Giovannelli 3. . 0 − 8 days after the periastron 1 . 303 using Fermi LAT data 0 ◦ ∼ = -ray bursts? α γ -rays (20 MeV-100 GeV). 19 γ 20 min. The separation of the two components for a UCD ≤ orb 10 min or shorter is smaller than Jupiter’s diameter (e.g. Wu, Ramsay & Willes, 2008; ≈ orb Ultra–compact double–degenerated binaries (UCD) consist of two compact stars, which can These UCD are evolutionary remnants of low–mass binaries, and they are numerous in the Thanks to the INTEGRAL observatory that has roughly quadrupled the number of supergiant Relevant are INTEGRAL results about a new population of obscured sources and Supergiant However how X-ray outbursts are triggered in X-ray pulsars constitute one important still open Important news are coming also from GeV observations of HMXBs. Indeed, Abdo et al. with P Wu, 2009). be black holes, neutron starseach or other, the white orbital dwarfs. period In is P the case of two white dwarfs revolving around Milky Way. The discovery of UCDdetection is with foreboding LISA interesting observatory. hints for gravitational–wave possible 13.3 Ultra–Compact Double–Degenerated Binaries X-ray binaries known in the Milkysources has Way, new arisen. questions Coleiro about & Chaty the (2011)in formation made the and a statistical Galaxy. evolution analysis of They of such the showed distribution thata of HMXBs HMXBs typical are size clustered of with 0.3 stardescribed forming kpc the complexes and nature, (SFCs), a formation with characteristic andi) distance evolution Be/X-ray between of systems; clusters the ii) of threelar supergiant 1.7 kinds stars/X-ray wind; kpc. of systems HMXBs iii) Chaty (sgHMXBs) population, supergiant (2011) thatexistence namely: stars of accrete overflowing evolutionary matter links their between via Roche Be stel- Lobe. and stellar wind The accreting new supergiant X-ray observations binaries. suggest the Fast X-ray Transients (SFXTs) (Chaty &2008). Filliatre, The 2005; importance Chaty, of 2007; the Rahouiformation and discovery et evolution of al., of this 2008; HMXBs: new Chaty, does populationtwo dominant population is very of based massive short-living on systems components – the – bornsupergiant constraints with occur star on in the dies? rich Are star-forminggravitational waves primary region? emitters? progenitors Can What of we will find NS/NS happen a or link when NS/BH with the short/hard mergers good candidates of 13.2.1 Obscured Sources and Supergiant Fast X-Ray Transients problem giving rise to controversy within astrophysicists. (2009) presented the first results from the observations of LSI + 61 Frontier Research in Astrophysics Sabau-Graziati (2010). This eventnelli together & Sabau-Graziati with (2011) others to occurred concludepassage. that in Giovannelli, X-ray Bisnovatyi-Kogan the & outbursts past Klepnev occur (2013) alloweda developed to a delay model Giovan- by for explaining the such timeneutron star, of after radial an increase motion of of thetime mass the is flux determined matter in by the in the vicinity a turbulent of a viscosity, non–stationary with periastral accretion the point in parameter disk the around binary. This the obtained between 2008 August and 2009with March. the Their results binary indicate period, variability with thatdetection the is of consistent emission orbital being periodicity modulated in high–energy at 26.6 days. This constitutes the first PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 ˝ 10 m U0.5, ∼ Franco Giovannelli G a question naturally 15 10 − 14 20 G) strongly affect the characteristics (radius, mass) of the star – dis- 14 10 ≥ Once scientists understood that the stars in the sky are other suns, and that the galaxies consist Recently a discussion about magnetars have been published in the White Paper for ASTRO-H Important consequences could be derived by the continuity among rotation-powered pulsars, Safi-Harb & Kumar (2013) discussed about the environments and progenitors of supernova Ghosh (2009) and Nag et al. (2009) discussed some of the recent developments in the quark Mallick & Sinha (2011a,b) – starting from recent results and data suggesting that high mag- Therefore, the problem of the eventual transition from a NS to a QS is very attractive. However, Indeed, transformations of NS to QS or to pion- or kaon-condensed stars have been studied The discovery of magnetars (Anomalous X-ray Pulsars – AXPs – and Soft Gamma-ray Re- of billions of stars, itit appeared could a not near be certainty proven, thatchanges until other the in planets early stellar must 1990’s. emission orbit Then, which other radio revealed stars. and the optical And presence astronomers yet, of detected first small a few, and now many, planetary Space X-ray observatory (Kitamoto et al., 2014). 14. Habitable Zone in the Milky Way and Exoplanets magnetars, and millisecond pulsars, experimentallynot demonstrated yet clear (Kuiper, which 2007). is the However, physical it reason is of such a continuity. remnants associated with highly magnetized neutron stars. They studied two SNRs: G292.2 star physics along with the consequencessity of scenario possible of hadron neutron to stars quark and phase their transition implications at on high the den- Astroparticle Physics. netic fields in NSs ( cussed the effect of such aThey high studied magnetic the field effect on of the magnetic phasefield transition field effect of on in a the the NS transition equation to from of a NS state quark to (EoS). star QS (QS). including the magnetic– Mallick, Ghosh & Raha (2009) showed thatof the neutron presence of stars, high strongly magnetic inhibits field, the an conversion essential of feature neutron stars to bare quark stars. associated with the HBPsummarized J1119-6127, the current and view Kes of the 73,ciations. other associated high magnetic with field the pulsars (HBPs)/magnetar-SNR AXP asso- 1E 1841-045, and since long time (e.g. Migdal et al.,Mishustin 1979; et Bhattacharyya al., et 2014). al., 2006,2007; Drago & Lavagno, 2010; peaters – SGRs) is1995; also van one Paradijs, of Taam & theences van most therein). den Indeed, exciting Heuvel, with results the 1995; magnetic of and field the intensity e.g. of last order the 10 years review (Mereghetti GSG2004 and & the Stella, refer- Frontier Research in Astrophysics 13.4 Magnetars arises: what kind of SN producesand such SGRs AXPs and neutron SGRs? stars? Aremost really ‘obvious’ the consequence (e.g. collapsed can objects be in Hurley, derived AXPs versus by 2008). dimension the of Hillas (1984) With the diagram such source):(Giovannelli (magnetic high field & the intensity Sabau-Graziati, magnetic correspondent 2006). field dimensionsupercompact of intensity stars. This the an Could could source they al- be must be quark the be stars dimension of (QSs)? of the acceleration zone in PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 Franco Giovannelli 21 Current potential habitable exoplanets (2012, credit: PHL@UPR Arecibo). The distribution of Kepler planet candidates by size as of January 2015 (Image Credit: NASA Figure 13: The presence of numerous exoplanets in the vicinity of solar system – within a distance of The research of potential habitable exoplanets has been strongly supported during last two Figure 14: Ames/W Stenzel). decades. Indeed, this field of astrophysicsplanets is Earth-like now could probably open the a most exciting seriousFig. since debate 13 the about shows discovery the the of potential possibility habitable ofLaboratory exoplanets life updated - outside to PHL 29th of - August solar University 2012 of system. (Planetaryand Puerto Habitable the Rico number at Arecibo, of 2012). such Thisplanet exoplanets list candidates is is by rapidly continuously size increasing. updated, as Fig. ofsee 14 there January are shows 2015 808 the (Image Earth-like distribution Credit: planets of NASA in Kepler Ames/W the Stenzel). neighbourhood of As solar we system. can Frontier Research in Astrophysics systems around other stars. Wesolar call system neighbors these (http://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/exoplanet-exploration/). planets "exoplanets" to distinguish them from our own PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 4 ∼ Earth- 6 10 × there are 808 3 133 Franco Giovannelli ≈ 2 pc ≈ ) exoplanet within the habitable zone ⊙ 22 . Therefore, if in a volume of 1 kpc, as evaluated by the differential rotation of the 3 ≈ 10% of the total number of stars in the Galaxy. Taking into 330 kpc ≈ ∼ 11 kpc, as shown in Fig. 15 (after Lineweaver, Fenner & Gibson, ∼ Habitable zone of a Milky Way-like galaxy (after Lineweaver, Fenner & Gibson, 2004). Earth is located in a dangerous part of the universe. Threats to life on Earth are manifold and For life–forms like us, the most important feature of Earth is its habitability. Understanding Studies about exoplanet predictions around stars have been performed by Bovaird & Lineweaver 8 pc – plays an important role in speculating about the possible number of such exoplanets . Figure 15: 0 like planets. It is evidenthigh. that the Next probability of generation findingabout instruments numerous this ground– habitable intriguing planets problem. and becomes space–based very will provide valuable information range from asteroid impacts toinduced supernova disasters. explosions If and the survival from of supervolcano theEarth human eruptions has species to to is human- to spread be to ensured other for planetaryand the bodies. long is term, Mars the then is life the second on most closest Earth-like planet planet; we further currently know it possesses a moderate surface gravity, an atmosphere, habitability and using that knowledge tosurvival locate as the a nearest species. habitable planethabitable During may planets the have be been past crucial bolstered decade, for by our expectationsments the increasingly that known large the to overlap universe between harbor terrestrial could life environ- The be and inhabited filled the and with variety uninhabited of regions environments onare on Earth the tell newly main us detected constraints that rocky that temperatureLineweaver exoplanets. can and & be the Chopra used presence in (2012) of a made water suggesting habitability that a classification the compilation scheme fraction and for of rockyets reviewed stars planets. may the with be recent planets comparably exoplanet large. is detections including They an reviewed 100%, abiogenesis extensions and habitable to that zone the and the circumstellar the fraction habitable galactic with zone habitable (HZ), rocky zone. plan- (2013). Thy predict the existence of a low-radius (R < 2.5 R Earth-like planets detected, in the habitable zone of our Galaxy we could expect of KOI-812 and that the average number of planets in the habitable zone of a star is 1-2. Galaxy, the habitable volume is Frontier Research in Astrophysics ∼ within the whole habitable zonekpc of and our an galaxy. external Such radius habitable of zone has an internal radius of 2004), where the habitable zoneof in stars a Milky contained Way-like in galaxy thisaccount is zone represented that in is the green. thickness The of number the disk is PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 ". How- " meeting -rays than before Franco Giovannelli (Drake, 1961), he γ seems to be the most 1 − Searching for Interstellar 2.5 km s Project Ozma ± 54) obtained with the MAGIC experi- . 0 = 71.0 ≃ 0 Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence 23 most variable constant of the whole Universe 34) and the content of primordial light elements. If B-mode . 2 ≃ by Cocconi & Morrison (1959), Drake made the first systematic search for signals – on a blackboard of a room at the NRAO. A plaque now graces the wall of that WMAP data pose a warning aboutThanks the flatness to of measurements the of Universe. the quasar 3C 279 (z With the discussion about the Hubble constant it appears evident the difficulty in determining The GUPS is slowly completing even at the VHEs, thanks to the new more sensitive instru- In this review we have discussed several of the mostWith important the pillars advent supporting the of Bridge new generation ground– and space–based experiments the BB theory is An intriguing question about the probability of finding a number of civilizations in the Galaxy on detecting their radio signals.equation that The bears meeting Drake’s wasan name held approach arose at to the out bound Green of thethat Bank his terms may facility involved preparations exist in in for 1961. in estimating theDrake’s our the formula The meeting. number galaxy. of He He technological civilizations conceived wrote the very famous equation – later universally known as polarization claimed by the BCEP2the Universe collaboration would would be be definitively confirmed. confirmed, the inflationary model of believed. its value. Hubble constant seems to be the " room. The original Drake Equation givescommunicate the through number electromagnetic waves. of It civilizations is in nowmust the evident be Galaxy that object that Drake’s formula of are (Drake, a able 1962) robust to revision. ments. between the Big Bang and Biology, following our knowledge and feelings. practically confirmed, thanks to thesource measurements placed of at the high CMB redshift temperature, (z the temperature of a 15. Conclusions slowly scanned frequencies close to1960. the 21 The cm project wavelength was forunsuccessful. well six designed, hours Soon inexpensive, a thereafter, and day Drake simple from hosted April by a to today’s " July standards. It was also ment, and with the manyobservatory, sources it at has high been redshift, demonstrated including that GRBs the measured Universe with is the more Fermi transparent LAT to ever, with the last HST and WMAP results a value of H arises. Frank D.started Drake long was time ago. the first Seven months in after attempting the an publication of evaluation the of paper this number. The history from extraterrestrial intelligent beings. UsingObservatory the (NRAO) 25 meter in dish Green ofEpsilon the Bank Eridani National (WV, Radio and USA), Astronomy Tau Drake Ceti. monitored two In nearby this project, Sun-like which stars: he called Frontier Research in Astrophysics abundant water and carbonideally dioxide, suited together to with be a acan first range be colonization accomplished of target. is essential via Here a minerals. we series2013). of argue initial Thus, that one-way the human Mars most missions is (Schulze-Makuch practical & way Davies, that this Communications PoS(FRAPWS2014)001 20, ∼ 9, and . ri 1 ≃ Franco Giovannelli function should be interpreted ) z ( xmax 24 6). However, how really re-ionization occurs is still ∼ –cycle will allow a substantial improvement in our knowledge CNO chain and pp The formation and evolution of compact binary stars consisting of WDs, NSs, and BHs is one The knowledge of the cross-sections of nuclear reactions occurring in the stars appears as one The key dynamical processes involved in star formation – turbulence, magnetic fields, and self- GRBs are physical phenomena in which an enormous amount of energy is emitted in a very The importance of jets in astrophysics has been recognized. Indeed, highly collimated super- It has been demonstrated that there is a physical continuity between the different classes of It seems that we have an agreement about the epoch of reionization: it started early, z ? 0 declined exponentially at later times. of the most importantevolution topic of binary deeply WDs studied and their byof observational a manifestations, cosmologically-important including thermonuclear large their SN number role Ia, as of constitutes progenitors a scientists. crucial field The of investigation. formation and of the most crucial points ofthe all reactions astroparticle of the physics. Direct measurements of the cross sections of object of debate. Indeed, consideringformation that in recent the observations early show universe that are thephotons insufficient measured to could rates produce be of re-ionization, star present, another source namelymassive of haloes. the ionizing fast accretion shocks formed around the cores of the most gravity – are highly nonlinear and multidimensional.quantitative description Therefore, of it the is physics extremely involved in difficult theof a process complete star of star formation, formation. heavy The cosmic"dark element history ages" to production, the and present epoch reionization isthe still of star-formation object rate the of density debate. Universe peaked A from consistent approximately picture the 3.5 is cosmic Gyr emerging, whereby after the Big Bang, at z but did not conclude until much later (z short time. In spiteGRBs of is thousands still an papers open appeared stronglyated in to controversial GWs question. the emission literature, The has recent the becomemergers idea popular. theoretical of that Indeed, description either short GRBs GRBs of could double are be NSs believed associ- ated or to with NS-BH be GRB130603B produced binaries lends by and support the to thegenerate this recent strong hypothesis. observation GWs. Such of This compact a fact binary kilonova open coalescences associ- a could new interesting line of investigation. on stellar evolution. The LUNA (Laboratorymeasure for nuclear Underground cross Nuclear sections Astrophysics) relevant is in devoted astroparticle to physics. sonic jets and less collimated outflowsobjects. are observed They to are emerge seen from in YSOs, a proto-planetaryor wide nebulae, variety microquasars, compact of objects and astrophysical (like X-ray galactic black binaryworks holes stars), show that and jets in from AGNs.(in AGN can Moreover, size, theoretical trigger velocity, star and and formation. observational amountWhat of Despite physics energy their do transported), different they physical jets share? scales havenature These strong and systems morphological are, are as similarities. either such, hydrodynamic governed or by magnetohydrodynamic non-linear in equations. compact extragalactic X-ray sources. This stronglytral indicates X-ray the existence source. of The a unique numerical kind continuity of of cen- the whole L Frontier Research in Astrophysics reliable. 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